Displacement Measurement

•Linear Voltage Differential Transducer (LVDT)

 The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical signals is the
LVDT.
 Consists of a single primary winding and two secondary windings.

 Secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side
the primary winding.

 The primary winding is connected to an A.C. source.

 A movable iron core is place inside the winding.

 The assembly is placed inside a stainless-steel housing.

 The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron core.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 1
 Displacement Measurement
Linear Voltage Differential Transducer(LVDT)

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 2

 Displacement Measurement
Linear Voltage Differential Transducer(LVDT)

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 3

 Displacement Measurement
Linear Voltage Differential Transducer(LVDT)

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 4

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 5
 Displacement Measurement
•Linear Voltage Differential Transducer (LVDT)

 Since the primary coil is excited by anA.C. source, it produces an alternating magnetic
field.

 Magnetic field interact with secondary coil, which in turn induces alternating current or
voltage in the two the secondary windings.

 Two secondary windings are connected inseries the Differential output voltage=V1-V2

 The magnetic flux linking with coils changes wrt the position of the core. 5

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI

 Displacement Measurement
•Linear Voltage Differential Transducer (LVDT)
 When the core is at its normal position , the flux linking with both the secondary
windings is equal the output of the transducer is zero.
 The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the
amount of movement of core.

 The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function of core displacement within a

limited range of motion.

 If the core is moved to the left of the NULL position , more flux links with windings S1
and less with S2 ,so the output V1 of the coil 1 is greater than V2.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 7
 Displacement Measurement
Linear Voltage Differential Transducer (LVDT)

Advantages of LVDT

 Used for displacements ranging from 1.25 mm to 250 mm.

 Friction and electrical isolation.
 High input and high sensitivity.
 Low hysteresis.
 Low power consumption.

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 Displacement Measurement
•Linear Voltage Differential Transducer (LVDT)
•Disadvantages of LVDT

 The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of core and electrically by the
frequency of applied voltage.

 The temp. effects the performance of the transducer.

 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields, but shielding is possible.

 The transducer performance is affectedby vibration.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 9
 Displacement Measurement
•Linear Voltage Differential Transducer(LVDT)
•Applications of LVDT

 Measurement and control of thickness of a metal sheet being rolled.

 Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used as device to measure force, weight and
pressure etc.

 The force measurement can be made by using a load cell (with LVDT) as the primary
transducer while fluid pressure can be measured by using Bourdontube.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 10

 Displacement Measurement
Ccapacitive Ttransducers

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 11

 Displacement Measurement
•Capacitive Transducers

The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon theequation=C=εA/d

 ε is the permittivity of medium
 d= distance between twoplate
A= Overlapping area of plates
Change of capacitance caused by

 (1) Change in overlappingarea.

 (2) Change in the distance “d” between twoplates.
 (3)PRASEED
Change in dielectric constant.
KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 12
 Displacement Measurement
 Capacitive Transducers

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 13

 Displacement Measurement

• Capacitive Transducers

 Transducers using change in area ofplates.

 The capacitance changes linearly with change in area of plates.
 Useful for measurement of moderate to large displacements say from 1 mm to
several cm.

 There isa linear relationship between capacitance and displacement.

 The principle of change of resistance with change in area can be employed for
measurement of angular displacement.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 14
Capacitive Ttransducers Displacement Measurement
 By changing the distance between the capacitive two plates:

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 15

 Displacement Measurement
•Capacitive Transducers
•Transducers using change in Dielectricconstant

 This type of transducer operates by the variation in the relative permittivity of the dielectric
material placed between the plates.

 The motion of dielectric material between the plates determines the capacitance in order to
determine the displacement.

 This capacitance, calibrated against the input quantity, directly gives the value of the quantity
to be measured.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 16
 Displacement Measurement
•Capacitive Transducers
•Transducers using change in Dielectricconstant

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 17

 Displacement Measurement

•Capacitive Transducers

 This principle can also be used for measurement of humidity and moisture
content ofthe air.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 18

 Displacement Measurement
Capacitive Transducers
Advantage of capacitivetransducers

 (1) They are extremely sensitive

 (2) Good frequency response

 (3) The force requirement of capacitive transduces is very small and therefore they
require less power to operate.
 A resolution of 2.5×10-3 cm canbe obtained.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 19

 Displacement Measurement
•Digital Encoding Transducers
 (1) TachometerTransducers
 (2) Incremental Transducers
 (3) Absolute Transducers

•`1. Tachometer Transducers

 Has only a single output signal which consists of a pulse for each increment of
displacement.
 If the motion is always in one direction , a digital counter could accumulate these pulses
to determine the displacement from a startingpoint.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 20

 Displacement Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 21

 Displacement Measurement

 Any transducer that generates a coded reading of a measurement can be termed an encoder.

 Shaft Encoders are digital transducers that are used for measuring angular
displacements and velocities.

 Shaft Encoders can be classified into two categories depending on the nature and method
of interpretation of theoutput:

 – IncrementalEncoders

 – AbsoluteEncoders
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 22
 Displacement Measurement
Incremental Encoders
 Output is a pulse signal that is generated when the transducer disk rotates as a result of the
motion that is being measured.

 By counting pulses or by timing the pulse width using a clock signal, both angular
displacementand angular velocity can bedetermined.
 Displacement, however, is obtained with respect to some reference point on the disk,
as indicated by a reference pulse (index pulse) generated at that location on thedisk.
 The index pulse count determines the number of full.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 23

 Displacement Measurement
•Absolute Encoders
 An absolute encoder has many pulse tracks on its transducer disk.

 When the disk of an absolute encoder rotates, several pulse trains – equal in number
to the tracks on the disk are generatedsimultaneously

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 24

 Displacement Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 25

 Displacement Measurement
•Optical Encoder.
 An optical encoder is an electromechanical device which has an electrical output in
digital form proportional to the angular position of the input shaft.

 Optical encoders enable an angular displacement to be converted directly into a digital

form.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 26

 Displacement Measurement

Elements of the OpticalEncoder

 The optical encoder uses an opaque disk (code disk) that has one or more circular
tracks, with some arrangement of identical transparent windows (slits) in each track.

 A parallel beam of light (e.g., from a set of light emitting diodes) is projected
to all tracks from one side of the disk.

 The transmitted light is picked off using a bank of photo sensors on the other side
of the disk.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 28

 Displacement Measurement
Pneumatic Transducer
 The most commonly used pneumatic transducer is called nozzle flapper.

 It consists of a nozzle supplied with pressurized air through an orifice restriction.

 The air is ejected from the nozzle towards the flapper.

 The flapper is positioned against the nozzle opening and the nozzle back pressure ‘pb’ is
controlled by the nozzle flapper distance, “x”.

 As the flapper approaches the nozzle the resistance to the flow of air through the nozzle
increase with the result that the nozzle back pressure increase.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 29
 Displacement Measurement
Pneumatic Transducer
 The most commonly used pneumatic transducer is called nozzle flapper.

 It consists of a nozzle supplied with pressurized air through an orifice restriction.

 The air is ejected from the nozzle towards the flapper.

 The flapper is positioned against the nozzle opening and the nozzle back pressure ‘pb’ is
controlled by the nozzle flapper distance, “x”.

