Unit 1Power Supplies, Transistors,

Amplifiers
Syllabus
Power Supplies –Block diagram, Half-wave rectifier, Full-wave rectifiers and
filters, Voltage regulators, Output resistance and voltage regulation, Voltage
multipliers.
Transistor: BJT structure and operation (npn), circuit symbol, configurations,
relation between transistor currents.
Amplifiers – Definition, Types of amplifier, gain, Input-Output Resistance, Multi-
stage amplifier; BJT as a switch: Cut-off and saturation modes.
Text Book
Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals &
Applications’, 4th Edition, Elsevier, 2015. DOI
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315737980. eBook
ISBN9781315737980.
Basic Electronics- Devices, circuits and IT fundamentals- By
Santiram Kal- PHI, 2012
Pre requisites
Semiconductor basics
What is semiconductor?
Why do we need semiconductor?
Types of semiconductor- Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Extrinsic- Doping, p type, n type- trivalent and pentavalent
Majority and minority charge carriers
Semiconductor diode
Two-terminal unilateral device which allows the flow of current in only one
direction
Anode and cathode are the two terminals
Diode offers low resistance hence permits current flow from Anode to Cathode
It offers high resistance or restricts the flow of current from Cathode to Anode
It can be biased (applying voltage across terminals of diode) in two ways:
Forward bias and Reverse bias
Diode is a pn junction which permits current flow when forward biased and
blocks current when reverse biased
Unbiased Diode
No voltage applied across the
junction
Majority holes on p side start
diffusing into n side
Majority free electrons on n side
start diffusing into p side
Positive immobile ions are formed
on n side and negative ions on p
side near the junction, this is
called depletion region
In equilibrium condition, depletion
region widens up to a point where
no further electrons or holes can
cross the junction. This acts as a
barrier.
Potential difference across
depletion region is called barrier
potential/junction potential/built-
in voltage/cut-in potential
Net current in unbiased diode is
Forward biased diode
P region is connected to positive and n region is
connected to negative of dc supply
Negative of the battery pushes free electrons
across the depletion region, provided the applied
voltage exceeds barrier voltage. Similarly,
negative of the battery pushes holes against
barrier from p to n region
Barrier voltage for Si diode is 0.7V and Ge diode is
0.3V.
Due to this width of the depletion region reduces
and barrier potential also reduces
Majority carriers cross the junction
Hence current starts flowing from p to n side
(Anode to cathode terminal)-Forward current
Reverse biased diode
P region is connected to negative and n region to positive of
the dc voltage
Negative of the battery attracts holes in p region and positive
of the battery attracts electrons in n region
Majority charge carriers move away from the junction
Depletion region widens and barrier potential increases
Resistance of diode is high
Due to increased barrier potential, free electrons on p side are
attracted towards positive while holes towards negative of the
battery
There is a very small reverse current due to the flow of
minority carriers
Reverse current is constant though reverse voltage is
increased upto a limit. It is called reverse saturation current.
Minority charge carriers are thermally generated hence this
current is temperature dependant
Reverse saturation current is in the order of micro amperes for
Ge and few nano amperes for Si diodes
Current voltage or I-V
characteristics of diode
First quadrant indicates the behaviour of
