Highway

Engineering
Civil Engineering
GATE
 Chapter
HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING

AUTHOR:
SHAILENDRA KUMAR
RISHAB KHATTRI

 Chapter
 CONTENT SHEET

Chapter
Highway Engineering

1. Introduction to Transportation Engineering.............................................................................1

2. Geometric Design of Highways..................................................................................................13

3. Traffic Engineering.......................................................................................................................107

4. Highway Materials........................................................................................................................193

5. Design of Highway Pavement....................................................................................................217

mmmm

Content Sheet
Content Sheet Chapter
 1 Introduction To Transportation
Engineering

Chapter 1
An act, process or instance of transporting or being transported i.e.,
means of conveyance or travel from one place to another is defined as
transportation.
In the present day, the main objective of a good transportation system is to
provide safe, economical, efficient transportation facility for the travel of
passenger and transportation of goods.
Transportation has following effects over the social-economic aspects of
life:
(a) It helps in progress and advancement of community.
(b) Effective transportation is essential for the economic prosperity and
development of the country.
(c) Transportation is essential for strategic movement in emergency for
defence of the country and to maintain better law and order.

1.1 MEDIUM OF TRANSPORTATION

Transportation can be achieved by any of the following modes:

TRANSPORTATION

MAJOR MODES MINOR MODES

Land Water Air Pipelines Conveyor Belts Elevator Cable Car Rope Ways Hyper Loops

Major Modes of Transportation

(a) Roadways/ Highways for road transportation

Introduction To Transportation Engineering

(b) Railways for rail transportation
(c) Waterways for water transportation
(d) Airways for air transportation

A Briefing About Rail Transportation

y It is movement of multiple wagons or a train of wagons with steel
wheels over two parallel steel rails, that offers comparatively lesser
resistance.
y The cost of transportation by this method is approximately one-sixth(1/6)th
of that by road transportation but comparatively less flexible.
y Railways are considered as arteries of entire transportation system.

1.
 A Briefing About Water Transportation
y If offers minimum resistance to traction hence is
cheapest method amongst all.
y But the time required in this case is comparatively
more.
y It is suitable for transportation of bulk goods of
relatively low value.
Rack your Brain
A Briefing About Air Transportation
y It is the fastest method amongst all for Time of travel...???
transportation.
y The cost involved in this is very high. Airway < Roads < Rail < Waterway
y Suitable for transportation of high value goods on
Interchangeable
long hauls.
Depending on distance
y This method is affected by weather conditions and connectivity
like storms and fog.
Travelling from Delhi to
Chennai???
A Briefing About Road Transportation
-Travel time by train- 32-35hrs.
y It is the most flexible mode of transportation
-Travel time by airway-3hrs.
amongst the all.
y It consumes petroleum product at highest rate Cost of Travel:
and rate of emission of pollutants in this case is Airway > Road > Rail > waterway
also maximum.

1.2 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Major road transportation is achieved by highways and expressways.
Highways are special type of roads, designed to allow high speed of vehicle.
Highways are generally constructed on embankment because.
Introduction To Transportation Engineering

(a) Better drainage facility

(b) Safety at time of flood
(c) No lateral entry of public /animals.

E.g. National highways (NH)

State Highways (SH)

1.2.1 Exprexsways
y Expressways are superior type of highways which are designed as a direct
source of connectivity between two defined places.
y It organises the traffic in channelised way.

E.g. Mumbai - Pune Expressway, Yamuna Expressway

2.
 1.3 BRIEF ON HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF ROADS
Roman Roads→ Tresaguet method→ Metcalf→ Telford → Macadam
Construction

(a) Roman Roads

y Roman roads were the earliest of road developed for the military purposes.
y These roads involve:
(i) Roads were built regardless of gradients.
(ii) The soft soil was excavated and removed up to an extent hard stratum
was reached.
(iii) The total thickness of construction was in range of 0.75 m to 1.2 m.

Drawbacks of Roman Roads.

(i) No cross-slope was provided.
(ii) No drainage system.
(iii) Large foundation stones were provided at bottom which are of no
use, as pressure due to surface load decreases with depth, hence
they only increase the cost.

Plain stone
Broken stone
Kerb with lime
Broken Stone

Large foundation stone

Introduction To Transportation Engineering

Fig.1: Cross sectional view of Roman Roads

(b) Tresaguet Roads (France: 1764AD)

y The main feature of these roads is the reduced thickness up to 30cm.
y In this case due consideration was given to the moisture condition and
drainage of the road.
y The subgrade was prepared, and a large layer of foundation stones was laid
on edges which acted as kerb stones.
y The space between kerb was then filled with smaller stones, size of which
reduced as we approach to the top.
y The cross slope of 1 in 45 over the surface was provided for surface drainage.

3.
 Sloping wearing surface (1in 45) 5cm thick
Broken stone 8.0 cm thick
Large foudation stones on
edge 17 cm thick
Shoulder 2.7 m
1 in 45
sloping 1in 20

30 cm
Side Drain Subgrade Soil
Fig. 2: Cross sectional view of Tresaguet Roads

(c) Telford Roads

y In this type of road construction also heavy
foundation stones were provided above the soil
subgrade and cross-slope at top surface was
given to ensure removal of the water. Gray Matter Alert!!!
y A level subgrade was prepared of width 9 m.
y Large foundation stones of thickness 17cm to 22
Metcalf roads were developed in
cm were laid over the subgrade, with larger stone
parallel to previous one, but no
at the centre and smaller at the edges to provide
recorded literature is available
1:45 cross-slope.
for it.
y The central portion of about 5.5 m width was
filled with two layer of angular broken stones.
y A 4 cm thick gravel surfacing was laid at top and
cross-drains were provided at spacing of 90 m.
y Instead of kerbs compacted broken stones in
Introduction To Transportation Engineering

lime mortar were used to impart lateral stability.

2 layers (100 mm & 50 mm)
of stones
40 mm gravel
Min. crossfall 100 mm (60 mm max. size)
Broken stones on a 10 m road
and gravel
365 mm

Flat subgrade Stones 100 mm wide

and 175 to 75 mm in depth
Fig. 3: Cross sectional view of Telford Roads

4.
Macadam Roads
Macadam roads differs from previous design in Gray Matter Alert!!!
following aspects.
From Roman roads to Telford
(i) Soil subgrade was laid at cross-slope of 1 in
roads two design consideration
36 to avoid seepage of water in it.
were common:
(ii) He was the first to suggest that large
(i) Sub grade soil was
foundation stones are not required to be
constructed on a level
placed at the bottom layer.
surface.
(iii) Similarly, the next layer of pavement also
(ii) Large foundation stones
was constructed above this layer with
were used to make bottom
broken stones of smaller size.
most layer.
(iv) Though the total thickness of construction
The major change in designing of
was less, but load distribution was
roads was introduced by
comparatively better.
Macadam.
(v) The size of broken stones at top was
decided based on stability under animal
drawn vehicles.
Surface finish of stones
[d < 2cm, t = 5 cm]

Central line of Road

Broken stones
[d < 3.5 cm, t = 10 cm]

Introduction To Transportation Engineering

compacted soil sub-grade
(cross-slope 1 in 36)
Broken stones
[d< 5cm, t = 10cm]
Fig. 4: Cross sectional view of Macadam Roads

Example 1.1: Which of the following is the correct chronological sequence

regarding history of development of road?
(a) Telford, Tresaguet, CBR, Macadam
(b) Tresaguet, Telford, Macadam, CBR
(c) Macadam, CBR, Tresaguet, Telford
(d) Tresaguet, Macadam, Telford, CBR

5.
 Solution: 
Correct sequence for history of development of road is,
Roman Road → Tresaguet Road → Metcalf Road → Telford Road
→ Macadam construction → CBR Method.
So, the correct option is (b)

Some of the specifications used in India are Gray Matter Alert!!!

as follows:
(a) WBM (Water Bound Macadam) Different type of specifications
(b) PM (Penetration Macadam) were developed for the
(c) BM (Bituminous Macadam) construction of bituminous
(d) DBM (Dense Bound Macadam) pavement layers for use in base
(e) WMM (Wet Mix Macadam) and surface courses.

1.4 DEVEOPMENT OF ROADS IN INDIA

y Government of India passed the resolution in 1927 for appointment of a
committee to examine the situation and development of roads in India
under the leadership of Mr. Jayakar.

Major recommendations of his are as follows:

1. The road development in country should be of national interest.
(i) An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the users for
development of roads and would be termed as “Central Road
Fund”.
(ii) A semi-official technical body should be formed to give technical
know-how for development of roads.
(iii) A research organisation should be instituted to carry out research
and develop new techniques of road development.
2. As per the recommendations of Jayakar committee CRF (Central Road
Introduction To Transportation Engineering

Fund) was established in 1929.

3. At the approval of government, a semi-official technical body was
formed in 1934 termed as IRC (Indian Road Congress).
4. In 1939 Motor Vehicle Act was brought in place, to frame the laws and
ordinances relating to traffic. [It governs driver, vehicle and operation]
5. A conference of chief engineers of all states was called by IRC for
collective development of roads in India in 1943 (1st 20-year plan 1943-
1963). [It was completed in 1961 only] termed as Nagpur road conference.
In this target of 16 km/100 km2 area of country for development of road
was to be achieved.
6. In 1950 Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) was established for
carrying out research on road technology.

6.
7. In 1956 National Highway Act was passed for
following purpose: Gray Matter Alert!!!
y To declare certain selected highway as NH.
y To enter any land for carrying out survey. Fourth 20 years road
y To acquire land and take possession for development plan should have
development of highway. been introduced in 2001, but
8. Due to the early completion of 1st 20-year plan on the guidance of government
in 1961, second 20-year plan was initiated in IRC prepared Road Development
1961 (1961 – 1981) in Bombay for development Plan: Vision 2021 and 2025.
of 32 km of road length/100 km2 of area.
9. In 1973, HRB (Highway Research Board) of IRC
was set up to give direction and guidance for
research activities in India.
10. In 1978 National Transportation Policy
Committees (NTPC) was appointed to prepare
a comprehensive national transportation
policy for the country for next 10 years.
11. In 1981, third 20 years road development plan
was prepared (1981 – 2001) in Lucknow with
target of 82 km of road/100 km2 of area.
12. In 1988, National Highway Authority of India
(NHAI) was constituted.
13. In 2000 PMGSY (Pradhan Mantri Gram
Sadak Yojana) was launched to increase the
connectivity of villages.

Comparison between various 20 year road development plan

1st 20-year Plan 2nd 20-year plan 3rd 20-year Plan

Name

Introduction To Transportation Engineering

Nagpur Bombay Lucknow

1943 – 1963
Duration 1961 – 1981 1981 – 2001
(completed in 1961)

Road Density 16 km/100 km2 32 km/100 km2 82 km/100 km2

Road Pattern Star & Grid - Square & Grid

Express Highway - 1600 km added 20,000 km added

(i) Primary (EH, NH)

Classification of NH, SH, MDR, ODR, Same as 1st
(ii) Secondary (SH, MDR)
Roads VR 20year plan
(iii) Rural (ODR, VR)

7.
 1.5 HIGHWAY PLANNING
y Highway planning is of great importance when the funds available are
limited, whereas the total requirement is much higher.
y The objective of highway planning are as follows:
(a) To plan overall network of road efficiently in minimum cost.
(b) To divide the plan into phases to decide the priorities.
(c) To plan for future requirement and improvement of the road.

1.5.1 Classification of Roads

y Roads are classified as follows:
1. Based on duration of their use
(a) All weather roads – Paved and non-paved roads
(b) Fair weather roads – Surfaced and non-surfaced roads
2. Based on traffic volume
3. Based on load transported/tonnage
4. Based on location and function:
(a) NH
(b) SH
(c) MDR
(d) ODR
(e) VR
(a) NH (National Highway): National Highways are the main highways
running through length and width of the country connecting major
ports, foreign highways, capital of large states and large industrial areas,
tourist destination, places of strategic importance (Defence).
(b) SH (State Highway): State Highways are arterial roads of state, connecting
the national highway of adjacent states, district headquarters, and
important cities.
Introduction To Transportation Engineering

(c) MDR (Major District Roads): Major district

roads are important roads within a district
serving area of production, markets and Gray Matter Alert!!!
connecting with other major roads and state
highways. Urban road are classified as
(d) ODR (Other District Roads): Other District follows:
Roads are serving rural areas of production (a) Arterial Roads
and providing them the outlet to the market. (b) Sub Arterial Roads
(e) VR (Village Roads): Village Roads connects (c) Collector Streets
villages or group of villages with each other (d) Local Streets
and with ODR’s.

8.
1.5.2 Types of road patterns
The various types of road patterns may be classified as follows.
(a) Rectangular or block

Junction

Main road
Central Business
Area

Fig. 5: Rectangular or Block Pattern

(b) Hexagonal

Fig. 6: Hexagonal Pattern

(c) Radial or star and block

Introduction To Transportation Engineering

Radial Roads

Built up area

Rectangular
pattern

Fig. 7: Radial or Star and Block Pattern

9.
 (d) Radial or star and circular

Ring Road

Central
Radial Road
Business Area

Fig. 8: Radial or Star and Circular Pattern

(e) Radial or star and grid

Radial Roads Grid

Focal
Point
Introduction To Transportation Engineering

Fig. 9: Radial or Star and Grid Pattern

Example 1.2: Which of the following road plan adopted the star and grid
pattern?
(a) Nagpur Road Plan (b) Lucknow Road Plan
(c) Bombay Road Plan (d) Delhi Road Plan
Solution: The star and grid pattern were followed in Nagpur Road Plan.
So, the correct option is (a)

Maximum saturation system/utility factor system

y This system is used to choose best alignment among various options
available.

10.
y It depends upon population and production.
Rules to decide utility factor:
(i) Provide utility factor of 0.5 to lowest population range and increase it
by multiplying with ‘2’ for next range of populations e.g., 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8
and so on. . ..
(ii) Provide utility factor of ‘1’ to the agricultural production.
(iii) Provide utility factor to industrial production as per weightage.

1.5.3 Engineering Survey for Highway Alignment

y In order to decide/finalise the probable alignment of highway following
surveys are being carried out
(i) Map Study (ii) Reconnaissance Survey
(iii) Preliminary Survey (iv) Detailed/ final Survey
(i) Map Study: In map study various alignments are drawn on map,
passing through minimum number of obstruction and maximum
utilization area.
(ii) Reconnaissance Survey: It is done by visiting the location under
consideration, to identity the features which are not available on map
or which are changed over the period. Feasibility is also checked for
the possible alignment in this stage.
(iii) Preliminary Survey: It this survey (chain, compass, levelling work, soil
investigation, drainage provision, traffic studies) are carried out and
road alignment is finalised.
(iv) Detailed Survey: In this planning, designing, material estimation and
cost estimation are done and Detailed Projected Report (DPR) is
prepared.

Example 1.3: In which of the following location survey of the roads, soil
profile sampling is done up to a certain depth below the

Introduction To Transportation Engineering

existing ground level?
(a) Preliminary Survey (b) Final location Survey
(c) Construction Survey (d) Material Location Survey

Solution: Soil Profile sampling is done in Preliminary Survey.

So, the correct option is (a)

Keywords

Š Medium of Transportation Š Development of Roads in India

Š Highway Engineering Š Highway Planning
Š Brief on History of Development of Roads

11.
Introduction To Transportation Engineering

12.
 2 Geometric Design of Highways

Chapter 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
y Geometric design of the highway deals with all the layout of visible features
and dimensions of highways, such that it provides maximum efficiency at
minimum cost and reasonable safety.
y Geometric design of highways deals with following elements.
(a) Cross-Section Elements
(b) Sight Distance Consideration
(c) Horizontal Alignment Details
(d) Vertical Alignment Details
(e) Intersection Details

2.1.1 For designing of highway elements following factors are considered

(i) Design Speed:
y Design speed of vehicles depends upon types of roads over which it moves.
E.g., NH, SH, MDR, ODR, VR
y Design speed of vehicles helps in deciding the Cross-Sectional Elements
i.e., width, clearance, sight distance, radius of curve, super-elevation,
transition curve, gradient, length of summit etc.

(ii) Topography:
y The topography or terrain condition influence the design speed, that in turn
governs the designing of highway elements (as above).
For e.g. : In plain terrain on SH permissible design speed is 100 kmph,
whereas the same speed on rolling terrain is permitted to 80 kmph and on
mountainous terrain it is 50 Kmph.

(iii) Traffic Factors:

y Vehicles characteristics and human characteristics are included in traffic
factor.
y Standard size of vehicle is taken in consideration (car) while designing of
highway elements for mixed traffic process.
y Human characteristics includes physical, mental, and psychological
characteristics of drivers and pedestrians.
Geometric Design of Highways

(iv) Design Hourly Volume and Capacity:

y The traffic volume varies with the time, therefore the designing for the
traffic must be done for peak hours, but it will be too costly to implement
the same.
y Therefore designing is done for reasonable value of traffic volume called as
“Design hourly volume”.

13.
Chapter 2

(v) Environmental Factors:

y Factors like aesthetic, air pollution, noise pollution, landscaping also
governs the designing of highway elements.

2.2 HIGHWAY CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS

y Pavement Surface Characteristics depends on pavement type, which in turn
depends on availability of material, cost, composition of traffic, climatic
conditions, method of construction available.
y Pavement surface characteristics includes.
(i) Friction
(ii) Unevenness
(iii) Reflecting properties
(v) Drainage of surface water (Cross slope/camber)

2.2.1 Friction/Skid resistance

y It decides the operating speed and minimum distance required for stopping
the vehicle.
y It is further classified into
⚪ Longitudinal Friction
⚪ Lateral/Transverse friction

v
f v

Longitudinal Function Lateral Function

y Maximum friction in developed when brakes are applied upto complete

extent.
y Friction also governs rotational and translational movement of the wheel.
Geometric Design of Highways

ROT
A
TI
ON
AL MOV

TRANSLSATIONAL
MOVEMENT
E

ME
NT

14.
 Chapter 2
Gray Matter Alert!!!

For Uniform Condition

1 rotation = 2pr
i.e., Rotational movement = Translational movement

Longitudinal
Rotation Translation Impact
friction(f)

f­↑ × √ Tyre burning

f↓ √ × No movement of vehicle

Note:
(i) If the path travelled along the road surface by a vehicle is more than
the circumferential movement of wheels due to its rotation, the
phenomena is termed as “SKID”.
i.e. Translational movement > Rotational movement
For pure skid
Rotational Movement = 0
Translational Movement ≠ 0
(ii) If the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal
movement along the road the phenomena is termed as “SLIP”.
i.e. Rotational Movement > Translational movement
For Pure Slip Translational Movement = 0
Rotational Movement ≠ 0
For Eg.
When brakes are applied to such an extent so that wheels of
vehicle are locked, it leads to skidding and when wheels of vehicles
rapidly accelerates from stationary position or from slow speed on
Geometric Design of Highways

pavement which is slippery or wet or when road surface is loose

(eg. mud).
(iii) Friction depends upon following factors:
y Type of pavement surface [cement concrete, Bitumen, earthen material,
WBM]
y Roughness of pavement[texture]
y Condition of pavement [dry or wet, rough, or smooth]
y Condition of tyre [ new with good threads or old with worn out threads]

15.
Chapter 2

y Speed of vehicle
y Extent of brake application [Full or partial]
y Load and tyre pressure
y Temperature of tyre and pavement
New Tyre
Old Tyre
Friction

Smooth > Rough

Threads

Dry Surface

New Tyre
Old Tyre
Friction

Smooth < Rough

Threads

Water(Lubrication) Water(Lubrication)
Wet Surface

NOTE:
y New tyre is more dependable in adverse condition eg. wet surface.
y For the calculation of stopping distance, the longitudinal friction coefficient
is taken to be 0.35 – 0.40 (at friction = 0.4, the retardation available is
approx. 4 m/sec2 ≈ 3.93 m/sec2)
y Value of transverse friction is taken to be 0.15.

2.2.2 Unevenness
y Presence of undulations on the pavement surface is termed as unevenness.
y This unevenness results in.
Geometric Design of Highways

(a) Increase in fatigue.

(b) Reduction of speed.
(c) Increases fuel consumption.
(d) Increases wear and tear of vehicles.
(e) Increases chance of accidents.
y The unevenness of pavement is measured with the help of equipment
known as “BUMP INTEGRATOR” in terms of ‘Unevenness Index’.

16.
 Chapter 2
y The cumulative measure of vertical undulations of pavement surface noted
per unit length of the road (mm/km) is referred as ‘Unevenness Index’:
y The different values of unevenness index and the corresponding serviceability
of road are as follows:

Unevenness Index(mm/km) Type of roads

<1500 Good
1500 – 2500 Satisfactory
2500 – 3500 Bad
>3500 Uncomfortable

Unevenness of the pavement depends on following factors

(a) Improper compaction.
(b) Use of improper construction methods.
(c) Use of inferior quality materials.
(d) Improper surface and subsurface drainage.
(e) Poor maintenance of pavement surface.

2.2.3 Light reflecting characteristics

y Visibility over the pavement surface depends upon its colour and light
reflecting characteristics.
y The glare caused by the reflection of head lights is high on wet pavement
surface than dry pavement.
y Light coloured pavement surface gives good visibility at night but produces
more glare during sunlight, on the other hand dark coloured pavement
offer good visibility at daytime and poor visibility at night.

2.2.4 Cross slope or Camber

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Geometric Design of Highways

(i) Internationally, the riding quality of pavement surface

is quantified in terms of roughness and is expressed as
“International Roughness Index” (IRI) having unit of (m/km).
(ii) It can also be related with unevenness index as follows

BI = 630(IRI)1.12

17.
Chapter 2

y Cross slope is the slope given to the road surface in the transverse direction
to drain off the rainwater from the road surface,
y Camber is required on road surface to avoid:

(a) Stripping of bitumen from the aggregates in the presence of water.

(b) Swelling and heaving of sub-grade due to seepage of water.

(c) The slipping of vehicle over the wet pavement.

