UNIT I:

RECTIFIERS
P-N Junction diode as a rectifier, half wave rectifier, Full wave rectifier, Bridge
rectifier,Their ripple factor, efficiency and %regulation.
Filters: Capacitor filter, Inductor Filter, L-Filter,

RECTIFIERS & FILTERS

INTRODUCTION

For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is
advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages. The process of converting a.c.
voltage into d.c. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down Transformer,
ii) Rectifier,
iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below.

Fig 1.20: Block Diagram of regulated D.C Power Supply

 Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltageAC.

 Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output isvarying.
 Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a smallripple.
 Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixedvoltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down transformer,
rectifier, filter, voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics
circuit designed to provide a predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load
current and variations in the input voltage ad temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a
AC voltage then it is termed as voltage stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is
termed as voltage regulator.
 RECTIFIER
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance
to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Waveform, with a non-

zero average component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to
pulsatingd.c. voltage (Unidirectional).

Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:

Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance
to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional waveform, with a non-
zero average component.
A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c..Load currents: They
are two types of output current. They are average or d.c. current and RMS currents.
Average or DC current: The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area of one cycle of
the curve divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as
Area over one period
Average value/dc value/mean value=
Total time period
 T1
T
Vdc  Vd (wt)
0

i) Effective (or) R.M.Scurrent:

The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared ofa periodic function of time is given by the area of one cycle
of the curve, which represents the square of the function divided by the base.

1T
T 0
Vrms  2
V d (wt)

ii) Peakfactor:
It is the ratio of peak value to Rms value

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
iii) Form factor:

It is the ratio of Rms value to average value

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

iv) Ripple Factor ( ) :

It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the output is known
as “Ripple Factor”.
V
 ac
Vdc

Vac  o / p power

i / p power
v) Efficiency ():
V 2 V 2
rms dc

It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how efficiently

the rectifier circuit converts a.c. power into d.c. power.

 vi) Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV):
It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying
the junction.

vii) Transformer Utilization Factor(UTF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as

Pdc
TUF 
pac(rated)
viii) %Regulation:

The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called regulation. The
percentage regulation is defined as

VNL VFL
% Re gulation  *100
VFL

For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.

CLASSIFICATION OFRECTIFIERS
Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1) Half - WaveRectifier
2) Full – WaveRectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier
HALF-WAVERECTIFIER:
A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 1.21is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating
voltage using only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

Fig 1.21: Half-Wave Rectifier

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-
n junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the
rectifier circuit using step-down transformer
 Fig 1.22: Input Vs Output waveforms of Half-Wave Rectifier

V=Vm sin (wt)

The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts.
Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The waveform of the diode
current (or) load current is shown in fig 1.22.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no
power is delivered to the load.

Analysis:

In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.

1. DC outputcurrent
2. DC Outputvoltage
3. R.M.S.Current
4. R.M.S.voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency (η)
6. Ripple factor (γ )
7. PeakFactor
8. %Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF)
 10. formfactor
11. o/pfrequency

Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier.

Then V=Vm sin (wt) Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the diode be
idealized to piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward direction i.e., in the ON
state and Rr (=∞) in the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state. Now the current ‘i’ in the diode (or) in
the load resistance RL isgivenby V=Vm sin(wt)

i) AVERAGE VOLTAGE
 ix)Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF):
The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer
used in the circuit. Therefore, transformer utilization factor is defined as
pdc
TUF
Pac(rated)

TUF =0.286.
The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized.
If the transformer rating is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver
1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts to resistance load.
vi)Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half-wave
rectifier, PIV is Vm.

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

1. The ripple factor ishigh.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor islow.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not used as a
power rectifier circuit.

FULL WAVERECTIFIER:
A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the
applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this
circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap
transformer is the one, which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency
butoutofphasewithrespecttothegroundinthesecondarywindingofthetransformer.Thefullwave rectifier
is shown in the fig 1.23.

Fig 1.23: Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Fig. 1.24Input and output wave forms of Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Duringpositivehalfoftheinputsignal,anodeofdiodeD1becomespositiveandatthe same
time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 doesnot
conduct.TheloadcurrentflowsthroughD1andthevoltagedropacrossRLwillbeequaltotheinput voltage.
Duringthenegativehalfcycleoftheinput,theanodeofD1becomesnegativeandtheanodeof D2
becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2
and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows
in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the loadresistance.

i) AVERAGEVOLTAGE

ii) AVERAGE CURRENT

 iii) RMSVOLTAGE:

1T
Vrms 
T 0V d (wt)
2


 2
1
2 
Vrms  (Vmsim(wt)) d2 (wt)
 0



IV) RMSCURRENT

2Im
I rms 


V) PEAKFACTOR

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
 Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

Peak Factor =2

vi) FORMFACTOR

Rms value
Form factor=
averagevalue

Form factor= (Vm / 2)

2Vm / 

Form Factor =1.11

vii) RippleFactor:

viii) Efficiency ():

o / ppower *100

i / ppower
 ix) Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer
used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
pdc
TUF 
Pac(rated)

x) Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half- wave
rectifier, PIV is 2Vm
xi) % Regulation

.
Advantages

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 forHWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 forHWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 forHWR)
4) No core saturationproblem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tappedtransformer.

BRIDGERECTIFIER.

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual
rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The
main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

Fig 1.25: Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1to D4are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series , but diodes D1 and D2
switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is
also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC
voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows
through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2
x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply
frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)

FILTERS

The output of a rectifier contains dc component as well as ac component. Filters are used to minimize
the undesirable ac i.e., ripple leaving only the dc component to appear at the output.
Some important filters are:

1. Inductorfilter

2. Capacitorfilter

3. LC or L sectionfilter

4. CLC or Π-typefilter

CAPACITORFILTER

This is the most simple form of the filter circuitand in this arrangement a high value capacitor C is
placed directly across the output terminals, as shown in figure. During the conduction period it gets
charged and stores up energy to it during non-conduction period. Through this process, the time
duration during which Ft is to be noted here that the capacitor C gets charged to the peak because
there is no resistance (except the negligible forward resistance of diode) in the charging path. But the
discharging time is quite large (roughly 100 times more than the charging time depending upon the
value of RL) because it discharges through load resistance RL.

The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The large value capacitor C
offers a low impedance shunt path to the ac components or ripples but offers high impedance to the
dc component. Thus ripples get bypassed through capacitor C and only dc component flows through
the load resistanceRL

Capacitor filter is very popular because of its low cost, small size, light weight and good
characteristics.
Fig 1.26: Shunt Capacitor Filter
CAPACITOR FILTER WITH HWR

Fig 1.27: Half Wave Rectifier with Shunt capacitor Filter

CAPACITOR FILTER WITH FWR

Fig 1.28: Full Wave Rectifier with Shunt capacitor Filter
Important points about shunt capacitor filter are:

1. For a fixed-value filter capacitance larger the load resistance RL larger will be the discharge time
constant CRL and therefore, lower the ripples and more the output voltage. On the other hand lower
the load resistance (or more the load current), lower will be the outputvoltage.

2. Similarly smaller the filter capacitor, the less charge it can hold and more it will discharge. Thus the
peak-to-peak value of the ripple will increase, and the average dc level will decrease. Larger the filter
capacitor, the more charge it can hold and the less it will discharge. Hence the peak-to-peak value of
the ripple will be less, and the average dc level will increase. But, the maximum value of the
capacitance that can be employed is limited by another factor. The larger the capacitance value, the
greater is the current required to charge the capacitor to a given voltage. The maximum current that
can be handled by a diode is limited by the figure quoted by the manufacturer. Thus the maximum
value of the capacitance, that can be used in the shunt filter capacitor islimited.

Series InductorFilter.

Fig 1.29: Full Wave Rectifier with Series Inductor Filter

In this arrangement a high value inductor or choke L is connected in series with the rectifier element
and the load, as illustrated in figure. The filtering action of an inductor filter depends upon its property
of opposing any change in the current flowing through it. When the output current of the
rectifierincreases above a certain value, energy is stored in it in the form of magnetic field and this
energy is given up when the output current falls below the average value. Thus by placing a choke coil
in series with the rectifier output and load, any sudden change in current that might have occurred in
the circuit without an inductor is smoothed out by the presence of the inductor L.

The function of the inductor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The choke offers high
impedance to the ac components but offers almost zero resistance to the desired dc components. Thus
ripples are removed to a large extent. Nature of the output voltage without filter and with choke filter
is shown in figure.

For dc (zero frequency), the choke resistance Rc in series with the load resistance RL forms a voltage
divider and dc voltage across the load is given as

where Vdc is dc voltage output from a full-wave rectifier. Usually choke coil resistance Rc, is much small
than RL and, therefore, almost entire of the dc voltage is available across the load resistance RL.

Since the reactance of inductor increases with the increase in frequency, better filtering of the higher
harmonic components takes place, so effect of third and higher harmonic voltages can be neglected.

As obvious from equation , if choke coil resistance R c is negligible in comparison to load resistance RL,
then the entire dc component of rectifier output is available across 2 R L and is equal to — VLmax. The ac
voltage partly drops across XL and partly over RL.

L-SECTIONFILTER:

A simple series inductor reduces both the peakand effective values of the output current and output
voltage. On the other hand a simple shunt capacitor filterreduces the ripple voltage but increases the
diode current. The diode may get damaged due to large current and at the same time it causes greater
heating of supply transformer resulting in reduced efficiency.

In an inductor filter, ripple factor increases with the increase in load resistance RL while in a capacitor
filter it varies inversely with load resistance RL.

From economical point of view also, neither series inductor nor shunt capacitor type filters are
suitable.

Practical filter-circuitsare derived by combining the voltage stabilizing action of shunt capacitor with
the current smoothing action of series choke coil. By using combination of inductor and capacitor
ripple factor can be lowered, diode current can be restricted and simultaneously ripple factor can be
made almost independent of load resistance (or load current). Two types of most commonly used
combinations are choke-input or L-section filter-and capacitor-input orPi-Filter.
 Fig 1.30: Full Wave Rectifier with Choke Input Filter

Choke-input filter is explained below:

Choke-input filter consists of a choke L connected in series with the rectifier and a capacitor C
connected across the load . This is also sometimes called the L-section filter because in this
arrangement inductor and capacitor are connected, as an inverted L. ln figure only one filter section is
shown. But several identical sections are often employed to improve the smoothing action. (The choke
L on the input side of the filter readily allows dc to pass but opposes the flow of ac components
because its dc resistance is negligibly small but ac impedance is large. Any fluctuation that remains in
the current even after passing through the choke are largely by-passed around the load by the shunt
capacitor because Xc is much smaller than RL. Ripples can be reduced effectively by making XL greater
than Xc at ripple frequency. However, a small ripple still remains in the filtered output and this is
considered negligible if it than l%. The rectified and filtered output voltage waveforms from a full-wave
re with choke-input filter are shown in figure.
Π-SECTION FILTER:

Fig 1.31: Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Input Filter

Capacitor-Input or Pi-Filter.

Such a filter consists of a shunt capacitor C1 at the input followed by an L-section filter formed by
series inductor L and shunt capacitor C 2. This is also called the n-filter because the shape of the circuit
diagram for this filter appears like Greek letter n (pi). Since the rectifier feeds directly into the capacitor
so it is also called capacitor inputfilter.

As the rectified output is fed directly into a capacitor C1. Such a filter can be used with a half-wave
rectifier (series inductor and L-section filters cannot be used with half-wave rectifiers). Usually
electrolytic capacitors are used even though their capacitances are large but they occupy minimum
space. Usually both capacitors C1 and C2 are enclosed in one metal container. The metal container
serves as, the common ground for the two capacitors.

A capacitor-input or pi- filter is characterized by a high voltage output at low current drains. Such a
filter is used, if, for a given transformer, higher voltage than that can be obtained from an L-section
filter is required and if low ripple than that can be obtained from a shunt capacitor filter or L-section
filter is desired. In this filter, the input capacitor C1 is selected to offer very low reactance to the ripple
frequency. Hence major part of filtering is accomplished by the input capacitor C1. Most of the
remaining ripple is removed by the L-section filter consisting of a choke L and capacitorC2.)
The action of this filter can best be understood by considering the action of L-section filter, formed by L
and C2, upon the triangular output voltage wave from the input capacitor C1 The charging and
discharging action of input capacitor C1 has already been discussed. The output voltage is roughly the
same as across input capacitor C1 less the dc voltage drop in inductor. The ripples contained in this
output are reduced further by L-section filter. The output voltage of pi-filter falls off rapidly with the
increase in load-current and, therefore, the voltage regulation with this filter is very poor.

