ELEC7404

Lecture 8
Signalling systems & automation

Dr KM Leung
BSc (Eng), MSc, PhD, JP
CEng, FIMechE, FHKIE, MIET, REW
(leungkm2@hku.hk)

8/15/2023

Page 1
Course contents
1. DMI
2. Train speed curves
3. CTCS, CBI, CTCS versus ETCS
4. FAO, GoA
5. CBTC
6. Safety integrity level

8/15/2023 Page 2
ETCS System – Driver DMI
Main menu input

Driver DMI main tasks

• Speed control
• Planning
• Monitoring
• Drivers input

Forward planning (gradient,

speed change)
ETCS System – Driver DMI Permitted speed, 140 kph

Full supervision mode

ETCS System – Train speed curves

Emergency braking
Service braking
Warning curve (target speed)
Actual speed

Reference speed
ETCS System – Train speed curves
 ETCS System – Driver DMI

Target value is not over-passed

Probable intervention

Braking application curve

Warning curve
(target speed)
ETCS System – Driver DMI

941
150
100 200
Braking curve
50 138 300 information

0 400

1
ETCS System – Driver DMI

Warning curve over-passed

271
150
100 200

50 67 300

0 400

30
1
ETCS System – Driver DMI

Braking application curve over-passed 150

162

100 200

50 61 300

0 400

30
1
ETCS System – Driver DMI

Braking down to target speed

ETCS System – Driver DMI

ETCS output to driver – graphical and sound

information, ...
Driver input to ETCS – driver selection, data entry…
ETCS System – Balise referenced position

Train position report : 7 position parameters relative to a balise

4. Train direction relative to LRBG Active cab

6&7. Speed/direction

3. Last relevant
balise group (LRBG)
identity 1. Driven distance

Nominal
Reverse 2. Confidence interval
5. Nominal position and reverse
directions
ETCS System – Operation modes (for reading only)
1. Train movement

• Full supervision : MA received, route protected and not occupied

mode
• Limited supervision : reduced level of supervision where ETCS
supervises in the background
• On sight : MA received, route protected but may be occupied, driver
to stop short of any obstructions (driver can enter into an occupied
track under this mode with ETCS supervision)
• Staff responsible : system unable to give MA, driver and signaler
responsible for any train movement, this mode is used when the system
does not know the route
ETCS System – Operation modes (for reading only)

1. Train movement

• Override : when override is active, it allows the train to pass its end
of authority
• Standby : operation mode at start up, standstill supervision
enabled, train cannot be driven in this mode

2. Shunting

• Shunting : to propel trains and undertake shunting movements

• Reversing : for reversing away from a dangerous location
ETCS System – Operation modes (for reading only)

3. Special train movement

• System failure : onboard system failed
• Non leading : ETCS onboard equipment is in a slave engine, that is not
electrically coupled to the leading engine, but has its own driver
• Sleeping
• Unfitted : driving in area without ETCS

4. Disturbed situation
• Trip : trip mode is entered as a result of passing the end of authority
(when no override is active)
• Post trip : mode entered once the driver has acknowledged the trip
mode
CTCS (Chinese Train Control System) Level 0 (for reading only)
CTCS level 0 is the most basic mode of CTCS. It consists of track circuits,
universal cab signaling (the digital microprocessor-based cab signaling
that is compatible with the track circuits of Chinese railway network,
designed by Northern Jiaotong University) and train operation
supervision system.

With level 0, wayside signals are the main signals, and cab signals are
the auxiliary signals. It is not necessary to upgrade the wayside systems
for level 0, the only way to realize the level 0 is to equip with on-board
system.

CTCS level 0 is only applicable to trains with speed less than 120 kph.
CTCS Level 1

CTCS level 1 consists of track circuits, balises (or transponders) and

ATP system. For the level 1, the block signals could be removed and
train operation is based on the on-board system and ATP.

Balises must be installed on the line. The requirements for track circuit
in blocks and at stations are higher than that in level 0. The control
mode for ATP can be distance-to-go or speed steps (fixed blocks).

CTCS level 1 is applicable for trains with speed between 120 to

160 kph.
CTCS Level 2
CTCS level 2 consists of digital track circuits (or analog track circuits
with multi-information), balises (or transponders) and ATP system. For
the level 2, there is no wayside signaling in block. The control mode
for ATP is distance-to-go.