(d) The glare over the surface of wet pavement.

y On a straight road camber is provided by raising the centre of the carriageway
with respect to edges forming the crown on the highest point along the
central line.

y On horizontal curves having super-elevation the surface water is drained by

raising the outer edge.

Crown

Edges Edges Inner Outer

Central Line
Edges Edges

For Straight Road For Horizontal Curve

1(v)


Geometric Design of Highways

N(H)

1
Camber() = tan
-1

18.
 Chapter 2
Camber is represented in any of the following ways

As percentage (%)
As fraction
Eg  Cross-slope 5%
Eg Cross-slope 1in20
5
i.e. tan = 1
100 i.e. = 0.05
20

y The value of cross-slope depends on following factors

(i) Type of pavement surface
(ii) Amount of rainfall

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Cross slope provided would be comparatively increased if amount of

rainfall is more and pavement surface is permeable.

Table 2.1: Recommended values of camber for different types of road

surfaces

Range of Cross Slope

Type of Road Surface
Heavy Rain Fall Light Rain Fall

Cement concrete and high 2% 1.7%

type bituminous surface

Thin bituminous surface 2.5% 2%

Water bound Macadam and 3% 2.5%

gravel pavement
Geometric Design of Highways

Earthen Road 4% 3%

NOTE:
(i) The cross-slope of shoulder should be more than that of pavement,
so as to avoid accumulation of water at junction of two.
(ii) Cross-slope of shoulders should be 0.5% more than cross-slope of
adjoining pavements, having minimum value of 3% and maximum
value of 5%.

19.
Chapter 2

3% </ (c / s)sloulder = (0.5% + (c / s)pavement ) >/ 5%

(iii) The cross-slope on expressways for carriageway and pave shoulder
and edge strip with bituminous surface is 2.5% with rainfall exceeding
1000 mm and 2% for places having rainfall less than 1000 mm.
(iv) If too steep cross slope is provided it results in:
(a) Toppling of slow moving and overloaded vehicle
(b) Tendency of most of vehicles to travel along the centre line.
(c) Uncomfortable side thrust on the vehicle.
y Cross-slope are of following type
(i) Straight line camber
CROWN

1 H
n

1 H
=
N w
 
 
2

W
H=
2N Crown
(ii) Parabolic Camber x
Equation of parabolic camber y

2x2 1
y= N
Nw
(iii) Composite Camber w
Parabolic
Geometric Design of Highways

Straight Straight

20.
 Chapter 2
Gray Matter Alert!!!

Straight line camber is preferred for cement concrete pavement

because it is simpler to lay on the actual ground.

Example 2.1: In the region where rainfall is heavy, two type of pavement are
to be constructed.
(a) Two lane SH with bituminous concrete surface
(b) MDR of WBM pavement 3.8 m wide
What should be height of the crown with respect to the edges in these 2
cases, assuming straight line camber and width of two lane SH as 7m?

Solution:
(a) For bituminous concrete surface with heavy rainfall
1
Cross Slope 2% or
50
W 7
H= =
2N 2 × 50
= 0.07 m = 70 mm
(b) For WBM surface with heavy rainfall cross slope = 3%

W 3.8
= H=
2N 2 × 33

= 0.058 m = 58 mm

2.2.5 Width of pavement/carriage way

y The pavement width depends on the width of traffic lane and the number
of lanes.
y The part of carriageway width that is planned for one line of traffic movement
is referred as traffic lane.
y The type of vehicle moving on the pavement decides the width of traffic
lane.
Geometric Design of Highways

y The total width of road included the width of moving vehicle along with
some clearance, on either side.
y The standard vehicles to decide the width of carriageway is the Passenger
car. (width of passenger car = 2.44 m = 2.5 m).
y For rural highway, if pavement has two or more lane (i.e., multilane), width
of single lane is 3.5 m.
y The traffic volume on the road decides the number of lane to be provided.

21.
Chapter 2

y The width of carriageway for different types of the road is given the table
below:

Type of Road Width of Carriageway (m)

Single lane road 3.75

Two lane without raised kerb 7
Two lane with raised kerb 7.5
Intermediate Carriageway 5.5
Multi-lane pavement 3.5 per lane

(a) Single Lane Pavement

Clearance

2.5 m

0.625 m 0.625 m

Shoulder Shoulder

3.75 m

(b) Two Lane Pavement

2.5 m 2.5 m

500 mm 500 mm
1.0 m
Pavement
Edge
Geometric Design of Highways

7m
Shoulder

2.2.6 Medians/Traffic Separators

y In highway with divided carriageway/pavement a median is provided
between two sets of traffic lanes meant to divide the traffic moving in
opposite directions.

22.
 Chapter 2
y The main purpose to median is to prevent “Head-on-Collision” between
vehicles moving in opposite directions.
y Camber also helps,
(a) To channelize/traffic into streams.
(b) To safeguard the pedestrians.
(c) Can be used to reduce the glare of headlight of opposite moving vehicles
by providing green cover on it.
(d) To segregate the slow moving traffic.

Median can be provided in following forms

(a) As pavement marking
(b) Physical dividers (mechanical separators)

KERB

Foot 3-Lane Pavement Tra c Separator

Path
Figure 2.1: Kerb and traffic separator

y The desirable width of median is 8.14 m. (This includes provision of future

expansion of roads).
y To reduce the glare of head light of opposite moving vehicles a minimum of
6 m of width is required for the median.
y IRC recommends minimum width of 5 m for median, that can be reduced
Geometric Design of Highways

to 3 m where land is restricted.

y On bridges width required for median is in the range of 1.2 – 1.5 m.
y The median should be normally of uniform width throughout the length of
pavement but where its width is changed a transition of 1 in 15 to 1 in 20
must be provided.

23.
Chapter 2

nH
IV

B1
Median B2

Figure 2.2: Median on a two-way two-lane road

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Value of ‘n’ range from 15-20

y In urban area minimum width of median to be provided is 1.2 m
and desirable minimum width is 1.5 m.
y For expressway minimum width to be provided is 12 m and desirable
is 15.5 m.

2.2.7 KERBS
y It indicate the boundary between the pavement and median or foot path or
island or shoulder.
Geometric Design of Highways

y Kerb are mainly derived in following three category.

(a) Low Kerb

y Low kerb has a height of 100 mm above the pavement edge and a slope
which enables the vehicle to climb the kerb at a slow speed.
y It is also termed as “MOUNTABLE KERB” which encourages the traffic to
remain in traffic lanes still allowing the driver to enter the shoulder area (in
emergency situations) at slow speed.

24.
 Chapter 2
(b) Semi-barrier type Kerb
y This type of kerb is provided on the edge of a roadway having high pedestrian
traffic.
y Semi-barrier kerb has a height of nearly 150 mm above the pavement edge
and a slope of 1 : 1 at the top.
y The kerb prevents the violation of rules by parking vehicles over the
roadway, and in case of emergency it is possible by driver to move over this
kerb with difficulty.

(c) Barrier type Kerb

y This type of kerb is provided in built up areas adjacent to footpaths having
considerable pedestrian traffic.
y The height of barrier kerb stone is about 200 mm above the pavement edge
having a steep slope of 1V:0.25H.

2.2.8 Shoulders
y Shoulders are provided on both sides of the pavement all along the road
in the case of undivided carriageway and on outer edge of undivided
carriageway.
y The earth shoulder should have sufficient strength to carry the vehicular
load in case of emergency.
y The minimum shoulder width as per IRC is 2.5m.
y Shoulder serves the following functions.
(a) It impacts structural stability to the pavement.
(b) It increases the capacity and operating speed on pavement.
(c) In emergency it can be used as mode of movement.
(d) It also acts as service lanes for the vehicles that are disabled.
y The surface of the shoulder may be rougher than the traffic so as to
discourage the vehicles to ply over it.
y The colour of the shoulder should be different from that of pavement so as
to distinguish between the two.

Undivided
Geometric Design of Highways

Pavement

Shoulder
(a)

25.
Chapter 2

Median

Divided
Pavement

Shoulder
(b)

(a) Shoulder on an undivided pavement.

(b) Shoulder on a devided pavement.

Road Margins
y The various elements included in the road margins are guard rails, foot
paths, driveway, cycle track, parking lane, bus beys, lay byes, frontage roads
and embankment slope.
(a) Guard Rails
y These are given at the edge of the shoulder when the roads is constructed
on embankment so that vehicles can be prevented from running off the
filled up area, especially when height of fill is more than 3 m.
(b) Foot Path/side walk
y In order to provide safe facility to pedestrians to walk along the roadway,
footpaths/side walk, are provided in urban areas, where pedestrian traffic
is comparatively more.
y The minimum width required is 1.5 m and desirable minimum width is 2m.
y It is also provided with cross-slope of 2.5-3% and is given comparatively
smoother surface than pavement.
(c) Drive ways
y It connects highway with the local commercial establishment like service
station, fuel station, restaurants etc.
(d) Cycle track
Geometric Design of Highways

y These are provided in urban area for the safe movement of cycle traffic.
y The minimum width required is 2m for cycle track and it can be increased
by 1 m for each additional cycle lane.
(e) Parking lanes
y To allow kerb parking lanes are provided on urban roads.
y Parallel parking should be preferred as it is safer for moving vehicles and
space required for parallel parking is also less.
y The minimum width required for parallel parking is 3m.

26.
 Chapter 2
(f) Bus bays
y It may be provided by recessing the kerb to avoid the conflict with the
moving traffic and must be located 75m away from the intersection.
y It is used for safe plying of passengers and cargo from bus.
(g) Lay Byes
y These are provided near public conveniences to avoid the conflict width
running traffic.
y Minimum width is 3m.
(h) Frontage Roads
y These are provided to give access to properties along the highway to control
access to the expressways.
(i) Embankment Slope
y If pavement is constructed over embankment slopes are also provided
along it of magnitudes 1 in 3.

2.2.9 ROADWAY/WIDTH OF FORMATION

y The total width of pavement or carriageway including median (in any) and
the shoulders is termed as width of formation.
y The top width of highway embankment or bottom width of highway cutting
excluding the side drains is called as Roadway width.

Road Land
Border Road Road Border
Road Way
Controls Controls
Margin Margin
Carriage
Road Boundary

Road Boundary

Control Line
Control Line

Building Line

Building Line

Shoulder Way Shoulder

(a) In Embankment

Road Land
Border Road Road Border
Road Way
Controls Controls
Geometric Design of Highways

Margin Margin
Carriage
Road Boundary

Road Boundary

Control Line
Control Line

Building Line

Building Line

Shoulder Way Shoulder

(b) In Cutting
Figure 2.3: Cross section details

27.
Chapter 2

y Width of roadway of various class of roads are as follows

Road Classification Roadway width (m)

Plain and rolling Mountainous and

terrain steep terrain

(i) NH and SH

(a) Single lane 12 6.25

(b) Two lane 12 8.8

(ii) MDR

(a) Single lane 9 4.75

(b) Two lane 9 -

(iii) ODR

(a) Single lane 7.5 4.75

(b) Two lane 9 -

(iv) Village road, Single 7.5 4.0

lane

2.2.10 Land Width or Right of Way

Geometric Design of Highways

y The area of the land acquired for the construction of road, along its
orientation keeping in view the scope for future expansion is termed as
right of way.
y Construction of particular type of building is only permitted with sufficient
setback from the road boundary upto control line.

28.
 Chapter 2
Table: 2.2 Recommended land width for different roads in rural areas
Mountainous and
Plain and rolling terrain(m)
steep terrain(m)

Road Built-
Open
S.No. Classifi- Opens areas Built-up areas up
areas
cation areas

Nor-
Normal Range Range Normal Normal
mal

1. Express- 90 - - - 60/
ways 30*

2. National 45 30-60 30 30-60 24 20

and
State
Highways

3. Major 25 25-30 20 15-25 18 15

District
Roads

4. Other 15 15-25 15 15-20 15 12

District
Roads

5. Village 12 12-18 10 10-15 9 9

Roads

2.3 SIGHT DISTANCE ELEMENTS

y The distance of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance of time is
referred as sight distance. (It is considered by taking the height of driver to
Geometric Design of Highways

be 1.2 m and height of object to be 0.15 m).

y Restriction to the visibility/sight distance may be covered in the following
cases:
(a) At horizontal curve, the line of sight is obstructed by the object at the
inner side of the curve.
(b) At a vertical curve the line of sight is obstructed by the road surface of
the curve.

29.
Chapter 2

(c) At an uncontrolled intersection the driver from one of approach roads

is not able to sight a vehicle from another approach roads towards it at
the intersection, due to presence of obstruction.

Horizontal
Curve

Sight
Distance

Obstruction to Vision

Sight Line

(a) Sight Distance at Horizontal Curve

Eye Level Sight Line Object

1.2 m High 0.15 m High

Stopping
Sight Distance
(b) Sight Distance at Vertical Summit Curve

Obstruction
to vision Cross Roads
S.D

Sight Line
Geometric Design of Highways

S.D

Figure 2.4: Sight Distance (S.D.) at Intersection

30.
 Chapter 2
y The sight distance available to the driver is dependent on following
factors
(i) Features of road ahead i.e.,

horizontal vertical traffic position of

curves profile conditions obstruction
(ii) Height of driver’s eye above road surface
(iii) Height of object above the road surface

y Sight distance are of following types:

(a) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
(b) Safe Overtaking Distance (OSD)
(c) Safe Sight Distance for entering uncontrolled intersection.
(d) Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
(e) Head Light Sight Distance

2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

y The minimum distance visible to a driver ahead to safely stop a vehicle
travelling at design speed without collision with any other obstruction is
termed as Stopping Sight Distance (SSD).
y It is also termed as ‘Absolute Minimum Sight Distance’ or ‘Non-passing
Sight Distance’.

Factors Governing Stopping Sight Distance

(i) Total reaction time of driver
y The time taken by the driver from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant brakes are applied efficiently is termed as total reaction
time of driver.
y The total reaction time of driver is additionally divided into different
components and can be explained as follows:
(a) Perception Time(P)
Geometric Design of Highways

It is the time required for the sensation received by the eyes or ears of
the driver to be transmitted to brain through the various system and
spinal cord.
(b) Intellection Time (I)
It is the time required by the driver to understand the situation,
additionally the time required for comparing different thoughts,
rearranging and reaching new sensations is also included in this.

31.
Chapter 2

(c) Emotion Time (E)

 It is the time elapsed during the emotional sensations, and other
mental disturbance such as fear, anger, superstition etc, with
reference to the situation to come into play.
 This time varies from person to person and even for same person in
different situations.
(d) Volition Time(V)
It is the time taken by the driver for final action, example application of
brakes. Cumulatively above times can be termed as ‘PIEV’ analysis for total
reaction time.

Brain

I.E
P - Perception
I - Intellection
E - Emotion
P V
V - Volition
Spinal Cord

Stimulus Response

‘Driver sees the

obstruction’

Reflex Action
Figure 2.5: Reaction time and ‘PIEV’ process

Gray Matter Alert!!!

y It is also possible that the driver by the reflex action may apply
the brake or take any other avoiding actions, like turning, without
normal thinking process. The time required for the same is observed
to be minimum time for avoiding the collision.
The reaction time depends on several factors like driver skill, type
Geometric Design of Highways

y
of obstruction involved, environmental condition, age, mental
health.

(ii) Design Speed

y During the total reaction time of the driver the distance moved by vehicle
depends on design speed.
y Braking distance i.e. distance travelled by vehicle before coming to stop/
halt also depends on design speed.

32.
 Chapter 2
(iii) Braking Efficiency
y It is defined as percentage of force developed by application of brakes in
relation to maximum friction available between tyres and road.
f
hB = × 100
fmax
y If hB = 100%, wheels are fully locked preventing them from rotation on
application of brakes, that leads to skidding of wheels, which is difficult to
control.
y Hence, braking force should not exceed the friction force between tyre and
wheels.

(iv) Frictional Resistance between road and tyres

y The frictional resistance developed between road and tyres depends on
coefficient of friction.
y Higher coefficient of friction results in higher frictional resistance lower
SSD.
y Coefficient of friction also depends upon the condition of tyre and roads.
y The longitudinal friction varies with design speed of vehicles

100 and
Speed (Km/hr) 20 – 30 40 50 60 65 80
above

Longitudinal
0.4 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35
friction for SSD

(v) Gradient of the road(if any)

y Gradient of road adds in either assistance or resistance of the vehicle
depending upon type of gradient (down-gradient, up-gradient), there by
either increasing or decreasing SSD.

Analysis of Stopping Distance

A tr B tB C
Geometric Design of Highways

VD VD V=0

Lag Braking
Obstruction
Distance (LL) Distance (LB)

Figure 2.6: Single

33.
Chapter 2

Point A → Driver sees the obstruction

Point B → Brake is applied by driver
Point C → Stopping of vehicle
SSD = LL + LB
The stopping distance of the vehicle includes
(i) The distance travelled by vehicle at uniform design speed during the
total reaction time (tr) is termed as lag distance (LL).
(ii) The distance moved by the vehicle after applying the brakes, until it
stops is termed as braking distance (LB).

Lag Distance (LL)

LL = VDtr(m)
VD = Design speed (m/sec)
tr = Reaction time (sec)
V × 103
or LL = .tr (m) V(Km/hr), t (sec)
60 × 60 r

5
= Vtr (m) [tr varies between 2-4 sec]
18
LL = 0.278 Vtr(m)
As per the recommendations of IRC reaction time is taken to be 2.5 sec for
SSD.

Braking Distance (LB)

(i) For flat road

V V=0

f
LB
Geometric Design of Highways

w
Change in kinetic energy = Work done by friction
DKE = WDf
1
0 − Mv 2 = FLB
2

34.
 Chapter 2
1
Mv 2 = fNLB
2

1
Mv 2 = fWLB = fMgLB
2
v2
⇒ LB = (m)
2fg
v → m/sec
g → m/sec2
2
v 2  1000 
LB =  
2fg  3600 
V → Km/hr
g → m/sec2

v2

LB = (m)
254f
(ii) For ascending /descending Gradient
0
V=

N
op
St
N

f
V

V
co

W
s
s LB

si
n
LB
n

co
si

V=
W
W

W
0
f

 
W
Geometric Design of Highways

Figure 2.7

DKE = WDtotal
1
0− Mv 2 = −FL3 ± W sin qLB
2
1
− Mv 2 = −Fmg cos qLB ± Mg sin qLB
2

35.
Chapter 2

When q is very small, q = sin q  tan q = s and cosq = 1

−V 2
= - LB g[f ± s]
2
V2
LB =
2g [f ± s]
+s = for ascending gradient
-s = for descending gradient
V2
LB = (m)
254[f ± s]
V → Km/hr

Hence SSD = LL + LB

V2
SSD = 0.278Vtr +
254 [f ± s]
NOTE:
(i) SSD must be available at each section of the road.
(ii) As the stopping sight distance required on descending gradient
is greater, it is necessary, to find the critical value of SSD for the
descending gradient on the road with gradients and for two-way
traffic flow.
(iii) On the restricted width or on a single lane road where two-way
movement of traffic is permitted, the minimum SSD is equal to twice
the SSD to enable both the vehicles coming from opposite side to
stop.
Geometric Design of Highways

SSD SSD
Figure 2.8: Single lane two way road

36.
 Chapter 2
(iv) If SSD cannot be provided on any stretch of road due to unavoidable
reason for the design speed available, the speed should be restricted, either
by installing speed-limit regulation sign or by forced reduction of speed.
y This is however temporary, and efforts must be made to provide SSD over
the period of time. (By changing the alignment of road or by changing the
obstruction).
Table 2.3: The SSD recommended by IRC are as follows
Design speed(km/hr) 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
SSD(m) 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180

Example 2.2: What is the minimum sight distance required to avoid the
head on collision of two cars approaching from the opposite directions at
85 and 55 kmph? Assume a reaction time of 2.5 sec, f = 0.7 and braking
efficiency of 45% in both the cases.
Solution:
V2
SSD1 = 0.278Vt +
254f
852
= 0.278 × 85 × 2.5 +
254 × 0.45 × 0.7

= 149.38 m
V2
SSD2 = 0.278Vt +
254f
= 0.278 × 55 × 2.5 + 552
254 × 0.45 × 0.7
= 76.03 m
So, to avoid head on collision
(SSD)T = (SSD)1 + (SSD)2
= 149.38 + 76.03 = 225.41 m

Example 2.3: Driver of a vehicle travelling at a speed of 80 kmph on a up

Geometric Design of Highways

gradient requires 9 m less to stop after applying the brakes, than a driver
travelling at same speed down the same gradient. The gradient of the road
is (Assume f = 0.4)
(a) 2.84% (b) 1.92% (c) 3.24% (d) 2.52%

Solution:
LBu = LBD – 9

37.
Chapter 2

V2 V2
= −9
254(f + s) 254(f − s)
802 802
= −9
254(0.4 + s) 254(0.4 − s)
s = 0.0284 = 2.84%
The correct option is (a).

2.3.2 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

y If all the vehicles moving on the road at the design speed, then theoretically
there would be no need for overtaking, but practically it never happens,
hence vehicles moving at design speed, has to overtake slow moving
vehicle.
y The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle planning
to overtake the slow moving vehicle with safety against traffic in opposite
direction is termed as OSD or “Safe Passing Sight Distance”.
y OSD in measured along centre line of the road considering the eye level of
driver at 1.2 m above the surface of the road, observing the object at height
of 1.2m above the surface.

