One point start is to know symbols and devices used in electronics.

When it comes the time to measure,1

some special devices are used according to what we are to measure - ohmmeter, - DC voltmeter, - AC
voltmeter, - DC Ammeter, - AC Ammeter, ... . The multimeter is a devices grouping many measuring de-
vices on it. Really common on the market, it is portable and has many functionalities. One functionality
can be chosen according to the measurement to be done.

Figure 1: The multimeter

The voltmeter is used to measure voltage(in volt The ammeter is used to measure current(in ampere
(V)). Its symbol is as shown on figure2. (A)). Its symbol is as shown on figure3.
It can be of two types: -AC voltmeter or ,- DC volt- It can be of two types: -AC ammeter or ,- DC am-
meter. meter.

V A
Figure 2: The voltmeter symbol Figure 3: The ammeter symbol

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 1/17
 2
The ohmmeter is used to measure resistance of re- quency of a signal(in hertz (Hz)). Its symbol is as
sistor(in ohms (Ω)). Its symbol is as shown on fig- shown on figure6.
ure4.

Hz
Figure 6: The frequency-meter symbol
Figure 4: The ohmmeter symbol

The Henry-meter is used to measure inductance of

The capacy-meter is used to measure capacytance
inductor(in henry (H)). Its symbol is as shown on
of capacitors(in Farad (F)). Its symbol is as shown
figure7.
on figure5.

F H
Figure 5: The capacy-meter symbol Figure 7: The henry-meter symbol

The frequency-meter is used to measure the fre- Many others exist and are not listed here.

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 2/17
 Passive components and their applications
1
1.1 Resistor
Basically, resistor is a two pins component. Its unit I = UR
is Ohm (Ω). Generally, resistors are denoted R in NA: 2V
= 2 ∗ 10−4 = 0.2mA = 200µA
10kΩ
designs. The resistor symbols are shown by fig-
ure1.1.
Resistor Connections

Calculations in theory can result in any value. That

R R value can be within or out of the normalized val-
Figure 1.1: Resistor symbols ues. To produce those values practically, the de-
signer must combine normalized values available
around. The combination can be connection in se-
The voltage U across a resistor R in a circuit is ries, connection in parallel, mixed connections.
given by the ohm’s law U = RI and expressed in
Volts (V). Resistors connected in Series

The current flowing through that resistor is:

R1 R2
I = UR .
Figure 1.2: Resistors Connected in series
Example:
What is the voltage across a 100kΩ resistor with
20µA flowing through it? When connected in series, the same current passes
through the different resistors. The equivalent re-
sistance is the sum of their values:
Solution:
RT = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
U = RI
NA: U = 100kΩ ∗ 20µA = 2V Example:
Resistors R1 = 10kΩ, R2 = 10kΩ, R3 = 2.2kΩ are
Example:
connected in series.
What is the current flowing through a 10kΩ resis-
What is the corresponding total resistance?
tor with 2V across it?
Solution: Solution:

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 3/17
1.1 Resistor 4
RT = ∑ni=1 Ri = R1 + R2 + R3
NA: RT = 10kΩ + 10kΩ + 2.2kΩ = 22.2kΩ

Exercise:
As a designer, you did calculations and came out Figure 1.4: ohmmeter symbol
with resistor value 192kΩ. Looking in your com-
ponent box, you see packets of resistors(10 resis-
tors per packet) with values: R1 = 100kΩ, R2 =
10kΩ, R3 = 1kΩ, R4 = 2.2kΩ, R5 = 180kΩ.
How will you manage to obtain that resistance you
are looking for?
1.1.1 Physical Identification
Resistors connected in Parallel

Resistors are of many types and packages.