SALIENT FEATURES OF L-SECTION AND PI-FILTERS.

1. In pi-filter the dc output voltage is much larger than that can be had from an L-section filter with the
same inputvoltage.

2.In pi-filter ripples are less in comparison to those in shunt capacitor or L-section filter. So smaller
valued choke is required in a pi-filter in comparison to that required in L-sectionfilter.

3.In pi-filter, the capacitor is to be charged to the peak value hence the rms current in supply
transformer is larger as compared in case of L-sectionfilter.

4.Voltage regulation in case of pi-filter is very poor, as already mentioned. So n-filters are suitable for
fixed loads whereas L-section filters can work satisfactorily with varying loads provided a minimum
current is maintained.

5.In case of a pi-filter PIV is larger than that in case of an L-sectionfilter.

COMPARISON OF FILTERS
1) A capacitor filter provides Vm volts at less load current. But regulation ispoor.
2) An Inductor filter gives high ripple voltage for low load currents. It is used for
high loadcurrents
3) L – Section filter gives a ripple factor independent of load current.Voltage
Regulation can be improved by use of bleederresistance
4) Multiple L – Section filter or π filters give much less ripple than the single L –
Section Filter.
 UNIT II: Biasing and Stabilization:

Biasing and Stabilization: Operating point, the D.C Load line, Fixed bias, Collector to base bias, Self-
bias techniques for stabilization, Stabilization factors, (s, s I ), Bias Compensation using diode and
transistor , (Compensation against variation in VBE, ICO). Thermal runaway and Thermal stability

TRANSISTOR BIASING AND STABILIZATION

NEED FOR TRANSISTORBIASING

If the o/p signal must be a faithful reproduction of the i/p signal, the transistor must be
operated in active region. That means an operating point has to be established in this region . To
establish an operating point (proper values of collector current I cand collector to emitter voltage VCE)
appropriate supply voltages and resistances must be suitably chosen in the ckt. This process of
selecting proper supply voltages and resistance for obtaining desired operating point or Q point is
called as biasing and the ckt used for transistor biasing is called as biasingckt.

There are four conditions to be met by a transistor so that it acts as a faithful ampr:

1) Emitter base junction must be forward biased (VBE=0.7Vfor Si, 0.2V for Ge) and collector base
junction must be reverse biased for all levels of i/psignal.
2) Vce voltage should not fall below VCE(sat) (0.3V for Si, 0.1V for Ge) for any part of the i/p signal.
For VCE less than VCE(sat) the collector base junction is not probably reverse biased.
3) The value of the signal Ic when no signal is applied should be at least equal to the max. collector
current t due to signalalone.
4) Max. rating of the transistor Ic(max), VCE(max) and PD(max) should not be exceeded at any value of i/p
signal.

Consider the fig shown in fig 2.12. If operating point is selected at A, A represents a condition when
no bias is applied to the transistor i.e, Ic=0, VCE =0. It does not satisfy the above said conditions
necessary for faithful amplification.

Point C is too close to PD(max) curve of the transistor. Therefore the o/p voltage swing in the positive
direction is limited.

Point B is located in the middle of active region .It will allow both positive and negative half cycles
in the o/p signal. It also provides linear gain and larger possible o/p voltages andcurrents

Hence operating point for a transistor amplifier is selected to be in the middle of active region.
 IC(max)

PD(max)

Vce(sat)

Fig 2.12 CE Output Characteristics

DC LOADLINE
Referring to the biasing circuit of fig 2.13 a, the values of VCC and RC are fixed and Ic and VCE are
dependent on RB.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector circuit in fig. 2.13, we get

Fig 2.13(a) CE Amplifier Circuit (b) Load line

 The straight line represented by AB in fig2.13b is called the dc load line. The coordinates of the end
point A are obtained by substituting VCE =0 in the above equation. Then . Therefore The
coordinates of A are VCE =0 and .

The coordinates of B are obtained by substituting Ic=0 in the above equation. Then Vce = Vcc.
Therefore the coordinates of B are VCE =Vcc and Ic=0. Thus the dc load line AB can be drawn if the
values of Rc and Vcc are known.

As shown in the fig2.13b, the optimum POINT IS LOCATED AT THE MID POINT OF THE MIDWAY
BETWEEN a AND b. In order to get faithful amplification, the Q point must be well within the active
region of the transistor.

Even though the Q point is fixed properly, it is very important to ensure that the operating point
remains stable where it is originally fixed. If the Q point shifts nearer to either A or B, the output
voltage and current get clipped, thereby o/p signal is distorted.

In practice, the Q-point tends to shift its position due to any or all of the following three main
factors.

1) Reverse saturation current, Ico, which doubles for every 10oC raise intemperature
2) Base emitter Voltage ,VBE, which decreases by 2.5 mV peroC
3) Transistor current gain, hFE or β which increases withtemperature.

If base current IB is kept constant since IB is approximately equal to Vcc/RB. If the transistor is
replaced by another one of the same type, one cannot ensure that the new transistor will have
identical parameters as that of the first one. Parameters such as β vary over a range. This results in the
variation of collector current Ic for a given I B. Hence , in the o/p characteristics, the spacing between
the curves might increase or decrease which leads to the shifting of the Q-point to a location which
might be completelyunsatisfactory.

AC LOADLINE

After drawing the dc load line, the operating point Q is properly located at the center of the dc
load line. This operating point is chosen under zero input signal condition of the circuit. Hence the ac
load line should also pas through the operating point Q. The effective ac load resistance R ac, is a
combination of RC parallel toRL i.e. || . So the slope of the ac load line CQD will be .
To draw the ac load line, two end points, I.e. VCE(max) and IC(max) when the signal is applied arerequired.

, which locates point D on the Vce axis.

, which locates the point C on the IC axis.

By joining points c and D, ac load line CD is constructed. As RC> Rac, The dc load line is less steep than
ac load line.

STABILITY FACTOR(S):

The rise of temperature results in increase in the value of transistor gain β and the leakage
current Ico. So, IC also increases which results in a shift in operating point. Therefore, The biasing
network should be provided with thermal stability. Maintenance of the operating point is specified by
S, which indicates the degree of change in operating point due to change intemperature.

The extent to which IC is stabilized with varying IC is measured by a stability factor S

For CEconfiguration

Differentiate the above equation w.r.t IC , We get

S should be small to have better thermal stability.

Stability factor S’ and S’’:

S’ is defined as the rate of change of IC with VBE, keeping IC and VBE constant.

S’’ is defined as the rate of change of IC with β, keeping ICO and VBEconstant.
 METHODS OF TRANSISTORBIASING

1) Fixed bias (basebias)

Fig 2.14 Fixed Biasing Circuit

This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the fig 4.3 shown, the single power source (for example,
battery) is used for both collector and base of a transistor, although separate batteries can also be used.

In the given circuit,

Vcc = IBRB + Vbe

Therefore, IB = (Vcc - Vbe)/RB

Since the equation is independent of current ICR, dIB//dICR =0 and the stability
factor is given by the equation….. reduces to

S=1+β

Sinceβisalargequantity,thisisverypoorbiasingcircuit.Thereforeinpractice
thecircuitisnotusedfo biasing.

For a given transistor, Vbe does not vary significantly during use. As Vcc is of fixed value,
on selection of R the base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is called fixed bias type ofcircuit.

Also for given circuit, Vcc = ICRC + Vce

 Therefore, Vce = Vcc - ICRC

Merits:

 It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region bymerely changing
the base resistor(RB).
 A very small number of components arerequired.

Demerits:

 The collector current does not remain constant with variation in temperature orpower
supply voltage. Therefore the operating point isunstable.
 Changes in Vbe will change IB and thus cause RE to change. This in turn will alter the gain
of thestage.
 When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in the value ofβ
can be expected. Due to this change the operating point willshift.

2) EMITTER-FEEDBACKBIAS:

The emitter feedback bias circuit is shown in the fig 2.15. The fixed bias circuit is modified by
attaching an external resistor to the emitter. This resistor introduces negative feedback that stabilizes
the Q-point. From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across the base resistor is

VRb = VCC - IeRe - Vbe.

Fig 2.15 Self Biasing Circuit

From Ohm's law, the base current is

 Ib = VRb / Rb.

The way feedback controls the bias point is as follows. If Vbe is held constant and temperature
increases, emitter current increases. However, a larger I e increases the emitter voltage Ve = IeRe, which
in turn reduces the voltage VRb across the base resistor. A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces the
base current, which results in less collector current because I c = ß IB. Collector current and emitter
current are related by Ic = α I e with α ≈ 1, so increase in emitter current with temperature is opposed,
and operating point is kept stable.

Similarly, if the transistor is replaced by another, there may be a change in I C (corresponding to

change in β-value, for example). By similar process as above, the change is negated and operating
point kept stable.

For the given circuit,

IB = (VCC - Vbe)/(RB + (β+1)RE).

Merits:

The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point against changes in temperature and β-
value.

Demerits:

 In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must bemet:

which is approximately the case if ( β + 1 )RE>> RB.

 Asβ-valueisfixedforagiventransistor,thisrelationcanbesatisfiedeitherbykeeping RE very
large, or making RB verylow.

 If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions
necessary whilehandling.
 If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply should be used in the base circuit. Using two
supplies of different voltages isimpractical.

 In addition to the above, RE causes ac feedback which reduces the voltage gain of
theamplifier.
3) COLLECTOR TO BASE BIAS OR COLLECTOR FEED-BACKBIAS:

Fig 2.16 Collector to Base Biasing Circuit

This configuration shown in fig 2.16 employs negative feedback to prevent thermal runaway
and stabilize the operating point. In this form of biasing, the base resistor RBis connected to the
collector instead of connecting it to the DC source Vcc. So any thermal runaway will induce a voltage
drop across the RCresistor that will throttle the transistor's base current.

From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across the base resistor Rbis

By the Ebers–Moll model, Ic = βIb, and so

From Ohm's law, the base current , andso

Hence, the base current Ibis

If Vbeis held constant and temperature increases, then the collector current Icincreases.
However, a larger Iccauses the voltage drop across resistor Rcto increase, which in turn reduces the
voltage across the base resistor Rb. A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces the base current Ib,
which results in less collector current Ic. Because an increase in collector current with temperature is
opposed, the operating point is keptstable.

Merits:

 Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature and β(i.e.
replacement oftransistor)

Demerits:

 In this circuit, to keep Icindependent of β, the following condition must bemet:

which is the case when

 As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, this relation can be
satisfied either by keeping Rcfairly large or making Rbverylow.

 If Rcis large, a high Vccis necessary, which increases cost as well as precautions necessary
whilehandling.
 If Rbis low, the reverse bias of the collector–base region is small, which limits the range
of collector voltage swing that leaves the transistor in activemode.

 The resistor Rbcauses an AC feedback, reducing thevoltage gainof the amplifier. This
undesirable effect is a trade-off for greaterQ-pointstability.

Usage: The feedback also decreases the input impedance of the amplifier as seen from the
base, which can be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from feedback, this biasing form is used
only when the trade-off for stability iswarranted.
 4) COLLECTOR –EMITTER FEEDBACKBIAS:

Fig 2.17 Collector-Emitter Biasing Circuit

The above fig 2.17shows the collector –emitter feedback bias circuit that can be obtained by
applying both the collector feedback and emitter feedback. Here the collector feedback is provided by
connecting a resistance RB from the collector to the base and emitter feedback is provided by
connecting an emitter Re from emitter to ground. Both feed backs are used to control collector
current and base current IB in the opposite direction to increase the stability as compared to the
previous biasingcircuits.

5) VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS OR SELF BIAS OR EMITTERBIAS

The voltage divider as shown in the fig 2.18 is formed using external resistors R 1 and R2. The
voltage across R2 forward biases the emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors R 1 and R2, the
operating point of the transistor can be made independent of β. In this circuit, the voltage divider holds
the base voltage fixed independent of base current provided the divider current is large compared to
the base current. However, even with a fixed base voltage, collector current varies with temperature
(for example) so an emitter resistor is added to stabilize the Q-point, similar to the above circuits with
emitter resistor.
 Fig 2.18 Voltage Divider Biasing Circuit

In this circuit the base voltage is given by:

voltageacross

provided .