 As the flapper approaches the nozzle the resistance to the flow of air through the nozzle
increase with the result that the nozzle back pressure increase.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 30
 Displacement Measurement
 Thus the movement 'x' of the flapper causes proportional change in the nozzle
back pressure 'Pb 'if the supply pressure Ps is constant.

 If the nozzle is completely closed by the flapper, the nozzle back pressure Pb
becomes equal to the supply pressure ‘Ps’ .
 If the flapper is moved away from the nozzle so that nozzle flapper
distance is madewider.

 Thus the flapper valve converts small changes in the position of the flapper
in to larger changes in the back pressure.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 31

 Displacement Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 32

 Displacement Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 33

 Strain Measurement
 If a metal conductor is stashed or compressed , its resistance changes on account of the
fact that the diameter and length of the wire changes.

 When the gauge is subjected to positive strain , its length increases , diameter decreases.

 Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional

to its area of cross section.

 The resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 34

 Strain Measurement
 . The strain is connected to a Wheatstone bridge circuit for the measurement purpose.

 The change in resistance is proportional to applied strain and is measured by measuring

the output voltage of the bridge circuit.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 35

 Strain Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 36

 Strain Measurement.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 37

 Strain Measurement
 . Rx is the resistance of the strain gauge element , R2 is the balancing resistor , R1 and R3 are constant
resistors.

 The measured deformation or displacement by the strain gauge is calibrated against the change in the
resistance of the adjustable resistance R2which makes the voltage across node A and B equals to zero.

 The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a characteristic called ,Gauge Factor (Gf),
and is defines as the ratio of unit change in resistance to unit change in length.

 The Gauge Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However, the semiconductor
type strain gages have a very large Gauge Factor, in the range of 100-150.

 This is attained due to dominant piezo-resistance property of semiconductors

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 38

 Strain Measurement
 The commercially available strain gauges have certain fixed resistance values, such as, 120Ω, 350
Ω, 1000 Ω, etc.
 The manufacturer also specifies the Gauge Factor and the maximum gauge current to avoid self
heating (normally in the range 15 mA to 100 mA).

 The choice of material for a metallic strain gauge should depend on several factors.

 The material should have low temperature coefficient of resistance. It should also have low
coefficient for thermal expansion.

 Advance (Constant)(55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gauge Factor between 2.0 to 2.2.

 Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Cr): Gauge Factor between 2.2 to 2.5

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 39

 Strain Measurement
Types of Strain Gauges

 Unbounded type metal strain gauges

 Bounded type metal strain gauges

 Bonded type foil strain gauges

 Semi conductor strain gauges

 Vacuum deposited thin metal strain gauges

 Diffused metal strain gauges

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 40

 Strain Measurement
Types of Strain Gauges

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 41

 Strain Measurement
Types of Strain Gauges

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 Strain Measurement
Types of Strain Gauges
 Most of the strain gages are metallic type.

 Unbounded strain gauge is normally used for measuring strain (or displacement) between
a fixed and a moving structure by fixing four metallic wires in such a way, so that two are
in compression and two are in tension, as shown in fig. 6 (a).

 On the other hand, in the bonded strain gauge, the element is fixed on a backing material,
which is permanently fixed over a structure, whose strain has to be measured, with
adhesive.

 Most commonly used bonded strain gauges are metal foil type.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 43

 Strain Measurement
Types of Strain Gauges
Semiconductor type Strain Gauge
 Semiconductor type strain gauge is made of a thin wire of silicon, typically 0.005 inch to
0.0005 inch, and length 0.05 inch to 0.5 inch. They can be of two types: p-type and n-type.
 In the former the resistance
increases with positive strain, while,
in the later the resistance increases
with negative strain

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 44

 Strain Measurement
Types of Strain Gauges
 Normal strain experienced by a strain gauge is in the range of micro-strain.

 So if a single strain gauge is connected to a Wheatstone bridge circuit, with three fixed
resistance, the bridge output is going to be linear.

 But still single strain gauge is never used in a wheat stone bridge .

 This is not because of improving linearity, But for obtaining temperature compensation.

 If two identical strain gauges are fixed to the same structure one measuring compressional
strain, and other tensile strain and connected to the adjacent arms of the wheat stone
bridge temperature compensation can be obtained.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 45

 Strain Measurement
Types of Strain Gauges
 In fact all the four arms of the bridge can be formed by four active strain gauges.
 This will improve the sensitivity further.
 A typical bridge circuit with four active strain gauges is shown in the fig

 e0 =[ε1+ ε3 - ε2 - ε4 ] Gf e1

where ε1 , ε2 ε3 ε4 are the strains developed

with appropriate signs.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 46

 Strain Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 47

 Strain Measurement

For excellent and reproducible result

 Strain gauge should have high Gauge factor.
 The resistance of the strain gauge should be as high as possible since this minimizes the
undesirable variations of resistance in the measuring circuit.

 The strain gauge should have low resistance temp. coefficient.

 Should have linear characteristics.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 48

 Strain Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 49

 Strain Measurement
Temperature Compensation

 Resistive type strain gauges are sensitive to temperature variations.

 Therefore it becomes necessary to account for variations in the strain gauge resistance
 which occurs because of temperature variation.

Temperature cancellation techniques

(1)Use of adjacent arm balancing

(1)Self compensation

(1) Use of special external control circuitry

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 50
 Strain Measurement
Temperature compensation

(1)Use of adjacent arm balancing

Use of dummy gauge

 Temperature is a interfering input and there is an output on account of
Changes in temperature even if there is no input strain.

 This is eliminated by using dummy gauge in the adjacent arms of the Wheatstone bridge.
Use of dummy gauge

The bridge is initially balanced by having

[R1 / R3 ] = [R2 / R4 ]
Suppose a change in temperate occurs ,and resistance of active and dummy strain gauges
change by ΔR1 and ΔR2 respectively.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 51
 Strain Measurement
In order that there should be no output the bridge should be balanced.
R1 + ΔR1 = R2 + ΔR2
R3 R4

ΔR1 = ΔR2 ,
Let R3 = R4 ,
R3 R4
For bridge balance ΔR1 = ΔR2

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 Strain Measurement
 Let the dummy gauge (R2 )and active strain gauge (R1 ) values are equal and place in the same
 environment there will be no output changes due to change in temperature.

Use of two Active strain gauges in adjacent arm

 In certain applications , where equal and opposite strains are know to exist , it is possible to attach
two similar gauges where on a gauge will experience positive strain and other one negative strain.

 Two gauges are mounted on the cantilever beam.

 Rg1 is on the top of the cantilever beam and experience tension while Rg3 will experience compression.
 Temperature effects are cancelled out by having R2 = R4 and using identical gauges in the
opposite arms of the bridge circuit.

 The bridge arrangement having two active gauges is called half bride arrangement
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 53
 Strain Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 54

 Strain Measurement
 Let the dummy gauge (R2 )and active strain gauge (R1 ) values are equal and place in the same
environment there will be no output changes due to change in temperature.

Use of two Active strain gauges in adjacent arm

 In certain applications , where equal and opposite strains are know to exist , it is possible to attach
two similar gauges where on a gauge will experience positive strain and other one negative strain.

 Two gauges are mounted on the cantilever beam.

 Rg1 is on the top of the cantilever beam and experience tension while Rg3 will experience
compression.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 55

 Strain Measurement
 Temperature effects are cancelled out by having R2 = R4 and using identical gauges in the opposite ar
bridge circuit.