The digital track circuits can transmit more information than the
analog track circuits. ATP system can get all the necessary
information for train control. With this level, fixed block mode is still
applied (similar to ETCS level 1).

CTCS level 2 is applicable for trains with speed higher than 160 kph.
CTCS Level 3

CTCS level 3 consists of track circuits, balises (or transponders) and

ATP system with GSM-R. For the level 3, the function of track circuit
is only for train occupation and train integrity checking. Track
circuits no longer transmit information concerning train operation.

All the data concerning train operation information is transmitted

by GSM-R. GSM-R is the core of the level 3 (similar to ETCS level
2). At this level, the fixed block system still applies.

CTCS level 3 is applicable for trains with speed higher than 200
kph.
CTCS Level 4

CTCS level 4 is the highest level for CTCS. Moving block system can
be realized by level 4. The information transmission between trains
and wayside devices is made by GSM-R. GPS or balises are used
for train position.

Train integrity checking is carried out by on-board system (similar to

ETCS level 3). Track circuits are only used at stations. The amount of
wayside system is reduced to a minimum in order to reduce the
maintenance cost. Train dispatching can be very flexible for different
capacity of train operation on the same line.
CTCS, Chinese Train Control System
1. CTCS 2 is :
• Comparable to EU ETCS level 1
• Track-circuit based system with unidirectional transmission from
wayside signaling system to train on-board control
• Uses track circuits and balises, and on-board system

2. CTCS 3 is :
• Comparable to EU ETCS level 2
• Communication based train control system using GSM-R, Global
System for Mobile Communication – Railway with bi-directional
communication between the train on-board control system and the
wayside signaling system
• Uses RBC (Radio Block Centre) system and on-board system
CTCS

Source : Hollysys
 Source : Hollysys

CTCS 3, HK 临时限速服务器
（TSRS）

行调指挥中心
无线闭塞中心
车站联锁 (CBI) （CTC）
（RBC）
进路信息 调度集中显示投影
轨道电路
占用信息

列车位置、速度信息 列车位置、速度信息

行车许可

速度曲线
 Source : Hollysys

CTCS 3, HK

目标停车点
时
速
速度限制曲线
(km/h)
 Source : Hollysys

CTCS 2, HK

轨道电路为
CTCS-2提供连续的 速度曲线
行车许可
101011101

L5 L4 L3 L2 L LU U HU
1300m 1300m 1250 1350 1250 1300 1200 1200
CTCS 3, HK
3. The XRL, HK adopts the combined CTCS 3 and CTCS 2 signaling
systems. CTCS 3 is the normal train control system, whilst CTCS 2 is
the back up (fallback operation).

4. As some conventional trains in China are only equipped with CTCS

2, and therefore for these trains to travel to HK, CTCS 2 will be
used.

5. The key design parameters are :

• Design signaling headway – 3 min.
• Train capacity – 20 trains/hr/direction (tphpd)
• Maximum operating speed in HK – 200 kph normal direction, 160
kph reverse direction (max. operating speed in China 300 kph)
CTCS 3 Wayside train control sub-systems
6. C 3 and C 2 wayside train control sub-systems :
• RBC, Radio Block Centre – Dual redundant configuration. 2 ways
continuous communication (by GSM-R) between train on-board control
and wayside signaling equipment for train control. Inf. transfers by
RBC to onboard signaling system includes target distance, track speed
profile, TSR, protection zone, etc, and inf. from onboard to RBC
includes train parameters, train location, registration details, train
status, etc

• CBI, Computer based interlocking (2x2oo2, SIL 4)– Dual redundant.

CTC sends route request commands to CBI for execution based on
wayside equipment status (track circuit occupancy status from TCC,
turnout point status, etc). CBI will ensure no conflict route setting and
allow train to proceed.
CTCS 3 Wayside train control sub-systems
6. C 3 and C 2 wayside train control sub-systems :
• TCC, Train control centre (2x2oo2 configuration, SIL 4) – For C 2
wayside train control (computation of CTCS 2 signaling codes). TCC is
connected with ZPW 2000 for train location detection and movement
authority information transmission. TCC and LEU is responsible for
wayside-train-borne train control message transmission. TCC also
exchanges train control messages and wayside signaling equipment
status with CTC and CBI.