Also

For the given circuit,

Let the current in resistor R1 is I1 and this is divided into two parts – current through base and
resistor R2. Since the base current is very small so for all practical purpose it is assumed that I1 also
flows through R2, so we have

Applying KVL in the circuit, we have

 It is apparent from above expression that the collector current is independent of ? thus the
stability is excellent. In all practical cases the value of VBE is quite small in comparison to the V2, so it
can be ignored in the above expression so the collector current is almost independent of the transistor
parameters thus this arrangement provides excellent stability.
Again applying KVL in collector circuit, we have

The resistor RE provides stability to the circuit. If the current through the collector rises, the
voltage across the resistor RE also rises. This will cause VCE to increase as the voltage V2 is
independent of collector current. This decreases the base current, thus collector current increases to
its formervalue.
Stability factor for such circuit arrangement is given by

If Req/RE is very small compared to 1, it can be ignored in the above expression thus we have

Which is excellent since it is the smallest possible value for the stability. In actual practice the
value of stability factor is around 8-10, since Req/RE cannot be ignored as compared to 1.

Merits:

 Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply isnecessary.

 Operating point is almost independent of βvariation.
 Operating point stabilized against shift intemperature.
 Demerits:

 In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must bemet:

which is approximately the caseif

where R1 || R2 denotes the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 connected in parallel.

 As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping
RE fairly large, or making R1||R2 verylow.

 If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions
necessary whilehandling.
 If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or R2 is low, or both are low. A low R1 raises VB closer
to VC, reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large RCcan be made without
driving the transistor out of active mode. A low R2 lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed collector current.
Lowering both resistor values draws more current from the power supply and lowers the input
resistance of the amplifier as seen from thebase.

 AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which reduces the AC voltage gain of the
amplifier. A method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC feedback is discussedbelow.

Usage: The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely used for linear circuits.

BIAS COMPENSATION USING DIODE ANDTRANSISTOR

The various biasing circuits considered use some type of negative feedback to stabilize the
operation point. Also, diodes, thermistors and sensistors can be used to compensate for variations in
current.
 DIODE COMPENSATION:

Fig 2.19Diode Compensation Circuit

The following fig 2.19 shows a transistor amplifier with a diode D connected across the base-
emitter junction for compensation of change in collector saturation current ICO. The diode is of the
same material as the transistor and it is reverse biased by e the emitter-base junction voltage VBE,
allowing the diode reverse saturation current IO to flow through diode D. The base currentIB=I-IO.

As long as temperature is constant, diode D operates as a resistor. As the temperature

increases, ICO of the transistor increases. Hence, to compensate for this, the base current I B should be
decreased.

The increase in temperature will also cause the leakage current I O through D to increase and
thereby decrease the base current IB. This is the required action to keep Ic constant.

This type of bias compensation does not need a change in Ic to effect the change in IC, as both
IO and ICO can track almost equally according to the change intemperature.

THERMISTOR COMPENSATION:

The following fig2.20 a thermistor RT, having a negative temperature coefficient is connected in
parallel with R2. The resistance of thermistor decreases exponentially with increase of temperature. An
increase of temperature will decrease the base voltage VBE, reducing IB and IC.
Fig 2.20 Thermistor Compensation

SENSISTOR COMPENSATION:
In the following fig2.21 shown a sensistor Rs having a positive temperature coefficient is
connected across R1 or RE. Rs increases with temperature. As the temperature increases, the
equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of R1 and Rs also increases and hence VBEdecreases,
reducing IB and Ic. This reduced Ic compensates for increased Ic caused by the increase in V BE, ICO and β
due totemperature.

Fig 2.21 Sensistor Compensation

 UNIT III
BJT Hybrid Model and Transistor Amplifier
BJT Hybrid Model and Transistor Amplifier’s-parameter representation of a transistor,
Conversion of h-parameters, Analysis of single stage transistor amplifier using
H-parameters: voltage gain, current gain, Input impedance and Output impedance.
Comparison of transistor configurations in terms of Ai, Ri , Av,and Ro ,

BJT HYBRID MODEL

Small signal low frequency transistor Models:

All the transistor amplifiers are two port networks having two voltages and two currents. The positive
directions of voltages and currents are shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 3.1: Transistor as a two port Network

A two-port network is represented by four external variables: voltage V1 and current I1 at the input port,
and voltage V2 and current I2 at the output port, so that the two-port network can be treated as a black
box modeled by the relationships between the four variables,V1,V2, I1,I2 . Out of four variables two can
be selected as are independent variables and two are dependent variables.The dependent variables can
be expressed interns of independent variables. This leads to various two port parameters out of which
the following three are important:

1. Impedance parameters(z-parameters)
2. Admittance parameters(y-parameters)
3. Hybrid parameters(h-parameters)
z-parameters

A two-port network can be described by z-parameters as

In matrix form, the above equation can be rewritten as

Where

Input impedance with output port open circuited

Reverse transfer impedance with input port open circuited

Forward transfer impedance with output port open circuited

Output impedance with input port open circuited

Y-parameters

A two-port network can be described by Y-parameters as

In matrix form, the above equation can be rewritten as

 Input admittance with output port short circuited

Reverse transfer admittance with input port short circuited

Forward transfer admittance with output port short circuited

Output admittance with input port short circuited

Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)

If the input current I1 and output voltage V2 are taken as independent variables, the dependent
variables V1 and I2 can be written as

Where h11, h12, h21, h22 are called as hybrid parameters.

Input impedence with o/p port short circuited

 Reverse voltage transfer ratio with i/p port open circuited

Forward voltage transfer ratio with o/p port short circuited

output impedence with i/p port open circuited

THE HYBRID MODEL FOR TWO PORT NETWORK:

Based on the definition of hybrid parameters the mathematical model for two pert networks known as
h-parameter model can be developed. The hybrid equations can be written as:

(The following convenient alternative subscript notation is recommended

by the IEEE Standards:
i=11=input o = 22 =output

f =21 = forward transfer r = 12 = reverse transfer)

We may now use the four h parameters to construct a mathematical model of the device of Fig.(1). The
hybrid circuit for any device indicated in Fig.(2). We can verify that the model of Fig.(2) satisfies above
equations by writing Kirchhoff'svoltage and current laws for input and output ports.
If these parameters are specified for a particular configuration, then suffixes e,b or c are also included,
e.g. hfe ,h ib are h parameters of common emitter and common collector amplifiers

Using two equations the generalized model of the amplifier can be drawn as shown in fig. 3.2.

Fig.3.2:-h-parameter equivalent of Transistor

TRANSISTOR HYBRID MODEL:

The hybrid model for a transistor amplifier can be derived as follow:

Let us consider CE configuration as show in fig. 3.3. The variables, iB, iC ,vC, and vB represent total
instantaneous currents and voltages iB and vC can be taken as independent variables and vB, IC as
dependent variables.
Fig. 3.3 CE Transistor Amplifier

VB = f1 (iB ,vC )

IC = f2 (iB ,vC).

Using Taylor 's series expression, and neglecting higher order terms we obtain.

The partial derivatives are taken keeping the collector voltage or base current constant. The Δ v B, Δ vC, Δ
iB, Δ iC represent the small signal (incremental) base and collector current and voltage and can be
represented as vB, iC, iB ,vC
 Fig. 3.4:h-parameter model of CE Configuration

To determine the four h-parameters of transistor amplifier, input and output characteristic are used.
Input characteristic depicts the relationship between input voltage and input current with output
voltage as parameter. The output characteristic depicts the relationship between output voltage and
output current with input current as parameter. Fig. 5, shows the output characteristics of CE
amplifier.

Fig. 3.5Transistor CE Configuration output characteristics

The current increments are taken around the quiescent point Q which corresponds to iB = IB and to the
collector voltage VCE = VC

The value of hoe at the quiescent operating point is given by the slope of the output characteristic at
the operating point (i.e. slope of tangent AB).
 hie is the slope of the appropriate input on fig. 3.6, at the operating point (slope of tangent EF at Q).

Fig. 3.6 Calculation of h-parameters from output characteristics

A vertical line on the input characteristic represents constant base current. The parameter hre can be
obtained from the ratio (VB2– V B1 ) and (VC2– V C1 ) for at Q.

Typical CE h-parametersof transistor 2N1573 are given below:

hie = 1000 ohm.

hre = 2.5 * 10 –4
hfe = 50
hoe =25 A/V
ANALYSIS OF A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER USING H-PARAMETERS:
To form a transistor amplifier it is only necessary to connect an external load and signal source as
indicated in fig. 3.7and to bias the transistor properly.
 Fig. 3.7 Transistor two port Network

Consider the two-port network of CE amplifier. RS is the source resistance and ZL is the load impedence
h-parameters are assumed to be constant over the operating range. The ac equivalent circuit is shown
in fig. 2. (Phasor notations are used assuming sinusoidal voltage input). The quantities of interest are
the current gain, input impedence, voltage gain, and output impedence.

Fig 3.8:h parameter equivalent of Transistor in CE configuration

Current gain:

For the transistor amplifier stage, Ai is defined as the ratio of output to input currents.

Input impedence:

The impedence looking into the amplifier input terminals ( 1,1' ) is the input impedance Zi
Voltage gain:

The ratio of output voltage to input voltage gives the gain of the transistors.

Output Admittance:

It is defined as

Av is the voltage gain for an ideal voltage source (Rv = 0).

Consider input source to be a current source IS in parallel with a resistance RS as shown in fig. 3.

In this case, overall current gain AIS is defined as

h-parameters
To analyze multistage amplifier the h-parameters of the transistor used are obtained from manufacture
data sheet. The manufacture data sheet usually provides h-parameter in CE configuration. These
parameters may be converted into CC and CB values. For example fig. 4hrc in terms of CE parameter
can be obtained as follows.

Fig. 3.9 CE h-parameter model

For CE transistor configuaration

Vbe = hie Ib + hre Vce

Ic = h fe Ib + hoe Vce

The circuit can be redrawn like CC transistor configuration as shown in fig. 5.

Vbc = hie Ib + hrc Vec

Ic = hfe Ib + hoe Vec

 Fig 3.10 hybrid model for transistor in three different configurations

Typical h-parameter values for a transistor

Parameter CE CC CB
hi 1100 Ω 1100 Ω 22 Ω
hr 2.5 × 10-4 1 3 × 10-4
hf 50 -51 -0.98
ho 25 µA/V 25 µA/V 0.49 µA/V

Analysis of a Transistor amplifier circuit using h-parameters

A transistor amplifier can be constructed by connecting an external load and signal source and
biasing the transistor properly.
 Fig.3.11 Basic Amplifier Circuit

The two port network of Fig. 3.11 represents a transistor in any one of its configuration. It is
assumed that h-parameters remain constant over the operating range.The input is sinusoidal and I 1,V-
1,I2 and V2 are phase quantities

Fig. 3.12 Transistor replaced by its Hybrid Model

Current Gain or Current Amplification (Ai)

For transistor amplifier the current gain Ai is defined as the ratio of output current to input
current,i.e,
Ai =IL /I1 = -I2 / I1
From the circuit of Fig
I2= hf I1 + hoV2

Substituting V2 = ILZL = -I2ZL

I2= hf I1- I2ZL ho

 I2 + I2ZL ho = hf I1

I2( 1+ ZL ho) = hf I1

Ai = -I2 / I1 = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho)

Therefore,

Ai = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho)

Input Impedence (Zi)

In the circuitof Fig ,RSisthesignalsourceresistance.Theimpedenceseenwhenlookingintothe

amplifier terminals (1,1’) is the amplifier input impedenceZi,

Zi = V1 / I1

From the input circuit of Fig V1 = hi I1 + hrV2

Zi = ( hi I1 + hrV2) / I1

= hi + hr V2 / I1

Substituting

V2 = -I2 ZL = A1I1ZL

Zi = hi + hr A1I1ZL / I1

= hi + hr A1ZL

Substituting for Ai

Zi = hi - hf hr ZL / (1+ hoZL)

= hi - hf hr ZL / ZL(1/ZL+ ho)

Taking the Load admittance as YL =1/ ZL

Zi = hi - hf hr / (YL + ho)
Voltage Gain or Voltage Gain Amplification Factor(Av)

The ratio of output voltage V2 to input voltage V1 give the voltage gain of the transistor i.e,

Av = V2 / V1

Substituting

V2 = -I2 ZL = A1I1ZL

Av = A1I1ZL / V1 = AiZL / Zi

Output Admittance (Yo)

Yo is obtained by setting VS to zero, ZL to infinity and by driving the output terminals from a generator
V2. If the current V2 is I2 then Yo= I2/V2 with VS=0 and RL= ∞.