 The bridge arrangement having two active gauges is called half bride arrangement.

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 Strain Measurement
Use of two active strain gauges

𝐺𝑓 × 𝑒𝑖
 e0 = ×ε
2

 𝑒𝑖 is the input voltage to the bridge circuit.

 ε is the strain

 e0 is the bridge output voltage.

 𝐺𝑓 is the Gauge factor.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 57
 Strain Measurement
Use of four active strain gauges
 A cantilever beam having four active strain gauges .

 All the four strain gauges having equal resistances and identical.

 When strained the resistance of gauge 1 and gauge 4 becomes R (1+ΔR/R) and gauge 2 and 3 R (1-Δ
 The arrangement is called full bridge configuration and thus temperature
compensation can be obtained.

 e0 =Gf e1 ε

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 Strain Measurement
Use of four active strain gauges
Poisson's Method

 Temperature compensation utilizes two active gauges Rg1 and Rg3 which are bonded
at right angles to the structure member.

 Measuring gauge Rg1 is in tension , but gauge Rg3 reduces length depending up on poison's
ratio, in the adjacent arm of the bridge.

 The advantage of possions method is that in addition to temperature compensation the output
of the bridge circuit is increased by a factor of (1+ɤ)

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 59

 Strain Measurement
Use of four active strain gauges

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 60

 Strain Measurement
Use of four active strain gauges
Self Temperature Compensation
 In many application it may be difficult to obtain temperature compensation by using dummy
 gauge or other techniques.

There are two types of self-compensated techniques

Selected Melt Gauge

 Through proper manipulation of alloy and processing , usually through cold working ,
 some control over the temperature sensitivity of the grid material may be obtained.

 Both wire and foil grid materials may be prepared which show very slow apparent strain variation
 with temperature. Fe/Cr/Al-alloy wire

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 Strain Measurement
Dual Element Gauge

 Two wire elements are connected in series to make one strain gauge assembly.

Two elements have different temperature characteristics and are so chosen

that the net strain produced on account of temperature changes is minimized.

 when the gauge is mounted on the test specimen.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 62

 Strain Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 63

 Force and Torque Measurement
Proving Ring (Force Measurement)
 Proving Rings can be used for measurement of both compressional and tensile forces.

 The advantage of a Proving Ring is that, because of its construction more strain can be developed
compared to a load cell.

 The typical construction of a Proving Ring is shown in the fig.

 It consists of a hollow cylindrical beam of radius R, thickness t and axial

width b.

The two ends of the ring are fixed with the structures between which force is
measured.

Proving Ring
F = 16
π
𝐸𝐼 𝑌
4
× 1
F= Force, Y- Deflection, E-Young’s Modulus
− 𝐷2
2 π
I-Moment of inertia - D-Outer diameter
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 64
 Force and Torque Measurement

Cantilever Beam (Force Measurement)

 Cantilever beam can be used for measurement up to 10 kg of weight. One end of the cantilever is fixed,
while the other end is free; load is applied at this end.
 The strain developed at the fixed end is given by the expression:
Where ,
l= Length of the beam
t = Thickness of the cantilever beam
b = Width of the beam

E = Young's modulus of the material

ε= 6 𝐹𝐼2
𝐸𝑏𝑡
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 65
 Force and Torque Measurement
Cantileer Beam
 The strain developed can be measured by fixing strain gages at the fixed end:
 Two on the top side of the beam, measuring tensile strain +ε and two on the bottom
measuring compressional strain.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 66

 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement

Torque Measurement

 Four bonded strain gauge are mounted on a 45° helix with axis of rotation and
place in pairs diametrically opposite.

 If gauges are accurately placed and have matched characteristics , the system is
temperature compensated and insensitive to bending .

 Any change in the resistance is purely due to torsion of the shaft , hence torque
can be determined by change in voltage which can be written as
𝒆 𝑱∗𝑬
T=
𝑽∗𝑲 𝑹(𝟏−𝜸)
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 67
 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement

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 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement
Torque transducers based on strain measurement are normally made by applying strain gauges
to a shaft to measure the shear strain caused by torsion.
The shear stress causes strains to appear at 45° to the longitudinal axis of the shaft. So, the
strain gauges must be placed precisely at 45° to the shaft axis as shown in fig.

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 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement
 Otherwise, the arrangement is sensitive to bending and axial stresses in addition to those
caused by torsion. The output is increased by using four gauges so that the adjacent arms
have strains of opposite nature.
 Also this arrangement provides complete thermal compensation. For taking signals in and
out of the rotating shaft, slip rings and brushes are used.

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 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 71

 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 72

 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 73

 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque measurement using strain gauges.

Dynamic measurement of torque transmitted by a

rotating shaft is based up on the angular displacement of
the shaft.

 T= (ΠGD3θ)/ 16

 The strain is sensed and measured.

 The strain measurements are then interpreted in terms of torque by proper calibration.

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 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement using strain gauges
 G= Modulus of rigidity , N/M2

 R= Outer radius of the shaft , m

 r=Inner radius of the shaft

 L= Length of the shaft , m

 Θ = Angular deflection of the shaft , rad

 The strain gauges attached at 45 degree to the axis of the shaft will have

e
45
= TR / πG(R4 –r4)
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 75
 Force and Torque Measurement
Torque Measurement using starin gauges

 Strain may be measured using strain gauges.

The gauges should be so mounted that they give maximum sensitivity to the strains by
torsion. This arrangement has the advantages that is fully temperature compensated ,
provides automatic compensation for bending and axial loads and gives maximum
sensitivity for a given torque.

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 Load Cell
Tensile –Compressive Cell
 This arrangement uses four strain gauges each mounted at 90 degree to each other.

 To of strain gauges experience tensile stresses while the other two are subjected to
compressive stresses.

 The output voltage of the bridge with two sets of gauges mounted at mounted 90
degree to each other is

𝐺𝑓 ε 𝑒𝑖
 e0 = (1+γ)
2

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 77

 Load Cell

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 78

 Load Cell
Tensile –compressive Cell
 In case od a cylinder an axial compressive load causes a negative strain in the vertical
gauges and a positive strain in the circumferential gauges.
 The two strains are not equal.
 They are related to each other by a factor, γ, the poissons ratio.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 84

 Load Cell
Tensile –compressive Cell

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 85

 Load Cell
Tensile –compressive Cell

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 86

 Load Cell
Tensile –compressive Cell

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 87

 Load Cell
Tensile –compressive Cell
Cantilever beam can be used for measurement up to 10 kg of weight. One end of the
cantilever is fixed, while the other end is free; load is applied at this end as shown in the fig.
12.
 The strain developed at the fixed end is given by the expression:

where,
l = length of the beam
t = thickness of the cantilever
b = width of the beam
E = Young’s modulus of the material

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 88

 Load Cell

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 89

 Vibrometers and Accelerometers

Strain Gauge Accelerometers

 The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose acceleration is to be measured.

 Due to the vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass occurs, causing the cantilever
beam to be strained.
 Hence the strain gauges mounted on the cantilever beam are also strained and due to this
their resistance change.
 Hence a measure of this change in resistance of the strain gauge becomes a measure of the
extent to which the cantilever beam is strained.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 85

 Vibrometers and Accelerometers

.
Strain Gauge Accelerometers

 But the resulting strain of the cantilever beam is proportional to the vibration/acceleration and hence a
measure of the change in resistance of the strain gauges becomes a measure ofvibration/acceleration.