• ZPW 2000 track circuit (SIL 4) – jointless track circuits at mainline

turnout area and WKT fan area (at 1100 m to 1500 m interval), for
train location detection and transmission of onboard coded messages
(movement authority under C 2)
CTCS 3 Wayside train control sub-systems
• Balise and Local Electronic Unit (LEU) (SIL 4) – For C3, balise provides
location identification, CTCS level switching, RBC control boundary
handling, OHL neutral zone control and GSM-R network establishment.
For C 2, it gives line speed, track profile inf. and TSR inf. to onboard
signaling system. There are passive balise and active balise. Passive
balise transmits static inf. to onboard system when train passing through.
Active balise is connected to LEU and transmits message from LEU to
onboard system when train passing through. Operating frequencies,
27.095 MHz telemetry from train to balise, 4.234 MHz centre frequency
for uplink data transmission at 564 kbit/s
• CTCS 3 involves CBI, RBC, GSM-R, balises (fix data), ZPW 2000 track
circuit, and
• CTCS 2 – track circuits, balises (collect data), TCC (Train control centre),
LEU (Lineside equipment unit))
CTCS - Balise and LEU
• Passive balise transmits static inf. to onboard system
• Active balise is connected to LEU and transmits message from LEU to
onboard system

Active balise (for TSR, block Passive balise (to transmit track inf. :
operating direction) max. line speed, position, gradient)
CTCS – Mainline track circuit
• Mainline track circuits is called “ZPW-2000A”, total 146 nos. at XRL
• 4 frequencies for data transmission, 1.7, 2.0, 2.3 and 2.6 kHz
• Longest length of track circuits is 600 m
• SIL 4

Twin track circuits

ZPW-2000A
CTCS 3 Wayside train control sub-systems
7. Wayside train regulation sub-system :
• CTC, Central train control – CTC is responsible for transmitting route
request commands to CBI according to timetable for execution and
monitoring the overall traffic status. Route setting interface is
protected by CBI with train schedules and time tables computation,
after receiving wayside equipment status from CBI, CTC will display
to operators
• TSR, Temporary speed restriction – responsible for transmitting and
executing the temporary speed restriction commands set by the OCC

8. Wayside monitoring sub-systems :

• CSM, Central signaling monitoring – monitoring signaling equipment
status and alarms, status of infeed power grid and signaling power
earth leakage status
CTCS 3, CTCS 3 Wayside train control sub-systems

8. Wayside monitoring sub-systems :

• PMS, Point monitoring system – Monitoring the status of point
machines. Recording each point movement, eg. unlocking, movement
and locking.

• TDMS, Train data management system – collect train onboard

signaling status from DMS (Dynamic monitoring system). TDMS also
provides a platform for the maintenance staff to analyze the
downloaded train onboard signaling status
CTCS – Simplified system architecture

Source : Hitachi
 Source : Hollysys
*
Source : Hollysys
CTCS On-board signaling sub-systems
1. Train on-board signaling sub-systems involve :
I. VC, Vital computer for C 2/C 3
II. DMI, Driver machine interface for C 2/C 3
III. DRU, Diagnostic recording unit for C 2/C 3
IV. DMS (Dynamic monitoring system), Transmission unit for VC status
for C 2/C 3 (to collect onboard equipment status and transmit to
dedicated wayside TDMS vide GSM-R network)
V. TIU, Train interface unit for C 2/C 3
VI. BTM, Balise transmission unit for C 2/C 3
VII. RTM, Radio transmission unit for C 3
VIII.GSM-R mobile for C 3
IX. TCR, Track circuit receiver for C 2
CTCS On-board signaling sub-systems

2. The C 3/C 2 on-board signaling sub-system receives wayside inf.

from RBC and TCC to generate train speed protection profile
and transmits vehicle related inf. to wayside signaling equipment

3. The onboard signaling sub-system provides system control

functions such as self diagnostic, train driver MMI management,
static speed curve generation, dynamic braking curve generation,
OHL neutral zone management, etc
Source : Hollysys
 Source : Hollysys

CTCS On-board signaling sub-systems - DMI

Running speed Full supervision, max line speed

CRH 380 A – Cab DMI
CTCS 3/CTCS 2 – Operation modes (for reading only)