diode when forward biased
Current is nearly zero when forward
voltage is less than knee or barrier
voltage
As forward voltage exceeds barrier
voltage, current increases exponentially
Third quadrant indicates the
characteristics of reverse biased diode
As the reverse voltage is increased,
reverse current increases initially but
after a small voltage becomes constant
equal to reverse saturation current.
Though reverse voltage is increased the
reverse current remains constant.
At reverse breakdown voltage,
breakdown of diode occurs and current
Diode approximations
Ideal diode model Constant voltage drop model
DC power supply
Power supply is a device that supplies electric power to a load.
A step-down transformer of appropriate turns ratio is used to convert high voltage from the
mains to a low voltage (9V, 12V, 15V, 20V, 30V). This is achieved by varying the turns ratio on
the transformer.
The a.c. output from the transformer secondary is then rectified using conventional silicon
rectifier diodes to produce an unsmoothed (sometimes referred to as pulsating d.c.) output.
The output is smoothed and filtered before being applied to a circuit which will regulate (or
stabilize) the output voltage so that it remains relatively constant in spite of variations in both
load current and incoming mains voltage.
DC power supply
The iron-cored step-down transformer feeds a rectifier arrangement (often
based on a bridge circuit).
The output of the rectifier is then applied to a high-value reservoir capacitor.
The capacitor helps to smooth out the voltage pulses produced by the rectifier.
A stabilizing circuit (often based on a series transistor regulator and a Zener
diode voltage reference) provides a constant output voltage.
A SIMPLE DC SUPPLY
 RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (ac)
to direct current (dc).
Rectifiers
Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to convert alternating current (a.c.)
to direct current (d.c), in which case they are referred to as rectifiers.
Types- Half-wave rectifier, Full-wave rectifier, Bridge rectifier
Half-wave rectifier uses single diode and operates on only either positive or
negative half-cycles of the supply
Full-wave rectifier uses two diodes with centre tap transformer and operates in
both positive and negative half cycles
Bridge rectifier uses four diodes and operates in both positive and negative half
cycles
Vrms – Root mean square voltage
Vm (= Vpeak) – peak voltage
Vavg (= Vdc) – Average voltage
Half-wave rectifier
Mains voltage (220 to 240 V) is applied to the
primary of a step-down transformer (T1).
The secondary of T1 steps down the 240 V
r.m.s. to 12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will
thus be 240/12 or 20:1).
D1 will be forward biased during each positive
half-cycle (relative to common) and will
effectively behave like a closed switch.
D1 will be reverse biased during each
negative half-cycle and will effectively behave
like a open switch.
Half-wave rectifier- Working
The switching action of D1 results in a pulsating output voltage which is developed across the load
resistor (RL).
Mains supply and output developed across RL both have same frequency 50 Hz.
During the positive half-cycle, the diode will drop the 0.6 V to 0.7 V forward threshold voltage
normally associated with silicon diodes.
However, during the negative half-cycle the peak a.c. voltage will be dropped across D1 when it is
reverse biased. This is an important consideration when selecting a diode for a particular application.
Half-wave rectifier- Working
Assuming that the secondary of T1 provides 12 V r.m.s., the peak voltage
output from the transformer’s secondary winding will be given by:

The peak voltage applied to D1 will thus be approximately 17 V. The negative

half-cycles are blocked by D1 and thus only the positive half-cycle appear
across RL.
Actual peak voltage across RL will be the 17 V positive peak being supplied
from the secondary on T1, minus the 0.7 V forward threshold voltage dropped
by D1. Positive half-cycle pulses having a peak amplitude of 16.3 V will appear
across RL.
Half-wave rectifier- Waveforms

17

𝑉
16.3
𝑉
Problem 1
A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected to a 220 V r.m.s.
mains supply. If the secondary output is applied to a half-wave rectifier,
determine the peak voltage that will appear across a load.
Ans:
Reservoir and smoothing circuits
Improvement in Half-wave rectifier circuit is possible
by adding the capacitor, C1, to ensure that the
output voltage remains at, or near, the peak voltage
even when the diode is not conducting.
When the primary voltage is first applied to T1, the
first positive half-cycle output from the secondary
will charge C1 to the peak value seen across RL.
Hence C1 charges to 16.3 V at the peak of the
positive half-cycle. Because C1 and RL are in
parallel, the voltage across RL will be the same as
that across C1.
The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum
(peak) level is determined by the charging circuit
time constant (the series resistance multiplied by
the capacitance value).
Half-wave rectifier with
capacitor filter
The series resistance comprises the secondary winding resistance together with
the forward resistance of the diode and the (minimal) resistance of the wiring
and connections. Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon as D1 starts to conduct.
The time required for C1 to discharge is, in contrast, very much greater. The
discharge time constant is determined by the capacitance value and the load
resistance, RL.
In practice, RL is very much larger than the resistance of the secondary circuit
and hence C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge.
During this time, D1 will be reverse biased and will thus be held in its non-
conducting state. As a consequence, the only discharge path for C1 is through
RL.
 Half-wave rectifier with
capacitor filter
C1 is referred to as a reservoir capacitor. It stores charge during
the positive half-cycles of secondary voltage and releases it
during the negative half-cycles.
C1 will discharge by a small amount during the negative half-
cycle periods from the transformer secondary.
Small variation in dc output voltage is ripple
Since ripple is undesirable we must take additional precautions
to reduce it. One obvious method of reducing the amplitude of
the ripple is that of simply increasing the discharge time
constant.
Discharge time constant can be increased by increasing the
value of C1 or by increasing the resistance value of RL. Usually
RL cant be changed.
Increasing the value of C1 is a more practical alternative and
very large capacitor values (often in excess of 4,700 μF) are
typical.
Refinement to the circuit to reduce
ripple (use of R-C smoothing filter)
This circuit employs two additional components, R1 and
C1, which act as a filter to remove the ripple.

The value of C1 is chosen so that the component exhibits

a negligible reactance at the ripple frequency (50 Hz for a
half-wave rectifier or 100 Hz for a full-wave rectifier)

The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor

equal to:
Problem 2
The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 =
100 Ω and C 2 = 1,000 μF. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the
amount of ripple appearing at the output.
Ans:
Full-wave rectifiers
A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive and negative
half-cycles.
Improvement over half-wave rectifiers
They are not only more efficient but are significantly less demanding in terms
of the reservoir and smoothing components.
Two types: phase type and the bridge rectifier type.
Bi-phase rectifier circuits
Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of
the step-down transformer (T1) which has two
identical secondary windings, each providing 12 V
r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be 240/12 or
20:1 for each secondary winding).
On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with
respect to point B. Similarly, point B will be positive
with respect to point C. In this condition D1 will
allow conduction while D2 will not allow conduction.
On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with
respect to point B. Similarly, point B will be positive
with respect to point A. In this condition D2 will
allow conduction while D1 will not allow conduction.
Equivalent circuits during
positive and negative half-cycle
Bi-phase rectifier circuits with
capacitor filter
The current is routed through the load in the same direction
on successive half-cycles.
Pulsating output voltage being developed across the load
resistor (RL). Frequency of the output is 100 Hz. This
doubling of the ripple frequency allows us to use smaller
values of reservoir and smoothing capacitor to obtain the
same degree of ripple reduction.
Peak voltage produced by each of the secondary windings
will be approximately 17 V and the peak voltage across RL
will be 16.3 V
If C1 is added at the output, it charges to approximately
16.3 V at the peak of the positive half-cycle and holds the
voltage at this level when the diodes are in their non-
conducting states.
OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
D FWD
1 Biased

Vi T A+ + VL
n 1 R
- L
B -
t +
-
C

D REV
2 Biased
 OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
D REV
1 Biased
vi T A - + vo
n 1 ut
R
L
B+ -
t -

C
+
D2 FWD
Biased
Bi-phase rectifier circuits-
waveforms
The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum (peak)
level is determined by series resistance which comprises of
secondary winding resistance together with the forward
resistance of the diode and the (minimal) resistance of the
wiring and connections. Hence C1 charges very rapidly as
soon as either D1 or D2 starts to conduct.
The time required for C1 to discharge is, in contrast, very
much greater.
The discharge time contrast is determined by the
capacitance value and the load resistance, RL which is
large.
C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge.
During this time, D1 and D2 will be reverse biased and held
in a non-conducting state, thus only discharge path for C1 is
through RL.
Bridge rectifier circuits
This arrangement avoids the need to have two separate
secondary windings. It uses 4 diodes.
Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of a step-
down transformer (T1). The secondary winding provides 12
V r.m.s. (approximately 17 V peak) and has a turns ratio of
20:1
On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect
to point B. In this condition D1 and D2 will allow conduction
while D3 and D4 will not allow conduction.
On negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with
respect to point A. In this condition D3 and D4 will allow
conduction while D1 and D2 will not allow conduction.
 Operation of Bridge Rectifier

