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Copper Mining and
Processing: Life Cycle of a
Mine
The Life Cycle of a Mine
The stages in the life cycle of a mine are:

1. Prospecting and Exploration

2. Development
3. Extraction
4. Closure/Reclamation

Each of the stages may overlap with the next and is very lengthy and
expensive.

1. Prospecting and Exploration (“Finding and Defining it”)

Prospecting and exploration are precursors to mining and often occur
simultaneously; together, they can take two to eight years to complete, and
may cost from $500,000 to $15 million overall.
Prospecting is the process of searching the region for mineral deposits.
Historically, prospectors would explore a region on foot with a pick and
shovel. Modern prospecting uses a variety of geological
methods. Geology experts use a direct method to discover surface mineral
deposits by examining the area visually. Geophysics experts use an indirect
method to identify underground mineral deposits by detecting rock
alterations under the surface. Geochemistry can also be used to analyze
samples of soil, rock, and water. These methods are supplemented by aerial
or satellite photography, and combined with historical maps and literature to
develop detailed maps of surface and underground rock formations. Drilling
is used to search for mineral occurrences or the clues in the rocks that may
lead to them. Information gathered in this stage may or may not lead to a
discovery of valuable minerals.
In mining exploration, experts use additional techniques to determine the
possible size and value of the mineral deposit discovered during prospecting.
Depending on the ownership of the land, a Mineral Rights Lease, a
contractual arrangement that allows the holder to explore/exploit an area
that contains minerals, may be required. Samples that are collected by
drilling undergo various analyses by geologists and metallurgists to
determine the richness and extent of the mineral, both vertically and
horizontally. Such analyses of geological confidence and technical and
economic evaluation allow experts to label the deposit as a “mineral
resource” and/or an “ore reserve,” to better establish the economic value of
the deposit and to estimate mining costs (JORC, 2012).
General relationship between Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves. Adapted from:
Australasian Code for Reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral Resources and Ore
Reserves (JORC, 2012).

A mineral resource is a concentration of potentially valuable material that

naturally occurs in the earth that can potentially be mined for economic
profit. Whether it is worth extracting now or later may depend on the
amount, form, location, and quality of the material, a concept called
geological confidence. Experts use geological sampling and testing methods
to classify a mineral resource into three different categories according to
geological confidence. When the amount and quality of the mineral can be
estimated with only a low level of confidence based on limited sampling, it is
called an “inferred” mineral resource. Such a resource will likely not be
mined at this time, but may be mined one day in the future, either because
all other reserves have been exploited or because improvements in
technology make it easier to extract less concentrated ores. Additional
sampling may allow the amount, quality, density, shape, and physical
characteristics of the mineral to be estimated with a reasonable level of
confidence, and it is classified as an “indicated” mineral resource. If further
sampling and reliable and detailed exploration allow the amount, quality,
density, shape, and physical characteristics of the mineral to be accurately
estimated with a high level of confidence, it is classified as a “measured”
mineral resource.
An ore reserve is the part of the mineral resource that can be economically
profitable to mine (i.e., there is enough valuable metal to be worth removing
it and extracting it from all of the surrounding rock). After a deposit has been
identified as an inferred, indicated, or measured mineral resource, it is next
labeled as a “probable” or “proved” ore reserve. This classification is based
on what is known about the mineral resource through sampling, combined
with consideration of “modifying factors,” such as mining, metallurgic,
economic, environmental, marketing, legal, political, and social factors. With
some information available about the concentration of the ore (i.e., indicated
mineral resource), and some uncertainty in the modifying factors, the
deposit can be labelled a probable ore reserve. A mine developed from a
probable ore reserve has a chance of success, but is still financially risky. A
measured mineral resource may also be labelled as only a possible ore
reserve, if there is uncertainty in the consideration of the modifying factors;
if these uncertainties can be removed, it may later be labelled a proved ore
reserve. When the concentration of ore has been accurately and confidently
measured to be high (i.e. measured mineral resource), and there is limited
uncertainty about the modifying factors, it is classified as a proved ore
reserve. This is the highest confidence category of reserve estimate,
implying high geological, technical, and economic confidence that it can be
mined at a profit.
Following the completion of the prospecting and exploration stages, a
feasibility study is performed to formally determine whether it is
economically worth developing the mineral deposit into a mine. A feasibility
report is generated, in which factors such as production rate, operating
costs, income tax, and the sale price of the mineral are estimated as well as
put into a formula to calculate what the final rate of return will be. The
mining organization can then make a decision about whether the project will
be abandoned or continued at this stage.