EL
LEV
EYE
1.2 m 1.2 m

Overtaking Sight
Distance
Vertical
Summit Curve

Figure 2.9: Measurement of overtaking sight distance

Overtaking sight distance depends on following factors

(a) Speeds of (i) overtaking vehicle (ii) overtaken vehicle and (iii) the vehicle
Geometric Design of Highways

coming from opposite direction, if any

(b) Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles; the minimum
spacing between vehicles depends on the speeds.
(c) Skill and reaction time of the driver.
(d) Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle.
(e) Gradient of the road, if any

38.
 Chapter 2
Study of Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) on a two-way road
y Consider vehicle A travelling at the design speed v m/sec or V kmph desires
to overtake another slower moving vehicle B having a speed of vb m/sec or
Vb kmph. The vehicle A accelerates and shift to the adjacent right-side lane
for completing the overtaking operation and return to the left lane, before
the on-coming vehicle C move toward the overtaking stretch as shown in
figure below

A1 A2 B1 B2 A3

s b s C2 C1
d1 d2 d3

Figure 2.10: Overtaking manoeuvre

y The overtaking manoeuvre may be split up into three operations, thus

dividing the overtaking sight distance, OSD into three parts, d1, d2 and d3.
⚪ d1 is the distance (m) travelled by the overtaking vehicle A during the
reaction time t (secs) of the driver, from position A1 to A2 before it
starts to overtake the slow vehicle B.
⚪ d2 is the distance (m) travelled by the vehicle A during the actual
overtaking operation during T (secs) from position A2 to A3.
⚪ d3 is the distance (m) travelled by on-coming vehicle C during the actual
overtaking operation of A during T (secs) from position C1 to C2.
y Hence on a 2-lane road with 2-way traffic the overtaking sight distance,
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 (m).

Assumption involved in Analysis of OSD

(i) Overtaking vehicle is compelled to reduce the speed up to the speed
of overtaken vehicle in the reaction time.
(ii) When driver of vehicle A finds sufficient clear gap, he/she decides
Geometric Design of Highways

within a reaction time to overtake.

(iii) The vehicle A accelerates and overtakes the vehicle B within a distance
‘d2’ during the time ‘T’.
(iv) The distance d2 can be calculated in 3 components.
(v) During the overtaking time ‘T’ the vehicles C coming from the opposite
direction travel through distance d3.
d1 = vbt vb(m/sec)

39.
Chapter 2

or d1 = 0.278Vbt(m) Vb(km/hr)
t = reaction time = 2 sec
d2 = 2s + b
s = (0.7 vb + 6)m
or s = (0.7 × 0.278Vb + 6)m
s = (0.2 Vb + 6) m
s = 
minimum separation between two vehicles, which
depends upon their speed. Also termed as space head
way
1 2
Here d2 = vb T + aT
2

2s + b = vb T + 1 aT2
2

2s + vbT = vb T + 1 aT2
2
4s
T=
a
NOTE: The overtaking time ‘T’ required by the vehicle A depends upon its
average acceleration “a” and speed of overtaken vehicles vb.
d3 = vT or 0.278 Vt (m)
Where, V = Design speed of road (km/hr)
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
= vbt + vbT + 2s + vT

Gray Matter Alert!!!

In case of speed of overtaken vehicle is not given it can be taken as

4.5 m/sec or 16 km/hr less than design speed of road.
vb = v – 4.5 m/sec
Or Vb = V – 16km/hr
Geometric Design of Highways

The acceleration of the overtaking vehicles depends on several factors

(a) Type of vehicles
(b) Condition of vehicle
(c) Load on vehicles
(d) Speed of vehicles
(e) Characteristics of drivers

40.
 Chapter 2
y Variation of speed with Maximum overtaking acceleration are as follows

Speed (Kmph) Maximum acceleration (m/sec2)

25 1.41

30 1.30

40 1.24

50 1.11

65 0.92

80 0.72

100 0.53

Effects of Gradient on OSD

y The OSD requirement may increase on descending as well as on ascending
gradients.
y In descending gradient acceleration of overtaking vehicle increases, but
overtaken vehicle may also accelerate to a greater distance ‘b’ during the
overtaking time.
y In ascending gradient, the acceleration of overtaking vehicle will be less but
overtaken vehicle would also move with lower velocity.
y Hence on mild gradient (as of that in plain and rolling terrain) the OSD at
both ascending and descending gradient are generally taken as equal to
that of level stretch.
y However at steeper grades the OSD should be greater than minimum OSD
at plane level.
y OSD on two lane highway for different speed are as follows

Time component, seconds

Geometric Design of Highways

Safe overtaking
Speed
For For sight
Kmph
overtaking opposing Total distance(OSD),m
manoeuvre vehicle

40 9.0 6.0 15 165

50 10.0 7.0 17 235

41.
Chapter 2

60 10.8 7.2 18 300

65 11.5 7.5 19 340
80 12.5 8.5 21 470
100 14.0 9.0 23 640

NOTE:
1. Here overtaking time may be increased by about 2/3 to take into
consideration the distance covered by vehicles from the opposite
direction in case of two way traffic road during overtaking operations.
2. It is desirable that OSD should be available on most of the road
stretches.
 On road stretches with two way traffic
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
 On divided highways and on roads with one way traffic
OSD = d1 + d2
3. On divided highways with four one more lanes it is not essential to
provide the usual OSD, the sight distance on any highway should be
more than OSD.

y If OSD cannot be provided over a particular sketch of road section, in such

case, for safe overtaking of vehicles at design speed opportunity meet be
given to the vehicles, such roads are termed as “overtaking zone”.

OSD zone desirable length = 5 (OSD)

Overtaking zone
Minimum Length = 3 (OSD)
SP2
SP1

SP1
SP2
OSD OSD OSD OSD
Geometric Design of Highways

OSD = (d1 + d2) for one way tra c

OSD = (d1 + d2 + d3) for two way tra c
SP1 = Sing post “Overtaking zone ahead
SP2 = Sign post “End of overtaking zone”

Figure 2.11: Overtaking zones

42.
 Chapter 2
y If at stretches of road OSD cannot be provided as per suggested by IRC, in
such case sight distance is desirable to be kept as twice of SSD and it is
termed as “Intermediate Sight Distance.”
ISD = 2SSD
y The measurement of the ISD may be made assuming both the height of eye
of driver and that of object to be 1.2 m.
OSD > ISD > SSD

Height (m)
Reaction
Distance
time (Sec)
Driver’s eye Object

SSD 2.5 1.2 0.15

OSD 2 1.2 1.2

ISD 2.5 1.2 1.2

Space headway 0.7 - -

Example 2.4: The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicle are 65 and
35 kmph, respectively on a two way, traffic road. The average acceleration
during overtaking may be assumed as 0.99 m/sec2. Calculate,
(a) Safe overtaking sight distance
(b) The minimum length of overtaking zone
(c) The head light sight distance

Solution:

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 Geometric Design of Highways

d1 = 0.278Vbt

= 0.278 × 35 × 2 = 19.46 m

d2 = 2s + b

s = 0.2 Vb + b
= 0.2 × 35 + 6 = 12.4 m

43.
Chapter 2

4s 4 × 12.4
T=
= = 7.51 sec.
a 0.88

b = 0.278 × Vb × T

= 0.278 × 35 × 7.51 = 73.07 m

d2 = 2 × 12.4 + 73.07 = 97.87 m

d3 = 0.278 VT = 0.278 × 65 × 7.51

= 135.71 m

OSD = 19.46 + 97.87 + 135.71

= 253.04 m

(a) Minimum length of overtaking zone

= 3OSD

= 3 × 253.04

= 759.12 m

(b)Head light sight distance = SSD

V2
= 0.278Vt +
254f
652
SSD = 0.278 × 65 × 2.5 +
254 × 0.38

SSD = 88.95 m
Geometric Design of Highways

2.3.3 Sight Distance at Intersection

(a) Uncontrolled Intersection
y On all approaches of intersecting roads, there would be clear view across
the corners from the sufficient distance, so as to avoid collision.
y The design sight distance at intersection may be based on three possible
condition

44.
 Chapter 2
(i) Enabling the approaching vehicle to change the speed (slow down)
(ii) Enabling the approaching vehicle to stop
(iii) Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road

Obstruction

Sight
Sight Line Triangle

C
A

Figure 2.12: Sight Distance at Intersection

y The sight distance should be sufficient to enable either one or both the
approaching vehicles to change the speed to avoid collision.
y The total reaction time required for the driver to decide to change speed is
2 sec (assumed) and at least 1 sec more is needed, for making the change
in speed.
y Hence in this case sight distance would be equal to distance travelled by
vehicle at design speed in 3 sec.
y The distance for the approaching vehicle should be sufficient to bring either
both or one of the vehicle to stop before approaching the point of conflict.
Hence it would be equal to SSD.
Geometric Design of Highways

y Vehicles entering the intersection from the minor roads are controlled by
stop or give away sign so the vehicle have to stop and then proceed to
cross the main road.
y In this case the total time required by stopped vehicle would include
to start, accelerate and to cross the main road before another vehicle
travelling at design speed on main road reach the intersection.
y For safety consideration, the sight distance at uncontrolled intersection is
maximum of above three cases.

45.
Chapter 2

(b) Controlled Intersection

y At signalized intersection above three requirements are not applicable.
y At rotary intersection the sight distance should be at least equal to the SSD
for design speed of rotary.

2.4 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

y Change in ble gives the classification of terrain with respect to cross-slope
Terrain Classification Cross Slope(%)
Plain 0 – 10
Rolling 10 – 25
Mountainous 25 –60
Steep Above 60

Table4: Design Speeds on Rural Highways

Design Speed in kmph for various terrains
Road
Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
Classification
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
Expressways 120 100 100 80 80 60 80 60
National 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
& State
Highways
Major District 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
Roads
Other 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
District
Roads
Village Roads 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20
y As far as possible, attempt must be made to design all the geometric element
for ruling speed, however if site conditions and economic conditions does
Geometric Design of Highways

not permit, designing must be done for minimum design speed.

2.4.2 Horizontal Curve

y It is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to centre line of road.
It may be designed in terms of
(a) Radius of the curve (R)
(b) Degree of the curve (D)

46.
 Chapter 2
Gray Matter Alert!!!

Degree of curve is central angle subtended by an arc of length

30 m.
m
30

R
°
D
R

Angle Length of Arc

360° = 2pR

2pR
1° =
360
pR
D° = ×D
180
pR
So, × D = 30
180
1720
R=
D
y When a vehicle travels on horizontal curve the centrifugal force act
horizontally outwards through the CG of the vehicles.
y This centrifugal force depends upon speed of vehicle and radius of
Geometric Design of Highways

horizontal curve.
y It will be counteracted by lateral/transverse friction developed between
the tyre and pavement which helps the vehicle to change direction along
the curve.
mv 2 Wv 2
Pc = =
R gR
2
Pc V
Here = is termed as ‘Impact factor’ or ‘centrifugal ratio’.
w g R

47.
Chapter 2

y The force acting on the vehicle has the tendency to either overturn the
vehicle outward about wheels and to skid vehicle laterally outwards.

Pc

Pc

CG Pc
R2 Pc
R1
V Pc

Inward w Outward Pc
Side Side

y For stability of vehicle both the conditions are to be checked.

1. Overturning Effect
For no overturning of vehicle

MR  M0
CG1
R1 R2
PC W. b  Pch
2
h Pc b

w 2h
W

Pc b
If = , vehicles is on verge of overturning.
W 2h

Pc b
Geometric Design of Highways

If = , vehicle will overturn.

W 2h
(i) Transverse skidding effect
The centrifugal force developed has the tendency to push the vehicle
outwards in the transverse direction.

48.
 Chapter 2
Inner side
of curve
C.G P

FA= f.RA FB= f.RB

A
B
RA W
RB
Shaded Areas show the pressure under
the inner and outer wheels A and B
Figure 2.13: Transverse Skidding effect due to centrifugal force

For equilibrium condition the transverse skid resistance developed is

P = FA + FB

= f(RA + RB) = fW

f = coefficient of friction between the tyre and the pavement surface in

the transverse direction,

RA and RB are normal reactions at the wheels A and B

(RA + RB)= W(weight) of the vehicle, as no superelevation has been provided

in this case.

P = fW, the centrifugal ratio P/W is equal to ‘f’ i.e., vehicle is at verge of
Geometric Design of Highways

lateral skidding.

So to avoid both overturning and lateral skidding on a horizontal curve,

P b
<
W 2h
P
< f
W

49.
Chapter 2

2.4.3 Superelevation

Definitions

Superelevation: In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force

and to decrease the tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the
outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge,
therefore providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the
horizontal curve. This transverse inclination to the pavement surface
is called ‘superelevation’ or cant or banking.

The rate of superelevation, ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer
edge with respect to the horizontal width. From figure superelevation, e
may be expressed as:
NL
e = = tan q
ML
The inclination q with the horizontal is very small and the value of tanq
rarely exceeds 0.07. Therefore the value of tan q may be considered equal
to sinq.
E
Hence, =
e tan q ≈ sin=
q , E = relative elevation of the outer edge, B=
B
width of pavement.
If e is the superelevation rate ,by following figure we can say that,
NL = E = eB

CG P

B N
E
Geometric Design of Highways

M
 
L

Figure 2.14: Superelevated Pavement Section

50.
 Chapter 2
Analysis of superelevation
The forces acting on the vehicle while moving on a circular curve of radius
R metres at speed of v m/sec are,
(a) The centrifugal force P = (Wv2/gR) acting horizontally outwards through
the centre of gravity, CG.
(b) The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically downwards through the
CG.
(c) The frictional force developed between the wheels and the pavement
counteracting transversely along the pavement surface towards the
centre of the curve.

CG  P cos
P

w sin 
FB
FA
P sin R B

RA
s
W W co

Figure 2.15: Analysis of superelevation

The centrifugal force developed is thus opposed by corresponding value of

(i) the friction developed between the tyres and the pavement surface and
(ii) a component of the force of gravity due to the superelevation provided.
For equilibrium condition,

P cos q = W sin q + FA + FB
Also, P cos q = W sin q + f(RA + RB)
= W sin q + f(W cos q + P sin q )
i.e., P(cos q – f sin q) = W sin q + fW cos q

Dividing by W cos q,
Geometric Design of Highways

P
(1 − f tan q) = tan q + f
W

P tan q + f
i.e. the centrifugal ratio, =
W 1 − f tan q
The value of coefficient of lateral friction, ‘f’ is taken as 0.15 for the
design of horizontal curves. The value of tan q or transverse slope due to

51.
Chapter 2

superelevation rarely exceeds 0.07. So the value of (f tanq) is about 0.01.

Therefore (1 – f tan q)= 0.99 and may be approximated to 1.0.

P
Therefore, ≈ tan q + f = e + f
W
P V2
But =
W gR
So, general equation for design of superelevation is given by:
V2
e+f =
gR
Here, e = rate of superelevation = tan q
f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
R = radius of the horizontal curve, m

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2

If the speed of the vehicle is represented as V kmph, the above equation

becomes:
(0.278V)2 V2
e+f = =
9.8R 127R

V2
i.e. e+f =
127R
Here V = speed, kmph
R = radius of horizontal curve, m

The maximum value of superelevation is limited to 7% or 0.07 and the

minimum value of lateral friction coefficient, f taken for design of highways
(except expressways) is 0.15. Thus the contribution of lateral friction in
counteracting the centrifugal force and providing stability to the vehicle
negotiating horizontal curves is much higher than the contribution of the
superelevation.
Geometric Design of Highways

In conditions, where it is impossible to provide superelevation, friction plays

the key role to counteracts the centrifugal force fully. For such condition,
v2 V2
f= =
gR 127R

or, V= 127f R

52.
 Chapter 2
At intersections where negative superelevation (-e) is unavoidable, in such
cases, the speed of the concerned road should be limited considering the
negative superelevation at the intersection. i.e., (f – e) instead of f in the
above equations.
Thus the superelevation ‘e’ required on a horizontal curve depends on,
Radius of the curve R
Speed of the vehicle V
The coe cient of lateral friction
or the transverse skid resistance f
Example: 2.5: The radius of a horizontal curve is 110 m. The design speed is
60 kmph and f = 0.15
(a) What is the super-elevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to
develop?
(b) What is the value of friction needed if no superelevation is provided?

Solution:

V2
(a) e+f=
127R

e + 0.15 = 602
127 × 110

e = 0.107
V2
(b) e+f=
127R
for e= 0
602
f=
127 × 110
Geometric Design of Highways

f = 0.257

y From previous analysis, the value of e needed increases with increase in

speed and decreases with increase in radius of curve.
y Hence it cannot be increased beyond a particular limit (emax), as it could
lead to the instability of slow moving vehicle with high COG.
Eg. Heavily loaded truck, bullock cart etc.

53.
Chapter 2

Value of emax for different terrain are as follows

Type of terrain emax (%)

Plain and rolling terrain 7

Mountainous and steep terrain not 10

bounded by snow

Built up area 4

y A minimum cross-slope is necessary for drainage of surface water

on the road pavement.
y If calculated e is less than cross-slope of the road, then cross-
slope may be provided as ‘e’ only, by eliminating the crown and
negative super elevation on outer edge.
y In very flat curve with large radius, having less value of Pc and
negative super-elevation may be permitted on outer edge.
y As per IRC radius of curve beyond which ‘e’ is not required is as
follows.
Table: 2.4

Radius (in meters) of horizontal curve for

Design camber of
speed
(kmph)
4% 3% 2.5% 2% 1.7%

20 50 60 70 90 100

25 70 90 110 140 150

30 100 130 160 200 240

35 140 180 220 270 320

Geometric Design of Highways

40 180 240 280 350 420

50 280 370 450 550 650

60 470 620 750 950 1100

80 700 950 1100 1400 1700

100 1100 1500 1800 2200 1600

54.
 Chapter 2
DESIGN OF SUPER-ELEVATION
y The design of superelevation is very complex as mixed traffic operates on
roads.
y Providing a lower value of super-elevation and depending on lateral friction
would be unsafe for fast moving vehicle and providing higher value of super-
elevation generates problem for slow moving vehicle. Hence, a compromise
is made between the two.

Step for Superelevation Design

As per the IRC guidelines in India, from practical consideration the steps for
the design of superelevation are given below:
(i) The superelevation is calculated for 75% of design speed
(i.e., 0.75 v m/sec or 0.75 V kmph). Neglecting the friction

(0.75v)2 (0.75V)2
e= or
gR 127R
V2
i.e., e≈
225R
(ii) If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7% the value so obtained is
provided. If the value of ‘e’ as per above equation exceeds 0.07 then
provide the maximum superelevation equal to 0.07 and proceed with
steps 3 and 4.
(iii) Check the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value of
e = 0.07 at the full value of design speed, v m/sec or V kmph.

 v2   v2 
f=  − 0.07  or  − 0.07 
 gR   127R 
If the value of f calculated is less than 0.15, the superelevation of
0.07 is safe for the design speed and this is accepted as the design
superelevation. If not, either the radius of the horizontal curve has to be
increased or the speed has to be restricted to the safe value which will
be less than the design speed. The restricted speed or the allowable
Geometric Design of Highways

speed is calculated as given in 4.

(iv) The allowable speed or restricted speed (va m/sec or Va kmph) at the
curve is calculated by considering the design coefficient of lateral
friction and the maximum superelevation i.e.,
v2 V2
e + f = 0.07 + 0.15 =0.22 = a = a
gR 127R
Calculate the safe allowable speed,

55.
Chapter 2

va = 0.22gR = 2.156R m/sec

or Va = 27.94R kmph
If the above calculated allowable speed is higher than the design speed,
then the design is adequate and provide a superelevation of ‘e’ equal to
0.07. If the allowable speed is less than the design speed, the speed is
limited to the above calculated allowable speed Va kmph.

Example 2.6: The design speed of a highway is 75 kmph. There is a horizontal

curve of radius 195 m on a certain locality. Safe limit of f = 0.15.
(a) Calculate the ‘e’ required to maintain this speed.
(b) If the maximum value(super elevation) of 6% is not to be exceeded
compute the maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve, as it
is not possible to redesign the curve.

Solution:
(a)

V2 752
e= =
225R 225 × 195

= 0.142(14.2%)>7%

V2
e+f=
127R
V2
f= −e
127R

f= 752
− 0.06 = 0.167 > 0.15
127 × 195

Va = 5.28 R = 5.28 195

Geometric Design of Highways

Va = 73.73 kmph ≈ 70 kmph

Example 2.7: A major district road with thin bituminous pavement surface
in low rainfall area has horizontal curve of radius 1400m. If the design
speed is 65 kmph, what should be the super elevation?

56.
 Chapter 2
Solution:
v2 652
e= = = 0.0134(1.34%)
225R 225 × 1400
But camber/cross slope required for drainage is 2% here e < 2%
Since e is less than camber, cross slope is provided, but it would lead to
negative superelevation on outer edge of curve
-e + f = - 0.02 + 0.15 = 0.13
V2 652
= = 0.023
127R 127 × 1400
V2
Since -e + f > , vehicle is safe on outer edge also.
127R
NOTE: On outer edge fm mobilised be less than ‘f’.

Attainment of Superelevation in the Field

The cross section on the portion of circular curve of the road is superelevated
with a uniform tilt sloping down from the outer edge of the pavement up
to inner edge.
Thus the crowned camber sections at the straight before the start of the
transition curve should be changed to a single cross slope equal to the
desired superelevation at the beginning of the circular curve. This change
may be conveniently attained at a gradual and uniform rate through the
length of horizontal transition curve. The full superelevation is attained by
the end of transition curve or at the beginning of the circular curve.

(a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section: This may be achieved by

two methods.
Geometric Design of Highways

(i) The outer half of the cross slope is rotated about the crown at a
desired rate such that the surface falls on the same plane as the
inner half and the elevation of the centre line is not altered.
Thus, no point on the curve will have a negative superelevation at the
outer half of the pavement even at the start of the transition curve.
Drawback-The surface drainage will not be proper at the outer half,
during a short stretch of the road with a cross slope less than the
camber.

57.
Chapter 2

Levels of
outer edge

Crown

Outer Edge
(a) Outer Edge Rotated about the Crown

Positions of
Crown

Crown

(b) Crown Shifted Outwards

(Diagonal Crown Method)
Figure 2.16: Elimination of crown of cambered Section

(ii) Diagonal crown method, the crown is progressively shifted outwards,

thus increasing the width of the inner half of cross section progressively.
Drawback - A portion of the outer half of the pavement has increasing
values of negative superelevation before the crown is eliminated.