vi T A+ D +
n 1 RE
4
V D FW
1 D

t D + vou
B D t
- 2FW - t
D RE
3 R
V L
-
 Operation of Bridge Rectifier

A-
vi T FW
n 1 D
D D RE
4
1 V

t + vou
D
RE
2 D t
B+ V F3 R
W -L t
D
Equivalent circuits during
positive and negative half cycles
Once again, the result is that current is routed through the load in the same direction on
successive half-cycles.
Once again, the peak output voltage is approximately 16.3 V (i.e. 17 V less the 0.7 V forward
threshold voltage).
Bridge rectifier circuits with
reservoir capacitor
Reservoir capacitor (C1) can be
added to maintain the output
voltage when the diodes are not
conducting.
C1 charges to approximately 16.3 V
at the peak of the positive half-cycle
and holds the voltage at this level
when the diodes are in their non-
conducting states.
R–C and L–C ripple filters can be
added to bi-phase and bridge
rectifier circuits in exactly the same
way as those shown for the half-
wave rectifier arrangement
 What is a Voltage Regulator?

A voltage regulator provides a constant DC output

voltage that is independent of AC line voltage
variations, load current and temperature.
The input to a voltage regulator comes from the filtered
output of a rectifier derived from an AC voltage.
Voltage regulators
Regulator circuit using Zener diode
Rs is included to limit the zener current to a safe
value when the load is disconnected
When a load (RL) is connected, the zener current
(IZ) will fall as current is diverted into the load
resistance
(it is usual to allow a minimum current of 2 mA to
5 mA in order to ensure that the diode regulates).
The output voltage (VZ) will remain at the zener
voltage until regulation fails at the point at which
the potential divider formed by RS and RL,
produces a lower output voltage that is less than
VZ.
Equations

where VIN is the unregulated input

voltage.
Problem 3
A 5 V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a
simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V to a load having a resistance of 400 Ω, determine a
suitable value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.
Output resistance and voltage
regulation
In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would remain constant regardless of the current taken by the load,
but in practice output voltage falls as the load current increases.
Power supply has internal resistance (ideally this should be zero). This internal resistance appears at the output
of the supply.

The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:

Ideally, the value of regulation should be very small. Simple shunt zener diode regulators are capable of
producing values of regulation of 5% to 10%. More sophisticated circuits based on discrete components produce
values of between 1% and 5% and integrated circuit regulators often provide values of 1% or less.
Problem 4
The following data were obtained during a test carried out on a d.c. power
supply:
(i) Load test: Output voltage (no-load) = 12 V, Output voltage (2 A load current)
= 11.5 V
(ii) Regulation test: Output voltage (mains input, 220 V) = 12 V, Output voltage
(mains input, 200 V) = 11.9 V
Determine (a) the equivalent output resistance of the power supply and (b) the
regulation of the power supply.
Ans:
Voltage multipliers: Voltage
doubler
Increasing the output of simple half-wave
rectifier
C1 will charge to the positive peak
secondary voltage while C2 will charge to
the negative peak secondary voltage.
Since the output is taken from C1 and C2
connected in series the resulting output
voltage is twice that produced by one
diode alone.
 OPERATION OF VOLTAGE DOUBLER
D FWD
1 Biased
v T
i + 1 +
n
V
+C
p -1
t -
C
2
-
D REV
2 Biased
 Operation of Voltage Doubler
D REV
1 Biased
v T
i + 1 +
n
V
+C
p -1
t -
V +C
p -2
-
D FWD
2 Biased
 OPERATION OF VOLTAGE DOUBLER
D REV
1 Biased
v T
i + 1 + vo
2 ut
n
V
+C V
p -1 p
t - t
V +C
p -2
-
D FWD
2 Biased
Voltage tripler
Voltage tripler
During the first positive half cycle of AC, Diode D1 get forward biased and capacitor C1 get
charged through the D1. Capacitor C1 get charged up to the peak voltage of AC i.e. Vpeak.