R1

R2
Figure 1.3: Resistors in parallel

Connected in parallel, resistors receive the same

voltage across their terminals. The resulting Figure 1.5: Resistor packages A
conductance(GT ) is the sum of the involved con-
ductances. From that conductance(GT ) , equiva-
lent resistance(RT ) can be found.
1 −1
RT = GT = G T .
GT = ∑ni=1 Gi = R11 + R12 + ... + R1n
RT = ( R11 + R12 + ... + R1n )−1

From the formula above, let consider the case with

only two resistors, R1 and R2 .
RT = ( R11 + 1 −1
R2 ) = ( RR11+RR22 )−1 = RR11+RR22 That
gives a simple formula when only two resistors are
connected in parallel:
RT = RR11+RR22

The device used to measure resistance is the ohm-

meter. Figure 1.6: Resistor package B

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1.1 Resistor 5
1. calibrate the multimeter to Ohmmeter sec-
tion;

2. place the probes as indicated for ohmmeter;

3. connect them to the two ends of the resistor;

4. read the result on the device screen. If the

meter is an auto-range, its will give the di-
rect result. but if not, some adjustments in
calibration may be necessary to get a good
reading of the result.

Reading resistance using color code

Figure 1.7: SMD resistor package

Must of the circuits are full of resistors. Consid-
ering that predominance, it is difficult and time
wasting for someone to use the ohmmeter for all
1.1.2 Reading the resistor’s value the resistors present in the circuit. Color code
helps significantly when it comes the time to iden-
Resistor value can be measured directly using tify resistor just using sight and brain(super fast
ohmmeter or read on the package using text calculator). Some resistors have colored bands on
code(for power resistors) or color code(generally their body which help to calculate their resistance
for low power resistors). using the color code for resistors.
The number of bands( 3 , 4, 5 ) helps in identifying
the resistor series(E6 , E12 , E24 ,...).
Reading resistance using Ohmmeter Note:The more the bands, the less the tolerance.
The document linked here(https://neurophysics.
To read resistor’s value using ohmmeter, follow ucsd.edu/courses/physics_120/resistorcharts.
these steps: pdf) is interesting concerning color code.

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1.1 Resistor 6

© Copyright 2006 Blue Point Engineering All Rights Reserved

Figure 1.8: resistor color code

For the color code, get more informations on http://www.resistorguide.com/resistor-color-code/

Reading resistance using digit code their top. That code helps in their value identifi-
cation. In that number or code, the last digit is the
As everything is going to smallest sizes, surface multiplier. The number of digit helps in identify-
mounting resistors have a digit code printed on ing the series.

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 6/17
1.1 Resistor 7
Three(3) digits code has 5% as tolerance. The battery generate E = 9V . The switch is suffi-
Four(4) digits code has 1% as tolerance. cient, but the resistor value is unknown. Choose a
As example, a surface mounting resistor with code resistor for that torch to operate normally.
101 has resistance: Note: use the E12 series.
R= 10 ∗ 101 = 100Ω

Considering the tolerance, 99.5Ω ≤ R ≤ 105Ω

A surface mounting resistor with code 224 has re-
sistance:
R = 22 ∗ 104 = 220000Ω = 220kΩ
R
E
Considering the tolerance, 209kΩ ≤ R ≤ 231kΩ
D
Reading resistance using text code
Figure 1.9: LED torch
Power resistors are easy to read, as they generally
have their value, power and tolerance marked on
them in an expressive way. As example, a resistor Solution:
with text 5W 0.22ΩJ has: E−VF
R= IF
resistance R = 0.22Ω NA: R = 9−3.2
10mA = 580Ω
power 5W P = RI = 580Ω ∗ (10 ∗ 10−3 )2
2 = 0.058W
tolerance J = 5% Turning into reality, the tolerance in that series is
So the reel value this resistor can give is: 10%, if we assume that we are looking for a resis-
0.22Ω(1 − 5%) ≤ R ≤ 0.22Ω(1 + 5%) tor Rx , we have
⇒ 0.209Ω ≤ R ≤ 0.231Ω R(1 − 10%) ≤ Rx ≤ R(1 + 10%)
⇒ 580Ω(1 − 10%) ≤ Rx ≤ 580Ω(1 + 10%)
⇒ 522Ω ≤ Rx ≤ 638Ω
1.1.3 How to choose a resistor Any value ranged from 522Ω to 638Ω can be se-
lected. In normalized values of E12 series, Rx =
Most important parameters when choosing resistor 560Ω responds to the need.
for a design : resistance, power. Hence, the resistor that will make the torch operate
The designer chooses a resistor based on some properly is R = 560Ω, P ≤ 0.058W
calculations. After having the the resistor
value(resistance) R, he must consider the fact that
the amount of current I that will flow through that
1.1.4 Derivative of resistors
resistor will cause heat generation; That is why the
resistor power P is important.
Potentiometer
P = RI 2