(b) Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation: When the crown of

Geometric Design of Highways

the camber is eliminated, the superelevation available at this section

is equal to the camber. But the superelevation to be provided at the
beginning of circular curve may be greater than the camber in many
cases when the design superelevation is more than the minimum value.
Hence, the pavement section will have to be rotated further till the
desired banking is obtained.

58.
 Chapter 2
There are two methods of rotating the pavement cross-section to attain
the full superelevation after the elimination of the camber.
(i) By rotating the pavement cross section about the centre line,
depressing the inner edge and raising the outer edge each by half the
total amount of superelevation, i.e., by E/2 with respect to the centre.
(ii) By rotating the pavement cross-section about the inner edge of the
pavement section, raising both the centre as well as the outer edge of
the pavement such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of
superelevation, E with respect to the inner edge.

The two methods are shown below:

Outer
Outer Edge
Inner
Inner Edge E
Edge E/2 Edge
E/2

Method(i) Rotating about Method(ii) Rotating about

centre line centre edge
Figure 2.17: Rotation of pavement section to attain full superelevation
y The plan of the horizontal curve including the straight, transition and
circular curves are shown in figure (a).
y Elimination of the crown of cambered section, attainment of uniform
slope and the two methods of rotating the pavement section to attain full
superelevation.
y The outer half of the cambered section is raised to a horizontal position
between A and B at the same rate of introduction of superelevation is
continued along the transition curve of length Ls.
y Thus, at the tangent point B there is no negative superelevation.
y When the pavement is rotated about the inner edge, the length AB is given
Geometric Design of Highways

by:
cBN cLs
=
2 2e
Where, c and e are the rates of camber and superelevation
B is the width of pavement
N is the rate of raising the outer edge of pavement along the transition
curve of length Ls.

59.
Chapter 2

At point C the pavement attains uniform cross slope equal to the camber
and the distance BC = AB. To attain full superelevation, the pavement is
further rotated at the same rate between C and E.

The superelevation should be attained gradually over the full length of

transition curve so that the design superelevation is available at the starting
point of the circular curve.
Straight Tra
nsit
i
A B Cur on
C ve Circular
Curve
D

T.P.

(a) Plan

E/2

C/2 C/2 ED/2 E/2

Method (1) Rotating Pavement about the centre

C/2 C ED E
Outer Edge

Inner Edge
Section Section Section Section Section
AT A AT B AT C AT D AT F
Method (2) Rotating Pavement about the inner edge
(b) Typical Cross-sections of pavement
METHOD (I) Centre line
C F (Normal Grade)
A B Outer Edge
C E E/2
T.P. Inner Edge
Geometric Design of Highways

METHOD (II)
Outer Edge F
A B C
C E E/2
T.P. Inner Edge
(Normal Grade)

(c) Vertical profile of the inner and

outer edges and the centre line

Figure 2.18: Attainment of superelevation

60.
 Chapter 2
The vertical profiles of the inner edge, centre line and outer edge by the
two methods of rotation are shown in figure. It may be seen that in the
centre line method of rotating pavement section, the vertical profile of the
pavement centre is not altered throughout the horizontal curve. But by
rotating about inner edge, the levels of both the centre line and the outer
edges are raised above the original vertical profile.

The superelevation is introduced by raising the outer edge of the pavement

at a rate not exceeding 1 to 150 for plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60
for mountainous and steep terrain as per of Indian Roads Congress
recommendations. Hence, the length of transition curve needed to introduce
the total superelevation E will depend also on the rate of introducing
superelevation and value of E. Thus, the length of transition curve needed
to introduce a total superelevation E at a rate of 1 in 150 will be 150 E, if the
pavement is rotated about the inner edge.

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: On a circular curve, the rate of superelevation is e. While

negotiating the curve a vehicle comes to a stop. It is seen that the
stopped vehicle does not slide inwards (in the radial direction). The
coefficient of side friction is f. Which of the following is true:
(a) e ≤ ƒ (b) ƒ < e < 2ƒ
(c) e ≥ 2ƒ (d) none of the above
Answer: (a)  (GATE 2015)

2.4.4 RADIUS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE

y Horizontal curve on the highways are designed for the specified design
speed i.e. ruling and minimum design speed.
y However if this is not possible due to site restrictions, the horizontal curve
Geometric Design of Highways

may be redesigned.
y On the basis of speed it is classified into following.
(a) Ruling Minimum Radius (RMR)
V2
RMR =
127(emax + f)
V = uling design speed (kmph)

(b) Absolute Minimum Radius (AMR)

61.
Chapter 2

V2
e+f=
127R
V′2
AMR =
127(emax + f)

V′ = minimum design speed

(c)Radius beyond which no superelevation is required

V2
e+f=
127R

y It is the radius, corresponding to which, camber serves the purpose of

superelevation.

e = camber, f = 0, V = 0.75 Vdesign

(0.75V)2
camber =
127R

R= V2
225 × camber

Example 2.8: For a horizontal curve of a NH in plain terrain what is the

value of the ruling minimum radius and absolute minimum radius.

Solution:
V2
RMR =
127(emax + f)

1002
RMR =
127(0.07 + 0.15)

RMR = 358 m
Geometric Design of Highways

V′2
AMR =
127(emax + f)

802
AMR =
127(0.07 + 0.15)

AMR = 229.07 m

62.
 Chapter 2
Table 2.5: Terrain vs minimum radius of the horizontal
curve in metres

Mountainous terrain Steep terrain

Rolling terrain
Area not
Plain terrain Area not
Classifi- affected by Snow bound Snow bound
snow affected by
cation of areas areas
snow
roads

Ruling Abs. Ruling Abs. Ruling Abs. Ruling Abs. Ruling Abs. Ruling Abs.
Min. Min. Min. Min. Min. Min. Min. Min. Min. Min. Min. Min.

NH & SH 360 230 230 155 80 50 90 60 50 30 60 33

MDR 230 155 155 90 50 30 60 33 30 14 33 15

ODR 155 90 90 60 30 20 33 23 20 14 23 15

VR 90 60 60 45 20 14 23 15 20 14 23 15

2.4.5 WIDENING OF PAVEMENT ON HORIZOTNAL CURVES

y On horizontal curve of low radii, it is a common exercise to widen the
pavement slightly more than its normal width.
y Following are the objective of providing extra widening over the pavements
on horizontal curve.
(a) A vehicle such as car, bus or truck has a rigid wheelbase and turning of
front wheels is possible. When the automobile takes a turn to negotiate a
horizontal curve, the rear wheels do not follow the same path as that of the
front wheels. This concept is referred as ‘off tracking’.
The inner front wheel takes a path on the inner edge of a pavement at a
Geometric Design of Highways

horizontal curve, inner rear wheel will be off the pavement on the inner
shoulder.
The off-tracking of the vehicle depends on following factors
(i) the length of the wheelbase of the vehicle
(ii) the turning angle (radius) of the horizontal curve.

63.
Chapter 2

R2

A
C P
R1
Wm
Figure 2.19: Off-tracking and mechanical widening on horizontal curve

(b) In situations like when the speed of vehicle is more than the design
speeds of the road, the superelevation and lateral friction developed
by the pavement are not able to fully counteract the centrifugal force
due to which some transverse skidding may occur and the rear wheels
thereby takes the path outside of those traced by the front wheels on
the horizontal curves.
(c) The path followed by the wheels of a trailer in a towing vehicle, is likely
to be on either side of the central path of the towing vehicle, which
depends on the speed, rigidity of the joints in the vehicle and surface
roughness of the pavement.
(d) To have greater visibility on a horizontal curve with larger radius, the
drivers have tendency to follow the outer side at the beginning of a
curve rather than following the central path.

Extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal curves, We depends on

the length of wheel based of the vehicle l, radius of the curve negotiated R
Geometric Design of Highways

and the psychological factor which is a function of the speed of the vehicle
and the radius of the curve.

On horizontal curve the extra widening of pavement is divided into two

parts namely
(i) Mechanical widening
(ii) Psychological widening

64.
 Chapter 2
Mechanical Widening
Mechanical widening (Wm) is the widening required to account for the off-
tracking due to the rigidity of wheelbase.
Mechanical widening calculation,

OA = R1 = radius of the path traversed by the outer

rear wheel, m
OB = R2 = radius of the path traversed by the outer
front wheel, m
R = mean radius of the horizontal curve, m
WM = mechanical widening due to off-tracking, m
l = length of wheel base, m
OC - OA = OB – OA = R2 – R1 = Wm

From DOAB, OA2 = OB2 – BA2

R21 = R22 − l 2

i.e. R22 − 2R2 Wm + Wm2 = R22 − l 2

l2 = Wm ( 2R2 − Wm )
l2
Wm =
(2R2 − Wm )
l2
Therefore Wm = (approximately)
2R
R = mean radius of the curve.
The above formula for mechanical widening is used to calculate extra
widening for a vehicle moving on a horizontal curve along one traffic lane.
If the same is to be calculated for road having ‘n’ traffic lanes, the total
mechanical widening required is
nl 2
Wm =
2R
Psychological Widening
Geometric Design of Highways

The extra width of pavement provided for psychological reasons is for greater
movability of vehicle at higher speeds and to provide extra space for the
overhangs of vehicles. Psychological widening is important on pavements
with more than one lane. An empirical formula has been recommended by
the IRC that is:
V
Wps =
9.5 R

65.
Chapter 2

Hence the total widening we require on a horizontal curve is given as:

We = Wm + Wps
nl 2 V
i.e., We = +
2R 9.5 R
Here, n = number of traffic lanes
l = length of wheel base of longest vehicle, m.
The value of l may normally be taken as 6.1 m
or 6.0 m for commercial vehicles
v = design speed, kmph
R = radius of horizontal curve, m

Gray Matter Alert!!!

For a single lane road and 2-lane road, if the radius is greater than
(i) 
300 m, then extra widening is not required.
For single lane road, psychological widening is not considered
(ii) 
(wp = 0).
(iii) Extra widening is provided gradually through transition curve.
(iv) Generally extra widening is provided equally on both side of curve.
(v) On hilly road extra widening is provided only on inner side of curve.

Table 2.6: Extra width of pavement at horizontal curves

Radius of
Up to 20 20 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 100 101 to 300 Above 300
curve, m

Extra width 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 Nil

on two-lane
pavement, m
Geometric Design of Highways

Extra 0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil Nil

width on
single lane
pavement, m

NOTE: for multi-lane roads, the pavement widening is calculated by adding

half the extra width of two-lane roads to each lane of the multi-lane road.

66.
 Chapter 2
Method of Introducing Extra Widening in the Field
The extra widening is introduced gradually, starting from the beginning of
the transition curve and thereby progressively increased at uniform rate
equally on both sides of the road, till the full value of desired extra widening
‘We’ is achieved.
The full value of extra width We is continued throughout the length of the
circular curve and then decreased gradually in the same way as it was laid
at the beginning of transition curve.

Circular
Curve Tra
nsi
t
it ion Cur ion
ns ve
Tra urve W + We
C St
ra
ight
t We/2
a igh
w

Str

Figure 2.20: Extra widening of pavement on horizontal curve

On horizontal circular curves having no transition curves, 2/3 of the extra

widening is provided at the end of the straight section, i.e., before the start
of the circular curve and the other 1/3 part of it is provided on the circular
curve beyond the tangent point, same as in the case of superelevation.

Circular
Curve Tra
nsi
t
it ion Cur ion
ns ve
Tra urve W + We
C St
ra
ig ht
t w
a igh
Geometric Design of Highways
w

t r
S

Figure 2.21: Widening of pavement on sharp curve

Example 2.9: Find the total width of pavement a horizontal curve for a new
NH (2 lane) to be aligned along rolling terrain with ruling minimum radius.

67.
Chapter 2

Solution:
For NH in rolling terrain ruling design speed
V = 80 kmph
Normal width of pavement = 7 m
Number of lanes = 2
Length of wheel base of truck L = 6m
e = 7%
f = 0.15
2
V 802
PRMR=
= = 230 m
127(emax + f) 127(0.07 + 0.15)

2
We = Wm + Wp = nL + V 2 × 62 80
= + = 0.71m
2R 9.5 R 2 × 230 9.5 230

Total width of pavement = W + We = 7 + 0.71 = 7.71 m

2.4.6 Horizontal Transition Curve

y Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment of pavement
from straight to circular gradually.
y The transition curve has a radius which decrease from infinity at the tangent
point to the designed radius of circular curve.
RTC max = Turning point
RTC min = Circular curve

y Objective of providing the transition curve

(i) To introduce centrifugal force gradually over the vehicle
(ii) To avoid the sudden jerk
(iii) To enable gradual introduction of designed super-elevation and extra
widening of pavement.
(v) To improve the aesthetic appearance of road

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Geometric Design of Highways

For an ideal transition curve the length of curve should be inversely

proportional to the radius.
1
L ∝ ⇒ LR = constant
R
At turning point, R = ∞⇒L=0
At circular curve R = RC ⇒ L = Ls

68.
 Chapter 2
O Deflection
Angle, 
e
nc
sta
Di
nt

Circular Curve
e
ng
Ta

Transition C Tr
D a
/2 Cu ns
Curve, LS LS rv itio
R e, n
L
/2

,S
LS

ift R
ht

B T.P Sh E Straight
aig

T.P
Str

Figure 2.22: Transition curve in horizontal alignment

Different types of transition curves

The different types of transition curves adopted in designing of horizontal
alignment of highways are:
(a) Spiral
(b) Lemniscate
(c) Cubic parabola
y All the three curves follow almost the same path up to deflection angle of
4°, and practically there is no significant difference even up to 9°.
y In all these curves, the radius decreases as the length increases.
y The rate of change of radius and hence the rate of change of centrifugal
Geometric Design of Highways

acceleration is not constant in the case of lemniscate and cubic parabola,

especially at deflection angles higher than 4°.
y As in spiral curve the radius is inversely proportional to the length and the
rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is uniform throughout the length
of the curve, that is the reason the spiral fulfils the condition of an ideal
transition curve.

69.
Chapter 2

is
Ax
or
aj
Spiral

M Lemniscate

Cubic Parabola
45°

Figure 2.23: Different types of transition curves

IRC recommends the use of the spiral curve as ideal transition curve of
highways because:
(i) The spiral curve satisfies the requirements of an ideal transition, as
the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is uniform throughout
the length.
(ii) The calculations and setting out of the curve in the field is simple and
easy.

The equation of the spiral may be written as:

LR = LSRC = constant

Therefore, L = m q

Here, m is a constant equal to 2RLs and q is the tangent deflection angle

in radius.
Geometric Design of Highways

The length of transition curve is designed to fulfil three conditions,

(i) Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
(ii) Rate of introduction of superelevation
(iii) Minimum length by IRC empirical formula

The length of transition curve f is height of the three values calculated by

above formula.

70.
 Chapter 2
(i) Rate of change of centrifugal force: Length of transition curve is
designed sin such away that the rate of change of centrifugal force
along the curve is low.

ai = 0

2
2
V
af =
RC

Da
Rate of change of acceleration (c) =
T

a f − ai
=
T
v2
−0
RC
c=
LS
v
v3 (0.278V)3
c= =
LSRC LSRC

0.0215V 3
Ls =
CRC
y The maximum allowable value of ‘c’ without producing discomfort to the
vehicle/passenger is given by
80
c= m / sec3
75 + V
c = (0.5 – 0.8) m/sec3 Geometric Design of Highways

(ii) Rate of Introduction of Super-Elevation

y Here rate of introduction of super-elevation 1V : NH
1 → elevation provided
N → length of transition
curve

As per IRC
1 : 150 for plain/rolling terrain

71.
Chapter 2

1 : 100 for urban/built up area

1: 60 for mountainous/steep terrain
Hence length of transition curve = Nx
Where ‘x’ is elevation of outer edge.

Case(i): It rotation done about central line

We 0
+
W
2 E

2
e
c
E

2
I

x
tane = e =
w + we
2
1
x= e(W + We )
2
1 NE
Ls = eN(W + We) or
2 2
Case(ii): If rotation is done about inner edge
0

+W
e

W
E

e
I
Geometric Design of Highways

x
tane = e =
W + We
x = e(W + We)

Ls = eN(W + We)

Ls = NE

72.
 Chapter 2
(iii) As per IRC, length of horizontal transition curve is given by following

empirical relation:
2.7 V2
(a) For plain rolling/terrain LS =
R
V2
(b) For mountainous and steep terrain LS =
R

Length of transition curve to be provided is maximum of which is calculated

from previous three criteria.

Example 2.10: A NH passes through a region of heavy rainfall on a rolling

terrain having a horizontal curve of radius 500 m. What is the length of
transition curve to be provided to the highway.

Solution:
(i) Length of transition curve as per rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration
0.0215V3
LS =
CR
For NH passing through rolling terrain

N = 80 kmph

80 80
c = = = 0.516(0.5 − 0.8)
75 + V 75 + 80
0.0215 × 803
LS = = 42.67 m
0.516 × 500

(ii) Length of transition curve as per rate of change of superelevation for

rolling terrain rate of change of super elevation (N) = 150

Geometric Design of Highways

For design rate of superelevation (e)

V2
e+f= = =
, f 0, V 0.75V
127R

V2 802
e= = = 0.056 < 0.07
225R 225 × 500

73.
Chapter 2

y Since R = 500 m > 300 m, no extra widening is required we = 0.

y For better drainage in heavy rainfall area rotation of pavement cross-section
in done about inner edge.

Elevation of outer edge, x = ew

Width of pavement → considering 2 lane

So, x = 0.056 × 7 = 0.392 m

LS = Nx = 150 × 0.392

= 58.8 m

(iii)Length of transition curve as per IRC

2.7V2 2.7 × 802
LS =
= = 34.36m
R 500
Ls = ma x (42.67, 58.8, 34.56)

Ls = 58.8 m
; 60 m

Setting of Transition Curve

V 

Circular Design circular

curve

SC CS
Spiral Combined curve
K
R
K  K Straight ST
Straight TS s
s LT/2
Geometric Design of Highways

LT/2
T
T
PC = Point of curvature, PT = Point of tangency
TS = Tangent to transition point, SC = Transition curve to
circular curve point

74.
 Chapter 2
Circular curve
Transition Transition curve
curve 

Shift T2
T1
D F

T1 E T2
D1 F1 C
R
A

-2s
s s


(i) Shift/Throw(S) = L2s

24R

L / 2 
(ii) Spiral Angle (qs) =  S radian
 R 

 180 LS / 2 
=  . deg ree
 p R 

2pR
(iii) Length of circular curve (LCC) = (D − 2qs )
360

(v) Length of tangent (LT) = T1T1′ + TB

1

LS D
+ (R + S) tan
Geometric Design of Highways

LT =
2 2

(v) Chainage Chainage of T1 = chainage of B – LT

Chainage of D = chainage of T1 + LS
Chainage of F = chainage of D + LCC
Chainage of T2 = chainage of F + LS

75.
Chapter 2

Example 2.11: On a NH in rolling terrain, two straights intersected at chainage

1000 m with an angle of deflection of 40°. It is proposed to put a circular
arc of 14 chains radius with transition curve of 3 chains (20 m length) at
each end.
Determine the chainage of the beginning of first transition length, circular
curve and the second transition curve and show compounded data in neat
sketch.

Circular curve
Transition Transition curve
curve 

Shift T2
T1
D F

T1 E T2
D1 F1 C
R
A

-2s
s s


Solution:
Chainage of point B = 1000 m
D = 40°
Re = 14 × 20 = 280 m
LS = 3 × 20 = 60 m
Geometric Design of Highways

L2S 602
S= = = 0.535 m
24R 24 × 280
L D
LT = a + (R + S) tan
2 2
60 40
= + (280 + 0.535) tan
2 2
= 132.106 m

76.
 Chapter 2
180
qs = L
2pR S
180 × 60
qs =
2p × 280
qs = 6.14°
2pR 2p × 280
LCC = = (D − 2φ) (40 − 2 × 6.14)
360° 360°
LCC = 135.4 m
Chainage of T1 = chainage of B – LT = 1000 – 132.106 = 867.89 m
Chainage of D = chainage of T1 + LS = 867.89+ 60 = 927.89 m
Chainage of F = chainage of D + LCC = 927.89 + 135.4 = 1063.3 m
Chainage of T2 = chainage of F + LS = 1063.37 + 60 = 1123.37 m

2.4.7 Setback Distance

y The clearance distance, required from the centre line of pavement to the
obstruction to maintain the adequate sight distance on the curve is referred
as setback distance.
y The setback distance required from the centre lines of horizontal curve
depends upon
(a) Required sight distance (S)
(b) Radius of horizontal curve (R)
(c) Length of the curve (LSS)

(i) When Lc > S

When the length of curve Lc is greater than the sight distance S
Angle subtended by the arc length S at the centre be a.
The sight distance is measured along the centre line of the road and the
angle subtended at the centre, a is equal to S/R radians. Therefore half
central angle is given by:
a S 180 S
= radians = degrees
2 2R 2p R
Geometric Design of Highways

The set-back distance or clearance, m = CF = OF – OC.

OF is radius, R of the horizontal curve and OC is R cos a/2.
Therefore the set-back distance, m required from the centre line
is:
a
m = R − R cos
2

77.
Chapter 2

S.D

Clearance
A Line of Sight C
B

.R
/2

us
di
Ra


Figure 2.24: Clearance or set-back distance when length of curve is greater than SD

In the case of wide roads with two or more lanes, if ‘d’ is the distance
between the centre line of the road and the centre line of the inside lane,
the sight distance is measured along the middle of the inner side lane and
the set-back distance, m is:
a′
m′ = R − (R − d) cos
2
a′ 180S
where = deg rees
2 2p(R − d)
(ii) When LC < S
If the length of the curve Lc is less than the required sight distance S, then
the angle a subtended at the centre is determined with the help of length
of circular curve LC and the set-back distance m′ is calculated out in two
parts. In figure the set-back distance FC = FG + GC.
Geometric Design of Highways

a′ 180LC
= deg rees
2 2p (R − d)
Therefore the set-back distance, FC = m′ = FG + GC, which may be expressed
in terms of the radius R and central angle a as given below:
a′ (S − LC ) a′
m′ = R − (R − d) cos + sin
2 2 2

78.
 Chapter 2
S.D

LC
C
x=
B G (S.
x D-L
D
C )/2
F
A  C
2

/2 R

Figure 2.25: Set-back distance when length of curve is less than SD

NOTE:
(i) Set back distance from centreline of inner lane = m – d
(ii) Set back distance from centreline of outer lane = m + d
(iii) Set back distance from centreline of inner edge = m – 2d
(iv) Set back distance from centre line of outer edge = m + 2d
Above distance are in reference with two lane road.