During the negative half cycle of the AC, Diode D2 conducts and D1 reverse biased. D1
blocks the discharging of capacitor C1. Now the capacitor C2 charge with the combined
voltage of capacitor C1 (Vpeak) and the negative peak of the AC voltage (Vpeak). So the
capacitor C2 charge up to 2Vpeak.

During the second positive half cycle, D2 gets reverse biased and D3 conducts. So capacitor
C2 charges the capacitor C3 up to the same voltage as itself, which is 2Vpeak. Meanwhile,
Diode D1 conducts to charge Capacitor C1 up to Vpeak.

Now the capacitor C1 and C3 are in series and voltage across C1 is Vpeak and voltage across
C3 is 2Vpeak, so the voltage across the series connection of C1 and C3 is Vpeak+2Vpeak =
3Vpeak, that’s how we get the triple voltage of the peak value of AC.
Transistors
BJT – BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
 flo
Since the w
sandwiched p-type material is very thin and has a low
conductivity, a very small number of these carriers will take this
path of high resistance to the base terminal.
 From eq.(2), neglecting ICBO ,
Ic = αIE
From eq (1) ,
Ic = α(Ic+Ib)
Ic = (α/1-α)IB
Ic =βIB
Where, β= (α/1-α) (where β is called as common emitter current gain
and typically it ranges b/w 25 to 300)
In a common emitter transistor circuit, if β =
100 and IB = 50μA, compute the values of α,
IE and IC.
Calculate α and β if IC is measured as 1mA
and base current is 25µA. Also determine the
new base current to give IC of 5mA.
A emitter current of transistor in Common
base configuration is IE=25mA and
IC=23mA. Calculate base current, common
base dc current gain and common emitter dc
current gain.
The following current measurements are
made on transistor: IC= 12.42mA, IB= 200µA.
Determine a new IC level when IB is 150 µA.
 Common-base configuration
The input signal is applied between the transistors base and
the emitter terminals, while the corresponding output signal is
taken from between the base and the collector terminals as
shown.
Common-emitter configuration
The input signal is
applied between the
base and the emitter,
while the output is taken
from between the
collector and the emitter
as shown.
Common-collector configuration
The input signal is
applied between the
base and the collector,
while the output is
taken from between the
emitter and the
collector as shown.
BJT – Regions of operation
Transistor as a switch
When the base emitter junction is open or reverse biased (i.e., IB=0) no
collector current(IC) flows, the transistor is said to be OFF.

• The input and Base are grounded ( 0V )

• Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7V
• Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
• Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )
• No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
• VOUT = VCE = VCC = ”1″
• Transistor operates as an “open switch”
Transistor as a switch
When the base emitter junction is forward biased, IB flows which results
in IC. At some point of IB , IC becomes saturated, i.e., it does not increase
further and becomes independent of IB. At this point, the transistor may
be treated as fully ON as it is conducting in saturation region.
•The input and Base are connected to VCC
• Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7v
• Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base-Collector junction is forward
biased
• Transistor is “fully-ON” ( saturation
region )
• Max Collector current flows (
IC = Vcc/RL )
• VCE = 0 ( ideal saturation )
• VOUT = VCE = ”0″
Amplifiers
Amplifiers are electronic circuits that increase the strength of a
signal (voltage/current/power)
It uses electric power from a power supply to increase the
amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a
proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output.
The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by
its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input.
Amplification is fundamental to modern electronics, and amplifiers
are widely used in almost all electronic equipment.
Types of amplifier
AC coupled amplifiers: stages are coupled together in such a way that DC levels are
isolated and only the AC components of a signal are transferred from stage to stage.
DC coupled amplifiers: stages are coupled together in such a way that stages are not
isolated to DC potentials. Both AC and DC signal components are transferred from stage to
stage.
Large-signal amplifiers: Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable
voltage and/or current levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more). Example: Power
amplifiers (audio)
Small-signal amplifiers: Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals
(normally less than 1 V and often much smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be
specially designed to combat the effects of noise. Example: instrumentation amplifiers
Audio frequency amplifiers: operate in the band of frequencies that is normally
associated with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
Types of amplifier
Wideband amplifiers: capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies, typically
from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz. Wideband amplifiers are usually untuned;
that is, their ac load is resistive.