 The leads of the strain gauges are connected to a wheat stone bridge whose output is calibrated in terms
of vibration/acceleration.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 86

 Vibrometers and Accelerometers

Strain Gauge Accelerometers

A strain gauge is mounted on each side of the cantilever beam in order to sense the strain in the beam resulting
from the vibrational displacement of the mass.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 87

 Vibrometers and Accelerometers

Strain Gauge Accelerometers

 Damping is provided by completely filling the housing with a viscous fluid.

 The output of the gauges is connected to an appropriate Wheatstone bridge , whose output
indicated the relative displacement of the mass with respect to the housing frame.
 Advantages of Strain gauge accelerometer
 Strain gage accelerometers are preferred in high shock applications.
 They can measure accelerations down to zero Hertz

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 88

 Vibrometers and Accelerometers

Pieze Electric Accelerometer

When a force F is applied to a piezo- electric transducers it develops a charge Q= dF coulomb

Where d= charge sensitivity of crystal

 Through incorporation of a mass m, in direct with crystal, we have essential components of an

acceleration transducer.
 By applying a varying acceleration to the mass crystal assembly , the crystal experiences a varying
force.
 The force is given by F= m ×a

 The force generates a varying charge Q=dF

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 89
 Vibrometers and Accelerometers

 Through incorporation of a mass m, in direct with crystal, we have essential components of an acceleration
transducer.
 By applying a varying acceleration to the mass crystal assembly , the crystal experiences a varying force.
 The force is given by F= m ×a

 The force generates a varying charge Q=dF

.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 90

 Vibrometers and Accelerometers

 Suppose a crystal has a capacitance C, the no load output voltage is

e0 = Q/C

 The output voltage is the measure of acceleration.

Salient features

 The instrument is quite small in size and has a small weight.

 The natural frequency is very high.

 These accelerometers are useful for high input frequencies and their response is poor at low frequencies.
 Self-generating - no external power required

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 91

 Vibrometers and Accelerometers

Major applications of piezoelectric accelerometers include:

 Engine testing - Combustion and dynamic stressing.

 Industrial/factory - Machining systems, metal cutting, and machine health monitoring .

 Original equipment, machine tools, engines, flexible structures, and shock/vibration testers.

 Engineering - Dynamic response testing, shock and vibration isolation, auto chassis structural testing,
structural analysis, reactors, control systems.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 92

 Pressure Measurement

 The main properties of fluids, which are considered in real-time applications are
pressure, velocity and temperature.
 Pressure and temperatures play a major role in the fields of pipeline constructions, water
supply, hydraulics for irrigation, thermal power, hydraulic power, aviation.
 Fluids under pressure can exert forces that can be used by us to do work.
 Fluids form the basis for pneumatic and hydraulic systems which are used in industries
such as automobile manufacturing, hoists found in service stations, aeronautics,
submarines, the shipping industry etc.
Elastic Pressure Transducer's
 Are used for measurement of very high pressures up to 700MN/M2 .

 The action of these mechanical transducers depends up on the displacement caused by

pressure.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 93
 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 94

 Pressure Measurement

Bourdon Tube
 The bourdon tubes find application because of their simple design an low cost.
 There are three type of Bourdon elements.
 C Type
 The tube which is oval in section is formed in to an arc of 250˚.
 One end of the tube is sealed and is attached by a light link to a mechanism which operates
a pointer.
 The other end is fixed to a socket where the pressure to be measure is applied.
 The internal pressure tends to change the section of the tube.
 The movement of the tip is ideally proportional to the pressure applied.
 The tip is connected to a gear and pinion arrangement through a mechanical link ,
which amplifies the displacement of tip and converts in to deflection of the pointer.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 95
 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 96

 Pressure Measurement

A typical C type Bourdon tube has

Radius = 25 mm, tube wall thickness = 0.254 to 1.27 mm.

Maximum displacement travel = 4 mm.

Error= 1% full scale deflection.

Typical range = 0.1 to 700 MPa.

Material used is Bronze, copper , steel , Alloy steel

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 97

 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 98

 Pressure Measurement

Spiral Type
 Displacement indirectly proportional to the wall thickness of the tube and directly proportional to the length
or include angle.
 An increased displacement of the free end can be obtained by the number of turns in the spiral there by
avoiding the need for further magnification.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 99

 Pressure Measurement

 The gear sector and pinion arrangement is not used.

 The absence of gear sector and pinion arrangement eliminates the backlash.
 When the pressure is applied to the spiral , it tends to uncoil producing a relatively long
movement of the tip.
 The accuracy of the spiral tube elements is higher than C type elements.
 When the pressure to be measured is applied to the spiral , it tends to uncoil producing
a relatively long movement of the tip whose displacement can be used for indication

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 100

 Pressure Measurement

Helical Type
 Coil is wound in the form of a helix.
 The displacement of the tip of a helical element is larger than that of the spiral element.
 Usually a central shaft is installed within a helical element and the pointer is driven from this shaft by
connecting links.
 The number of coils employed in
helix elements depend up on the
pressure to be measured.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 101

 Pressure Measurement
Materials used for Bourdon tubes
 Brass, alloy steel, stainless steel, phosphor bronze, etc
 Phosphor bronze is used for in low pressure applications where the atmosphere is non-
corrosive.
 Pressure gauges using Bourdon tube elements are made with ranges from 760 mm of
mercury to 700 Mpa.
Applications of Bourdon Pressure Gauge :-
 They are used to measure medium to very high pressures.

 For measuring high pressures e.g. in steam boilers, compressors.

 For measuring pressures in vehicles tube tire.

 Process and chemical industries.

 Gas distribution.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 102
 Pressure Measurement
Materials used for Bourdon tubes
 Brass, alloy steel, stainless steel, phosphor bronze, etc
 Phosphor bronze is used for in low pressure applications where the atmosphere is non-
corrosive.
 Pressure gauges using Bourdon tube elements are made with ranges from 760 mm of
mercury to 700 Mpa.
Applications of Bourdon Pressure Gauge :-
 They are used to measure medium to very high pressures.

 For measuring high pressures e.g. in steam boilers, compressors.

 For measuring pressures in vehicles tube tire.

 Process and chemical industries.

 Gas distribution.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 103
 Pressure Measurement
Bellows
 A series of circular parts which are joined together in such a way that they are expand or
contracted axially by changes in pressure.
 The metal used in construction of bellows must be thin enough to be flexible, and have
high resistance to fatigue failure.
 Material commonly used are brass, bronze,
alloys of nickel and copper, steel etc.

Number of convolutions varies between 5

to 20.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 104

 Pressure Measurement

pA= kx

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 105

 Pressure Measurement
Diaphragms

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 106

 Pressure Measurement
Diaphragms
 The pressure to be measured is applied to the diaphragm, causing it to
deflect, the deflection being proportional to the applied pressure.

 The movement of the diaphragm depends on its thickness and dia.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 107

 Pressure Measurement

 The maximum deflection , dm and the deflection at any radius dr are given by

They can be used for the measurement of dynamic pressures of higher

frequency fluctuations

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 108

 Pressure Measurement
DiaphragmsDiaphragms

 In some cases a diagram element consists of two or more capsules connected together
with each capsule deflecting on the application of pressure.