From the circuit of fig

I2= hf I1 + hoV2

Dividing by V2,

I2 / V2 = hf I1/V2 + ho

With V2= 0, by KVL in input circuit,

RSI1 + hi I1 + hrV2 = 0

(RS + hi) I1 + hrV2 = 0

Hence, I2 / V2 = -hr/ (RS + hi)

= hf (-hr/( RS + hi)+ho

Yo= ho- hf hr/( RS + hi)

The output admittance is a function of source resistance. If the source impedence is resistive then Yo is
real.

Voltage Amplification Factor(Avs) taking into account the resistance (Rs) of the source
 Fig. 3.13 Thevenin’s Equivalent Input

Circuit This overall voltage gain Avs is given by

Avs = V2 / VS = V2V1 / V1VS = Av V1/ VS

From the equivalent input circuit using Thevenin’s equivalent for the source shown in Fig. 5.6

V1 = VS Zi / (Zi+ RS)

V1 / VS = Zi / ( Zi + RS)

Then, Avs =Av Zi / ( Zi + RS)

Substituting Av = AiZL /Zi

Avs = AiZL / ( Zi + RS)

Avs = AiZL RS / ( Zi + RS) RS

Avs = AisZL / RS

Current Amplification (Ais) taking into account the source Resistance(RS)

Fig. 3.14 Norton’s Equivalent Input Circuit

 The modified input circuit using Norton’s equivalent circuit for the calculation of Ais is shown in Fig. 1.7
Overall Current Gain, Ais = -I2 / IS = - I2I1 /I1 IS = Ai I1/IS
FromFig.1.7 I1= IS RS / (RS +Zi)
I1 / IS = RS/ (RS + Zi)
andhence, Ais = Ai RS / (RS +Zi)

Operating Power Gain (AP)

The operating power gain AP of the transistor is defined as
AP = P2 / P1 = -V2 I2 / V1 I1 = AvAi = Ai AiZL/ Zi
AP = Ai 2(ZL/ Zi )

Small Signal analysis of a transistor amplifier

Ai = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho) Av = AiZL / Zi

Zi = hi + hr A1ZL = hi - hf hr / (YL + ho) Avs = Av Zi / ( Zi + RS) = AiZL / ( Zi + RS)

= AisZL / RS

Yo= ho- hf hr/( RS + hi) = 1/ Zo Ais = Ai RS / (RS + Zi) = Avs = Ais RS/ ZL
 UNIT IV
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS:
Concept of Feedback and types, Effects of negative feedback on amplifiers characteristics,
voltage series, current series, current shunt, and voltage shunt feedback amplifiers.
OSCILLATORS: Classification of oscillators, Barkhausen criterion, RC phase shift oscillator,
Wein‐bridge oscillator, LC oscillators‐ Hartley and Colpitts oscillator.

A practical amplifier has a gain of nearly one million i.e. its output is one million times the
input. Consequently, even a casual disturbance at the input will appear in the amplified form in
the output. There is a strong tendency in amplifiers to introduce hum due to sudden
temperature changes or stray electric and magnetic fields. Therefore, every high gain amplifier
tends to give noise along with signal in its output. The noise in the output of an amplifier is
undesirable and must be kept to as small a level as possible. The noise level in amplifiers can be
reduced considerably by the use of negative feedback i.e. by injecting a fraction of output in
phase opposition to the input signal. The object of this chapter is to consider the effects and
methods of providing negative feedback in transistoramplifiers.

Ideally an amplifier should reproduce the input signal, with change in magnitude and
with or without change in phase. But some of the short comings of the amplifier circuit are

1. Change in the value of the gain due to variation in supplying voltage, temperature or
due to components.
2. Distortion in wave-form due to non linearities in the operating characters
of the Amplifying device.
3. The amplifier may introduce noise (undesired signals)

The above drawbacks can be minimizing if we introduce feedback.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers can be classified broadly as:

1. Voltage amplifiers.
2. Current amplifiers.
3. Tran conductance amplifiers.
4. Tran resistance amplifiers.
 Concept of Feedback

An amplifier circuit simply increases the signal strength. But while amplifying, it just
increases the strength of its input signal whether it contains information or some noise along
with information. This noise or some disturbance is introduced in the amplifiers because of their
strong tendency to introduce hum due to sudden temperature changes or stray electric and
magnetic fields. Therefore, every high gain amplifier tends to give noise along with signal in its
output, which is very undesirable.

The noise level in the amplifier circuits can be considerably reduced by using negative
feedback done by injecting a fraction of output in phase opposition to the input signal.

Principle of Feedback Amplifier

A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are theamplifier and
the feedback circuit. The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors. The concept of feedback
amplifier can be understood from the following figure.

From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A. the gain of the
amplifier is the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi. the feedback network extracts
a voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.

This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the
signal voltage Vs. Now,
Vi=Vs+Vf=Vs+βVo
Vi=Vs−Vf=Vs−βVo
The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.

Let us consider the case of negative feedback. The output V omust be equal to the input
voltage (Vs - βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the amplifier.
 Hence,
(Vs−βVo)A=Vo
Or
AVs−AβVo=Vo
Or
AVs=Vo(1+Aβ)
Therefore,
Vo  A
Vs 1  A

Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This is defined as the
ratio of output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,
A
Af 
1 A

The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with positive feedback is given by
A
Af 
1  A

These are the standard equations to calculate the gain of feedback amplifiers.

Types of Feedbacks
The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device back to the input is
known as Feedback. It has been found that feedback is very useful in reducing noise and making
the amplifier operation stable.

Depending upon whether the feedback signal aids or opposes the input signal, there are
two types of feedbacks used.

Positive Feedback
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is in phase with
the input signal and thus aids it is called asPositive feedback.

Both the input signal and feedback signal introduces a phase shift of 180o thus making a
360o resultant phase shift around the loop, to be finally in phase with the input signal.
Though the positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier, it has the
disadvantages such as
  Increasing distortion

 Instability

It is because of these disadvantages the positive feedback is not recommended for the
amplifiers. If the positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations, by which oscillator
circuits are formed.

Negative Feedback
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is out of phase
with the input and thus opposes it, is called as negative feedback.

In negative feedback, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180o into the circuit while
the feedback network is so designed that it produces no phase shift or zero phase shift. Thus the
resultant feedback voltage Vf is 180o out of phase with the input signal Vin.
Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there are many advantages of
negative feedback such as

 Stability of gain is improved

 Reduction in distortion

 Reduction in noise

 Increase in input impedance

 Decrease in output impedance

 Increase in the range of uniform application

It is because of these advantages negative feedback is frequently employed in amplifiers.

Negative feedback in an amplifier is the method of feeding a portion of the amplified

output to the input but in opposite phase. The phase opposition occurs as the amplifier provides
180o phase shift whereas the feedback network doesn’t.

While the output energy is being applied to the input, for the voltage energy to be taken as
feedback, the output is taken in shunt connection and for the current energy to be taken as
feedback, the output is taken in series connection.

There are two main types of negative feedback circuits. They are −

 Negative Voltage Feedback

 Negative Current Feedback

 Negative Voltage Feedback
In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the
output voltage. This is further classified into two types −

 Voltage-series feedback

 Voltage-shunt feedback
Negative Current Feedback
In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the
output current. This is further classified into two types.

 Current-series feedback

 Current-shunt feedback

Let us have a brief idea on all of them.

Voltage-Series Feedback
In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as shunt-driven series-
fed feedback, i.e., a parallel-series circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of voltage series feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output but in series with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output, the output impedance is
decreased and due to the series connection with the input, the input impedance is increased.
 Voltage-Shunt Feedback
In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in parallel
with the input voltage through the feedback network. This is also known as shunt-driven shunt-
fed feedback i.e., a parallel-parallel proto type.

The below figure shows the block diagram of voltage shunt feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output and also with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the input as well, both
the output impedance and the input impedance are decreased.

Current-Series Feedback

In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven series-
fed feedback i.e., a series-series circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of current series feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and also with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output and the input as well, both
the output impedance and the input impedance are increased.
 Current-Shunt Feedback
In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series
with the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven shunt-
fed feedback i.e., a series-parallel circuit.

The below figure shows the block diagram of current shunt feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output but in parallel with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output, the output impedance is
increased and due to the parallel connection with the input, the input impedance is decreased.

Let us now tabulate the amplifier characteristics that get affected by different types of
negative feedbacks.

Types of Feedback
Characteristics
Voltage-Series Voltage-Shunt Current-Series Current-Shunt

Voltage Gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases

Input resistance Increases Decreases Increases Decreases

Output resistance Decreases Decreases Increases Increases

Harmonic distortion Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Noise Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

 Advantages of Negative Feedback
1. Stabilization of gain
– Make the gain less sensitive to changes in circuit components e.g. due to
changes in temperature.
2. Reduce non-linear distortion
– Make the output proportional to the input, keeping the gain constant,
independent of signal level.
3. Reduce the effect of noise
– Minimize the contribution to the output of unwanted signals generated in
circuit components or extraneous interference.
4. Extend the bandwidth of the amplifier
– Reduce the gain and increase the bandwidth
5. Modification the input and output impedances
– Raise or lower the input and output impedances by selection of the
appropriate feedback topology.

Oscillators

An oscillator generates output without any ac input signal. An electronic oscillator is a

circuit which converts dc energy into ac at a very high frequency. An amplifier with a positive
feedback can be understood as an oscillator.

Amplifier vs. Oscillator

An amplifier increases the signal strength of the input signal applied, whereas
an oscillator generates a signal without that input signal, but it requires dc for its operation. This
is the main difference between an amplifier and anoscillator.

Take a look at the following illustration. It clearly shows how an amplifier takes energy
from d.c. power source and converts it into a.c. energy at signal frequency. An oscillator
produces an oscillating a.c. signal on its own.
 The frequency, waveform, and magnitude of a.c. power generated by an amplifier, is
controlled by the a.c. signal voltage applied at the input, whereas those for an oscillator are
controlled by the components in the circuit itself, which means no external controlling voltage is
required.

Alternator vs. Oscillator

An alternator is a mechanical device that produces sinusoidal waves without any input.
This a.c. generating machine is used to generate frequencies up to 1000Hz. The output
frequency depends on the number of poles and the speed of rotation of thearmature.

The following points highlight the differences between an alternator and an oscillator −

 An alternator converts mechanical energy to a.c. energy, whereas the oscillator

converts d.c. energy into a.c. energy.

 An oscillator can produce higher frequencies of several MHz whereas an alternator

cannot.

 An alternator has rotating parts, whereas an electronic oscillator doesn’t.

 It is easy to change the frequency of oscillations in an oscillator than in an

alternator.

Oscillators can also be considered as opposite to rectifiers that convert a.c. to d.c. as these
convert d.c. to a.c.

Classification of Oscillators
Electronic oscillators are classified mainly into the following two categories −

 Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a sine

waveform are called sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators. Such oscillators can provide
output at frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.

 Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a square,

rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation
oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to
20 MHz.

Sinusoidal Oscillators
Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following categories −
  Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These oscillators use a tuned-circuit consisting of
inductors (L) and capacitors (C) and are used to generate high-frequency signals.
Thus they are also known as radio frequency R.F. oscillators. Such oscillators are
Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp-oscillators etc.

 RC Oscillators − There oscillators use resistors and capacitors and are used to
generate low or audio-frequency signals. Thus they are also known as audio-
frequency (A.F.) oscillators. Such oscillators are Phase –shift and Wein-bridge
oscillators.

 Crystal Oscillators − These oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to generate
highly stabilized output signal with frequencies up to 10 MHz. The Piezo oscillator is
an example of a crystal oscillator.

 Negative-resistance Oscillator − These oscillators use negative-resistance

characteristic of the devices such as tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator is an
example of a negative-resistance oscillator.

Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillations

The nature of oscillations in a sinusoidal wave is generally of two types. They are
damped and undamped oscillations.

Damped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are called
as Damped Oscillations. The frequency of the damped oscillations may remain constant
depending upon the circuit parameters.

Damped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce power
losses and doesn’t compensate if required.
 Undamped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with time are called as
Undamped Oscillations. The frequency of the undamped oscillations remains constant.

Undamped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce no
power losses and follow compensation techniques if any power losses occur.
An amplifier with positive feedback produces its output to be in phase with the input and
increases the strength of the signal. Positive feedback is also called as degenerative feedback
ordirect feedback. This kind of feedback makes a feedback amplifier, an oscillator.

The use of positive feedback results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain greater
than the open-loop gain. It results in instability and operates as an oscillatory circuit. An
oscillatory circuit provides a constantly varying amplified output signal of any desired frequency.

The Barkhausen Criterion

With the knowledge we have till now, we understood that a practical oscillator circuit
consists of a tank circuit, a transistor amplifier circuit and a feedback circuit. so, let us now try to
brush up the concept of feedback amplifiers, to derive the gain of the feedback amplifiers.

Principle of Feedback Amplifier

A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are the amplifier and
the feedback circuit. The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors. The concept of feedback
amplifier can be understood from the following figure below.
 From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A. The gain of the
amplifier is the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage V i. The feedback network extracts
a voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.

This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative feedback, from the
signal voltage Vs.

So, for a positivefeedback,

Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs +β Vo

The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.

The output Vo must be equal to the input voltage (Vs + βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the
amplifier.

Hence,

(Vs+βVo)A=Vo
Or
AVs+AβVo=Vo
Or
AVs=Vo(1−Aβ)
Therefore
𝑉𝑜 𝐴
=
𝑉𝑠 (1−𝐴𝛽)

Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This is defined as the
ratio of output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,
𝐴𝑓
= 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑠
 from the above two equations, we can understand that, the equation of gain of the
feedback amplifier with positive feedback is given by
A
Af 
1  A
Where Aβ is the feedback factor or the loop gain.

If Aβ = 1, Af = ∞. Thus the gain becomes infinity, i.e., there is output without any input. In
another words, the amplifier works as an Oscillator.

The condition Aβ = 1 is called as Barkhausen Criterion of oscillations. This is a very

important factor to be always kept in mind, in the concept of Oscillators

RC-Phase–shift Oscillators
PrincipleofPhase-shiftosci llators
We know that the output voltage of an RC circuit for a sinewave input leads the input
voltage. The phase angle by which it leads is determined by the value of RC components used in
the circuit. The following circuit diagram shows a single section of an RC network.

The output voltage V1’ across the resistor R leads the input voltage applied input V1 by
some phase angle ɸo. If R were reduced to zero, V1’ will lead the V1 by 90o i.e., ɸo=90o.

However, adjusting R to zero would be impracticable, because it would lead to no voltage

across R. Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a value that makes V 1’ to lead V1 by 60o. The
following circuit diagram shows the three sections of the RC network.

Each section produces a phase shift of 60o. Consequently, a total phase shift of 180o is
produced, i.e., voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180o.
 Phase-shift Oscillator Circuit
The oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave using a phase-shift network is called as a
Phase-shift oscillator circuit. The constructional details and operation of a phase-shift oscillator
circuit are as given below.

Construction
The phase-shift oscillator circuit consists of a single transistor amplifier section and a RC
phase-shift network. The phase shift network in this circuit, consists of three RC sections. At the
resonant frequency fo, the phase shift in each RC section is 60o so that the total phase shift
produced by RC network is 180o.

The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of an RC phase-shift oscillator.

The frequency of oscillations is given by

Where
 Operation
The circuit when switched ON oscillates at the resonant frequency f o. The output Eo of the
amplifier is fed back to RC feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of 180o and a
voltage Ei appears at its output. This voltage is applied to the transistor amplifier.

The feedback applied will be

m=Ei/Eo
The feedback is in correct phase, whereas the transistor amplifier, which is in CE
configuration, produces a 180o phase shift. The phase shift produced by network and the
transistor add to form a phase shift around the entire loop which is 360o.

Advantages
The advantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

 It does not require transformers or inductors.

 It can be used to produce very low frequencies.

 The circuit provides good frequency stability.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

 Starting the oscillations is difficult as the feedback is small.

 The output produced is small.

Another type of popular audio frequency oscillator is the Wien bridge oscillator circuit.
This is mostly used because of its important features. This circuit is free from the circuit
fluctuations and the ambient temperature.

The main advantage of this oscillator is that the frequency can be varied in the range of
10Hz to about 1MHz whereas in RC oscillators, the frequency is not varied.

Wienbridge
oscillator
Construction
The circuit construction of Wien bridge oscillator can be explained as below. It is a two-
stage amplifier with RC bridge circuit. The bridge circuit has the arms R1C1, R3, R2C2 and the
tungsten lamp Lp. Resistance R3 and the lamp Lp are used to stabilize the amplitude of the
output.
 The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a Wien bridge oscillator.

The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator and an amplifier while the other transistor T 2 serves
as an inverter. The inverter operation provides a phase shift of 180o. This circuit provides
positive feedback through R1C1, C2R2 to the transistor T1 and negative feedback through the
voltage divider to the input of transistor T2.

The frequency of oscillations is determined by the series element R 1C1 and parallel element
R2C2 of the bridge.

If R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 = C

Then,
 Now, we can simplify the above circuit as follows −

The oscillator consists of two stages of RC coupled amplifier and a feedback network. The
voltage across the parallel combination of R and C is fed to the input of amplifier 1. The net
phase shift through the two amplifiers is zero.

The usual idea of connecting the output of amplifier 2 to amplifier 1 to provide signal
regeneration for oscillator is not applicable here as the amplifier 1 will amplify signals over a
wide range of frequencies and hence direct coupling would result in poor frequency stability. By
adding Wien bridge feedback network, the oscillator becomes sensitive to a particular frequency
and hence frequency stability is achieved.

Operation
When the circuit is switched ON, the bridge circuit produces oscillations of the frequency
stated above. The two transistors produce a total phase shift of 360 o so that proper positive
feedback is ensured. The negative feedback in the circuit ensures constant output. This is
achieved by temperature sensitive tungsten lamp Lp. Its resistance increases with current.

If the amplitude of the output increases, more current is produced and more negative
feedback is achieved. Due to this, the output would return to the original value. Whereas, if the
output tends to decrease, reverse action would take place.

Advantages
The advantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows −

 The circuit provides good frequency stability.

  It provides constant output.

 The operation of circuit is quite easy.

 The overall gain is high because of two transistors.

 The frequency of oscillations can be changed easily.

 The amplitude stability of the output voltage can be maintained more accurately, by
replacing R2 with a thermistor.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows −

 The circuit cannot generate very high frequencies.

 Two transistors and number of components are required for the circuit construction.

LC Oscillators

An oscillatory circuit produces electrical oscillations of a desired frequency. They are also
known as tank circuits.

A simple tank circuit comprises of an inductor L and a capacitor C both of which together
determine the oscillatory frequency of the circuit.

To understand the concept of oscillatory circuit, let us consider the following circuit. The
capacitor in this circuit is already charged using a dc source. In this situation, the upper plate of
the capacitor has excess of electrons whereas the lower plate has deficit of electrons. The
capacitor holds some electrostatic energy and there is a voltage across the capacitor.

When the switch S is closed, the capacitor discharges and the current flows through the
inductor. Due to the inductive effect, the current builds up slowly towards a maximum
value. Once the capacitor discharges completely, the magnetic field around the coil is
maximum.
 Now, let us move on to the next stage. Once the capacitor is discharged completely, the
magnetic field begins to collapse and produces a counter EMF according to Lenz’s law. The
capacitor is now charged with positive charge on the upper plate and negative charge on the
lower plate.

Once the capacitor is fully charged, it starts to discharge to build up a magnetic field
around the coil, as shown in the following circuit diagram.

This continuation of charging and discharging results in alternating motion of electrons or

an oscillatory current. The interchange of energy between L and C produce continuous
oscillations.

In an ideal circuit, where there are no losses, the oscillations would continue indefinitely. In
a practical tank circuit, there occur losses such as resistive and radiation losses in the coil and
dielectric losses in the capacitor. These losses result in damped oscillations.

Frequency of Oscillations
The frequency of the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are determined by the
components of the tank circuit, the L and the C. The actual frequency of oscillations is the
resonant frequency (or natural frequency) of the tank circuit which is given by
1
fr=
2 LC
Capacitance of the capacitor
 The frequency of oscillation fo is inversely proportional to the square root of the
capacitance of a capacitor. So, if the value of the capacitor used is large, the charge and
discharge time periods will be large. Hence the frequency will be lower.

Mathematically, the frequency,

fo  1
C
Self-Inductance of the coil
The frequency of the oscillation fo is proportional to the square root of the self-inductance
of the coil. If the value of the inductance is large, the opposition to change of current flow is
greater and hence the time required to complete each cycle will be longer, which means time
period will be longer and frequency will be lower.

Mathematically, the frequency,

fo  1
L
Combining both the above equations,
f  1
o
LC
fo  1
2 LC
The above equation, though indicates the output frequency, matches the natural
frequency or resonance frequency of the tank circuit.
An Oscillator circuit is a complete set of all the parts of circuit which helps to produce the
oscillations. These oscillations should sustain and should be Undamped as just discussed before.
Let us try to analyze a practical Oscillator circuit to have a better understanding on how an
Oscillator circuit works.

Practical Oscillator Circuit

A Practical Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a transistor amplifier, and a feedback
circuit. The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a practical oscillator.
Let us now discuss the parts of this practical oscillator circuit.

Tank Circuit − The tank circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel with
capacitor C. The values of these two components determine the frequency of the oscillator
circuit and hence this is called as Frequency determining circuit.

 Transistor Amplifier − The output of the tank circuit is connected to the amplifier
circuit so that the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are amplified here.
Hence the output of these oscillations are increased by the amplifier.

 Feedback Circuit − The function of feedback circuit is to transfer a part of the output
energy to LC circuit in proper phase. This feedback is positive in oscillators while
negative in amplifiers.

Frequency Stability of an Oscillator

The frequency stability of an oscillator is a measure of its ability to maintain a constant
frequency, over a long time interval. When operated over a longer period of time, the oscillator
frequency may have a drift from the previously set value either by increasing or by decreasing.

The change in oscillator frequency may arise due to the following factors −

 Operating point of the active device such as BJT or FET used should lie in the linear
region of the amplifier. Its deviation will affect the oscillator frequency.

 The temperature dependency of the performance of circuit components affect the

oscillator frequency.

 The changes in d.c. supply voltage applied to the active device, shift the oscillator
frequency. This can be avoided if a regulated power supply is used.

 A change in output load may cause a change in the Q-factor of the tank circuit,
thereby causing a change in oscillator output frequency.

 The presence of inter element capacitances and stray capacitances affect the
oscillator output frequency and thus frequency stability.

Tuned circuit oscillators are the circuits that produce oscillations with the help of tuning
circuits. The tuning circuits consists of an inductance L and a capacitor C. These are also known
as LC oscillators, resonant circuit oscillators or tank circuit oscillators.
 The tuned circuit oscillators are used to produce an output with frequencies ranging from 1
MHz to 500 MHz Hence these are also known as R.F. Oscillators. A BJT or a FET is used as an
amplifier with tuned circuit oscillators. With an amplifier and an LC tank circuit, we can feedback
a signal with right amplitude and phase to maintain oscillations.

Types of Tuned Circuit Oscillators

Most of the oscillators used in radio transmitters and receivers are of LC oscillators type.
Depending upon the way the feedback is used in the circuit, the LC oscillators are divided as the
following types.

 Hartley Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback.

 Colpitts Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.

 Clapp Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.

Hartley Oscillator

A very popular local oscillator circuit that is mostly used in radio receivers is the Hartley
Oscillator circuit. The constructional details and operation of a Hartley oscillator are as
discussed below.

Construction
In the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator shown below, the resistors R 1, R2 and Re provide
necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor C e provides a.c. ground thereby providing
any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it
shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents
out of d.c. supply source

Tank Circuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of the
inductors L1 and L2 along with a variable capacitor C. The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed.
The coil L1 has its one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. So, L2 is
in the output circuit. Both the coils L1 and L2 are inductively coupled and together form
an Auto-transformer.