1. Train movement

• Full supervision (FS) : MA received, route protected, max. line speed

supervised by C 3 (= ETCS FS mode)

• Partial supervision (PS) : reduced level of supervision with CTCS 2

supervision, max. line speed

• On sight (OS) : unable to give MA, driver and signaler responsible

for any train movement, max speed 40 kph (= ETCS SR mode)
CTCS 3/CTCS 2 – Operation modes (for reading only)

1. Train movement

• Call on (CO) : MA received, route protected but may be occupied,

max. speed 40 kph (driver to stop short of any obstructions) (=
ETCS OS mode)

• Standby (SB) : operation mode at start up, standstill supervision

enabled, train cannot be driven in this mode, 0 kph

2. Shunting
• Shunting (SH) : undertake shunting movements at max. speed 40
kph
CTCS 3/CTCS 2– Operation modes (for reading only)

3. Special train movement

• Isolation (IS) : system isolated/failed, max speed 0 kph
• Sleeping (SL) : on-board system at sleep mode, max speed 0 kph

4. Disturbed situation
• Trip : trip mode is entered as a result of passing the end of
authority (when no override is active)
• Post trip : mode entered once the driver has acknowledged the trip
mode (9 operation modes in CTCS 3)
Operation modes for CTCS vs. ETCS (for reading only)

1. There are 18 operation modes in ETCS :

• Full supervision (FS); Limited supervision (LS); Staff responsible (SR);
On sight (OS); Unfitted (UN); Override (OR); Standby (SB); Shunting
(SH); Sleeping (SL);Trip (TR); Post trip (PT); System failure (SF);
Isolation (IS), No power (NP); Non leading (NL); STM European (SE);
STM National (SN); Reversing (RV)…

2. ETCS operation modes vs. CTCS operation modes :

• Basically the same, except :
• CTCS On sight (OS) is equivalent to ETCS Staff responsible (SR)
• CTCS Call on (CO) is equivalent to ETCS On sight (OS)
• CTCS 2 functions (PS mode) = STM National (SN)
Operation modes for CTCS (for reading only)

1. CTCS-3 has 9 operation modes :

• Full supervision (FS); On sight (OS); Call on (CO); Shunting (SH);
Isolation (IS); Standby (SB); Sleeping (SL);

2. CTCS-2 has 2 modes :

• Partial supervision (PS); Cab signal (CS) at max. speed 80 kph
 Source : Hitachi

CTCS On-board system

Radio trans. Diagnostic Dynamic

module recording unit monitoring sys.

Switch Train
centre interface unit

Track cct.
receiver

On-board unit
 CTCS vs. ETCS
CTCS 2 ETCS 1 CTCS 3 ETCS 2

Characteristics Continuous ATP Intermittent ATP Continuous ATP Continuous ATP

Max. speed 250 kph 250 kph 350 kph 350 kph

Means of Track circuit (MA) Balise (MA & line

GSM-R GSM-R
communications Balise (line data) data)

Track circuit, balise, Track circuit, balise, RBC, track circuit, RBC, track circuit,
Major equipment
LEU, TCC LEU balise balise

TSR implementation By TSRS NA By TSRS NA

Back up by CTCS 0
Redundancy NA Back up by CTCS 2 NA
(LKJ)
Future signaling systems

Visit You tube, Future trains, Future railway signaling : a scenario

for 2033
(too long)
Fully Automatic Operation, FAO - Automated metros (for reading only)

63 lines
42 cities
> 1000 km

Source http://metroautomation.org/
 Source: http://www.uitp.org/world-report-metro-automation

Route length of Fully Automated Metros (for reading only)

Route, km
 Source: International Association of Public Transport

Grade of automation (GoA)

Operation in
Type of train Setting train in
GoA Stopping train Door closure event of
operation motion
disruption

ATP with driver

GoA 1 (Manual Driver Driver Driver Driver
operation)
ATP and ATO
with driver
GoA 2 Automatic Automatic Driver Driver
(Driver attended
ATO)

Driverless
GoA 3 Automatic Automatic Train attendant Train attendant
(Driverless ATO)

UTO
GoA 4 Automatic Automatic Automatic Automatic
(Unattended ATO)
Grade of automation (GoA)
According to IEC 62267 and IEC 62290, train automation is divided into :