Example: The potentiometer has three pins. It resistance

Having a torch circuit of four components con- varies according to the position of its cursor. One
nected in series: battery-switch-resistor-LED- of its applications is analog volume control in
battery. The LED is VF = 3.2V and IF = 10mA. sound amplifiers.

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 7/17
1.1 Resistor 8

Figure 1.10: Potentiometer symbol

Figure 1.13: Real LDR

Temperature dependent resistor (NTC and

PTC)

Temperature depending Resistor varies their resis-

tance according to the temperature.
The PTC (Positive temperature coefficient) in-
creases its resistance as the temperature increases.
The NTC (Negative temperature coefficient) de-
creases its resistance as the temperature increases.
They are used for in sensing temperature in various
devices.

Figure 1.11: Potentiometers

T

Figure 1.14: Thermistor Symbol

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

LDR has small resistance under light and very high

resistance in the dark. Its resistance decreases as
light increases.

Figure 1.12: LDR symbol Figure 1.15: Real Thermistor

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 8/17
1.1 Resistor 9
1.1.5 Practice 1. Connect the LDR to the ohmmeter;

We are full of theory! Let’s apply it now. 2. Turn ON the ohmmeter

Connection 3. expose the LDR to the light, read the resis-

tance Rlight and note: Rlight = Ω.
Select four resistors R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 10kΩ ,
R3 = 1kΩ , R4 = 1kΩ. 4. with hand, cover the LDR, read the resis-
A: Process as follow: tance Rcover and note: Rcover = Ω.

1. compute RTa = R1 + R2 = Ω
5. Cover as most as possible the LDR, read
2. connect R1 in series with R2 and mea- the resistance Rdark and note: Rdark =
sure with the Ohmmeter : RTb = Ω.
Ω
6. Comment the observations
3. compare RTa and RTb and:

(a) tell if the theoretical formula RT =

7. Give your own definition of this component.
∑ni=1 Ri is true regarding the practical
result.
(b) explain what can be the causes of their
Potentiometer
difference.

Do the following steps:

B:Do the following steps:

1. compute RTa = R1 //R2 = Ω; 1. connect the ohmmeter to the extremes pins

of the potentiometer as on picture1.16a and
2. connect R1 in parallel with R2 and
read the valueR = Ω;(This value
measure with the Ohmmeter : RTb =
represent the resistance of that potentiome-
Ω;
ter)
3. compare RTa and RTb and :
2. Connect the ohmmeter to one extreme pin
(a) tell if the theoretical formula RT =
and the middle pin as on picture1.16b;
(∑ni=1 R1i )−1 is true regarding the prac-
tical result.
3. turn the potentiometer knob and pro-
(b) explain what can be the causes of their
gressively and note the values ;
difference.
Position
Value (Ω)
LDR
4. Express what you think about the poten-
Do the following steps: tiometer according to the observations.

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 9/17
1.2 Inductor 10
Application

perform the following steps:

1. connect two resistors (R1 = 10kΩ , R2 =

10kΩ) in series;

2. supply the resulting resistor with a VDD = 5V

(a) connections to extremes DC voltage source;

3. measure the voltages (U1 and U2 ) across

each resistor;

4. looking at the values of (R1 , R2 , VDD and U1

) as same as the value of (R1 , R2 , VDD and U2
(b) one side connection ), which theorem has been applied there?

Figure 1.16: measure potentiometer 5. are these results confirming the theory?