The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a Hartley oscillator. The tank
circuit is shunt fed in this circuit. It can also be a series-fed.
 Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank
circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across L1.

The auto-transformer made by the inductive coupling of L1 and L2 helps in determining the
frequency and establishes the feedback. As the CE configured transistor provides 180o
phase shift, another 180o phase shift is provided by the transformer, which makes 360o phase
shift between the input and outputvoltages.

This makes the feedback positive which is essential for the condition of oscillations. When
the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency
The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is given as
 Here, LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance; L1 and L2represent inductances of
1st and 2nd coils; and M represents mutual inductance.

Mutual inductance is calculated when two windings are considered.

Advantages
The advantages of Hartley oscillator are

 Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can be used as an auto-

transformer.

 Frequency can be varied by employing either a variable capacitor or a variable

inductor.

 Less number of components are sufficient.

 The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequencyrange.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Hartley oscillator are

 It cannot be a low frequency oscillator.

 Harmonic distortions are present.

Applications
The applications of Hartley oscillator are

 It is used to produce a sine wave of desired frequency.

 Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.

 It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.

Colpitts oscillator
A Colpitts oscillator looks just like the Hartley oscillator but the inductors and capacitors are
replaced with each other in the tank circuit. The constructional details and operation of a
colpitts oscillator are as discussed below.
 Construction
Let us first take a look at the circuit diagram of a Colpitts oscillator.

The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor
Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing any signal degeneration. This also provides
temperature stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it
shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps a.c. currents
out of d.c. supply source.

Tank Circuit
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of variable
capacitors C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The
capacitor C1 has its one end connected to base via C c and the other to emitter via Ce. the voltage
developed across C1 provides the regenerative feedback required for the sustained oscillations.

Operation
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank
circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across C1 which are
applied to the base emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector circuit and
supply losses to the tank circuit.

If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then terminal
2 will be at negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded.
Therefore, points 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180o.

As the CE configured transistor provides 180 o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift between
the input and output voltages. Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous
Undamped oscillations. When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency
The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

Advantages
The advantages of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −

 Colpitts oscillator can generate sinusoidal signals of very highfrequencies.

 It can withstand high and low temperatures.

 The frequency stability is high.

 Frequency can be varied by using both the variable capacitors.

 Less number of components are sufficient.

 The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.

The Colpitts oscillator is designed to eliminate the disadvantages of Hartley oscillator and is
known to have no specific disadvantages. Hence there are many applications of a colpitts
oscillator.
 The operation of Clapp oscillator circuit is in the same way as that of Colpitts oscillator. The
frequency of oscillator is given by the relation,

Where

Usually, the value of C3 is much smaller than C1 and C2. As a result of this, C is approximately
equal to C3. Therefore, the frequency of oscillation,

It is understood that the Clapp oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator, however they
differ in the way the inductances and capacitances are arranged. The frequency stability though
is good, can be variable in a Clapp oscillator.

A Clapp oscillator is sometimes preferred over a Colpitts oscillator for constructing a

variable frequency oscillator. The Clapp oscillators are used in receiver tuning circuits as a
frequency oscillator.

One of the important features of an oscillator is that the feedback energy applied should be
in correct phase to the tank circuit. The oscillator circuits discussed so far has employed
inductor (L) and capacitor (C) combination, in the tank circuit or frequency determining circuit.

We have observed that the LC combination in oscillators provide 180o phase shift and
transistor in CE configuration provide 180° phase shift to make a total of 360 o phase shift so
that it would make a zero difference in phase.

Drawbacks of LC circuits
Though they have few applications, the LC circuits have few drawbacks such as

 Frequency instability

 Waveform is poor

 Cannot be used for low frequencies

 Inductors are bulky and expensive

 Whenever an oscillator is under continuous operation, its frequency stability gets
affected. There occur changes in its frequency. The main factors that affect the frequency of an
oscillator are

 Power supply variations

 Changes in temperature

 Changes in load or output resistance

In RC and LC oscillators the values of resistance, capacitance and inductance vary with
temperature and hence the frequency gets affected. In order to avoid this problem, the piezo
electric crystals are being used in oscillators.
 UNIT V:
FET Amplifiers: FET Biasing, Common source Amplifier, Common Drain Amplifier.
Special purpose Devices: Principal of operation and characteristics of Tunnel Diode, Varactor Diode,
Photo Diodeand UJT

BIASING FET:-

For the proper functioning of a linear FET amplifier, it is necessary to maintain the
operating point Q stable in the central portion of the pinch off region The Q point should be
independent of device parameter variations and ambient temperature variations

This can be achieved by suitably selecting the gate to source voltage VGS and drain current ID
which is referred to as biasing

JFET biasing circuits are very similar to BJT biasing circuits The main difference
between JFET circuits and BJT circuits is the operation of the active components themselves

There are mainly two types of Biasing circuits

1) Self bias
2) Voltage divider-bias.

SELFBIAS
Self bias is a JFET biasing circuit that uses a source resistor to help reverse bias the JFET gate. A self
bias circuit is shown in the fig. Self bias is the most common type of JFET bias. This JFET must be
operated such that gate source junction is always reverse biased. This condition requires a negative
VGS for an N channel JFET and a positive VGS for P channel JFET. This can be achieved using the self
bias arrangement as shown in Fig. The gate resistor RG doesn’t affect the bias because it has essentially
no voltage drop across it, and: the gate remains at 0V .RG is necessary only to isolate an ac signal from
ground in amplifier applications. The voltage drop across resistor RS makes gate source junction
reverse biased.
 For the dc analysis coupling capacitors are open circuits.

For the N channel FET in Fig (a)

IS produces a voltage drop across RS and makes the source positive w.r.t ground. In any JFET circuit all
the source current passes through the device to the drain circuit .This is due to the fact that there is no
significant gate current.

We can define source current as IS = ID

(VG =0 because there is no gate current flowing in RG So VG across RG is zero)

VG =0 then VS= ISRS =ID RS

VGS = VG-VS =0-ID RS=- ID RS

DC analysis of self Bias:-

In the following DC analysis, the N channel J FET shown in the fig. is used for illustration.

For DC analysis we can replace coupling capacitors by open circuits and we can also replace the resistor
RG by a short circuit equivalent.:. IG = 0.The relation between ID and VGS is given by

Id=Idss[1- ]2
VGS for N channel JFET is =-idRs

Substuting this value in the above equation

Id=Idss[1- ]2

Id=Idss[1+ ]2

For the N-chanel FET in the above figure

 Is produces a voltage drop across Rs and makes the source positive w.r.t ground in any JFET circuit
all the source current passes through the device to drain circuit this is due to the fact that there is no
significant gate current. Therefore we can define source current as Is=Id and Vg=0 then

Vs= Is Rs =IdRs

Vgs=Vg-Vs=0-IdRs=-IdRs

Drawing the self bias line:-

Typical transfer characteristics for a self biased JFET are shown in the fig.

The maximum drain current is 5mA and the gate source cut off voltage is -3V. This means the gate
voltage has to be between 0 and -3V.

Now using the equation VGS = -IDRS and assuming RS of any suitable value we can draw the self bias
line.

Let us assume RS = 500Ω

With this Rs , we can plot two points corresponding to ID = 0 and Id = IDSS

for ID =0

VGS = -ID RS

VGS = 0X (500.Ω) = 0V

So the first point is (0 ,0)

( Id, VGS)
 For ID= IDSS=5mA

VGS = (-5mA) (500 Ω) = -3V

So the 2nd Point will be (5mA,-3V)

By plotting these two points, we can draw the straight line through the points. This line will
intersect the transconductance curve and it is known as self bias line.The intersection point gives the
operating point of the self bias JFET for the circuit.

At Q point , the ID is slightly > than 2mA and VGS is slightly > -1V. The Q point for the self bias
JFET depends on the value of Rs.If Rs is large, Q point far down on the transconductance curve ,ID is
small, when Rs is small Q point is far up on the curve , ID is large.

VOLTAGE DIVIDERBIAS:-

The fig. shows N channel JFET with voltage divider bias. The voltage at the source of JFET must
be more positive than the voltage at the gate in order to keep the gate to source junction reverse
biased. The source voltage is

VS = IDRS

The gate voltage is set by resistors R1 and R2 as expressed by the following equation using the
voltage divider formula.

Vg= Vdd

For dc analysis
 Applying KVL to the input circuit

VG-VGS-VS =0

:: VGS = VG-Vs=VG-ISRS

VGS=VG-IDRS :: IS =ID

Applying KVL to the input circuit we get

VDS+IDRD+VS-VDD =0

::VDS = VDD-IDRD-IDRS

VDS = VDD-ID ( RD +RS)

The Q point of a JFET amplifier , using the voltage divider bias is

IDQ = IDSS[1-VGS/VP]2

VDSQ = VDD-ID ( RD+RS )

COMPARISON OF MOSFET WITH JFET

a. In enhancement and depletion types of MOSFET, the transverse electricfield induced

across an insulating layer deposited on the semiconductor material controls the
conductivity of thechannel.

b. In the JFET the transverse electric field across the reverse biased PN junction controls the
conductivity of thechannel.
c. The gate leakage current in a MOSFET is of the order of 10-12A. Hence the input resistance
of a MOSFET is very high in the order of 1010 to 1015 Ω. The gate leakage current of a JFET
is of the order of 10-9A., and its input resistance is of the order of108Ω.

d. TheoutputcharacteristicsoftheJFETareflatterthanthoseoftheMOSFET,andhencethe drain
resistance of a JFET (0.1 to 1MΩ) is much higher than that of a MOSFET (1 to50kΩ).

e. JFETs are operated only in the depletion mode. The depletion type MOSFET may be
operated in both depletion and enhancementmode.

f. Comparing to JFET, MOSFETs are easier tofabricate.

g. Special digital CMOS circuits are available which involve near zero power dissipation and
very low voltage and current requirements. This makes them suitable for portable
systems.
FET AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
Field Effect Transistor (FET) amplifiers provide an excellent voltage gain and high input
impedence. Because of high input impedence and other characteristics of JFETs they are preferred over
BJTs for certain types of applications.

There are 3 basic FET circuit configurations:

i) Common Source

ii)Common Drain
iii)Common Gain
Similar to BJT CE,CC and CB circuits, only difference is in BJT large output collector current is
controlledbysmallinputbasecurrentwhereasFETcontrolsoutputcurrentbymeansofsmallinput
voltage. In both the cases output current is controlledvariable.
FET amplifier circuits use voltage controlled nature of the JFET. In Pinch off region, ID depends
only on VGS.
Common Source (CS)Amplifier

Fig. 5.1 (a) CS Amplifier (b) Small-signal equivalent circuit

A simple Common Source amplifier is shown in Fig. 5.1(a) and associated small signal equivalent circuit
using voltage-source model of FET is shown in Fig. 5.1(b)

Voltage Gain
Source resistance (RS) is used to set the Q-Point but is bypassed by CS for mid-frequency operation.
From the small signal equivalent circuit ,the output voltage
VO = -RDµVgs(RD + rd)
Where Vgs = Vi , the input voltage,
Hence, the voltage gain,
AV = VO / Vi = -RDµ(RD + rd)
Input Impedence
From Fig. 5.1(b) Input Impedence is
Zi = RG
For voltage divider bias as in CE Amplifiers of BJT
RG = R1║ R2
Output Impedance
Output impedance is the impedance measured at the output terminals with the input voltage VI = 0
From the Fig. 5.1(b) when the input voltage Vi = 0, Vgs = 0 and hence
µ Vgs = 0

The equivalent circuit for calculating output impedence is given in Fig. 5.2.
Output impedence Zo = rd║ RD
Normally rd will be far greater than RD . Hence Zo ≈ RD

Common DrainAmplifier
A simple common drain amplifier is shown in Fig. 5.2(a) and associated small signal equivalent circuit
using the voltage source model of FET is shown in Fig. 5.2(b).Since voltage Vgd is more easily
determined than Vgs, the voltage source in the output circuit is expressed in terms of Vgs and
Thevenin’s theorem.