1. GoA 0 – On-sight driving without ATP where the driver takes full
responsibility
2. GoA 1 – Manual protected operation (with ATP), which is usually
applied as a fall back mode of operation
3. GoA 2 – Semi-automatic operation with the support of ATO setting the
train operation, and ATP ensuring safe separation distance between 2
trains
4. GoA 3 – ATO + ATP. No driver in the cabin, but an attendant capable
of handling irregular situations and guiding passengers in case of
emergency
5. GoA 4 – UTO, unattended train operation, where the system operates
the train with no on-board operational staff
Fully Automatic Operation, FAO

1. For FAO (driverless), train is automatically driven by ATC with full

ATP under :
• Safe route management
• Safe speed management
• Safe train separation
• Safe departure conditions at stations

2. Train doors and platform doors are automatically opened and

closed by ATC.
GoA development in EU (for reading only)

2014 2015 2016 2017 2022

GoA2 GoA2 GoA3-4 GoA3-4 GoA3-4

• 2012 – ATO feasibility study
• 2013 – ATO operations concept
• In future, ATO is to meet the timetable in the most efficiency way and
ATO will only be available in full supervision mode. ATO will be SIL 0,
and ATP in ETCS guarantees safety.
GoA development in HK (for reading only)

1979 1995 2005 2016 2021

GoA 4 GoA 4
ATC Automatic GoA 3 to 4
turnaround UTO for medium UTO for heavy
size metro metros

• 1979 – ATC for safe train operation and reliable train control, tight
headway operation
• 1995 – Automatic turnaround, reduce manual operation,
• 2005 – UTO for leisure metro (SIL), medium level of automation,
reduce human error,
• 2016 – GoA 4 for medium metro, fully UTO depot
• 2021 – UTO for oldest operating line in HK (ERL), daily ridership
over 1.1 M, mixed with through train operation
 Open ETCS

Human factor
EVC
Train 2
Human factor Human factor
EVC EVC
Train 1 Train 3

Open
ETCS
CBTC, Communication based train control (for metros)
1. CBTC is an automated train control system for safe operation of
trains using data communication techniques

2. CBTC is the latest signaling system adopted by metros with 3 levels

of automation – ATP, ATO and ATS. Metros adopt CBTC system
with ATO and ATP and in-cab signaling.

3. CBTC is completely wireless communications to trains and other

stations, fully redundant, robust radio network. Typically uses
moving block
CBTC, Communication based train control
 CBTC, Communication based train control

For train A to move

from A01 to B01, Station “A” Station “B”
interlocking logic A01 B01

ensures :
• TC 03T, 05T, 07T, 01T 03T 05T
227W
07T 09T 11T

09T and 11T be 05T

“cleared” C01
229W 06T
D01

• Points 227W 02T 04T 06T 08T 10T 12T

and 229W be
“normal” Station “C” Station “D”
• Signal A01 be
cleared
 CBTC, Communication based train control
ATP ensures :
Max. speed limits
• Limit of
movement, ie Station “A” Station “B”
A01
speed limits and B01

movement 01T 03T 05T 07T 09T 11T

authority 05T
227W

• Overspeed C01 D01

protection 229W 06T

• Door open (zero 02T 04T 06T 08T 10T 12T

speed, correct Station “C” Station “D”

side and correct
position)
 CBTC, Communication based train control
ATO ensures : Max. speed limits
• Automatic train
Station “A” Station “B”
driving (ATO) A01 ATO Speed
B01
• Automatic train Profile

regulation 01T 03T 05T 07T 09T 11T

227W
(typically running 05T

service with C01 D01

06T
coasting) 229W
06T 10T
• Energy
02T 04T 08T 12T

optimization Station “C” Station “D”

CBTC (Communications based train control)
4. Metros are :
• High capacity urban transport, high passenger density
• Short station-to-station distance (may be in tunnels), short dwell
time
• High acceleration and deceleration, low operating speed, 50 to
80 kph
• Service frequency (typically 90 to 120 s) more important than
timetable
• Passengers travel for a few minutes on a given line (seating not
important)
CBTC (Communications based train control)
5. CBTC transmit MA by means of
• Balises at the track
• Loops at the track
• Track circuit based data transmission
• Leaky cable based radio or WiFi