2. Development (“Planning and building it”)

The development stage usually takes 4-12 years to open an ore deposit for
production, and may cost anywhere from $1 million to over $1 billion to
complete depending on the type of mine. Development involves extensive
pre-development planning and paperwork. Budget and financial reports are
prepared and permits are requested. Reports regarding potential impacts on
the environment and nearby communities are generated. Plans are assessed
regarding the: 1) the mining process/technology that will be used, 2) building
of access roads for transportation, 3) identification of resources such as
power and water sources, and 4) construction of ore processing facilities and
disposal areas for waste. At this point, tens of millions to hundreds of millions
of dollars may have been invested in the project, but it may fail to open if the
pre-development requirements are not met, including acceptance by the
community. At this stage, just enough development of the mine site is
performed to ensure that it will be able to be productive for the life of the
mine, without later interruption.
Plans are made for the appropriate type of mining that will be performed.
There are three major types of mining, surface mining, underground mining,
and solution mining; their use depends on the type of ore and where it is
located, as well as issues of safety, technology, economics, and
environmental impacts. Surface mining, which includes strip mining, open-pit
mining, and mountaintop removal, removes soil and rock from on top of the
mineral deposit. It may begin as soon as the pre-development steps are
complete. Underground mining uses shafts and tunnels to access deeply-
buried mineral deposits, while the overlying rock is left in place. This type of
mining is usually more expensive and complex, and requires a lot of
additional planning for convenience and safety. Solution mining, sometimes
referred to as in situ leaching, is performed by pumping a leaching solution
such as an acid into the ground, where the solution then dissolves the solid
minerals into a liquid. This liquid containing the minerals is then pumped out
of the ground and the mineral can then be recovered by various techniques.

3. Extraction (“Mining it”)

In the extraction stage the mineral is removed from the earth in large
quantities as the mine begins producing. This stage is typically what we
envision when we think of mining. Some exploration and development may
continue at this stage, as well. The extraction stage can take from 5-30 years
to complete, although many mines have been open for more than 100 years,
and may cost anywhere from a few million dollars to hundreds of millions of
dollars a year depending on the size of the mine and its location.

4. Closure/Reclamation (“Cleaning it up”)

The mining organization begins planning for
mine closure and reclamation early on; even before a mine is allowed to
open, a reclamation plan must be set in place for its closure. In these
reclamation plans the mining operator describes the processes it will use to
attempt to restore or redevelop the land that has been mined to a more
natural or economically usable state. This can include removing buildings
and roads as well as covering up and re-vegetating rock piles. Federal and
state regulations require mining companies to post funding for closure
before the mining project begins. This is to ensure that reclamation is
completed at the end of the mining closure (Arms, 2004). Once the mine has
been depleted or is no longer economically feasible to continue mining, the
mining operators must contact local and state agencies to close the mine,
and must comply with their respective regulations.
The closure plan must be approved by a variety of mining stakeholders,
including government and community members. Considerations when
planning for closure include: protecting public health and safety, addressing
environmental damage, returning the land to its original state or an
acceptable new use, and sustaining social and economic benefits brought by
the mine. The succeeding custodian, the party responsible for the land after
the mine closes, should establish an agreement with the mining company
early in the life cycle of the mine, to develop a closure plan that minimizes
risks and liabilities.
The cost of closing a mine depends on the age, location, type, and size of
mine, amount of waste, geological characteristics, and type of mineral being
extracted. For example, a medium-sized open-pit mine that is 10-15 years
old could cost a few million dollars to close, while a large open-pit mine that
has been operating for more than 35 years could cost tens of millions of
dollars to close (Tetra Tech, 2007). It is often less expensive for a mining
company operating the mine to close a mine themselves than for the
succeeding custodian to close it. For more detail on reclamation, refer to the
“Mine Tailings and Waste Rock Reclamation” module.

Resources
 Community Information Sheets
 Contaminant Visualization Tools
 Learning Modules (English)
 o Introduction
o Icebreakers
o Arsenic
o Pesticides
o Environmental Toxicology
o Risk Assessment
o Copper Mining and Processing
 Summary and Learning Objectives
 Background
 Copper Mining in AZ and Tribal Lands
 Life Cycle of a Mine
 Processing Copper Ores
 Resources and Glossary
 Hands-On Activity Guide: Copper Electrolysis
 Módulos de Aprendizaje (Spanish)
 Textbook – Toxicología Ambiental
 Water Booklets
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