Radio frequency amplifiers: operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated
with radio signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz). They are frequency selective. They
are restricted to narrow band of frequencies. Narrowband amplifiers are usually tuned RF
amplifiers, which meansthat their ac load is a high-Q resonant tank tuned to a radio station
or television channel.

Low-noise amplifiers: Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute

negligible noise (signal disturbance) to the signal being amplified. These amplifiers are
usually designed for use with very small signal levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).
Amplifier characteristics - Gain
It indicates amount of amplification
Gain is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, output current to input current, or output
power to input power
Amplifier characteristics - Input and
output resistance
Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed
in ohms. It is resistive in the mid band frequency band. In other cases it is complex
quantity, then it is referred as input impedance considering the effect of capacitance in
parallel with it.
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit
output current and is measured in ohms. In the presence of reactive component it is
referred to as output impedance.
Input and output resistance are internal to the amplifier
Problem 5
An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V for an input of 50 mV. If the
input and output currents in this condition are, respectively, 4 mA and 200 mA,
determine: (a) the voltage gain; (b) the current gain; (c) the power gain.
 Assignment
1. An amplifier produces an output voltage of 5 V for an input of 20 mV. If
the input and output currents of the amplifier are 5mA and 200mA
respectively. Determine voltage gain and power gain in dB.
2. The following measurements were made during a test on an amplifier:
Vin = 250 mV, Iin = 2.5 mA, Vout = 10 V, Iout = 400 mA
Determine: (a) the voltage gain; (b) the current gain; (c) the power gain;
(d) the input resistance.
1. An amplifier has a power gain of 13.79dB and identical input and output
resistances of 600 Ω. Determine the input voltage required to produce an
output of 10 V.
Multi-stage amplifiers
In order to provide sufficiently large values of gain, it is frequently necessary to use
a number of interconnected stages within an amplifier.
The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage amplifier) is
simply the product of the individual voltage gains.

Bandwidth of a multistage amplifier will be less than the bandwidth of each

individual stage.
An increase in gain can only be achieved at the expense of a reduction in
bandwidth.
R–C coupling
The stages are coupled together using capacitors having a low reactance at the
signal frequency and resistors. Can be used in audio applications.
As it uses cheaper coupling devices such as resistors, capacitors, it is low-cost
and economical.
The main disadvantage is it has very poor impedance matching
characteristics. It provides low voltage and power gain.
L–C coupling
Inductors have a high reactance at the signal frequency. This type of coupling is
generally only used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers. (helps in tuning
and impedance matching)
Transformer coupling
Transformers are used to couple the different stages of amplifier. Transformer
coupling is used in high power audio amplifiers.
It provides a very good impedance matching property. These amplifiers
have high efficiency and low losses.
These amplifiers are costly because of using the transformer as a coupling
device. These amplifiers have poor frequency response, the gain decreases
with an increase in frequency.
Direct coupling
Direct coupling: DC levels are preserved
This circuit can amplify both the AC and DC signals. It does not use any coupling
elements and hence the circuit is very simple and easy to make. The cost is very low.
It has a very low bandwidth. The operating point is not stable.