Fig. 5.2 (a)CD Amplifier (b)Small-signal equivalent circuit

Voltage Gain
The output voltage,
VO = RSµVgd / (µ + 1) RS + rd
Where Vgd = Vi the input voltage.
Hence, the voltage gain,
Av = VO / Vi = RSµ / (µ + 1) RS + rd
Input Impedence
From Fig. 5.2(b), Input Impedence Zi = RG
Output Impedence
From Fig. 5.2(b), Output impedence measured at the output terminals with input voltage V i = 0 can be
calculated from the following equivalent circuit.
As Vi = 0: Vgd = 0: µvgd / (µ + 1) = 0
Output Impedence

ZO = rd / (µ + 1) ║RS
When µ » 1
ZO = ( rd / µ) ║RS = (1/gm) ║RS

BIASING FET

For the proper functioning of a linear FET amplifier, it is necessary to maintain the
operating point Q stable in the central portion of the pinch off region The Q point should be
independent of device parameter variations and ambient temperature variations

This can be achieved by suitably selecting the gate to source voltage VGS and drain current ID which is
referred to as biasing

JFET biasing circuits are very similar to BJT biasing circuitsThe main difference between JFET
circuits and BJT circuits is the operation of the active components themselves

There are mainly two types of Biasing circuits

1. Selfbias
2. Voltage dividerbias.

5.13.1. SELF BIAS:-

Self bias is a JFET biasing circuit that uses a source resistor to help reverse bias the JFET gate.
 A self bias circuit is shown in the fig 5.3

Self bias is the most common type of JFET bias.

This JFET must be operated such that gate source junction is always reverse biased.
This condition requires a negative VGS for an N channel JFET and a positive VGS for P channel JFET.
This can be achieved using the self bias arrangement as shown in Fig 5.3.
The gate resistor RG doesn’t affect the bias because it has essentially no voltage drop across it, and :
the gate remains at 0V .RG is necessary only to isolate an ac signal from ground in amplifier applications.
The voltage drop across resistor RS makes gate source junction reverse biased.

DC analysis of self Bias:-

In the following DC analysis , the N channel J FET shown in the fig5.4. is used for illustration.

ForDCanalysiswecanreplacecouplingcapacitorsbyopencircuitsand we canalsoreplace the

resistor RG by a short circuitequivalent.

:. IG = 0

The relation between ID and VGS is given by

Id=Idss[1- ]2

VGS for N channel JFET is =-id Rs

Substuting this value in the above equation

 Id=Idss[1- ]2

Id=Idss[1+ ]2
For the N-chanel FET in the above figure

Is produces a voltage drop across Rs and makes the source positive w.r.t ground

in any JFET circuit all the source current passes through the device to drain circuit this is due to the fact
that there is no significant gate current

therefore we can define source current as Is=Id and Vg=0 then

Vs= Is Rs =IdRs

Vgs=Vg-Vs=0-IdRs=-IdRs

Drawing the self bias line:-

Typical transfer characteristics for a self biased JFET are shown in the figure 5.5 below:

The maximum drain current is 6mA and the gate source cut off voltage is -3V. This means the gate
voltage has to be between 0 and -3V.

Now using the equation VGS = -IDRS and assuming RS of any suitable value we can draw the self bias
line.

Let us assume RS = 500Ω

With this Rs , we can plot two points corresponding to ID = 0 and Id =IDSS

for ID =0

VGS = -ID RS

VGS = 0X (500.Ω) = 0V
 So the first point is (0 ,0)

( Id, VGS)

For ID= IDSS=6mA

VGS = (-6mA) (500 Ω) = -3V

So the 2nd Point will be (6mA,-3V)

By plotting these two points, we can draw the straight line through the points. This line will
intersect the transconductance curve and it is known as self bias line. The intersection point gives the
operating point of the self bias JFET for the circuit.

At Q point , the ID is slightly > than 2mA and VGS is slightly > -1V. The Q point for the self bias
JFET depends on the value of Rs.If Rs is large, Q point far down on the transconductance curve ,ID is
small, when Rs is small Q point is far up on the curve , ID is large.

5.13.2 VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS:-

The fig5.6 shows N channel JFET with voltage divider bias. The voltage at the source of JFET
must be more positive than the voltage at the gate in order to keep the gate to source junction reverse
biased. The source voltage is

VS = IDRS

The gate voltage is set by resistors R1 and R2 as expressed by the following equation using the
voltage divider formula.

Vg= Vdd
For dc analysis fig 5.5

Applying KVL to the input circuit

VG-VGS-VS =0

:: VGS = VG-Vs=VG-ISRS

VGS=VG-IDRS :: IS =ID

Applying KVL to the input circuit we get

VDS+IDRD+VS-VDD =0

::VDS = VDD-IDRD-IDRS

VDS = VDD-ID ( RD +RS)

The Q point of a JFET amplifier , using the voltage divider bias is

IDQ = IDSS[1-VGS/VP]2

VDSQ = VDD-ID ( RD+RS )

SPECIAL PURPOSE ELECTRONIC DEVICES
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNELDIODE

A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode which is capable of very fast operation,
well into the microwave frequency region, by using quantum mechanical effects.

It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now known as
Sony. In 1973 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Brian Josephson, for discovering the
electron tunneling effect used in these diodes. Robert Noyce independently came up with the idea of a
tunnel diode while working for William Shockley, but was discouraged from pursuing it.

Fig 5.8 : Tunnel diode schematic symbol

These diodes have a heavily doped p–n junction only some 10 nm (100 Å) wide. The heavy doping
results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the n-side are more or less
aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side. Tunnel diodes were manufactured by Sony for the
first time in 1957 followed by General Electric and other companies from about 1960, and are still
made in low volume today. Tunnel diodes are usually made from germanium, but can also be made in
gallium arsenide and silicon materials. They can be used as oscillators, amplifiers, frequency converters
and detectors.TunnellingPhenomenon:

In a conventional semiconductor diode, conduction takes place while the p–n junction is forward
biased and blocks current flow when the junction is reverse biased. This occurs up to a point known as
the “reverse breakdown voltage” when conduction begins (often accompanied by destruction of the
device). In the tunnel diode, the dopant concentration in the p and n layers are increased to the point
where the reverse breakdown voltage becomes zero and the diode conducts in the reverse direction.
However, when forward-biased, an odd effect occurs called “quantum mechanical tunnelling” which
gives rise to a region where an increase in forward voltage is accompanied by a decrease in forward
current. This negative resistance region can be exploited in a solid state version of the dynatron
oscillator which normally uses a tetrode thermionic valve (ortube).

Forward bias operation

Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel through
the very narrow p–n junction barrier because filled electron states in the conduction band on the n-
side become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the p-side of the p-n junction. As voltage
increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops – this is called negative
resistance because current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases yet further, the
diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction across the p–n
junction, and no longer by tunneling through the p–n junction barrier. Thus the most important
operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region.

Reverse bias operation

When used in the reverse direction they are called back diodes and can act as fast rectifiers with zero
offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals (they have an accurate square law characteristic
in the reverse direction).

Under reverse bias filled states on the p-side become increasingly aligned with empty states on the n-
side and electrons now tunnel through the pn junction barrier in reverse direction – this is the Zener
effect that also occurs in zener diodes.

Technical comparisons

Fig5.9: current-voltage characteristic of tunnel diode

A rough approximation of the VI curve for a tunnel diode, showing the negative differential resistance
region. The Japanese physicist Leo Esaki invented the tunnel diode in 1958.It consists of a p-n junction
with highly doped regions. Because of the thinness of the junction, the electrons can pass through the
potential barrier of the dam layer at a suitable polarization, reaching the energy states on the other
sides of the junction. The current-voltage characteristic of the diode is represented in Figure 1.20a. In
this sketch i p and Up are the peak, and iv and Uv are the valley values for the current and voltage
respectively. The form of this dependence can be qualitatively explained by
considering the tunneling processes that take place in a thin p-n junction.

Energy band structure of tunnel diode:

Fig 5.10 Energy band structure of tunnel diode

For the degenerated semiconductors, the energy band diagram at thermal equilibrium is presented in
Figure 5.10b.

In Figure 5.11c the tunneling processes in different points of the current voltage characteristic for the
tunnel diode are presented.
 Advantages of tunnel diodes:

 Environmental immunity i.e. peak point is not a function oftemperature.

 Lowcost.
 Lownoise.
 Low power consumption.
 High speed i.e. tunneling takes place very fast at the speed of light in the order ofnanoseconds
 Simplicity i.e. a tunnel diode can be used along with a d.c supply and a few passive elements to
obtain various applicationcircuits.

Applications for tunnel diodes:

 local oscillators for UHF televisiontuners

 Trigger circuits inoscilloscopes
 High speed counter circuits and very fast-rise time pulse generatorcircuits
 The tunnel diode can also be used as low-noise microwaveamplifier.

VARACTORDIODE

Varactor diode is a special type of diode which uses transition capacitance property i.e
voltage variable capacitance .These are also called as
varicap,VVC(voltage variable capacitance) or tuning diodes.

The varactor diode symbol is shown below with a diagram representation.

Fig 5.12:symbol of varactor diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a PN junction, the holes in the p-region are attracted to the anode
terminal and electrons in the n-region are attracted to the cathode terminal creating a region where
there is little current. This region ,the depletion region, is essentially devoid of carriers and behaves as
the dielectric of a capacitor.

The depletion region increases as reverse voltage across it increases; and since capacitance varies
inversely as dielectric thickness, the junction capacitance will decrease as the voltage across the PN
junction increases. So by varying the reverse voltage across a PN junction the junction capacitance can
be varied .This is shown in the typical varactor voltage-capacitance curve below.
 Fig 5.13voltage- capacitance curve

Notice the nonlinear increase in capacitance as the reverse voltage is decreased. This nonlinearity allows
the varactor to be used also as a harmonic generator.

Major varactor considerations are:

(a) Capacitance value
(b) Voltage
(c) Variation in capacitance withvoltage.
(d) Maximum workingvoltage
(e) Leakage current

Applications:

 Tuned circuits.
 FM modulators
 Automatic frequency controldevices
 Adjustable bandpassfilters
 Parametricamplifiers
 Television receivers.
 PHOTODIODE

The photo diode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of operation is limited to the
reverse biased region.The figure below shows the symbol of photodiode

Fig 5.18:Symbol of photodiode.

Principle of operation:

A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage,
depending upon the mode of operation. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric
solar power is a large area photodiode. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias. The
deletion region width is large. Under normal conditions it carries small reverse current due to minority
charge carriers. When light is incident through glass window on the p-n junction, photons in the light
bombard the p-n junction and some energy s imparted to the valence electrons. So valence electrons

break covalent bonds and become free electrons. Thus more electron-hole pairs are generated. Thus
total number of minority charge carriers increases and hence reverse current increases.This is the basic
principle of operation of photo diode.

Fig 5.19: Basic Biasing Arrangement and construction of photodiode and symbols

Characteristics of photodiode:
When the P-N junction is reverse-biased, a reverse saturation current flows due to thermally generated
holes and electrons being swept across the junction as the minority carriers. With the increase in
temperature of the junction more and more hole-electron pairs are created and so the reverse
saturation current I0 increases. The same effect can be had by illuminating the junction. When light
energy bombards a P-N junction, it dislodges valence electrons.
 The more light striking the junction the larger the reverse current in a diode. It is due to generation of
more and more charge carriers with the increase in level of illumination. This is clearly shown in ‘ figure
for different intensity levels. The dark current is the current that exists when no light is incident. It is to
be noted here that current becomes zero only with a positive applied bias equals to V Q. The almost
equal spacing between the curves for the same increment in luminous flux reveals that the reverse
saturation current I0 increases linearly with the luminous flux as shown in figure. Increase in reverse
voltage does not increase the reverse current significantly, because all available charge carriers are
already being swept across the junction. For reducing the reverse saturation current I0 to zero, it is
necessary to forward bias the junction by an amount equal to barrier potential. Thus the photodiode
can be used as a photoconductive device.

Fig 5.20: characteristics of photodiode

On removal of reverse bias applied across the photodiode, minority charge carriers continue to be
swept across the junction while the diode is illuminated. This has the effect of increasing the
concentration of holes in the P-side and that of electrons in the N-side But the barrier potential is
negative on the P-side and positive on the N-side, and was created by holes flowing from P to N-side
and electrons from N to P-side during fabrication of junction. Thus the flow of minority carriers tends
to reduce the barrier potential.