Example 2.12: A two lane highway has a horizontal curve of radius 200 m
and total length of the curve is 240 m, the distance between the centre line
of the highway and the centre of the inner lane is 1.95 m, if the desired sight
distance is 340 m, what is the value of setback distance required?
(a) 48.44 m (b) 65.71 m
(c) 71.21 m (d) 35.76 m
Geometric Design of Highways

Solution:
LC < S

a 180 LCC
= ×
2 p 2(R − d)
a 180 240
= × =
34.7°
2 p 2(200 − 1.95)

79.
Chapter 2

a  SD − LCC  a
m = R − (R − d) cos +  sin
2  2  2

 340 − 240 
= 200 − (200 − 1.95) cos ( 34.7 ) +   sin(34.7)
 2 
m = 65.71 m
Correct option is (b).

2.4.8 Curve Resistance

Vehicles which are driven by rear wheels moving on S
Q
a horizontal curve, the direction of movement of rear
and front wheels are different resulting in loss of T cos
T

tractive force know as curve resistance. 

A and B are the rear driving wheels which give a C

tractive force T in the direction PS. The front wheels D R

C and D are turned so as to steer the vehicle along a

horizontal curve, the tangential direction of which is
RQ.
Hence the tractive force available in this direction is A B

= T cos a which will be less than the actual tractive

P
force, where T is the tractive force applied by the rear
Figure 2.26: Curve resistance for
driving wheels. turning vehicle
Curve resistance = (T – T cos a)
= T (1 – cos a)

Example 2.13: A SH passing through rolling terrain has a horizontal curve of

radius equal to ruling minimum radius.

(i) Design all the geometric features of this horizontal curve.

Geometric Design of Highways

(ii) Specify the minimum set back distance from the centre line of two lane

highway on the inner side of the curve upto which the buildings etc,

obstructing the vision should not be constructed so that intermediate

sight distance is available throughout the circular curve. Assume the

length of circular curve greater than sight distance.

80.
 Chapter 2
Solution:
(a) Ruling minimum radius
V2
e+f=
127R
e = 7%, f = 0.15
V2
RRMR =
127(e + f)
802
RRMR = = 230 m
127(0.07 + 0.15)

V2
(b) Superelevation e+f= = =
, f 0, V 0.7V
127R

(0.75V)2
e=
127R

802
e = = 0.123 > 0.07
225R

edesign = 0.07

V2 V2
Check e+f= ⇒=
f −e
127R 127R

f= 802
− 0.07 = 0.149 < 0.15
127 × 230

Hence e = 0.07 is safe

(c) Extra widening of pavement

Let width of SH be of 7 m and it is of 2 lane
We = Wm + Wp
Geometric Design of Highways

nl 2 v
= + [l =
6m]
2R 9.5 R

2 × 62 80
We = + =
0.712 m
2 × 230 9.5 230
W = W + We = 7 + 0.712 m
WT = 7.712 m

81.
Chapter 2

(d) Length of transition curve (LS)

(i) As per rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
80 80
C = = = 0.516 m/sec3 (0.5 − 0.8)
75 + V 75 + 80
0.0215V 3 0.0215 × 803
LS =
= = 92.75 m
CR 0.516 × 230
(ii) As per rate of change of super-elevation (N)
Let rotation of pavement is done about centre at rate of 1 in 150.
eWT 0.07 × 7.712
= x= = 0.26 m
2 2
LS = Nx = 150 × 0.26 = 40.48 m
(iii) As per IRC
2.7V2 2.7 × 802
LS =
= = 75.13 m
R 230
Hence, LS = max (92.75, 40.48, 75.13)m
Ls = 93 m
(iv)

 V2 
ISD=
= 2SSD 2 0.278Vt + 
 254f 

 802 
ISD = 2 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 + 
 254 × 0.35 
ISD = 255m
LC > S
a
m = R − (R − d) cos
2
WT 7.712
d == = 1.928 m
4 4
a 180S 180 × 255
=
Geometric Design of Highways

=
2 2p(R − d) 2p × (230 − 1.928)
a
= 32°
2
m = 230 – (230 – 1.928) cos32°

m = 36.57 m

82.
 Chapter 2
2.5 DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
ve)
tii
os
-n ( (P
4 ne
g n 5
ativ +
e) e)
si tiv
) o
ve (p
s iti n2 = 0 +n
3

po
+n 1(

Figure 2.27: Natural Ground/ Topography

y The natural ground may be level at some place and may have slope of
different magnitude at different locations.
y Generally highway is aligned to follow the natural topography keeping in
view the drainage and other design consideration.

Definitions

It is defined as change in elevation or height of the road along the

length or may be defined as rise or fall along the length of road with
respect to the horizontal.

y The vertical alignment of highway affects

(i) Acceleration and deceleration.
(ii) Operational cost of vehicle.
(iii) Sight distance
(iv) Vehicle speed
(v) Comfort while driving at high speed.
y The vertical alignment consist of 2 elements:
Geometric Design of Highways


x
(i) Gradient
(ii) Vertical curves

83.
Chapter 2

Gray Matter Alert!!!

The angle which measure change in direction at the intersection of 2

grades is called as deviation angle.
N = a1 + a2
or N = a1 – (-a 2)

1
N
2

1 2

2.5.1 Gradient
y It can be represented as follows:

(a) 1 in x

1
(b) × 100%
x

(c) tan a
Types of Gradient: Gradients are classified as following:
(a) Ruling Gradient: Also known as design gradient
y The maximum gradient with which the engineer tries to design the vertical
profile of pavement is known as ruling gradient.
y Gradient upto ruling gradient are adopted as a normal course in design.
y However, flatter gradient may be preferred wherever it can be provided.
Geometric Design of Highways

(b) Limiting Gradient:

y Wherever topography of a place forces to adopt sleeper gradient than ruling
gradient, it can be extended up to limiting gradient.
[Or else enormous increase in cost of construction would be observed].
y However, the length of road on which this gradient is provided is limited.

84.
 Chapter 2
(c) Exceptional Gradient:
y In some extreme situations, it may be necessary to provide still steeper
gradient than limiting gradient for short stretch of road. In such cases,
exceptional gradient can be provided upto 100 m at a stretch.
y As the IRC, values of different gradient are as follows

Type of Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional

Plain or Rolling 1 in 90 1 in 20 1 in 15

Mountainous terrain and 1 in 20 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3

steep terrain, having RL more
than 3000 m above MSL

Steep terrain upto RL 3000 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3 1 in 12.5

m above MSL

(d) Minimum Gradient:

y The minimum gradient is provided from drainage point of view in order to
allow gravity flow of water, inside the gradient system.
y As per IRC minimum gradient is as follows:
(i) Concrete Drains 1/500
(ii) Kutcha open drains/ Soil drains 1/200

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Depending upon type of soil, gradient of kutcha drain can be taken

1
upto .
100
Geometric Design of Highways

Rack your Brain

Q. Which gradient has the highest value and which has the least…???
A. Exceptional Gradient > Limiting Gradient > Ruling/Design Gradient
> Minimum Gradient

NOTE: Grade compensation on horizontal curve

85.
Chapter 2

y At horizontal curves due to the turning angle of vehicles with rear wheel
drive, curve resistance of T(1 – cosa) is developed.
y On a horizontal curve, in addition to the gradient, there is an increased
resistance due to horizontal curve and gradient (curve resistance and grade
resistance).
y Hence, when sharp horizontal curve is introduced on road, which has
already the maximum permissible gradient, the reduction in gradient is to
be carried out.
y This reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is termed as “Grade
Compensation” (GC), which is given by,

30 + R
GC% = , v R = Radius of horizontal curve in metres.
R

75
y The maximum value of GC is limited to .
R
 30 + R

Hence GC = Min. of  R
 75
 R

y The grade compensation is not necessary for gradient flatter than 4%,
hence it is not being provided beyond (less than) 4%.

Example 2.14: What will be the compensated gradient

(a) It ruling gradient is 6% on a horizontal curve of radius 60 m.
(b) It ruling gradient is 5% on a horizontal curve of radius 60 m.
Also report grade compensation in both cases.

Solution:
Geometric Design of Highways

 30 + R 30 + 60
 =R
= 1.5%
60
GC = Min. of 
 75 75
= = 1.25%
 R 60
(a) GC = 1.25%
Compensated Gradient = 6 – 1.25 = 4.75% > 4%
\ 4.75% is to be provided

86.
 Chapter 2
(b) GC = 1.25%
Compensated Gradient = 5 – 1.25 = 3.75% < 4%
Hence compensated gradient = 4%
GC = 5 – 4 = 1%

Gray Matter Alert!!!

When camber and gradient is provided together to the road, water

flows in direction resultant to camber and gradient, which is also
known as “Hydraulic gradient”.
ber

Grad
ient
Cam

Hyd ient
Gra
rau
d
lic

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: A road in a hilly terrain is to be laid at a gradient of 4.5%.

A horizontal curve of radius 100 m is laid at a location on this road.
Gradient needs to be eased due to combination of curved horizontal
and vertical profiles of the road. As per IRC, the compensated gradient
(in %, round off to one decimal place), is_____. Geometric Design of Highways

Answser: (4%) (GATE 2020)

2.5.2 Vertical Curve

y Vertical curves are introduced at the intersection of different gradient due
to change in vertical alignment of roads to smoothen out the side/vertical
profile.

87.
Chapter 2

y These curves are broadly classified into 2:

(i) Summit Curve/Crest Curve with convexity upward
(ii) Valley curve/ Sag curve with concavity upward

2.5.2.1 Summit Curve:

y These are vertical curves, with convexity upward and concavity downward.
Convex

Concave

VPI(Vertical point of Intersection)

nt

 = Deviation angle
ie
rad

En
d
gG

(n2)
Gr

(n1)
rtin

ad
ien
Sta

VPT
VPC B
A
(Vertical Point of Curvature) (Vertical Point of Tangency)

y Summit curve is formed by 2 gradient. (Starting and end gradient)

(a) Positive to positive:
+n2
N

+n1

n1 > n2
N = n1 – n2
(b) Positive to flat:
N
Geometric Design of Highways

n2=0
+n
1

N = n1 – n2
N = n1 - 0

88.
 Chapter 2
(c) Positive to negative:

+n
1
-n
2

N = n1 – (-n2)
N = n1 + n2

(d) Negative to negative

–n1

–n2

\ n2 > n1
N = -n1 – (-n2)

N = n2 – n1

Significant points with respect to vertical curve:

(i) Vertical point of intersection (VPI) lies above the curve.
(ii) Summit curves are designed only for sight distance criteria. i.e. SSD
or absolute minimum sight distance must be provided at all the
sketches.
Geometric Design of Highways

As far as possible, OSD or at least ISD must be provided for important

highways.

(iii) When a fast-moving vehicle is made to move on a summit curve

centrifugal force acts upward against the gravity, therefore effective
weight of vehicle is reduced, thereby pressure on tyre and suspension
springs are relieved.

89.
Chapter 2

y Hence there is “no problem of discomfort” to passenger of summit curve.

ltant)
(resu
P
W-
W
=

(iv) Since design of summit curve is governed by stopping distance/ sight

distance criteria, circular curve is ideal for this, as the sight distance
in this case remains constant. Hence, it is available throughout the
curve.
(v) The deviation angle in vertical curves is very small, hence, a simple
square parabola is nearly analogous to circular arc. Also, a parabola
is easy to manipulates mathematically for computing, more over it
offers good riding comfort, hence being provided practically.
Derivation

y VPI N = n1 + n2

–n2
y
1
+n

B VPT

y


A
x X
(VPC) LS
Geometric Design of Highways

NOTE:
This curve is non-symmetrical, and for this curve to be symmetrical, n1 = n2
(i) General equation
y′ = ax2 + bx + c . . . (i)
At point ‘A’, x = 0, y’ = 0

90.
 Chapter 2
0= 0+0+c
⇒ c= 0
dy′
= 2ax + b . [Gradient]
dx
At point “A”, x= 0
dy′
= n1
dx
n1 = 0 + b
⇒ b = n1
At point ‘B’, x = Ls
-n2 = 2aLs + n1
−(n1 + n2 )
⇒ a=
2Ls
N
⇒ a= −
2LS
Putting ‘a’ & ‘b’ in (i)
 N  2
y′ =  −  x + n1x
 2Ls 
(ii)Position of summit/crest/highest point from vertical point of curvature:
dy′
For position of summit point, =0
dx
2ax + b = 0

b −n1
X= − =
2a  N 
2 − 
 2Ls 
n1Ls
x=
N
Geometric Design of Highways

(iii)Apex equation of summit curve:

y + y′
tanq = n1 =
x
⇒ y = n1x – y′

 −N  2 Nx2
⇒ y = nx −   x − nx =
 2Ls  2Ls

91.
Chapter 2

(iv) Position of VPI from VPC

N
VPI

-n
2

C
1
+n
B(VPT)
D

yB

E
A
x LS-x
(VPC)

VE
In DAVE, tanq1 = n1 =
x
VE = n1x . . . (i)

VD
In DVBD, tanq2 = n2 =
Ls − x

VD = n2Ls – n2x . . . (ii)

y′B@x = LS = DE = VE – VD

 N  2
 − 2L  Ls + n1Ls = n1x – [n2Ls – n2x]
 s 

N
− Ls + (n1 + n2 )Ls = (n1 + n2)x
2

Ls
− .N + N.Ls = N.x
Geometric Design of Highways

2
Ls
= x
2

Ls
⇒ x=
2
The above relation is valid for both symmetrical and unsymmetrical
curve.

92.
 Chapter 2
Example 2.15: An ascending gradient of 2% needs a descending gradient of
3% to form a summit curve. If the length of curve is 150 m, then find out
the summit point from the starting of ascending gradient. Also form the
equation of summit curves.
Solution:
n1Ls
(i) x =
N
Here, n1 = 2%, n2 = -3%
N = 2 – (-3) = 5%

X = 2 × 150 = 60 m
5
(ii) y′ = ax2 + bx + c
at point ‘A’, x = 0, y′ = 0 ⇒ c = 0 – [Refer diagram of summit curve]
dy′
= 2ax + b
dx
dy′
At point ‘A’, x = 0, =2
dx
2= 0+b
⇒ b= 2

dy′
Similarly, at B′, x = 150m, = −3%
dx
-3 = 2.a.(150) + 2

1
⇒ a= −
60

⇒ y′ =  − 1  x2 + (2)
 60 
NOTE: Case I: When curve is symmetrical:
y Vertical line passing through VPI will bisect the length of curve (LS) in 2
Geometric Design of Highways

equal halves.
y This line will always pass through summit point of the curve.
y In this case RL of starting point and end point will be same.

Case II: When curve is unsymmetrical:

y Vertical line passing through vertical point of intersection will bisect length
of curve in two equal halves.
y This line will never pass through summit point of curve.

93.
Chapter 2

y In this case R.L. of starting and end point are different and curve will be
lifted.
(v) RL Calculation: If RL of VPC is point ‘A’ is known,
(a) RL of point just below VPI on summit curve (Point C).

 LS 
RLC = RLA + y′ @  x = 
 2
 −N   Ls  2  Ls  
= RL A +     + n1   
 2Ls   2   2  

n L NLs 
⇒ RLC = RLA +  1 s −
 2 8 

N
VPI

-n
2

C
1
+n

B(VPT)
D

yB

E
A
x LS-x
(VPC)

VE
In DAVE; tanq1 = n1 =
x
VE = n1x . . . (i)

VD
In DVBD, tanq2 = n2 =
Ls − x
Geometric Design of Highways

VD = n2Ls – n2x . . . (ii)

y′B@x = LS = DE = VE – VD

 N  2
 − 2L  Ls + n1Ls = n1x – [n2Ls – n2x]
 s 

N
− Ls + (n1 + n2 )Ls = (n1 + n2)x
2

94.
 Chapter 2
Ls
⇒ x=
2
The above relation is valid for both symmetrical and unsymmetrical curve.
(b) RL of end point (point B)
RLB = RLA + y′B@x = Ls

 N  2 
RLB = RLA +  −  Ls + n1Ls 
 2Ls  

NLs
= RLA − + n1Ls
2

NLs
RLB = RLA + n1Ls −
2

Here, N = n1 + n2

n1Ls n2Ls
⇒ RLB = RLA + n1Ls − −
2 2

n1Ls n2Ls
= RLA + −
2 2

(n1 − n2 )Ls
RLB = RLA +
2
From above equation (i) for symmetrical curve, n1 = n2
RLB = RLA

RLB = RLA
Geometric Design of Highways

x
A
B (VPT)
(VPC)

(ii) For unsymmetrical Curve

95.
Chapter 2

(a) y
B(VPT)

x
A(VPC)

n1 > n2
RLB = RLA + c
RLB > RLA
(b)

N = n 1 + n2

t
f sigh
Line o h H
H SSD
–n 2

OSD
+n 1
A Length of summit curve B
(L)

n2 > n1
RLB = RLA – c
Geometric Design of Highways

⇒ RLB < RLA

Length of Summit Curve

y While designing the length of parabolic summit curve, it is necessary to
consider SSD and OSD separately.

96.
 Chapter 2
N = n 1 + n2

t
f sigh
Line o h H
H SSD

–n 2
OSD
+n 1
A Length of summit curve B
(L)

CASE I: Length of summit curve for stopping sight distance.

(a) L > SSD

NS2
L=
( )
2
2H + 2h

S = Sight Distance

H = Height of driver’s eye.

h = height of object/obstruction
as per IRC, H = 1.2 m, h = 0.15 m

NS2 NS2
L= =
( ) (4.398 ≈ 4.4)
2
2 × 1.2 + 2 × 0.15

NS2
⇒ L=
4.4
Geometric Design of Highways

(b) L < SSD

( )
2
2H + 2h
L= 2S −
N
As per IRC, H=1.2 m, h = 0.15 m

4.4
⇒ L = 2S −
N

97.
Chapter 2

NOTE: While calculating length of summit curve, first assume case I(a) and
if it fails then assume case I(b).

CASE II: Length of summit curve for overtaking sight distance:

(a) L > SSD
NS2 NS2 NS2
L= = =
( ) ( )
2 2
2H + 2H 2 2H 8H

As per IRC, H = 1.2 m

NS2
L=
9.6
(b) L < OSD
( )
2
2H + 2H 8H
L= 2S − =
2S −
N N
As per IRC, H = 1.2 m
9.6
⇒ L = 2S −
N
NOTE:
(i) The length of summit curve mostly comes less than the sight distance
for lesser value of deviation angle.
(ii) In cases when the deviation angle is too small the length of summit
curve comes out to be negative, which implies that there is no problem
of sight restriction at the summit curve.
(iii) For calculating sight distance (SSD and OSD) the effect of the gradient
is not be considered.
y The minimum radius of curve ‘R’ is given by
L
R =
N
y The minimum length of vertical curves for different speeds and for maximum
grade change, which do not require verticals curve as per IRC are given as
follows
Geometric Design of Highways

Design Maximum grade change(%)

Minimum length of
Speed not requiring a vertical
vertical curve (m)
(kmph) curve

35 1.5 15

40 1.2 20

98.
 Chapter 2
50 1.0 30

65 0.8 40

80 0.6 50

100 0.5 60

Example 2.16: Design summit curve for a NH for SSD of 180 m at the junction
1 1 . Determine the RL of a
of rising gradient and falling gradient of
50 30
point immediately below the intersection point of tangent lines. Also, find
RL of highest point on the curve. Assume R.L. at starting of curve as 100 m.

Solution:
(i) Length of summit curve,
Let LS < SSD
2
LS = NS  1 1 
4.4 here,N = n1 + n2 = 50 + 30 = 0.05333

0.05333 × 1802
⇒ LS =
4.4
⇒ LS = 392.7m > 180m hence o.k.

 N  2
(b) y′ =  −  x + n1x
 2Ls 

 0.053  2
y′ =  −  x + 0.02x
 2 × 392.72 

⇒ y′ = -6.75 × 10-5 x2 + 0.02x

L
(c) RLC = RLA + y′ @ x = S
Geometric Design of Highways

2
2
392.72   392.72 
RLC = 100 − 6.75 × 10−5 
 2  + 0.02 ×  2 

RLC = 101.31 m

99.
Chapter 2

n1
Now, RL of summit point, at x = Ls
N

1
⇒ x= × 392.72
50[0.053]

⇒ x = 148 m

⇒ R.LS = RLA + y′@x = 148 m

⇒ = 100 + [-6.75 × 10-5 × 1482] + 0.02 × 148

R.Ls = 101.48 m

2.5.2.2 Valley Curve

y These are the vertical curve with concavity upward and convexity downward.

Concave

Convex

y It is also formed by 2 gradients in following way

(a) Negative to negative:

–n1%

N
Geometric Design of Highways

–n2%

n1 > n2
angle of deviation = N = -n1 – (-n2)
N = | n2 – n1|
(b) Negative to flat:

100.
 Chapter 2
–n1%

n2 = 0

Angle of deviation = -n1 – (0)

N = | -n1|
(c) Negative to Positive:

_n1% +n2%

Angle of Deviation = N = -n1 – n2

= | – (n1 + n2)|
(d) Positive to Positive:

+n2%
Geometric Design of Highways

Angle of Deviation = n1 – n2

= | –(n2 - n1)| - [\ n2 > n1]

101.
Chapter 2

Some Important point of reference for valley curve:

(a) Vertical Point of Intersection (VPI) will always be below the curve.