1.2 Inductor
Inductors connected in Series

Figure 1.17: Inductor

L1 L2
Basically, inductor is a two pins component. Its
unit is henry and its symbol (H). Generally, in- Figure 1.18: Inductors connected in series
ductors are denoted L in designs.

The voltage VL across a inductor L in a circuit is

When connected in series, the same current passes
given by VL = L didtL where iL represents the current
through the different inductors. The equivalent in-
flowing through the inductor.
ductance is the sum of their values:
LT = L1 + L2 + ... + Ln
inductor Connections
Example:
Inductors L1 = 100µH, L2 = 100µH, L3 = 3.3mH
As same as resistors, calculations in theory can re-
are connected in series.
sult in any value. That value can be within or out
What is the corresponding total inductance?
of the normalized values. To produce those values
practically, the designer must combine normalized Solution:
values available around. The combination can be LT = ∑ni=1 Li = L1 + L2 + L3
connection in series, connection in parallel, mixed NA: LT = 100µH + 100µH + 3.3mH = 3.5mH =
connections. 3500µH

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1.2 Inductor 11
Exercise: 1.2.1 Physical Identification
As a designer, you did calculations and came out
with inductor value 210µH. Looking in your com- Inductors are of many types and packages.
ponent box, you see packets of inductors(5 induc-
tors per packet) with values: L1 = 100µH, L2 =
10µH, L3 = 1mH, L4 = 220µH.
How will you manage to obtain that inductance
you are looking for?

Inductors connected in Parallel

L1
Figure 1.20: Inductor packages
L2
Figure 1.19: Inductors connected in parallel
1.2.2 Reading the inductor’s value

Inductor value can be measured directly using

Connected in parallel, inductors receive the same
measuring device or read on the package using text
voltage across their terminals. The equivalent
code.
inductance(LT ) can be found.
LT = ( L11 + L12 + ... + L1n )−1

From the formula above, let consider the case with Reading inductance using measuring device
only two inductors, L1 and L2 .
LT = ( L11 + 1 −1
L2 ) = ( LL11+LL22 )−1 = LL11+LL22 That To read inductor’s value using inductance-meter,
gives a simple formula when only two inductors follow these steps:
are connected in parallel:
LT = LL11+LL22
1. turn ON the device;
Exercise:
As a designer, you did calculations and came out 2. place the probes as indicated for inductance;
with inductor value 50µH. Looking in your com-
ponent box, you see packets of inductors(5 induc-
3. connect them to the two ends of the inductor;
tors per packet) with values: L1 = 100µH, L2 =
10µH.
4. read the result on the device screen. If the
How will you manage to obtain that inductance
meter is an auto-range, its will give the di-
you are looking for?
rect result. but if not, some adjustments in
The device used to measure inductance is the self- calibration may be necessary to get a good
meter or inductance-meter. reading of the result.

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1.3 Capacitor 12
Reading inductance using text code 1. compute LTa = L1 + L2 = Ω

2. connect L1 in series with L2 and measure

Power resistors are easy to read, as they generally
with the device : LTb = Ω
have their value, power and tolerance marked on
them in an expressive way. As example, a resistor 3. compare LTa and LTb and:
with text 5W 0.22ΩJ has: resistance:
(a) tell if the theoretical formula LT =
resistance L = 0.22Ω
power 5W tolerance J ∑ni=1 Li is true regarding the practical
result.
(b) explain what can be the causes of their
1.2.3 How to choose an inductor difference.

Inductors are generally used where frequency is in- B:Do the following steps:
volved. To choose an inductor for a circuit, the de-
signer must consider at least the amount of current
1. compute LTa = L1 //L2 = Ω;
that will flow trough that inductor.
2. connect L1 in parallel with L2 and
measure with the Ohmmeter : LTb =
1.2.4 Practice Ω;

We are full of theory! Let’s apply it now. 3. compare LTa and LTb and :

(a) tell if the theoretical formula LT =

Connection (∑ni=1 L1i )−1 is true regarding the prac-
tical result.
Select two inductors L1 = 100µH , L2 = 100µH. (b) explain what can be the causes of their
A: Process as follow: difference.