6. Can be fixed block or moving block operation, min. separation

between trains is braking distance plus safety margin. For LU
headway comparison :
• Fixed equi-block – 33 tph
• Fixed block distance-to-go - 36 tph
• Moving block – 37 tph
CBTC generic architecture
CBTC (Communications based train control) generic architecture

Access point
CBTC (Communications based train control)
7. IEEE 1474 : performance and functional requirements
8. Track to train communications are based upon proprietary systems in
use
9. Radio (2.4 GHz or upgrade path to 5.8 GHz, up to 1 Gbit/s) with
leaky feeders (linear radio) or satellite communications by GPS
(downlink only) :
• Train position – GPS, radio
• Train speed – tachometers
• Speed limits – PSR (permanent speed restrictions) stored on-board,
TSR downloaded
• Distance-to-go – points, change of PSR, start of TSR
• Train integrity – train monitor, train line communication
10. Secure and continuous communication path with OCC
11. Driverless trains technology is possible
CBTC (Communications based train control)

• Go to YouTube :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjtW-9l-oNA
How Thales’s SelTrac CBTC works (1.7 minutes)

• Go to :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1Bgmugve5M
What is CBTC (2.2 minutes)
Safety Integrity Level, SIL
Safety integrity relates to the ability of a safety-related system to
achieve its required safety performance.

Safety integrity level Probability of dangerous failure per hour

SIL 4 10−9 to 10−8

10−8 to 10−7
SIL 3

10−7 to 10−6
SIL 2

10−6 to 10−5
SIL 1
 Safety Integrity Level, SIL
Probability of 10−9 per hour is equivalent to once in 100,000 years.

Safety sub-system SIL

Train detection (eg. track circuit, axle counter,

SIL 4
balise)

Interlocking, TCC SIL 4

ATP SIL 4

ATO, ATS SIL 2

Reliability run and Operation trial for new and extension lines (for
reading only)
WRL WIL KTE SIL XRL

N/A 2840 km for

N/A
No such (no new trains, each trains 1
Reliability run (no new trains, 400 km for
requirements with existing M &2
(mileage) with existing M each train
yet trains and C 2462 km for
trains)
trains) rest 7 trains

2 months 2.5 months 2.5 months 3 months 3 months

Operation
(Oct – Dec (Oct – Dec (Aug – Oct (Oct – Dec (April – Sep
trial (months)
2003) 2014) 2016) 2016) 2018)
South Island Line (East) (SIL(E)) (for reading only)
SIL(E)
1. 7.2 km route length, bi-directional line
2. 4 satellite stations (OCP, WCH, LET, SOH), 1 group station (ADM)
3. CBTC as per IEEE standard 1474.1-2004 and 1474.2-2003, FAO
driverless signaling, GoA4 of En62290-1:2006
4. 5.8 GHz WiFi for continuous bi-directional communications between train-
borne and trackside sub-systems
5. FAO functions : remote control of FAO trains, online timetable modification,
timetable regulation, partial service running, work zone management
6. OCC at TSY OCC, back up at ADM GSCR
7. 10 EMU trains, 4 locos
8. ATP safety envelope on the basis of train localization, speed and train
attributes
9. ATC, automatic train control by ZCs (zone controllers)
10. Train detection – radio-based continuous bi-directional communication
SIL(E) – Mainline layout

Group Station
Control Room
at ADM

Wong Chuk Hang Depot

 SIL(E) – Signaling system (Urbalis 400, Alstom)

Interlocking Maintenance
support system

ZC : localize the train, manage train detection and MA limit

LC : manage TSR, RM mode, check software version Data communication
system

Smart IO :
interface with
trackside
equipment

Beacon, axle counter, point m/c, signal, antenna

 SIL(E) – Signaling system
Beacon (Eurobalise)– train localization, calibrate
train odometer, stop precisely at safe stopping
position before signal

Axle counter – for secondary train detection, to

count the wheels when the train enters the axle
counter block (with axle counter cubicles to check
occupancy of predefined area)

Antenna – to communicate with

train-borne DCS antenna to update
train and trackside information
 SIL(E) – Signaling system
DCS antenna–2 antennas per cab (for red and blue network) to communicate
with trackside antenna for updating train and trackside information (fully
redundant networks)

Beacon antenna : to Odometer : to count

read beacon on track the rotation no. of
for train localization axle to calculate the
train location and
speed