 Total deflection is the sum of the deflections of individual capsules.

 Individual capsule is connected to axially with the next one and is allowed to expand
without any constraints

 The diaphragm elements find extensive use in applications where measurements of low
pressure including vaccum is involved.

 Material used for diagrams include phosphor bronze, stainless steels, beryllium copper,
nickel etc
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 109
 Pressure Measurement

DiaphragmsDiaphragms

 In some cases a diagram element consists of two or more capsules connected together
with each capsule deflecting on the application of pressure.

 Total deflection is the sum of the deflections of individual capsules.

 Individual capsule is connected to axially with the next one and is allowed to expand without
any constraints

 The diaphragm elements find extensive use in applications where measurements of low
pressure including vaccum is involved.

 Material used for diagrams include phosphor bronze, stainless steels, beryllium copper,
nickel etc
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 110
 Pressure Measurement

Diaphragms

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 111

 Pressure Measurement

Diaphragms
A diaphragm gauge is constructed of spring steel to measure differential pressure of 7 MN/m2.The diameter of
diaphragm is 12.5cm. Calculate the thickness of diaphragm, if the maximum defection is 0.33 of thickness. Also
calculate the natural frequency of diaphragm. Given young's modulus = 200 GN/M2, Poisson's ratio = 0.28 and
density of steel = 7800kg/m3 .

4
Maximum deflection= 3𝑃𝑅 (1−γ2)
16𝐸𝑡3
4
3𝑃𝑅 (1−γ2)
t/3 =
16𝐸𝑡3
t=0.408 mm

𝐸 (1−γ2)
Natural frequency = 2.5𝑡2 = 35.66 𝐾ℎ𝑍.
π𝑅 3ρ

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 112

 Pressure Measurement

Piezoelectric Transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers produce an emf when they are deformed by a displacement.

 The pressure to be measured is converted in to a displacement through use of force

summing devices there by causing a deformation of the piezoelectric crystal.

 The emf is an indicative of pressure applied.

 They are most useful where pressure changes occur frequently.

 Quartz is the most commonly used crystal for piezoelectric transducers.

 is used where pressure changes occur frequently.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 113

 Pressure Measurement

Piezoelectric Transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers produce an emf when they are deformed by a displacement.
 The pressure to be measured is converted in to a displacement through use of force
summing devices there by causing a deformation of
the piezoelectric crystal.

 The emf is an indicative of pressure applied.

 They are most useful where pressure changes occur frequently.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 114

 Pressure Measurement

Diaphragms

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 115

 Pressure Measurement

Piezoelectric Transducers
 Quartz is the most commonly used crystal for piezoelectric transducers.
 is used where pressure changes occur frequently.
Advantages
 Suitable for dynamic measurements.
 They are small in size.
 Negligible phase shift between input and output.
Dis advantages
 They are not suitable for static measurements.
 Sensitivity to temp. changes.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 116

 Pressure Measurement

Low Pressure(vacuum) Measurements

 The vacuum pressure gauges are used for measurement of pressure below that of
atmosphere and this pressure is called vacuum.
 Two commonly used units of vacuum measurement are the torr and the micrometer.
 One torr is equivalent to 1mm Hg at standard conditions.
 One micrometer is 10-3 torr.

McLEOD Gauge
 It is essentially manometer and use mercury as the manometric fluid.
 The principle of working of a McLeod gauge is the compression of a sample of the low pressure
gas.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 117

 Pressure Measurement

McLEOD Gauge
 It is essentially manometer and use mercury as the manometric fluid.
 The principle of working of a McLeod gauge is the compression of a sample of the
low pressure gas.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 118

 Pressure Measurement

McLEOD Gauge
 Plunger is withdrawn , lowering the level of mercury below the opening thereby admitting the gas at the
unknown pressure “p”.
 Let the volume of the gas admitted in to the measuring capillary and the bulb be “V”.
 It is then slowly raised till the level of the manometer liquid in the reference capillary matches with the zero
mark in the stem.
 This operation compresses the trapped gas to a volume Vc and pressure Pc equivalent to the head y indicated
by the manometer as shown in fig.

 The corresponding volume of the gas is given by Vc= ay

 Where a is the area of cross section of the capillary tube.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 119

 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 120

 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 121

 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 122

 Pressure Measurement
AMcLeod gauge has Vb= 100 cm3 and a capillary diamter of 1 mm. Calculate the pressure indicated by the reading of 4
cm.
What error would result if we use
2
𝑎𝑦 2
p=𝑎𝑦 instead of p=
(𝑉𝑏) (𝑉𝑏−𝑎 𝑦 )

W e have a=(π/4) (12) = 0.785 mm2

y = 4 cm = 40 mm Vb =100 cm2 = 104 mm2
2
p= 𝑎 𝑦 = 0.1256 mm of Hg.
(𝑉𝑏)

𝑎𝑦 2
p= = 0.1260 mm of Hg.
(𝑉𝑏−𝑎 𝑦 )

Error = [0.1256-0.1260)/0.1256] *100 = 0.32 %

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 123

 Pressure Measurement
A McLeod gauge has volume of bulb 𝑉 𝑏 = 100× 10 − 6 m3 and a measuring capillary diamter of 1 mm. Calculate the
pressure indicated when the reading of measuring capillary is 30 mm in case approximate formula is used. What is the
error if the exact formula is used for measurement of pressure.

We have a=(π/4) (12) = 0.785 mm2 = 0.785× 10 − 6 m

y = 30 mm = 30× 10 − 3 m Vb =100× 10 − 6 m3
2
pressure= 𝑎 𝑦 = 7.06× 10 − 6 m = 7.06 μ m
(𝑉𝑏)

𝑎𝑦 2
Using exact formula , pressure , p= (𝑉𝑏−𝑎 𝑦 ) = 7.08 μ m

Error = 7.08-7.06 = 0.02 μm of Hg

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 124

 Pressure Measurement

Measurement of High Pressure(Bridgeman gauge)

 Pressure up o about 700Mpa can be measured with strain gauge cells or bourdon tubes.
 Bridgeman gauge employs fine wire of manganin (84 Cu + 12 Mn + 4 Ni) chrome.
 The wire is wound in the form of a coil enclosed in a pressure container filled with kerosene
oil.
 It is known that resistance of fine wires changes with pressure according to the following
linear relationship.
 R = R1(1+bΔp)

 Where, R = Resistance at a pressure of 1 atm., ohms, b = The pressure coefficient of

resistance, and ∆p = Change in pressure

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 125

 Pressure Measurement

 A pressure transducer based upon this principle is called a Bridgman gauge.

 The sensing element does not actually contact the process medium but
is separated there from by a kerosene-filled bellows.
 One end of the sensing coil is connected to a central terminal, as shown, while the other is
grounded, thereby
completing the necessary electrical circuit.
 The fine wire used in a typical gauge is made of Manganin
 Manganin has pressure coefficient of resistance 25 × 10-12 Pa-1 and the total resistance of
the wire is 100
ohms.