When an external circuit is connected across the diode terminals, the minority carrier; return to the
original side via the external circuit. The electrons which crossed the junction from P to N-side now
flow out through the N-terminal and into the P-terminal This means that the device is behaving as a
voltage cell with the N-side being the negative terminal and the P-side the positive terminal. Thus, the
photodiode is & photovoltaic device as well as photoconductive device.

Advantages:
The advantages of photodiode are:
1. It can be used as variable resistance
device. 2. Highly sensitive to the light.
3. The speed of operation is very high.

Disadvantages:
1. Temperature dependent dark
 current. 2. Poor temperature stability.
3. Current needs amplification for driving other circuits.

Applications:

1. Alarm system. 2. Counting system

 UNIJUNUCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)

 It is a three-terminal silicon diode. As its name indicates, ithas only one 

P-N junction.

 differs from a FET in that it has no ability to amplify.

It differs from an ordinary diode in that it has three leadsand it

 However, it has the ability to control a large ac power with asmall signal. It
junction. 
is a three-terminal silicon diode. As its name indicates, it has only one P-N

 Itfrom a FET in that it has no ability to amplify. 

differs from an ordinary diode in that it has three lead sand it differs

However, it has the ability to control a large ac power with asmall signal.

Construction

 A slab of lightly doped (increased resistance characteristic) n-type silicon

material has two base contacts attached to both ends of one surface and an
aluminum rod alloyed to the opposite surface. 
 The p-n junction of the device is formed at the boundary of the aluminum rod
and the n-type silicon slab. The single p-n junction accounts for the terminology
unijunction. It was originally called a duo (double) base diode due to the
presence of two base 
 INTER-BASE RESISTANCE (RBB)

• It is the resistance between B and B

2 1 i.e. it is the total resistance of the
silicon bar from one end to the other with emitter terminal open.

• It should also be noted that point

A is such that RB1 > RB2. Usually, RB1 = 60% of RB1

• The resistance RB1 has been shown as a variable resistor because its value
varies
inversely as I
E.
 INTRINSICSTAND-OFFRATIO

• As seen from Fig, when a battery of 30 V is applied across B2 B1 , there is a progressive

`fallof voltage over RBB provided E is open.

It is obvious from Fig. that emitter acts as a voltage-divider tap on fixed resistanceRBB.

• With emitter open, I1 = I2, the interbase current is given by Ohm’s Law.
I1= I2=VBB /RBB
• It may be noted that part of VBB is dropped over RB2 and part on
RB1. Let uscall the voltage drop across RB1 as VA.
• Using simple voltage divider relationship, The voltage division factor is given a special
symbol (η) and the name of ‘intrinsic standoff ratio’

Therefore, VRB1= VBB

2
UJT Static Emitter Characteristics

 The decrease in resistance in the active region is due to the holes injected into the n-type
slab from the aluminum p-type rod when conduction is established.

 The increased hole content in the n-type material will result in an increase in the numberof
free electrons in the slab, producing an increase in conductivity (G) and a
corresponding drop in resistance (R ↓ 1/G ↑). Three other important parameters for the
unijunction transistor are IP, VV, and IV. Each is indicated on Fig.
 • When VBB is switched on, VA is developed and reverse-biases the junction. If VB is the
barrier voltage of the P-N junction, then total reverse bias voltage is = VRB1 +VB = ηVBB + VB
Value of VB for Si is 0.7 V.

• It is obvious that emitter junction will not become forward-biased unless itsapplied
voltage VE exceeds (ηVBB+ VB). This value of VE is called peakpoint voltage VP .

• When VE = VP, emitter (peak current), IP starts to flow through RB1 to ground(i.e. B1).
The UJT is then said to have been fired or turned ON. Beyond the valleypoint, UJT is in
Saturation and VE increases very little with an increasing IE.

• It is seen that only terminals E and B1 are the active terminals whereas B2 is the
Bias terminal i.e. it is meant only for applying external voltage across the UJT.

• Generally, UJT is triggered into conduction by applying a suitable positive pulse

at its emitter.

• It can be brought back to OFF state by applying a negative trigger pulse.

2.3 APPLICATIONS

•canOne unique property of UJT is that it can be triggered by (or an output

be taken from) any one of its three terminals.

• Once triggered, the emitter current IE of the UJT increases regeneratively till it reaches a
limiting value determined by the externalpower supply. Because of this particular behavior , UJT is
used in a variety of circuit applications.

• Some of which are :

i. phase control

ii. sine wave generator

 iii. switching
iv. Pulse generator
v. sawtooth generator
vi. timing and trigger circuits,
Voltage or current regulated supplies
Code No:
R20
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
II B. Tech I Semester Regular Examinations
-Electronic Devices Circuits
(ECE)
Roll No

Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 70

Note: This question paper Consists of 5 Sections. Answer FIVE Questions, Choosing ONE Question from
each SECTION and each Question carries 14 marks.

SECTION-I
1. Draw and explain the circuit diagram of full-wave rectifier with inductor filter. Derive the
Ripple factor equation. [14]
(OR)
2. Derive expressions for ripple factor ,regulation and rectification efficiency of a
Center tapped Transformer Fullwave rectifier. [14]

SECTION-II
3. What are the compensation techniques used for VBE and ICO? Explain with the help of suitable
circuits[14]
(OR)
4. Designacollectortobasebiascircuitusingsilicontransistortoachieveastabilityfactorof 20, with the
following specifications: V =16V,V = 0.7V,V = 8V,I = 4mA &β= 50 [7]
CC BE CEQ CQ
(b) Derive condition for thermal stability? [7]

SECTION-III
5.(a) Draw the h-parameter model of BJT [7]
(b) Covert CB h-parameters into CE h-parameters [7]

(OR)

6) Draw the circuit diagram of Common Emitter amplifier using accurate h-parameter model.
Derive expressions for Ai,Av,Ri&Ro. [14]

SECTION-IV
7a. Draw and the block schematic of amplifier with negative feedback. [5]
b. Draw the circuit diagram of voltage series feedback amplifier and derive expressions for
input and output resistances. [9]

(OR)

8a. Explain Barkhausen criterion for oscillation in feedback oscillator. [5]

b. Derive an expression for frequency oscillation of Hartley oscillator using transistor. [9]
 SECTION-V
9. Explain Common Source amplifier [14]
(OR)
10. Explain the constructional and principal operations of PHOTO diode. [14]
 R20

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
II B. Tech I Semester Regular Examinations
Electronic Devices Circuits
(ECE)
Roll No

Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 70

Note: This question paper Consists of 5 Sections. Answer FIVE Questions, Choosing ONE Question from each
SECTION and each Question carries 14 marks.

SECTION-I
1. (a)A Full wave single phase rectifier makes use of 2 diodes, the internal forward resistanceof each
is considered to be constant and equal to 30Ω. The load resistance is 1KΩ.
Thetransformersecondaryvoltageis200-0-200V(rms).Calculate VDC,IDC,Ripple factor [7]
(b) A Zener voltage regulator circuit is to maintain constant voltage at 60 V, over a current range
from 5 to 50 mA. The input supply voltage is 200 V. Determine the value ofresistance R to be
connected in the circuit, for voltage regulation from load current IL = 0mAtoILmax,the
maximum possible value of IL.What is the value ILmax?[7]
(OR)
2. Derive expression for FWR Rectifier D C load curren tii)DC output voltage
iii)Peak Inverse Voltage of each diode IV)Efficiency v)Ripple factor [14]

SECTION-II
3. Draw a Fixed bias circuit& explain it so operation Calculate the Stability factors S’. [14]
(OR)
4. DefinestabilityfactorsforaBJTwithSelfbiasingmethod.Suggesthowthismethodtoeffectsonoper
atingpointofaBJTcircuit [14]

SECTION-III
5. Determine the hybrid –π parameters of a Transistor operating at Collector
Current IC(Q)=2mA,VCE(Q)=20V and IB(Q)=20µA.Transistor specifications are
β=100,unity gain frequency fT=50MHz,CO=3pF,hie=1.4KΩ,hre=2.5*10-
4,hoe=25µmhos.Assume that the Operating temperature is 3000K [14]
(OR)
6. Draw the circuit diagram of Common Emitter amplifier using accurate h-parameter model.
Derive expressions for Ai, Av ,Ri &Ro . [14]
SECTION-IV
7. a. Show that the bandwidth increases in negative feedback amplifiers. [7]
b. What are the different types of feedback amplifiers? Give their equivalent circuits.[7]
 (OR)
8. a. Draw the circuit diagram of RC-phase shift oscillator using BJT and derive the expression for
frequency of oscillations. [10]
b. Compare positive feedback and negative feedback. [4]

SECTION-V
9 Explain the principle of CS FET amplifier with the help of circuit diagram. Derive the
expressions for AV,input impedance and output impedance[14]
(OR)

10) Explain the working of Tunnel diode with help of energy band diagrams and Draw V-I
Characteristics
 UNIT WISE QUESTION BANK
UNIT-I

1. Study thoroughly the following terms of a half wave rectifier with resistive load.
i. Ripple factor.
ii. Peak inverse voltage.
iii. Rectification efficiency.
2. Define the terms as referred to Full wave rectifier circuit.
i. PIV
ii. Average d.c. voltage
iii. RMS current
iv. Ripple factor.
3. Discuss full wave rectifier with Π filter.
4. Draw the circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier circuit with Π - section followed by L-section filter and
explains its operation.
5. Compare the performance of inductive, L-section and Π section filters.
6. Compare half wave, Full wave and Bridge rectifier.
7. Compare the performance of series inductor, L-Section and p - Section filters.
8. Derive the following expression for
(a) Ripple in a - section filter when used with a half wave rectifier.
(b) The ripple factor of half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier.
(c) Ripple factor in a full wave rectifier using an inductor filter.
(d) D.C. or average value of current, R.M.S. value of current and Average voltage across the load for
a half wave rectifier.

UNIT-II
1. Explain thermistor and sensistor compensation
2. Study thoroughly the concept of thermal runaway
3. Write down the need for bias stabilization.
4. Write down the requirements of a biasing circuit?
5. Explain briefly about the simplest biasing circuit.
6. Explain thermal instability.
7. What are the factors affecting the stability factor.
8. Write down the types of biasing and compare them.
9. Draw a BJT fixed bias circuit and derives the expression for the stability factor’s’.

UNIT-III
1. With the help of necessary equations, discuss the variation of A I, AV ,Ri, and Ro with RS and RL in
Common Emitter simplified configuration.
2. With the help of necessary equations, discuss the variation of A I, AV ,Ri, and Ro with RS and RL in
Common Base simplified configuration.
3. With the help of necessary equations, discuss the variation of A I, AV ,Ri, and Ro with RS and RL in
Common Collector simplified configuration.
 UNIT-IV
1. With a neat sketch explain a negative feedback amplifier and derive the expression for
closed loop gain, higher cut-off frequency, lower cut-off frequency, stability.
2. Draw the circuit diagram of voltage series feedback amplifier and derive expressions for input and
output resistances.
3. Draw the circuit diagram of current shunt feedback amplifier and derive expressions for input and
output resistances.
4. Explain Barkhausen criterion for oscillation in feedback oscillator.
5. Draw the circuit diagram of RC-phase shift oscillator using BJT and derive the expression for frequency
of oscillations
6. Draw the circuit diagram of wein bridge oscillator using BJT and derive the expression for frequency of
oscillations
7. Draw the circuit of Hartley oscillator and explain its working. Derive the expressions for frequency of
oscillation.
8. Draw the circuit of Colpitt’s oscillator and explain its working. Derive the expressions for frequency of
oscillation.

UNIT-V
1. Sketch the circuit of a CS amplifier.

2. For CS amplifier derive the expression for the voltage gain at low frequencies.

3. Sketch the circuit of a CD amplifier.

4. Sketch the circuit of a generalized FET amplifier

5. Explain the principle of operation of tunnel diode.

6. Compare PN junction diode with tunnel diode.

7. Draw the Energy band diagram of the Tunnel diode .

8. Compare energy band diagram of PN junction diode with tunnel diode.

9. In what way varactor diode is different from normal PN diode

10. Explain the principle of operation of the ujt and characteristics

11. Explain the structure of photo diode and characteristics