1.3 Capacitor
Basically, capacitor is a two pins component. Its
unit is Farad and its symbol (F). Generally, ca-
pacitors are denoted C in designs. Capacitor are
mainly of two types: Polarized and Unpolarized
(a) unpolarized capacitor capacitors.

The current ic flowing through a capacitor C in a

circuit is given by ic = C du c
dt where uc represents
the voltage across the capacitor.

(b) polarized capacitor

Figure 1.21: capacitor symbol

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1.3 Capacitor 13
Capacitor Connections

Like resistors and inductors, calculations in theory

can result in any value. That value can be within
or out of the normalized values. To produce those
values practically, the designer must combine nor- C2
malized values available around. The combination
can be connection in series, connection in parallel,
mixed connections.

Capacitors connected in Series

C1
Figure 1.23: Capacitors connected in parallel

C1 C2
Figure 1.22: Capacitors connected in series

When connected in parallel, the equivalent capac-

Connected in series, capacitors receive the same ity is the sum of their values:
voltage across their terminals. The equivalent CT = C1 + C2 + ... + Cn
capacitance(CT ) can be found.
Example:
CT = ( C11 + C12 + ... + C1n )−1
Capacitors C1 = 100µF, C2 = 2200µF, C3 =
From the formula above, let consider the case with 47µF are connected in parallel.
only two capacitors, C1 and C2 . What is the corresponding total inductance?
CT = ( C11 + C12 )−1 = ( CC11+CC22 )−1 = C1C2
C1 +C2
Solution:
That gives a simple formula when only two capac- CT = ∑ni=1 Ci = C1 + C2 + C3
itors are connected in parallel: NA: CT = 100µF + 2200µF + 47µF = 2347µF
C1C2
CT = C1 +C2
Exercise:
Exercise: As a designer, you did calculations and came out
As a designer, you did calculations and came out with capacitor value 3200µF. Looking in your
with capacitor value 500µF. Looking in your component box, you see packets of capacitors(20
component box, you see packets of capacitors(10 capacitors per packet) with values: C1 = 2200µF,
per packet) with values: C1 = 1000µF, C2 = C2 = 10µF, C3 = 1000µF.
22µF. How will you manage to obtain that capacity you
How will you manage to obtain that capacity you are looking for?
are looking for?
The device used to measure capacity is the capacy-
Capacitors connected in Parallel meter.

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1.3 Capacitor 14
1.3.1 Physical Identification 3. connect them to the two ends of the capaci-
tor;
Capacitors are of many types and packages: axial,
radial, SMD(0805, 1206,...),... 4. read the result on the device screen. If the
meter is an auto-range, its will give the di-
rect result. but if not, some adjustments in
calibration may be necessary to get a good
reading of the result.

Reading capacity using text code

Figure 1.24: SMD electrolytic capacitor

Polarized capacitors have very simple and ex-

pressive text on their body for their value to be
known; A capacitor marked with: 1000µF 16V
is a 1000µF capacitor, able to support maximum
voltage of 16V.
Figure 1.25: SMD electrolytic capacitors
Ceramic capacitors have digit code like; 102 which
means :
C = 10 ∗ 102 pF = 1000pF = 1nF.
The basic unit there is pF, so:
104 ⇒ C = 10 ∗ 104 pF = 100000pF = 100nF
223 ⇒ C = 22 ∗ 103 pF = 22000pF = 22nF
331 ⇒ C = 33 ∗ 101 pF = 330pF
47 ⇒ C = 47pF
Figure 1.26: Capacitor packages
15 ⇒ C = 15pF

1.3.2 Reading the capacitor’s value

1.3.3 How to choose a capacitor
Capacitor value can be measured directly using
measuring device or read on the package using text
To choose a capacitor for a circuit, frequency, type,
code.
voltage and capacity at least are parameters to take
into account.
Reading capacity using measuring device For low frequencies: filtering power supply,
some low pass filters, here , the type must be
To read capacitor’s value using capacy-meter, fol- chemical or polarized capacitors. the capac-
low these steps: ity(generally in µF) and voltage( 6.3V , 10V , 16V ,
25V ,50V ,63V ,100V ,...).
1. turn ON the device; Note: The voltage on the capacitor must be greater
than the voltage where it is supposed to be inserted
2. place the probes as indicated for capacity; in the design.