(b) When a fast moving vehicle moves on the valley curve, the centrifugal

force acts downward in addition to its the self weight, thereby an

additional force acts over the suspension system of vehicle and create

discomfort for the passenger.

(c) Thus, the valley curve needs to be designed for comfort, which means,

there should be gradient development of centrifugal force i.e. radius

has to be decreased gradually by providing transition curve.

So, cubic parabola in generally preferred in valley curve.

(d) During night time, the visibility ahead is dependent on the head light of

the vehicle, when the road lighting in not adequate. There is restriction

of sight distance at valley curve as the head light gets intercepted by

the ascending portion of the curve.

Hence, in this case stopping sight distance (SSD) must be equal to Head

Light Sight Distance(HSD).

(e) However, there is no problem of Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) at

valley curve during night time, as other vehicle with head light can be

seen from a considerable distance.

NOTE: In India, minimum height of head light ‘h1’ is 0.75 m. Here b = Beam
angle, generally taken as 1°.
Geometric Design of Highways

I = h1 + stan


HSD
(s)

102.
 Chapter 2
(Lv)
Length of valley curve

(Ls = Lv/2) (Ls = Lv/2) +n2%

–n1%

N= n1 + n2

(f) Valley curve are designed, taking following consideration into account:

y Comfort to passenger

y Sight distance during night driving i.e. HSD = SSD.

y Drainage of valley curve at lower most point.

y Aesthetic consideration.

(g) Position of lowest point of valley curve, from starting of curve (VPC) is

given by
1/2
n 
x=  1 × LV
 2N 

Length of valley curve

y The length of the valley curve are designed as transition curve and is

required to fulfil following two criteria.

(a) Allowable rate of change of acceleration

(b) The required head light sight distance for night driving.
Geometric Design of Highways

y The higher of two above value is adopted as the length of the valley curve.

y Generally, the second criteria, of HSD is higher hence, governs the design

of valley curve.
(a) Length of transition for comfort condition:

103.
Chapter 2

(Lv)
Length of valley curve

(Ls = Lv/2) (Ls = Lv/2) +n2%

–n1%

N= n1 + n2

v3
LS =
CR

Ls L V
R= =
N 2N

v3 v 3N
⇒ LS = ⇒Ls =
L CLs
C× s
N

3
⇒ L2s = v N
C

1/2
 v 3N 
⇒ LS =  
 C 

1/2
 3 
⇒ LV = 2Ls = 2  v N 
 c 
Geometric Design of Highways

Consider, C = 0.6 m/sec3 and design speed in km/hr

1/2
 3

⇒ LV = 2  5 V  N 
 
 18  0.6 

LV = 0.378 NV3 m

104.
 Chapter 2
(b) Length of valley curve for HSD
Case (i) L > HSD = SSD.

s tan 

h1 h1
s

If the valley curve is assumed to be simple parabola (only for sake of

simplicity in calculation)
 N  2
y=  x
 2L v 

When, x = s, y = h1 + stanb
 N  2
⇒ h1 + stanb =  x
 2L v 

1
⇒ LV =
25

As per IRC, h1 = 0.75, b = 1°

Ns2
LV =
1.5 + 0.035s

Case(ii) L<HSD = SSD

 L 
h1 + stanb =  S − v N
 2 

2(h1 + s tanb) = 2SN – LV N

Lv
Lv Lv Geometric Design of Highways

2 2S



h1 stan 
A
h1
(VPC) B
N (VPT)

105.
Chapter 2

2(h1 + s tan b)
LV = 2s −
N
As per IRC, h1 = 0.75 m , b = 1°

[1.5 + 0.035S]
LV = 2s −
N
1
Example 2.17: A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient of and
25
1
ascending gradient of . What is the length of valley curve to fulfil both
30
comfort condition & HSD condition.
Consider design speed 80 kmph and f = 0.35.

Solution:
1 1
N= + =
0.073
25 30
V2
Criteria1 HSD ==
SSD2 0.278Vt +
254f
802
S = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 + = 127.6 m
254 × 0.35
NS2 0.073 × 127.62
Assume LV > S LV = =
1.5 + 0.035S 1.5 + 0.035 × 127.6
LV = 200 m. > 127.6 m \ ok
Criteria 2 LV = =
0.378 NV 3 0.378 0.073 × 803
LV = 73.22 m
LV = 200 m (Maximum of both criteria)
Geometric Design of Highways

Keywords

Š Introduction Š Sight Distance Elements

Š Highway Cross-Section Š Design of Horizontal Alignment
Elements Š Design of Vertical

106.
 3 Traffic Engineering

Chapter 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
y Traffic Engineering deals with improvement of traffic performance on
road network through systematic traffic studies, analysis, planning and
engineering application.
y Here traffic performance represents speed, safety, cost and efficiency of
traffic movement.
y Traffic engineering in general deals with following characteristics:

3.1.1 Road User Characteristics

y It includes all actions of road user performed by pedestrian, cyclist, car
driver, motorcyclist or PCU driver.
y The various factors which affect the road user ac tions are as follows
(i) Physical Characteristics: Physical characteristics of road user may
either be permanent or temporary.
y Permanent characteristics of road user includes vision, hearing. strength
and general reaction to the traffic situation.

 actual distance 
E.g. Vision =  
 required distance 

y 6/6 vision/normal vision: It is the ability of a person to recognise a letter of

size 8.5mm, from a distance of 6m.
y 6/9 vision/poor vision: This vision corresponds to poor vision because in
this case a person is able to recognise the object from a distance of 6m
instead of 9m.
Traffic Engineering

y 10/6 vision/super vision: In this case a person is able to recognise the object
from the distance of 10m instead of 6m (practically it is not possible).

107.
 Example 3.1: Sign board is required to be put up asking drivers to slow down
to 30 kmph before entering zone “Y”. On this road vehicle requires 210 m
to slow down to 30 kmph (the distance of 210 m includes the distance
travelled during the perception reaction time of the drivers). The sign can
be read by a 6/6 vision driver from a distance of 60 metre. The sign is
placed at a distance “X” from the start of zone “Y” so that even a 6/9 vision
driver can slow down to 30 kmph before entering the zone. What is the
minimum value of X?

Sign
30 Kmph

Start of zone Y
Road

Zone Y
X

Solution:

30 Kmph

Start of zone Y

6/6

zone Y
48m

174m

Sign board would be viewed by 6/9 vision driver at a distance of

 60 × 6 
=   = 40 m
Traffic Engineering

 9 
Distance of sign board from start of zone, Y = 210 – 40 = 170 m
Minimum value of X = 170 m.

108.
y Temporary physical characteristics which affects the efficiency of the road
users are: fatigue, consumption of alcohol or drugs and illness.
y All these characteristics reduces the alertness and increases the reaction
time of the road user.

(ii) Mental Factors

y It includes knowledge, skills, intelligence, experience and literacy of the
road users, which governs there behaviour on the road.

(iii) Psychological factors

y These affects the reaction to traffic situation and road user to a great
extent.
y It includes fear, anger, attentiveness, superstitions, impatience, general
attitude towards traffic and regulations.

(iv) Environmental Factors

y It includes traffic stream characteristics, roadside features, atmospheric
condition and locality.

3.1.2 Vehicular Characteristics

y These characteristics of further classified into
(a) Static characteristics
(b) Dynamic characteristics

3.1.2.1 Static characteristics of the vehicle affecting road design are as

follows.
1. Dimensions: Length, breadth, height
2. Turning angle
3. Total weight of vehicle
4. Ground clearance

1. Dimensions
y Length of the vehicle controls horizontal alignment of the road, extra
widening, parking facilities.
y Height of vehicle controls height of bridge, height of electric lines, other
service lines, overhead gantry for sign board, heights of under bridges etc.
y Width of vehicle governs lane width, shoulder width, parking design.
Traffic Engineering

2. Turning Angle
y It governs curve resistance and radius of Curve.

109.
 3. Total weight of vehicle
y It governs thickness of pavement, gradient of road.

4. Ground clearance
y It decides the height of bumps on road, approach ramps.

3.1.2.2 Dynamic characteristics of the vehicle includes

(i) Power of vehicle which decides gradient of road, hauling capacity and
rolling resistance.
(ii) Speed of vehicle governs sight distance superelevation, limiting radius
of curve, length of transition curve, horizontal curve, vertical curve
and extra widening.
(iii) Braking characteristics of vehicle governs sight distance, braking
efficiency, and impact on road material.

y Braking characteristics of vehicle depend on design and type of braking

system example mechanical fluid air brakes which can be determined by
following the breaking test.

t=0
t = t sec

u(m/sec) V = 0(m/sec)

L(m)
Application
Vehicle stops
of brake
completely
Figure 3.1

y In this test brakes are applied to the vehicles, comes to stop and any two
of three parameter are noted to find the resistance.
(a) Braking Distance (L)
(b) Initial Speed (u)
(c) Actual duration of brake application (t)
(i) Retardation:
v = u + at
Traffic Engineering

0 = u + at
u Initial speed
a= − =
t time of application of brakes

110.
(ii) Braking Resistance:
1 2
L = ut + at
2
1  u 2 ut ut
L = ut +  −  t = ut − =
2 t 2 2
1
= × initial speed × time of brakes
2
application

(iii) Skid Resistance

v2 = u2 + 2aL
02 = u2 + 2aL
u2
L=  . . . (i)
2(−a)

DkE = work done

kEf – kEi = work done
1 1
mv 2 − mu2 = – FL[F = mN & F = mW]
2 2
1
0− mu2 = -fmgL
2
u2
L=  . . . (ii)
2gf
u2 u2
From (i) and (ii) =
2(−a) 2gf

-a = gf
a Retardation
f= − =
g Acceleration due to gravity

fapparent
(iv) Braking efficiency (hb) = × 100
fmax

a
fapparent = −
g
Traffic Engineering

u2
or fapparent =
2gL

111.
 Example 3.2: A vehicle moving at 50 Kmph speed was stopped by applying
brakes and length of skid mark was 16.5m. If the average skid resistance
of pavement is known as 0.687. What is the brake efficiency of the
vehicle?

Solution:
u2
fa =
2gL
2
 5
 50 × 
 18 
= 2 × 9.81 × 16.5 = 0.5968

fa
hb = × 100
favg
0.5968
= × 100 =
86.7%
0.687

NOTE: If hb = 100%, it signifies wheels of the vehicle are fully locked and it
will undergo only translation motion.

Example 3.3: Find out the coefficient of the friction if,

(a) Braking distance is 5.8m and speed of vehicle is 30 Kmph.
(b) Initial speed of vehicle is 40 Kmph and duration of brake application is
1.8 sec.
(c) Braking distance is 7m and duration of brake application is 1.4 sec.

Solution:  5
2

u2  30 × 
(a) fa =
= = 18  0.61
2gL 2 × 9.81 × 5.8
(b) U = at
⇒ u = fgt
5
40 ×
u 18
f=
= = 0.629
gt 9.81 × 1.8
(c) u2 = 2aL = 2gfL . . . (i)
u = at = fgt . . . (ii)
(fgt)2 = 2fgL
Traffic Engineering

fgt2 = 2L
2L 2× 7
f= = = 0.728
gt2 9.81 × 1.42

112.
 3.2 Traffic Studies and Analysis
y Traffic studies are carried out for collecting traffic data for its analysis to
identify the movement of traffic along the road so as to apply it for traffic
control measures and efficient geometric designing.
y The different types of traffic engineering studies are as follows:
(i) Traffic Volume Studies
(ii) Traffic flow and capacity analysis
(iii) Spot Speed Studies
(iv) Speed and delay analysis
(v) Origin and destination studies
(vi) Parking studies
(vii) Accident studies

3.2.1 Traffic Volume Studies

y Traffic volume is a measure to quantify the traffic flow and is expressed
as number of vehicles that pass across a given section of road during unit
time.
y As the carriageway width of the road may vary the traffic volume is expressed
as vehicles per unit time per traffic lane.
y Different classes of vehicle make use of same road hence for mixed traffic
flow different classes of vehicle must be expressed/converted into one
standard type of unit named as “PASSENGER CAR”.
y Hence each vehicle class is assigned an equivalent factor termed as
“PASSENGER CAR UNIT” which is defined as follows;
 Vsi 
 V 
[PCU] =  i  = speed ratio/length ratio
 Lsv 
 Li 

y PCU value recommended by IRC for different vehicles on “URBAN ROADS”

S.No. Vehicle Type Equivalent PCU factors

1. Two wheelers: Scooter, Motorcycle 0.75

2. Passenger car, van 1

3. Auto rikshaw 2
Traffic Engineering

4. LCV 2
5. Truck or bus 3.7
6. Tractor trailer 5

113.
 y Traffic volume studies are being carried out,
(i) to decide the priority for improvement of design
(ii) for geometric design/ redesign
(iii) for computing roadway capacity
(iv) to plan the traffic operation and control

3.2.1.1 Traffic volume can be measured by any of the following methods:

(i) Manual Method: It is very accurate method in which different class
of vehicle can also be noted but it cannot be used for continuous
measurement.
(ii) Mechanical Method:
(a) Radar (radio detection and ranging)
(b) Pneumatic sensors (based on pressure applied)
(c) Magnetic detector
(d) CCTV Camera

3.2.1.2 Traffic volume data can be represented in any of the following forms,
(i) AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic)
[Total number of vehicles through out a year]
AADT = veh/day
365
(ii) AAHT (Annual Average Hourly Traffic)
[Tota l number of vehicles through out a year]
AAHT = veh/hr
365 × 24
(iii) AAWT (Annual Average Weekly Traffic]
[Total number of vehicles through out weekdays]
AAWT = veh/day
260

Gray Matter Alert!!!

NOTE: (AAWT > AADT), as on weekend traffic volume is considerably

reduced.

W(iv) ADT (Average Daily Traffic)

[Total number of vehicles through out week]

ADT = veh/day
Traffic Engineering

ADT > AADT

114.
(v) Trend Chart
 Traffic volume data can be represented in form of trend chart
which is useful in estimating the rate of growth of traffic (of a
particular class) that can be used for planning, future expansion,
designing and regulation.
 In trend chart rate of growth of traffic volume is computed to be
r%, then future traffic is given as:
Q = Q0 (1 + r)n

Q = future traffic volume

Q0 = present traffic volume

N = number of years
(vi) Variation Chart
 Variation chart can be used to show hourly daily or seasonal
variation of traffic volume over a particular section of road.
 Variation chart are useful in deciding the amenities and rules
desired during peak traffic period.

(vii) Traffic Flow Maps

 Traffic flow maps along the route indicate the volume of traffic
flowing through them.
 The thickness of lines on traffic flow maps shows the traffic volume
to any desired scale.
 This helps us to find the traffic volume distribution along the
existing road briefly.

(viii) Volume Flow Diagram at Intersection

 Volume flow diagram at intersection are drawn to a certain scale
indicating traffic volume and can be used to find the details of
crossing and turning traffic.
Traffic Engineering

 The data from volume flow diagram are required for designing of
intersections.

115.
 +

Figure 3.2: Traffic flow diagram at intersection

as shown

Figure 3.3: Highest hourly traffic volumes.

(ix) 30th highest hourly volume data

 If designing of road is done for highest of peak hourly volume of a
Traffic Engineering

year it would be highly uneconomical.

 However if it is done for AAHV (Annual Average Hourly Volume) it
would not be sufficient for a considerable period of year to carry
the traffic volume and would lead to congestion on the road.

116.
y 30th highest hourly traffic volume is the hourly volume that will be reached
only 30 times or exceeded only 29 times in a year.
y As per IRC if designing is done for 30th highest hourly traffic volume cost
will be much less when compared to the peak hourly volume.
y For this value congestion would be observed only for 29 hours in the year.

NOTE: Periodic volume count

y In order to find certain traffic data, such as AADT, ADT etc it is necessary to
count traffic for long duration of time (maybe for months of years).
y Counting traffic for long duration of time involves cost and effort which is
not feasible and practical.
y In such cases IRC suggest to make use of technique of Periodic Volume
Count.
y In periodic volume count, expansion factors are used as follows.

(a) Hourly Expansion Factor (HEF)

 Total traffic for a day 
HEF =  
 Traffic for particular hour 

(b) Daily Expansion Factor (DEF)

 Traffic for a week 

DEF =  
 Traffic for a particular day 

(c) Monthly Expansion Factor (MEF)

 AADT 
MEF = 
 ADT 

Example 3.4: A traffic engineer needs to find AADT on a road based on

the data of Wednesday during month of June. Determine AADT, if daily
expansion factor is 7.9 and monthly expansion factor for June is 1.5.

Time Period Vehicles Hourly

8 - 9 am 500 25

9 – 10 am 600 22
Traffic Engineering

10 – 11 am 700 20

117.
 Solution: For 8 – 9 am

1 day traffic
HEF = = 25
500

1 day traffic = 12500

1 week traffic
DEF =
1 day traffic

1 week traffic = 7.9 × 12500 = 98750

98750
ADT = = 14107
7
AADT
MEF =
ADT

AADT = 1.5 × 14017 = 21160.7

For 9 – 10 am
1 hour traffic × HEF × DEF × MEF
AADT =
7
600 × 22 × 7.9 × 1.5
AADT = = 22345.71
7
1 hour traffic × HEF × DEF × MEF
For 10 – 11 am AADT =
7
700 × 20 × 7.9 × 1.5
= = 23700
7
21160.7 + 22345.71 + 23700
Average AADT = = 22402
3

3.2.1.3 PEAK HOUR FACTOR (PHF)

y Peak hour factor may be expressed in terms of traffic volume during peak
hour and in used in design of transportation facilities and infrastructure
projects.
Peak Hour Flow × n
Vn(max) =
60 × (PHF)n
Peak Hour Flow × n
(PHF)n =
60
Traffic Engineering

× Vn(max)
n
n
≤ (PHF)n ≤ 1
60

118.
 Example 3.5: The minute flow value were observed for the peak hour on
an expressway section as shown, Determine 5 min. and 15 min. peak hour
factor.

Minutes(i) 1-7 8-10 11-20 21 22-32 33-45 46-47 48-55 56-60

N(i) 20 30 25 26 4 10 15 30 10

Solution: 
Peak Hourly flow = 7 × 20 + 3 × 30 + 10 × 25 + 1 × 26 +
11 × 4 + 13 × 10 + 2 × 15 + 8 × 30 + 5 × 10 = 1000
Peak Hour flow
(i) (PHF)5 =
60
× V5 max
5
V5(max) = 5 × 30 = 150

1000
(PHF)5 = = 0.55
60
× 150
5
Peak Hour flow
(ii) (PHF)15 =
60
× V15 max
15
V15max = 1 × 20 + 3 × 30 + 10 × 25 + 26
= 386 ( for 7-21 min)

1000
PHF15 = = 0.6476
60
× 386
15
3.2.2 Traffic Flow and Capacity Analysis
y Significant terms used in traffic flow and capacity analysis are

3.2.2.1 Traffic Density (k)

y Number of vehicles occupied by unit length of the road is called traffic
density.
y It is expressed as vehicle per kilometre.
y The maximum value of traffic density which road can accommodate is
Traffic Engineering

termed as jam density or traffic density under jam condition.

y Jam condition is the worst condition of the road under which congestion is
so high due to which movement of vehicle is not possible and speed of the
vehicle under jam condition is zero.

119.
 y Traffic density varies with speed inversely, hence with increase in speed of
stream on the roadway the average density of the road decreases.
y This is because gap or the space between the vehicle increases.

Density k (vehicle/km)

Figure 3.4

3.2.2.2 Space Headway (S)

y It is the distance, maintained between 2 consecutive vehicles travelling is
same direction.

Figure 3.5

y It is the total length occupied, by a moving vehicle on road, which includes

length of vehicle and gap between the two vehicles.
y For safety point of view this gap must be equal to SSD to avoid the collision
between the two vehicles, but this value of gap makes the design over safe.
y Hence for geometric design this gap is computed by neglecting braking
distance and considering reaction time to be 0.7 sec instead of 2.5 sec.
S = SSD + l
v2
S = 0.278Vt + +l [Here t = 2.5 sec.]
254f
(Over safe, and if f given in problem gap is taken as SSD only)
Traffic Engineering

For geometric design, l = 6 m, lB = 0, t = 0.7 sec

S = 0.278 × V × 0.7 + 6
S = 0.2 V + 6

120.
 1 km
Hence, Traffic density, k =
space headway(m)

1000(m)
k = (Vehicle/km)
S(m)

1000
k =
0.2V + l

NOTE : Under jam condition, V = 0 kmph

1000
Jam density kj = (vehicle/km)
l

Figure 3.6

3.2.2.3 Time Headway (Ht)

y Time headway is the time gap between passes of two consecutive vehicles.

Figure 3.7

y Consider the stream of vehicles flow at closed interval one behind the
other.
y At very low speed the time headway is high and number of the vehicles
crossing a section on a road is also low.
Traffic Engineering

y As speed of the stream gradually increases the minimum time headway

decreases up to a lowest value at a certain speed.
y The speed at which the value of time headway is lowest represents the
optimum speed corresponding to maximum flow or capacity flow condition.

121.
 y If the speed of traffic stream is further increased the minimum time
headway starts increasing resulting in decrease of traffic flow.
headway, ht (sec)
Minimum times

Ht min

Observed speed of
pairs of vehicles (kmph)

Figure 3.8

1 hour
Here, Traffic flow, q =
Ht(sec)

3600
q = (vehicles/hr)
Ht(sec)

NOTE: Relationship between traffic volume (q), traffic density (k) and traffic
speed (v)
q(vehicle / hr)
k(vehicle/km) =
v(km / hr)

q = kV
Traffic volume = Traffic density × Traffic speed
1000 V(Kmph)
q = (Veh / hr)
Hs (m)

3600
Also, q = (veh / hr)
Ht(sec)
Traffic Engineering

1000V 3600
From above two equation = =
HS Ht

122.
 Gray Matter Alert!!!

(i) Maximum value of traffic volume, which a road can accommodate

is called traffic capacity.
(ii) The traffic capacity under most ideal condition is termed as basic
capacity/theoretical capacity.