 Manganin in many applications as it has low resistance

temperature coefficient which is one half of Manganin and therefore, its use
results in lower errors on account of temperature changes.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 126
 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 127

 Pressure Measurement
This gauge claims the following advantages

A resistance wire Bridgman gauge is made of manganin which has a resistance pressure co-efficient of 25 × 10 -12 Pa-
1 . This gauge has a resistance of 100 ohm at a pressure of 1 atm, and is connected in one of the wheat stone bridge
whose other arms have a resistance of 100 ohm each. The input voltage applied to the bridge is 5 v and then output is
connected to a detector of very high resistance, calculate the voltage output of the bridge when measuring a pressure
of 70000MPa , atmospheric pressure is 1000 kPa.
Change in pressure = ΔP = (7000 × 103 – 100× 103 )= 6900× 103 Pa

Change in the value of resistance on account of change in pressure

−
ΔR = R bΔp = 100× 25 × 10 12 × 6900 × 103 =0.01725 Ω
1

Δ𝑅 0.01725
Output voltage =Δe0 =4𝑅 ei = × 5𝑉 = 215.6μ𝑉.
4×100

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 128

 Pressure Measurement

Thermal Conductivity Gauges

 Used for low pressure measurement.

 A thermal conductivity gauge works on the following principle.

 The temperature of a given wire through which an electric current is flowing depends on two
factors:
 1. The magnitude of current

 2.The rate at which heat is dissipated.

 The current can be kept constant and the rate at which heat is dissipated will depends on the
conductivity of the surrounding media.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 129
 Pressure Measurement

 If pressure is lowered, its conductivity will also reduce and the wire will become hotter for
given current flow.
 Thus it is seen that the temperature of the wire is directly dependent upon the pressure of
the surrounding medium.
 The most commonly used conductivity gauges are:

1. Thermocouple Gauge
2. Pirani Gauge.
3. Ionization Gauge

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 130

 Pressure Measurement

Thermocouple Gauge
 A thermocouple vacuum gauge operates on the principle that a low pressure the thermal
conductivity of a gas is a function of pressure.

 It consists of a heater element having a thermocouple in contact with its centers shown in
figure.

 The heater element and thermocouple are enclosed in a glass or metal envelope which
is sealed into the vacuum system.

 Cold surface is formed by the glass tube which is at the room temperature.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 131

 Pressure Measurement

Thermocouple Gauge
 Thermocouple provides an output voltage which is a function of the temperature of the
heated strip which in turn is a function of the pressure of the gas whose pressure is being
measured.

 The output voltage of the thermocouple is measured with the help of a voltmeter., whose
scale can be directly calibrated in terms of pressure being measured.

 The advantage of thermocouple is that they are inexpensive.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 132

 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 133

 Pressure Measurement

Advantages:
 Inexpensive
 Convenient and continuous reading
Possibility of process control
Disadvantages
 Required electric power
 Narrow reading range
Pirani Gauge
In this stage, the temperature of the wire is determined by measuring the change of
resistance.
 The Pirani gauge employs a single filament enclosed in a glass tube/chamber, whose
pressure is to be measured
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 134
 Pressure Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 135

 Pressure Measurement

 The surrounding pressure changes, the filament temperature and hence its resistance also
changes.
 A compensating cell is also employed to minimized variation caused by ambient temperature
changes.
 The resistance change of the filament in the measuring cell is measured by the use of a
resistance bridge which is calibrated in terms of pressure.
Fast response to changes in
pressure.
Advantages:
 Useful for measuring pressure ranging from 10× 10 − 6 to 1 torr.

 The pressure reading range is wider.

 Operation requires electrical power.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 136
 Pressure Measurement

 The surrounding pressure changes, the filament temperature and hence its resistance also
changes.
 A compensating cell is also employed to minimized variation caused by ambient temperature
changes.
 The resistance change of the filament in the measuring cell is measured by the use of a
resistance bridge which is calibrated in terms of pressure.
Fast response to changes in
pressure. Advantages:
 Useful for measuring pressure ranging from 10× 10 − 6 to 1 torr.

 The pressure reading range is wider.

Disadvantages:
 Calibration is non-linear.
 Poor transient
PRASEED response.
KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 137

 Operation requires electrical power.

 Pressure Measurement
Ionization Gauges

 An electron passing through an electric field produced by two electrodes acquires a kinetic
energy which is proportional to the potential difference between the two electrodes.

 When this electrons strikes a gas molecule and when this acquired energy is large enough ,
there is definite probability that the electron will drive an electron out of the molecule

leaving it a positively charged ion.

 The driven out electron is called a secondary electron.

 A stream of electron is emitted from a cathode.

 The number of positive ions formed is directly proportional to the gas pressure
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 138
 Pressure Measurement

Ionization Gauges
Ionization is the process of driving out free electron from an atom
 An electron passing through an electric field produced by two electrodes acquires a
kinetic energy which is proportional to the potential difference between the two
electrodes.

 When this electrons strikes a gas molecule and when this acquired energy is large
enough , there is definite probability that the electron will drive an electron out of the
molecule leaving it a positively charged ion.

 The driven out electron is called a secondary electron.

 Ie is the electron current.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 139

 Pressure Measurement

Ionization Gauges
Ionization is the process of driving out free electron from an atom

 The number of positive ions formed is directly proportional to electron current and
directly proportional to the gas pressure the gas pressure.

 Pressure α Ii
Pressure can be calibrated in terms of Ion current.
Disadvantage

 Some gases get decomposed by the hot filament.

 These gauges must be provide with automatic cut out in order to protect them in case of
system leak or break.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 140

 Pressure Measurement
Ionization Gauges

 Ion current is a direct measure of the pressure of gas.

 The positive ions are attracted by a negatively charged electrode , which collects them and
carry the ion-current.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 141

 Flow Measurement

 Accurate measurement of flow rate of liquids and gases is an essential requirement for
maintaining the quality of industrial processes.

 In fact, most of the industrial control loops control the flow rates of incoming liquids or
gases in order to achieve the control objective. As a result, accurate measurement of flow
rate is very important.

 Needless to say that there could be diverse requirements of flow measurement, depending
upon the situation.
 It could be volumetric or mass flow rate, the medium could be gas or liquid, the
measurement could be intrusive or nonintrusive, and so on.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 142

 Flow Measurement

Electromagnetic Flow Meter

 Electromagnetic flow meter is different from all other flow meters due to its uniqueness
on several accounts.
Advantages of this type of flow meter can be summarized as:
 It gives complete linear output in form of voltage.
 The output is unaffected by changes in pressure, temperature and viscosity of the fluid.
 Reverse flow can also be measured.
 Flow velocity as low as 10-6m/sec can be measured.
 Electromagnetic flow meters are suitable for measurement of velocity of conducting (Mercury)
and weakly conducting (water) liquid.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 143

 Flow Measurement

Electromagnetic Flow Meter

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 144

 Flow Measurement

It works on the principle of basic electromagnetic induction;

 i.e. when a conductor moves along a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of
flow, a voltage would be induced perpendicular to the direction of movement as also
to the magnetic filed.

 The flowing liquid acts like a conductor.

 External magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of the flow and two
electrodes are flushed on the wall of the pipeline as shown.

 The expression for the voltage induced is given by:

 e0 = Blv
 B – Magnetic Flux Density
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 145
 Flow Measurement

 where l is the length of the conductor (diameter d in this case) and v is the velocity of the liquid.
 The above expression shows the complete relationship between the voltage induced and the
velocity.