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 14/17
1.4 Relay 15
For high frequencies: removing high frequency (a) tell if the theoretical formula CT =
noises. Here must of time, unpolarized capacitors ∑ni=1 Ci is true regarding the practical
are used, ceramic capacitors,... designer must take result.
care of their voltage(hundred of volts) and capac- (b) explain what can be the causes of their
ity(generally in nF, pF). difference.

1.3.4 Practice B:Do the following steps:

We are full of theory! Let’s apply it now. 1. compute CTa = C1 //C2 = F;

2. connect C1 in series with C2 and mea-

Connection sure with the Ohmmeter : CTb =
F;
Select four capacitors C1 = 100µF , C2 = 100µF.
A:Do the following processes: 3. compare CTa and CTb and :

(a) tell if the theoretical formula CT =

1. compute CTa = C1 + C2 = F
(∑ni=1 C1i )−1 is true regarding the prac-
2. connect C1 in parallel with C2 and measure tical result.
with the device : CTb = F
(b) explain what can be the causes of their
3. compare CTa and CTb and: difference.

1.4 Relay
scription, can support big current when closed (5A,
10A,. . . ) and an amount of voltage when open
(110V AC, 240V AC,. . . ).
Some relay contacts are normally open, others nor-
mally closed. Important characteristics of a relay
Figure 1.27: Relay symbol
are:

Relays are used when it comes the time to control

heavy load or high voltages with just few voltage • the coil voltage;
and small current. The coil of the relay is con-
trolled by the small voltage and current, its con-
tacts are used as switch for the high voltage part or • the coil resistance;
the heavy load of he circuit. One of the advantages
is that the two stages(small voltage and heavy part)
• the nominal current of the contact;
are isolated one from another. The voltage needed
to control the coil depends on the relay. It can be:
5V, 6V, 9V, 12V, 24V, 48V. • the voltage the contacts can support when
The contacts , depending on the manufacturer pre- open.

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 15/17
1.4 Relay 16
1.4.1 Physical Identification • under 120V AC, it can handle 20A when
contacts are closed.
Many packages are done for relay, depending on
their purpose, the current they can handle,. . . • under 24V DC, it can handle 20A when con-
The figure1.28 present a relay with these charac- tacts are closed.
teristics:
• under 240V AC, it can handle 16A when
• SPST relay type: Single Pole Single Throw contacts are closed.
relay
• under 30V DC, it can handle 16A when con-
• Coil voltage: 12 VDC. This relay’s contacts tacts are closed.
operate when 12V DC is applied on its coil
pins;

• under 250V AC, it can handle 10A when

contacts are closed.

• under 24V DC, it can handle 10A when con-

tacts are closed.

Figure 1.29: DPDT Relay package

1.4.2 Testing a relay

Figure 1.28: SPST Relay package

To test a relay , follow these steps:

The figure1.29 present a relay with these charac-
teristics:
1. identify the coil and supply it with indicated
• DPDT relay type: Double Pole Double voltage;
Throw relay
2. check the contacts to see if they short-circuit
• Coil voltage: 24 VDC. This relay’s contacts or not; A good relay will close or open its
operate when 24V DC is applied on its coil contacts as it is supplied, and move to the
pins; opposite when no supply.

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 16/17
1.4 Relay 17
References

https://www.hobby-hour.com/electronics/smdcalc.php

https://www.electronicsdesignhq.com/resistors/

http://www.resistorguide.com/resistor-color-code/

https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/light-emitting-diodes-leds/all

http://www.freebookcentre.net/electronics-ebooks-download/Microcontroller-Interfacing
.html

©(Rev 1.3),May 2023 Kentsa Zana Kevin for Achu Edwin 17/17