Example 3.6: A traffic stream in a particular direction of a two-lane road is

moving with a constant speed of 65 Kmph with an average headway of
2.1 sec. The longitudinal distance between the two consecutive vehicles
would be?
(a) 29 m (b) 35 m (c) 39 m (d) 43 m

Solution: V = 60 kmph, Ht = 2.1 sec

 V.Ht   60 × 2.1 
Hs =
=   =  35m
 3.6   3.6 

So, the correct answer is (b)

Example 3.7: In a one-lane one-way homogenous traffic stream the

observed average headway is 4.5 sec, then the flow in this traffic stream is
(a) 600 veh/hr (b) 800 veh/hr
(c) 1200 veh/hr (d) 1410 veh/hr

Solution:
 3600   3600 
Flow of traffic stream (q) = =  =  800 veh/hr
 nt   4.5 

So, the correct answer is (b)

Example 3.8: If the average spacing between vehicles in a traffic stream is

25 m, then the density of the stream would be
(a) 25 veh/hr (b) 30 veh/hr
(c) 35 veh/hr (d) 40 veh/hr

Solution:
Traffic Engineering

 1000   1000 
Traffic density (k) = =  =  40 veh / hr
 Hs   25 

So, the correct answer is (d)

123.
 3.2.2.4 TRAFFIC FLOW/STREAM MODEL
y To figure out the exact relationship between the traffic parameters a
number of research is being carried out.
y The result of these research yielded many mathematical models broadly
classified as
(a) Macroscopic Model
(b) Microscopic Model
(a) Ma croscopic Stream Model
y It represents how the behaviour of one parameters of traffic flow changes
with respect to another.
y Following types of macroscopic models are available.

(i) Green Shield’s Stream Model

y This model assume linear speed density relationship to derive this model.

k(veh/km)

Figure 3.9

The equation for the relationship can be derived as

y = mx + c

v = mk + vf
0 − vf −v f
m= =
kJ − o kJ

vf
v = vf − k
kj
 k
v = Vf  1 − 
Traffic Engineering

 kj 
This equation is referred as “Green Shield Model”.

Now, q = kv

124.
  k
So, q = vf  1 −  k
 k j 


dq d  k2 
For maximising the flow = v
 f k − 
dk dk  k j 

v f − v f (2k)
= 0
kj

kJ
K =
2
Density at which maximum flow occurs is denoted as optimum
density,
k
k0 = J
2

kJ
for qmax putting k = k0 =
2
2
v fkJ k  1
qmax = − vf  j  ×
2  2  kj

Vfk j
qmax =
4
To find the speed at which flow is max but
kj
k = k0 =
2

v fk
v = vf −
kj

at optimum speed v = v0, q = qmax

v fk j 1
v0 = v f − ×
2 kj
Traffic Engineering

Vf
v0 =
2

125.
 v v
vf

vf vf
2 2

kJ kJ k qmax q
2

qmax

kJ
2 kJ
k
q

qmax qmax

vf/2 kj/2
vf kj

v k

Figure 3.10
Traffic Engineering

126.
Example 3.9: For a traffic stream, speed density relationship was found to be
u = 42.46 – 0.22k
u = speed (kmph)
k = density (veh/km)
Determine
(i) Free mean speed
(ii) Jam Density
(iii) Density at maximum flow
(iv) Speed at maximum flow
(v) Maximum flow

Solution
(i) At free speed, vf = 0
vf = 42.46 kmph
(ii) At jam density, kj v = 0
0 = 42.46 – 0.22 kj
42.46
kj = = 193 veh/km
0.22
Vf 192
(iii) At qmax, k0 = = = 96.5 veh/km
2 2
Vf
(iv) At qmax, v0 =
2
42.46
v0 = = 21.23 kmph
2
v fk j 42.46 × 193
(v) Maximum flow qmax = = = 2048.69(veh/hr)
4 4

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: W  hich of the following statement CANNOT be used to

describe free flow speed (uf) of a traffic stream?
(a) uf is the speed when flow is negligible
(b) uf is the speed when density is negligible
(c) uf is affected by geometry and surface conditions of the road
Traffic Engineering

(d) uf is the speed at which flow is maximum and density is optimum

Answer: (d) (GATE-2015, SET-I)

127.
 Gray Matter Alert!!!

y In Greenshield model, linear relationship between speed and

density is assumed, hence several other models are developed to
overcome this drawback.

(ii) Greenberg’s Logarithmic Model

y Greenberg used a fluid flow analogy concept and proposed a logarithmic
speed-density relation.
y The greatest advantage of this is method is that , it can be derived
analytically.
y This method shows better it as compared to green shield model.
y But the drawback of this model is its inability to predict the speed at low
density as speed approaches infinity at lower density.
y As per this model
 kj 
v = v 0 ln  
k

Tra c speed
V(Kmph)

Tra c density
k (veh/km)
Figure 3.11

Now, q = kv
 kj 
Traffic Engineering

q = k.v 0 ln  
k
dq
for qmax, = 0
dk

128.
 dq d   k j 
= k . v 0 ln    = 0
dk dk   k  
 k . 1
v 0 lnk j − lnk − = 0
 k 
 kj 
ln   = 1
k
kj
= e
k
kj
k = k0 =
e

kj  kj  k v
and qmax = .v 0 ln  .e  = j . f .1
e  kj  e 2
 

v fk j
qmax =
2e

atqmax, v = v0, k = k0
 kj 
v = v 0 ln  
k
 kj 
v = v 0 ln  . e 
 kj 
 
v = v0

Example 3.10: On a specific highway, the speed density relationship follows

the green berg’s model. The free flow velocity is 80 kmph and jam density
is 200 vehicle/km when the highway is operating at maximum capacity, the
density obtained as per this model and the value of maximum flow is
(a) 2943 (b) 2852 (c) 2763 (d) 3015

Solution:
k j 200
For qmax, k == = 73.8 (veh/km)
e e

v fk j 80 × 200
Traffic Engineering

qmax=
= = 2943 (Veh / hr)
e 2e
so, the correct answer is (a)
Other commonly known macroscopic models are

129.
 (iii) Underwood’s exponential model
k
−
v = vfe k0

vf = free flow speed (km/hr)

k0 = optimum density corresponding to maximum flow

(iv) Pipes generalised model

  n 
k
V = v f 1 −   
  kj  
 

NOTE:
y When n = 1, Pipe’s model represents ‘Greenshield’ model.
y Thus by varying the value of ‘n’ families of model can be developed.

(v) Multi regime model

Zone-I Zone-II K

Figure 3.12

Microscopic Models
y In these models of traffic flow analysis of flow of traffic is done by
Traffic Engineering

modelling driver-driver and driver road interactions with traffic stream

which respectively analyse the intersection between a driver and another
driver on the road.

130.
 3.2.2.5 LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)

V(Kmph)

A
B
C
D
E
F

q(veh/hr)
qmax

Figure 3.13

y Level of Service which is qualitative measure used to relate the quality of

motor vehicle traffic service.
y LOS is used to analyse roadways and intersection by categorising traffic
flow and assigning quality level of traffic based on performance measure
like speed, density congestion etc.

NOTE: Here quantitative measure of flow is given by “traffic capacity”.

y Factor to be considered for the evaluation of LOS of a roadway includes:

(a) Operating speed
(b) Travel time
(c) Traffic interruption
(d) Freedom of movement
(e) Driving comfort
(f) Safety
(g) Economy

y As per HCM (Highway Capacity Manual) following factors are considered to

evaluate level of service.
Traffic Engineering

(a) Operating speed

(b) Ratio of volume to capacity (q/qc)

131.
 y The HCM and IRC suggest six level of services of a roadway ranging from A
to F having following properties:
(i) LOS-A
 Free flow operation
 No restriction in manoeuvring
 Low traffic
 High speed
(ii) LOS-B
 Reasonable free flow
 Ability to manoeuvre is only slightly restricted
 Effects of minor incidents still easily absorbed
 Stable flow and noticeable traffic
(iii) LOS-C
 Speed is reduced in this case
 Freedom to manoeuvre is noticeably restricted
 Queue may form behind any significant blockage
 Stable flow is observed
 Significant traffic interaction takes place
(iv) LOS-D
 Unstable flow condition
 High density
 Movement restrictions
Gray Matter Alert!!!
 Speed declines significantly
 Minor incident creates queues
y As per IRC for designing of
(v) LOSE-E
rural roads level of service B
 Unstable flow
is adopted and for designing
 Lower speed
of urban roads level of service
 Volume is nearly equal to capacity
C is adopted.
 Very little freedom of movement
 Any disruption causes queuing
(vi) LOS-F
 Breakdown in flow
 Queue form behind breakdown point
 Demand is greater than capacity of the road

3.2.2.6 Delay and Queue Analysis at Signalised Intersection

Traffic Engineering

Green
 + Amber
  = Arrival and departure
Effective green time

Red = Arrival but no departure

132.
(i) Stopped Time Delay (D)
 It is defined as the time a vehicle is stopped in queue while waiting
to pass through signalised intersection.
 It begins when the vehicle is fully stopped and ends when the vehicle
begin to accelerate.
 Average stopped time delay is the average for all vehicles during the
specified time period.
 It is mathematically the difference between arrival and departure
time.
(ii) Queue (Q)

Definitions

Queue is the difference of total number of vehicle arriving and total

number of vehicle departing at any instant of time.

Cumulative
arrival
curve
Cumulative
D departure
curve
Q
Cumulative
no. of vehicle
(either arrival or departure)

R G A Time

cycle time

Figure 3.14

NOTE:  Area between cumulative arrival 

 and cumulative departure curve 
 
Traffic Engineering

 for one cycle time 

Average stop time delay =  
 Cumulative number of vehicle 
 arrival per cycle time 

133.
 Assumption made in previous analysis

(i) Vehicle arrive and depart at uniform rate. (Hence cumulative arrival

and cumulative departure curve with time is linear)

(ii) No pre-existing queue is there at the intersection.

(iii) Arriving vehicle departs instantaneously when the signal is

green.

(iv) The departure of vehicles taking place at its maximum rate is termed

as saturated flow/service rate.

(v) The departure curve catches up with arrival curve before the next red

interval begins.

Queue
length (Q)

Time
R G A

Cycle time
Traffic Engineering

Figure 3.15

134.
 Cumulative no of vehicles
(arrival/departure) CA
CD

Rt (G+A)t
Time

Queue length

Rt (G+A)t
Time
Cycle time

Figure 3.16

Case-I

NA
Qt
ND

CA CD
Queue length

Rt (G + A)t Time
Cycle time

Figure 3.17
Traffic Engineering

135.
 Case-II

Through
flow

No delay
time

(G + A)t

Figure 3.18

Case-III

NA
Qt
ND

CA CD
Queue length

Rt (G + A)t Time
Cycle time

Figure 3.19
Traffic Engineering

136.
NOTE:
Queue length v/s time graph can be converted into cumulative arrival and
departure v/s time graph.

Case I Cumulative departure matches cumulative arrival exactly at the end

of one cycle.

Case II Cumulative departure matches cumulative arrival before the

competition of cycle time.

Case III Cumulative departure does not matches cumulative arrival even at
the end of one cycle time.

Example 3.11: The cumulative arrival and departure curve of one cycle of
an approach lane of a signalised intersection is shown. The cycle time is
50 sec and the effective red time is 30 sec, effective green time is 20 sec.
What is the average delay?

Solution:

AreaCA − AreaCD
Average delay per vehicle =
NA

1 1 
 × 50 × 50 − × 20 × 50 
=  2 2 
40
Traffic Engineering

Average delay per vehicle = 15 sec.

137.
 Example 3.12: The queue length (in number of vehicles) v/s time (sec)
plot for an approach to a signalized intersection with the cycle length of 96
sec is shown.

At time = t = 0, the light has just turned red. The effective green time is
36 seconds, during which vehicles discharge at the saturation flow rate,
s(in vph). Vehicles arrive at a uniform rate, v (in vph), throughout the cycle.
Which one of the following statements is TRUE?
(a) v = 1200 vph, and for this cycle, the average stopped delay per vehicle
= 30 seconds
(b) s = 3600 vph, and for this cycle, the average stopped delay per vehicle
= 28.125 seconds
(c) v = 1200 vph, and for this cycle, the average stopped delay per vehicle
= 45 seconds
(d) s = 2400 vph, and for this cycle, the average stopped delay per vehicle
= 28.125 seconds
Solution:
Traffic Engineering

138.
 DABC ~ DAEF
20 60
=
EF 96
⇒ EF = 32
DABG ~ DADC
20 60
=
DC 90
⇒ DC = 30
1  1 
 × 90 × 30  −  × 30 × 30 
2 2
AD (Average delay per vehicle)=    
32

AD = 28.125 sec
 30 
S =  × 3600  =
3600 (vph)
 30 

 30 
V =  × 3600  =
1200 (vph)
 90 
Hence correct option is (b)

3.2.2.7 Probability of Vehicle Arrival

y Arrival of vehicle at a particular section of road is considered to follow
“Poissions Distribution”.
y Probability that ‘n’ number of vehicle will arrive within ‘t’ sec. time interval.
(lt)n e−lt
P(n, t) =
n!
l = vehicle arriving rate
t = time interval
n = number of vehicles

Case I Probability that vehicle will arrive after time ‘t’ (probability that time
headway > t)

0 t
Traffic Engineering

n=0
P = e-t

Figure 3.20

139.
 Case II Probability that vehicle arrive within time ‘t’.
Probability of vehicle arrive withing time t + probability of vehicle arriving
after time t = 1
So, Probability of vehicle within time t = 1 – e-lt

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: An observer counts 240 veh/h at a specific highway location.

Assume that the vehicle arrival at the location is Poisson distributed,
the probability of having one vehicle arriving over a 30-second time
interval is ____________.
Answer: (0.27) (GATE-2014, SET-II)

(i) Traffic Speed Study

y The speed of different vehicles over a particular route depends on several
factors such as
(i) Geometric design of the road
(ii) Driver characteristics
(iii) Climatic and environmental factor
(iv) Time of travel
(v) Traffic volume
(vi) Purpose of travel

1. Spot Speed
 It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at specified cross-section
or location.
 The spot speed of a vehicle fluctuates from place to place on along
the route depending on factors discussed before.

2. Average Speed
 It is the average of spot speed of all the vehicle passing a given point
on a highway.

3. Running Speed
 It is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular
stretch of road while the vehicle is in motion.
Traffic Engineering

journey length
Running speed =
running time
Running time = journey time – delays

140.
4. Travel Speed
 It is the average speed of travel for a vehicle over a particular stretch
of road for entire travel time.

journey length
Travel speed =
journey time

Traffic speed study are generally carried by following methods:

(a) Spot Speed Studies
(b) Speed and Delay Studies
(c) Spot Speed Studies
 It is referred as instantaneous speed of vehicle at a point over the
cross section of road.
 Measurement of spot speed can be done by any of the following
methods.
(i) By noting the time taken by vehicle to travel a known distance of 15 m
or 30 m either manually or mechanically or automatically.
distance
Speed =
time

(ii) Spot speed can also be measured with the help of following equipment
like
 Graphic recorder
 Photo electric metre
 Photographic method
 Radar sped metre
 Enoscope

Spot speed studies are being carried for following purposes

(1) Planning of traffic regulation
(2) Design or redesign of geometric elements
(3) In accident study and preventive measures
(4) To find speed trend over the period of time
Traffic Engineering

Depending upon the method of measurement of spot speed, that is over a

particular stretch of road or by equipment different types of average speed
is calculated.

141.
 (1) Space mean/average speed
y It represents the average speed of vehicle in a certain road length at any
time.
y This is obtained from the observed travel time of vehicle over a stretch of
road.
n
vs =
1 1 1
+ + ...
v 1 v2 vn

d
vi =
ti
y It is harmonic mean of different spot speeds.

n
vs =
t 1 t2 t
+ + ... n
d d d

d.n(m)
vs = m/sec
∑ ti (sec)

vs → space mean speed

d → length/distance of road
n → number of individual vehicle observation
ti → observed time interval

NOTE:
The average time travel is obtained from reciprocal of space mean speed.

ta =
1
=
∑
ti
vs dn
(2) Time mean/Average Speed
y It represents the speed distribution of vehicles at a point on the roadway
and is average of instant speed of observed vehicle at a spot.
v 1 + v 2 + v 3 + . . . vn
vt =
n
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∑ vi
vt = (m/sec)
n

142.
 (It is arithmetic mean of spot speed of different vehicles)
∑ vi
vt = 3.6 (Kmph)
n
vt = time mean speed
vi = observed instantaneous speed of ith vehicles
N = number of vehicle observed
y Presentation of spot speed studies data/result can be done by following
methods.

(i) Speed Distribution table

y From spot speed data, frequency distribution table of spot speed can be
prepared, by arranging the speed groups covering desired speed range and
the number of vehicles in each range.

Speed Range Number of speed/

% frequency
(Kmph) frequency observed

2
0-10 2 × 100 =
0.5
400

10-20 5 1.25

20-30 10 2.5

30-40 15 3.75

40-50 30 7.5

50-60 55 13.75

60-70 200 50

70-80 63 15.75

80-90 20 5

(ii) Frequency Distribution Curve

Traffic Engineering

y A graph is plotted with average value of each speed group of vehicle on the
x-axis and the percentage of the vehicle of that group on y-axis and this
graph is termed as frequency distribution curve.

143.
 y This graph has a definite peak of travel speed across the section and this
speed is denoted as model speed.

60

50

40
% frequencey 30

20 5
=6
ed
spe
10 dal
Mo
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Steed (kmph)
Figure 3.21

(iii) Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve

y It is the curve plotted with average value of each speed group on y-axis
and the cumulative percent of vehicles travelled at or below the different
speed on y-axis.
y With the help of this curve following significant speeds are noted.
(a) 98th Percentile Speed
 It is the speed at or below which 98% of vehicle are moving and only
2% of vehicle exceeds this limit.
 As per IRC this speed is considered as design speed for geometric
elements.
(b) 85th Percentile Speed
 It is the speed at or below which 85% of vehicle are moving and only
15% of vehicle exceeds this limit.
 The vehicle exceeding this limit are considered to be driving faster
than safe speed.
 Hence it is considered as upper safe limit.
Traffic Engineering

(c) 15 Percentile Speed

th

 For the purpose of avoiding congestion/jam over a particular road

this speed is determined as it is considered as lower safe limit.

144.
 100
90 98%
80 85%
Cumulative 70
60
%frequency
50
40
30
20 15%
V15 V85 V98
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Speed (Kmph)

Figure 3.22

(iv) Speed Distribution

y The speed distribution of a vehicle generally follows normal distribution
curve.
y The amount of spread of speed from average speed is termed as dispersion
which can be reported in terms of following
(a) 85th to 15th percentile speed
(b) Standard deviation of spot speed
(c) Coefficient of variation of spot speed

Example 3.13: Spot speed studies were carried out at a certain stretch of
a highway with mixed traffic flow and the consolidated data collected are
given below:

Speed
range 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100
(Kmph)

Number
of 12 18 68 89 204 255 119 43 33 9
Vehicles

Determine
Traffic Engineering

(i) The upper and lower value of speed limits for installing speed
regulation.
(ii) The design speed for checking the geometric design elements of
highways.

145.
 Solution:

Cumulative %
Speed Mid speed Frequency % Frequency
frequency

0-10 5 12 1.41 1.41

10-20 15 18 2.11 3.52

20-30 25 68 8 11.52

30-40 35 89 10.47 21.99

40-50 45 204 24 45.99

50-60 55 255 30 75.99

60-70 65 119 14 89.99

70-80 75 43 5.05 95.04

80-90 85 33 3.8 98.85

90-100 95 9 1.05 100

Upper safe limit of speed = 85th percentile speed = 61.5 kmph

Lower safe limit of speed = 15th percentile speed = 28.31 kmph
Design speed = 98th percentile speed = 82.57 kmph

3.2.3 Speed and delay studies

y This study gives the idea of running speed, the fluctuations in speed, the
location, duration of delay or stoppage and the overall travel speed between
two desired location along the road.
y The result of this study can further be used in identifying the location of
congestion, cause of delay hence helps in improvement of existing design
Traffic Engineering

or helps in designing of the new routes.

y The delay is further classified into two
(a) Fixed Delay: This delay occurs particularly at intersection due to traffic
signals.

146.
 (b) Operation Delay: This delay occurs due to the interference of the traffic
movement such as turning of vehicle, parking of vehicle, pedestrians
motion etc.

Methods of conducting speed and delay studies

There are different methods of carrying out speed and delay studies, some
of these are listed below:
(a) Floating car or riding check method
(b) License plate or vehicle number method
(c) Interview technique
(d) Elevated observations
(e) Photographic technique

Floating car method

y In the ‘floating car method’, a test vehicle is driven over a given route of
travel at approximately the average speed of the stream, thus trying to
‘float’ with the traffic stream.
y A group of observers are seated in the test vehicle to record various
observations during each run of the test vehicle.
y One observer is seated in the test car with two stop watches or timers; one
timer is used to record the time of arrival of the test car at various control
points like intersections, bridges or any other fixed points during each trip
and the other stop watch is used to find the duration of individual delays.
y The time, location and cause of these delays during each test run are
recorded by the second observer either in suitable tabular forms or by
voice recorder.
y The number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle and the number overtaken
by the test vehicles are noted in each test run by a third observer.
y The number of vehicles travelling in the opposite direction in each test run
is noted by a fourth observer. However in mixed traffic flow, more number
of observers will be required to count the number of vehicles of different
classes. In this method all the required details of speed and delay including
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location, duration and causes of delay are obtained during each test run.
The average journey time t , in minutes (min) for all the vehicles in a traffic

147.
 stream in the direction of flow, q is given by:
ny
t = tw −
q

na + ny
q =
ta + t w
here, q = flow of vehicles(volume per min), in one direction of the stream.
na = average number of vehicles counted in the direction of the
stream q when the test vehicle travels in the opposite direction
or against the stream
ny = the average number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle
minus the number of vehicles overtaken when the test is in
the direction of the stream q.
tw = a verage journey time, (min) when the test vehicle is travelling
with the stream, q.
ta = a
 verage journey time, (min) when test vehicle is running against
the stream, q.