 When a disturbance is created in the flowing fluid, it generates sound waves that
propagates everywhere in the flow field.

 These waves travel faster in the flow direction (downstream) compared to the waves in the
upstream direction.
 As a result, the waves spread out downstream while they are tightly packed upstream. The
difference between the number of waves in upstream and downstream is proportional to
the flow velocity.
PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 146
 Flow Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 147

 Flow Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 148

 Flow Measurement

Applications of Electro Magnetic Flow Meters

 They can be used at construction sites of the flow measurement of slurries.

 They are useful at petroleum plants to measure the flow rate of combustible fuels.

 They are useful in measuring displacement of explosive liquids, paints, and

abrasives.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 149

 Flow Measurement

Ultrasonic Flow Meter

 The ultrasonic flow meters operate on this principle using sound waves in the
ultrasonic range (~1MHz).
 Advantages of ultrasonic flow meters such as easy installation, and negligible
pressure drop since it does not interfere the flow.
 The transit time flow meter (Fig.a) involves two transducers located at certain
distance (l) that alternatively transmits and receive ultrasonic sound waves, in
the direction of the flow as well as in the opposite direction.

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 150

 Flow Measurement

Ultrasonic Flow Meter

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 151

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files.com/65f854814fd223fc3678ea53/65f854814fd223fc3678fc2d_21
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https://www.eeplindia.com/images/Ultrasonic-Flow-Meter-Working-
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 Flow Measurement

PRASEED KUMAR, FCRIT, VASHI 153

 Flow Measurement

Applications
 These meters are used in wastewater and dirty liquid applications.
 These meters are used wherever chemical compatibility, less maintenance, and low-
pressure drop are required.

 This is one kind of device for volumetric flow measurement for liquids as well as gases.

Advantages
 It does not block the path of liquid flow.
 The dynamic response of this meter is good.
 There is no contact to liquid
 There is no leakage risk
 High accuracy

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Rotameter

 A simple, reliable and inexpensive device used for measuring flow rates for wide ranges
of liquids and gases.

 This device is easy to install with no electrical connections and gives a direct reading of
flow rate.

 It is known as variable area flow meter and also called as rotameter / float meter.

 It consists of a vertical tapered conical transparent tube made of glass/plastic with a

float/bob inside the tube as shown in Fig.

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Rotameter

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Rotameter
 A simple, reliable and inexpensive device used for measuring flow rates for wide
ranges of liquids and gases.
 This device is easy to install with no electrical connections and gives a direct reading of
flow rate.

 It is known as variable area flow meter and also called as rotameter / float meter.
 It consists of a vertical tapered conical transparent tube made of glass/plastic with a
float/bob inside the tube
as shown in
 The bob is free to move inside the tube and is heavier than the fluid it displaces.

 At any point of time, the float experiences three fundamental forces; drag, buoyancy and its
own weight.
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 With increase in flow velocity, the drag force increases and the flow velocity reduces with
increase in cross sectional area in the tapered tube.
 At certain velocity, the float settles at a location where enough drag (Fd )is generated to
balance the weight of the bob (Wb ) and buoyancy force (Fb).

 In other words, the net force acting on the bob is zero and thus it is in equilibrium for a
given flow rate.
 The degree of tapering of the tube can be made such that the vertical rise changes linearly
with the flow rate and a suitable scale outside the tube is fixed so that the flow rate can be
determined by matching the position of float
 At equilibrium state, the force balance on bob can be written by the following expression;

 By definition, all these forces terms can be expressed in the following form
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 where, Vb is the total volume of the bob,

 Ab is the frontal area of the bob,
 mu is the mean flow velocity in the annular space between the bob and tube,

 CD is the drag coefficient,

 g is the acceleration due to gravity,
 and ρf, ρb are the fluid density and float density.
 Both Eqns. (7.3.2 &7.3.3) can be combined to obtain the expression for m, u and
subsequently volume flow
rate (V).

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Chart Title
45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Series1 Series2 Series3 Series4

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 Here, A is the annular area, D is the diameter of the tube at inlet, d is the maximum bob diameter,

 y is the vertical distance from the entrance and

 a is the constant indicating the tube taper.

 Since the response of rotameter is linear, its resolution is same for both higher and lower flow rates.

 The accuracy for these types of devices is typically ±5%.

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Advantages of Rotameter
 No external power required – Rotameters are mechanical devices which do not require power to provide
flow measurement.
 Rotameters are cost effective.
 Simple to install and maintain.
 Repeatability
 The rotameter is used in process industries.
 It is used for monitoring gas and water flow in plants or labs

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Advantages of Rotameter
 Used for low flow rates.

 Accuracy range from ± 2 % of the full scale

 With repeatability about 0.25 % of reading.

 Can be used for liquid and gases

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Electromagnetic Flow Meter

 No obstruction to the flow
 Meter has wide linear range
 Response is
fast to flow changes
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
 No obstruction to the flow
 Linear relationship between input and output
 Excellent dynamics response
 Good accuracy , of the order of ± 2 percent of the full scale values.

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 Temperature Measurement

 The word temperature was coined to describe the degree of hotness or coolness of a material
body.
 From morning coffee to the changing of the seasons, temperature measurement is within
almost every aspect of our daily lives.
 Within the food and beverage industry, temperature control maintains quality, safety, and
outcome.
 Refrigerators, Cold storage , process industries.

 Temperature is the most important process variable that requires continuous measurement
and monitoring in a process industry.
 Among the different types of temperature transducers, the most
commonly used ones are RTDs and Thermocouples.

 Their popularity is mainly due to their ruggedness, repeatability and wide range of operation.
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Resistance Thermometers
 Is well known that resistance of metallic conductors increases with
temperature, while that of semiconductors generally decreases with
temperature.
 Resistance thermometers employing metallic conductors for temperature measurement are
called Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD), and those employing semiconductors are termed as
Thermistors.

 RTDs are more rugged and have more or less linear characteristics over a wide
temperature range.
On the other hand Thermistors have high temperature sensitivity, but nonlinear
characteristics.

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Resistance Thermometers

 The variation of resistance of metals with temperature is normally modeled in the form ,

 Where Rt and R0 are the resistance values at t ο C and t0ο C , α, β etc. are constants that
depends on the metal .
 For a small range of temperature, the expression can be approximated as ,

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

For small range of temperature , the expression can be approximated as ,

 Copper, Nickel and Platinum are mostly used as RTD materials.

 The range of temperature measurement is decided by the region, where the resistance-
temperature characteristics are approximately linear.

 The resistance versus temperature characteristics of these materials is shown in fig., with to
as 0oC.

 Platinum has a linear range of operation up to 650o C, while the useful range for
Copper and Nickel are 120oC and 300oC respectively
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Construction
 For industrial use, bare metal wires cannot be used for temperature measurement.
 They must be protected from mechanical hazards such as material decomposition, tearing
and other physical damages.
 The salient features of construction of an industrial RTD are as follows:
 The resistance wire is often put in a stainless steel well for protection against mechanical
hazards.

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Resistance Temperature
Detector Construction
 This is also useful from the point of view of maintenance, since a defective sensor can be
replaced by a good one while the plant is in operation.

 Heat conducting but electrical insulating materials like mica is placed in between the well
and the resistance material.
 The resistance wire should be carefully wound over mica sheet so that no strain is
developed due to length
expansion of the wire.

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Resistance Temperature Detector

Signal conditioning
 The resistance variation of the RTD can be measured by a bridge.
 But the major constraint is the contribution of the lead wires in the overall resistance measured.
 Since the length of the lead wire may vary, this may give a false reading in the temperature to be measured.
 There must be some method for compensation so that the effect of lead wires is resistance measured is
eliminated.
 This can be achieved by using either a three wire RTD, or a four wire RTD. Both the schemes of
measurement are shown in fig. 3

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Signal conditioning
 In three wire method one additional dummy wire taken from the resistance element and connected in a
bridge (fig. 3(a)) so that the two lead wires are connected to two adjacent arms of the bridge, thus
canceling each other’s effect.

 In fig. 3(b) the four wire method of measurement is shown.

 It is similar to a four terminal resistance and two terminals are used for injecting current, while two others
are for measuring voltage.

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Thermistor
 Thermistors are semiconductor type resistance thermometers.

 They have very high sensitivity but highly nonlinear characteristics.

 This can be understood from the fact that for a typical 2000 Ω the resistance change
at 25o C is 80Ω/o C, whereas for a 2000 Ω platinum RTD the change in resistance at
25oC is 7Ω/oC.

 Thermistors can be of two types: (a) Negative temperature coefficient (NTC)

thermistors and (b) Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) thermistors.

 Their resistance-temperature characteristics are shown in fig. 4(a) and 4(b)

respectively.

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 The NTC thermistors, they are made from oxides of iron, manganese, magnesium etc. Their characteristics
can be
 expressed as:

 Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (K)

 Where R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (K)

 β is a constant , depending up on the material.

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 Useful range of thermistors is normally 55 to +200oC.

 A single thermistor is not suitable for the whole range of measurement. Moreover,
existing thermistors are not interchangeable.

 The nonlinear negative temperature characteristics also give rise to error due to self-heating
effect.

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 This effect, if not tackled properly, may damage the thermistor permanently.
 Essentially, the current flowing should be restricted below the specified value to prevent this
damage.
 The nonlinear characteristics of thermistors often creates problem for temperature
measurement, and it is often desired to linearize the thermistor characteristics.
 This can be done by adding one fixed resistance parallel to the thermistor.

 The resistance temperature characteristics of the equivalent resistance would be more linear,
but at the cost of sensitivity.

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Applications of Thermistors

 To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine.

 Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats.

 To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers.

 To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and

processing industry equipment's.
 To controlthe operations of consumer appliances such as
toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc/

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Applications of Thermistors

Home Appliances:

HVAC Systems: They are used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
systems to regulate temperature and improve energy efficiency.

Water Heaters:

Thermistors help in maintaining the desired water temperature and preventing

overheating.
 toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc/

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 Temperature Measurement

 In 1820, Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when a metal bar is heated on one end,
a voltage (known as the Seebeck voltage) develops across the length of the bar.

 This voltage varies with temperature and is different depending on the type of metal used
in the bar.
 By joining dissimilar metals that have different Seebeck voltages at a temperature
sensing junction, a thermocouple voltage (VTC) is generated.
.

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Laws of Thermocouple
 The Peltier effects explain the basic principles of thermoelectric emf generation.
 But they are not sufficient for providing a suitable measuring technique at actual measuring situations.
 For this purpose, we have three laws of thermoelectric circuits that provide us useful practical tips for
measurement of temperature.
 These laws are known as law of homogeneous circuit, law of intermediate metals and law of intermediate
temperatures.

Laws of Thermocouple
 These laws can been explained using fig. 6.
 The first law can be explained using fig. 6(a). It says that the net thermo-emf generated is dependent on the
materials and the temperatures of two junctions only, not on any intermediate temperature.
 According to the second law, if a third material is introduced at any point (thus forming two additional junctions)
it will not have any effect, if these two additional junctions remain at the same temperatures.

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 The third law is related to the calibration of the thermocouple.
 It says, if a thermocouple produces emf e1, when its junctions are at T1 and T2, and e2 when its junctions are
at T2 and T3;

 Then it will generate emf (e1+e2) when the junction temperatures are at T1 and T3; (fig. 6(c)).

 The third law is particularly important from the point of view of reference junction compensation.

 The calibration chart of a thermocouple is prepared taking the cold or reference junction temperature as 0o C
 The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the relationship:
 where T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in K. C1 and C2 are constants depending upon the
materials.

 For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple, C1=62.1 and C2=0.045

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 The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the relationship:

 where T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in K. C1 and C2 are constants depending upon the
materials.
 For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple, C1=62.1 and C2=0.045

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Applications of Thermocouples •
 To monitor temperatures throughout the steel making process.

 Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and
petroleum refineries.
 Testing of heating appliance safety.

 Temperature profiling in ovens and furnaces.

 Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts.

 Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and melting process in the steel,
iron and aluminum industry.

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 Temperature Measurement

Black Body Radiation

 A body at higher temperatures emits electromagnetic radiation.
 The rate at which energy is emitted depends on surface temperature and surface conditions.
 The thermal radiation from a body is composed of wavelengths forming an energy
distribution.
 A hotter object will emit more infra red radiation compared with a cooler one.

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Black Body Radiation

 Both wavelength and intensity of radiation depends on temperature of the object.

 Very hot object emit shorter wavelength radiation than cooler objects.

 Black surfaces are the best absorbers and the best emitters of infrared radiation.

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 Intensity of radiation also increase at higher temperature.

 A perfect black body absorbs all radiation incident on it.

 No radiation is transmitted and reflected.

 A perfect black body is also the best possible emitter of radiation

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 Total emissive power of a black body is

 In which σ is Stefans Boltzmann constant
 Radiation from real surfaces
 Black body is an idealized concept in radiation. A black body absorbs all incoming radiation and transmits
none.
 Black body is also a perfect emitter, since it emits radiation of all wavelengths.
 Its total emissive power is theoretically the highest that can be achieved at any given temperature.
 Thus, all real surfaces emit thermal radiations lower than black surface at any temperature.

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Principles of Radiation Pyrometer

 Temperature measurement is based on the measurement of radiation either directly by a
sensor or by comparing with the radiation of a body of known temperature.
 The radiation pyrometer is a non contact type of temperature measurement.
 The wavelength region having high intensity is between 0.1 to about 10µm.

 In this region, 0.1 is the ultraviolet region, 0.4 to 0.7 is the visible region and 0.7 onwards
is the infrared region.

 With the increase in temperature, radiation intensity is stronger toward shorter wavelengths.

 The temperature measurement by radiation pyrometer is limited within 0.5 to 8µm wave
length region.

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Total Radiation Pyrometer

The radiation pyrometer has got an optical system , including a lens, a mirror and an eye
piece.
The heat energy emitted from the hot body is passed on to the optical lens, which collets it
and is focussed o to the detector with the help of the mirror and eye piece arrangement.

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Total Radiation Pyrometer

The detector may be a thermistor or thermocouple.
The hear energy is converted in to its corresponding electrical signal by the detector and is
sent to the output temperature display device.

Advantages
Easy to operate
Moderate cost
Ability to measure high temperature
Fast response
DisAdvantges
It hasPRASEED
non linear scale
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