Licence Plate or Vehicle Number Method

y In this method, synchronized stop watches timers or voice recording
equipment are used. Observers are stationed at the entrance and exist of
the test stretch where information of travel time is required.
y The timings and the vehicle numbers are noted by the observers of the
selected sample of vehicles in the stream. From the office computations,
travel time of each vehicle could be found.
y This method does not give important details such as causes of delays and
the duration and number of delays within the test stretch. The computations
in this method are cumbersome and time consuming.

Interview Technique method

y In the interview technique method, the work can be completed in a short
time by interviewing and collecting the required details from the road users
on the spot.
y However the data on delays collected depend on the assessment of each
individual driver and are likely to be subjective. This method may not provide
with all the required details correctly.
Traffic Engineering

Elevated Observation and Photographic Technique

y Observers with timers are located at an elevated observation point from
where the movement of most of the vehicles within the desired stretch or
intersection area could be easily observed.

148.
y Alternatively cameras or video equipment are located and the desired
observations are recorded.
y Elevated observation and photographic techniques are thus useful for
studying the speed and delay characteristics on short stretches or at
intersection areas.
y Such studies at each intersection will help in evaluating the efficiency
and effectiveness of the control device like signal system, the remedial
measures for accidents etc.

Example 3.14: The consolidated data collected from speed and delay
studies by floating car method on a stretch of urban road of length 3 km,
running North-South are given below. Determine the average values of
(i) volume,
(ii) journey speed
(iii) running speed of the traffic stream along each direction.

No. of
Journey Total stopped No. of No. of
Trip Direction vehicles from
time, delay, vehicles vehicles
No. of Trip opposite
min-sec min-sec overtaking overtaken
direction

1 N-S 5-42 1-30 5 8 278

2 S-N 6-25 1-40 6 4 198

3 N-S 5-49 1-20 6 4 290

4 S-N 6-51 1-50 3 2 210

5 N-S 5-30 1-00 4 6 260

6 S-N 6-59 2-14 3 3 180

7 N-S 6-40 1-30 3 6 300

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8 S-N 6-21 1-40 4 3 160

149.
 Solution:
The mean values of journey time, stopped delay, number of vehicles
overtaking, overtaken and in opposite direction for North-South and South-
North directions are obtained from table given below,

Stopped Number of vehicles

Journey time,
Direction delay, min- In opposite
min-sec Overtaking Overtaken
sec direction

N-S 5-42 1-30 5 8 278

5-48 1-20 6 4 290

5-30 1-01 4 6 260

5-40 1-31 3 6 300

Total: 22-40 4-52 18 24 1128

Mean: 5-40 1-13 4.5 6.0 282

S-N 6-25 1-40 6 4 198

6-51 1-50 3 2 210

6-59 2-14 3 3 180

6-21 1-40 4 3 160

Total: 26-36 7-24 16 12 748

Mean: 6-39 1-51 4.0 3.0 187

(a) North-South Direction

ny = average no. of vehicles overtaking minus overtaken = 4.5 – 6.0
= – 1.5
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na = average no. of vehicles during trips in opposite direction (for S-N

trips) = 187
tw = average journey time with the stream, q = 5 min 40 sec = 5.67 min

150.
 ta = average journey time during trips against the stream = 6min
39 sec = 6.65 min
na + ny 187 − 1.5
Average volume, q= = = 15.06 veh/min
ta + tw 6.65 + 5.67
 n 
Average journey time, t =  tw − y  = 5.67 −  −1.5  = 5.77 min
 q  15.06 

Average journey speed =

3  3 × 60 
=
km / min =  31.2 kmph
5.77  5.77 
Average stopped delay = 1.21 min
Average running time = Average journey time – average stopped delay
= 5.77 – 1.21 = 4.55 min
 3.5 × 60 
Average running speed =   = 39.53 kmph
 4.55 
(b) South-North Direction
ny = 4.0 – 3.0 = 1.0
tw = 6.65 min
ta = 5.67 min
na = (for N-S strips) = 282
 282 + 1.0 
q=   = 22.97 veh/min
 6.65 + 5.67 
 ny   1 
Average journey time, t =  t w −  = 6.65 −   = 6.6 min
 q  22.97 
 3 × 60 
Journey speed =   = 27.27 kmph
 6.6 
Average stopped delay = 1.85 min
Average running time = 6.6 – 1.85 = 4.75 min
 3 × 60 
Average running speed =   = 37.89 kmph
 4.75 

Example 3.15:An observer travelling at a constant speed of 60 kmph with

the traffic stream over 4 km stretch is passed by 20 vehicles more than
what is passes. When the observer travel against the stream at the same
speed, number of vehicles he meets is 330. What is the number of vehicle
in direction of flow?
(a) 2625 veh/hr
Traffic Engineering

(b) 2695 veh/hr

(c) 2675 veh/hr
(d) 2605 veh/hr

151.
 Solution: (a)
ng + ny
q =
ta + t w

ny = nv – ns = 20
na = 330
vw = va = 60 kmph

L 4
tw = =
ta = hr
v a 60

20 + 330
q = = 2625 veh/hr
4
2×
60
Example 3.16: While traveling along and against the traffic stream, a
moving observer measured the relative flow as 40 veh/hr and 180 veh/hr,
respectively. If the average speed of the moving observer while travelling
along and against the stream are 25 km/hr and 35 km/hr, respectively, then
the flow of the traffic stream (in veh/hr) is

Solution:
 ny 
Q   = q – k × vw
 tw 

Q 40 = q – 20k . . . (i)

 na 
Q   = q + k × va
 ta 

\ 180 = q + 35k . . . (ii)

From (i) and (ii) q = 90.9 ≈ 91 veh/hr

3.2.4 Origin and Destination Studies

y Origin and destination studies gives information on the actual location or
zone of origin of travel of vehicle and their destination.
Traffic Engineering

y The study provides detail such as direction of travel selection of root, trip
length, frequency, number of such trips and number of individual travelling
in particular trip.

152.
y These studies find their application in:

(a) To judge the adequacy of existing routes

(b) To establish design standards

(c) To locate expressways and major roads

(d) To locate new bridges as per traffic demand

(e) Identify potential congestion point

y Origin and destination studies can be carried out by any of the following
methods:

(a) Roadside interview method

(b) Licence plate method
(c) Return postcard method
(d) Tag on car method
(e) Home interview method

y Origin and destination study can be presented in any one of the following
forms

(a) Origin and destination table are prepared showing number of trip
between different zones.
(b) Desired line are plotted in graphical representation and is prepared in
origin and destination studies.
 These are straight lines connecting the origin point to destination.
 The width of such desire line is drawn proportional to the number of
trips in both the directions.
 The desire line density map helps to decide the actual desire of the
road user with respect to the path followed between the two points.
(c) Origin and destination studies data can also be represented in the form
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of “pie chart” and “control lines”.

153.
 Desire line
B
C Actual roads

A
D

Figure 3.23

3.2.5 Parking Studies

y All vehicles do not keep moving along the roadway during the entire 24
hour of the day they have to stop or park at desired location for different
durations.
y Hence parking study are being carried out the cater the need of parking.
y Parking facilities may be divided into two types:
a. Off street parking
b. On street/kerb parking

a. Off Street parking

 At location where parking demand is very high and kerb parking
cannot be permitted in view of traffic condition off street parking is
provided depending upon availability of the space.
 In this type of parking vehicle are not allowed to be parked along the
kerb but at some distance from it.
 These are further classified into two
(i) Surface Parking
(ii) Multi floor parking garage
b. On Street/Kerb Parking
 In this type of parking, vehicles are parked along the kerb which may
Traffic Engineering

be designed for parking.

 Different types of kerb parking are
(i) Parallel Parking
(ii) Angle Parking

154.
 (i) Parallel Parking

y It requires less road width but the number of the vehicles that can be

parked per unit length of the road is least in this case.

y It is preferred where the width of the kerb parking space and width of the

street are limited.

y In this case parking and unparking are more difficult and time taking.

L(m)
2.5 m

6.6 m
L
N=
6.6
L = Length of Kerb

N = Number of parking spaces

Figure 3.24

ANGLE PARKING
y Angle parking is done at angles 30°, 60°,45° or 90°. The width of roadway
required for parking increase with increase in parking angle up to a maximum
at 90°.
y Angle parking allows more vehicle to accommodate per unit length of kerb
section. At 90° angle maximum number of vehicles can be parked per unit
length of the kerb.
y Angle parking being more convenient to the drivers for the parking and un-
parking manoeuvres than the parallel parking but causes more obstruction
to the traffic on the main road resulting in more accidents than that in case
Traffic Engineering

of parallel parking.
y Taking in consideration all the above factors 45° angle parking is considered
the best among all.

155.
 Lm 1.25 m
5.0 5.0

30° 5.0 N = (L - 1.25)/5

m 4.66 m

2.5
Tra c flow
(a) 30° Angle Parking
Lm
3.54 3.54 1.77 m

45° N = (L - 1.77)/3.54
5.
0
m 5.31 m
5
2.

Tra c flow
(b) 45° Angle Parking
Lm
2.89 2.89 2.16 m

60° N = (L - 2.16)/2.89
5.0

5.58 m
m

2.5
Tra c flow
60° Angle Parking
Lm
2.5

N = L/2.5
90°
5.0 m
5.0

Tra c flow
(d) 90° Angle Parking
Note : L = Length of Kerb in meters
Traffic Engineering

N = Number of parking spaces

Figure 3.25: Patterns of Kerb Parking

156.
 3.2.6 Accident Studies and Analysis
The problem of accident is very acute in road transportation due to:
complex flow patterns presence of mixed the pedestrians on the
of vehicular traffic type of vehicles roads

Accidents on road may cause damage to properties, severe injuries and may
sometimes result in death too. The main purposes of traffic engineering
study is to provide safe and efficient movement of traffic on roads.

The various reasons of the accident studies are:

(a) It helps to understand the causes of accidents and to come up with
measure to reduce such accidents.
(b) To assess the present design, regulation and control measures on the
potential sites of road accident.
(c) To propose and suggest the changes in design, regulation and control
measures in the selected zone of study.
(d) To carry out studies after the implementation of changes.
(e) To calculate the financial loss occurring due to road accidents.
(f) To provide economic justification for the improvement measures
suggested by the traffic engineer.

Cause of Accidents
Following are five basic elements in a traffic accident:
Environmental factors
Road and its
Road user Vehicle Traffic such as weather,
condition
visibility, etc

ACCIDENT REPORT
y The accident must be reported as early as possible to the nearest police
station so that they could further collect required details at site and take
legal action especially in case of more serious accidents involving injuries,
deaths or damage to the property.
y The accident report is prepared with all facts of site of accidents and
persons involved which may be found useful in successive assessment,
claims for compensation if any, calculation of accident cost, etc.
Traffic Engineering

ACCIDENT RECORDS
Accident records provides the details of accidents such as location of
occurrence of accident. The records are maintained in forms of location

157.
 files, spot maps, collision diagrams and condition diagrams. The details of
these records are:
(a) Location files:
These files are a record of locations in a radius of concerned zone,
that has a history of accidents taking place. These files contribute
towards the identification of locations with high accident incidences. It
is necessary for each police station to maintain location files for their
respective jurisdiction.
(b) Spot Maps:
These maps represent accidents through spots, pins or symbols on the
road map of the locality. For spot maps of urban accidents, a map of
suitable scale, say 1 mm = 4 to 6 m, may be used. The common legend
used for spot maps, are given in figure.

Figure 3.26: Legend for accident spot maps

(c) Collision Diagram:

These figures are not drawn to scale and represent the estimated path
of the automobiles and pedestrians involved in the accident, as well as
additional objects with which the vehicles crashed. Collision diagrams
are particularly useful for comparing the accident pattern before and
after corrective measures have been implemented. A typical collision
diagram and symbols used are shown in figure.

Motor Vehicle
Moving Ahead
Motor vehicle Backing
Pedestrian
Parked Vehicle
Fixed Object
Rear End Collision
Side Swipe
Out of Control
Fetal Accident
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Personal Injury
Property Damage

Figure 3.27

158.
(d) Condition Diagram:
 A condition diagram is a scale representation of the accident site
that shows all of the major physical aspects of the road and the
surrounding area.

Analysis Of Individual Traffic Accidents

Some simple types of accidents
The traffic engineer must investigate each road accident in order to draw
sound conclusions about the event’s main cause and other contributing
factors. Therefore one of the objectives is to compute the original speed
of the vehicle involved in each type of accident, as it is important to find
whether the vehicle was over-speeding. A few simple types of vehicular
accidents are listed under the following categories:
a. A moving vehicle collides with a stationary object which is collapsible
(like an electric pole).
b. A moving vehicle collides with a stationary object which is a rigid
structure.
c. A moving vehicle collides with a movable object like a parked vehicle.
d. At an intersection, two vehicles approaching from opposing directions
collision.
e. Head-on collision of two vehicles approaching from opposite directions.
f. Rear-end collision of two moving vehicles.

In order to ease the accident analysis, following assumptions are made:

(i) When skid marks are present, the skid distances are measured to find
the actual braking distances and it is assumed that 100 percent skid
has occurred due to braking. When skid marks are not at all visible, it
may be assumed as a free collision, without the brakes being applied
or due to brake failure.
(ii) When two vehicles of masses ma and mb with speeds va and vb collide,
if it is assumed that both are perfectly plastic bodies, both would
move together with the same speed v after impact; the relationship
may be expressed as total momentum before impact is equal to
momentum after impact and may be expressed as:
(mava + mbvb) = (ma + mb)v′
If both the bodies are assumes as perfectly elastic, the coefficient of
Traffic Engineering

restitution, e will be unity and relationship is given by:

(va – vb) = ( vb′ − va′ )

159.
 In case the coefficient of restitution, e is less than unity and the value
is known, then the relations is:

e(va – vb) = ( vb′ − va′ )

(iii) The impact of the vehicles may be either direct of oblique, at a known
angle.
(iv) The friction coefficient of the pavement surface under the prevailing
condition may either be determined from field test or be suitably
assumed. However the friction coefficient is assumed to be uniform
throughout the skid distance.

Analysis of Initial Speed from Skid Distance

TF = W.f, where f is the average friction coefficient or skid resistance created
between the surface and the tyres, is the basic equation for finding the
braking distance or skid distance, S for a vehicle of weight W slowing down
from speed v1 to v2 m/sec. Therefore,

W 2
2g
(
v 1 − v 22 ) = W.f.S

v 21 − v 22
S =
2gf
Substituting the values of g = 9.8 m/sec2 and the speed in V1 and V2 kmph,

v 21 − v 22
S =
254f

If the skid distance S is measured from the skid marks, the initial speed v1
may be calculated from the relation.

v1 = v 22 + 2gfS

OR V1 = V22 + 254fS kmph

Traffic Engineering

If the vehicle comes to a stop after the skid distance S, then v2 or V2 would
be zero.

160.
Accident type(i), Collision of moving vehicle with parked vehicle
Suppose a vehicle A, moving with speed v1 m/sec skids through a distance
S1 after the application of the brakes, collides with a parked vehicle B and
the two vehicles skid together through a distance S2 before coming to a
stop. The objective of the analysis is to estimate the initial speed of vehicle
A, v1 m/sec V1 kmph.
Step(1), before collision: The vehicle A of weight WA moving with initial speed
v1 m/sec applies brakes, skids through a distance S1 and attains a speed v2
m/sec just before collision.
v 21 = v 22 + 2gfS1

The above equation represents the slowing down process from the initial
speed v1 to v2
Step(2), At collision: Assuming a fully plastic impact, the coefficient of
restitution, e = 0. The moving vehicle A along with the stationary vehicle B
of weight WB, both start moving together at speed v3 m/sec. The relation
between v2 and v3 is given by the momentum equation:

WA WA + WB
v2 = v3
g g
WA + WB
Or v2 = v3
WA
Substituting in above equation
WA + WB 2
Or, v2 = v 3 + 2gfS1
WA

Step (3), After collision: Vehicles A and B skid through distance S2 before
coming to a stop (velocity v3 reducing to v4 = 0). The relation of v3 in terms
of S2 is obtained again from equation
v 23 = v 24 + 2gfS2 =
2gfS2

2
 W + WB 
Substituting v3 in equation, v 21 =  A  2gfS2 + 2gfS1
 WA 

2
Traffic Engineering

 WA + WB 
v1 =  W  2gfS2 + 2gfS1
 A 

161.
   W + WB  
In kmph units, V1 = 254f S2  A  + S1 
  WA  
Here, WA = weight of moving vehicle, kg
WB = weight of parked vehicle, kg
f = average friction coefficient
S1 = initial skid distance before collision, m
S2 = skid distance of both the vehicles together after collision, m
Accident type (ii), Two vehicles approaching from right angles collide
Two vehicles A and B on approaching an intersection with initial speeds vA1
and vB1 are assumed to apply brakes, skid through distance SA1 and SB1 and
the speeds are decreased to vA2 and vB2 respectively.
Then they collide with each other and start moving/skidding with further
reduced speeds vA3 and vB3 (due to loss of part of energy due to impact) and
skid further in different directions through distances SA2 and SB2 respectively.
The direction of the skidding vehicles after collision in such cases depends
on the momentum of the two colliding vehicles just at the time of the
collision or in other words, depends on the speeds of the two approaching
vehicles just at the time of collision and their weights. The final speeds of
both the vehicles A and B when the stop, vA4 and vB4 = 0.

O
Traffic Engineering

Figure 3.28: Collision of two vehicles approaching from right angles

162.
 A1

A
A
O B

B1
B

Figure 3.29: Collision of two vehicles approaching from right angles

If SA2 and SB2 are the skid distance of the two vehicles A and B after the
collision, the speeds of vehicles VA3 and VB3 just after collision may be found
from relations:
VA3 = 254fSA2

VB3 = 254fSB2

The momentum of the vehicles just after collision may be found using the
speed values from equation and these resolved in the original direction of
motion of the two vehicles. As per the assumption, the momentum before
collision is equal to the momentum after collision. For the three cases of
right angle collision shown, the speeds of the vehicles just before collision,
after skidding through distance SA1 and SB1, i.e. VA2 or VB2 are obtained by the
relations given below for the three cases:
Case(a)
WB
VA2 = VB3 sinB − VA3 cos A
WA
WA
VB2 = VA3 sin A + VB3 cosB
WB
Traffic Engineering

WB
Case (b) VA2 = VA3 cos A + VB3 cosB
WA

163.
 WA
VB2 = VA3 sin A + VB3 sinB
WB
WB
Case (c) VA2 = VA3 cos A + VB3 cosB
WA
WA
VB2 = VA3 sin A − VB3 sinB
WB

Example 3.17: Two vehicles A and B approaching at right angles, A from West
and B from South, collide with each other. After the collision, vehicle A skids
in a direction 50° North of West and vehicle B, 60° East of North. The initial
skid distances of the vehicles A and B are 38 and 20 m respectively before
collision. The skid distances after collision are 15 and 36 m respectively. If
the weights of vehicles A and B are 4.0 and 6.0 tonnes, calculate the original
speeds of the vehicles. The average skid resistance of the pavement is
found to be 0.55.

Solution:
From the given data it is evident that the accident situation before and
after the collision of two approaching vehicles is similar to that shown in
figure below.
A1

Sa2 B1

B
A SB2
A A
SA1

SB1

Weights of colliding vehicles, WA = 4.0 t and WB = 6.0 t

Traffic Engineering

Angle A = 50° and Angle B = 60°

Friction coefficient, f = 0.55, skid distances after collision, SA2 = 15 m and SB2
= 36 m. Skid distances before collision, SA1 = 38 and SB1 = 20m.

164.
Method 1
Let the initial speeds of vehicles A and B before brake application be vA1 and
vB1, the speeds just before collision, after skidding through SA1 = 38 and SB1
= 20 m be vA2 and vB2, the speeds just after collision, be vA3 and vB3 and the
final speed when the vehicles come to a stop is zero, after skidding through
further distance SA2 = 15m and SB2 = 36 m; f = 0.55.
a. After Collision
Loss in kinetic energy of each vehicle = work done against skid resistance
WA v A32
For vehicle A, = WAfSA2
2g

\ vA3 = 2gfSA2

= 2 × 9.8 × 0.55 × 15 =
12.7 m/sec

Similarly, vB3 = 2 × 9.8 × 0.55 × 36 =

19.7 m/sec

b. At collision
Equating momentums before and after impact and by resolving the
momentums along West-East direction,
WA W W
× v A2 + 0 = B sinB × vB3 − A cos A × v A3
g g g

WB
Therefore, vA2 = sinBvB3 − v A3 cos A
WA

6
= sin60 × 19.7 − 12.7 × cos 50
4
= 17.4 m/sec

Resolving the moment along South-North direction,

WB W W
× vB2 = A v A3 sin A + B VB3 cosB
g g g

WA
Therefore, vB2 = v A3 sin+ vB3 cosB
WB
Traffic Engineering

4
= × 12.7 × sin50 + 19.7 cos 60 = 16.4 m/sec
6

165.
 c. Before collision
Loss in kinetic energy due to brake application Previous Year’s Questions
= work done against break application

i.e.,
WA 2
2g
(
v A1 − v 2A2 ) = WAfSA1 Question: For two major roads
with divided carriageway crossing
at right angle, a full clover leaf
Therefore, v 2A1 = 2gfSA1 + v2A2 interchange with four indirect
ramps is provided. Following
= 2 × 9.8 × 0.55 × 38 + 17.42
statements are made on turning
vA1 = 26.7 m/sec movements of vehicles to all
directions from both roads.
i.e, VA1 = 26.7 × 3.6 = 96 kmph Identify the correct statement :
(A) Merging from left is possible,
Similarly, 2
VB1 = 2gfSB1 + VB2
2
but diverging to left is not
possible.
= 2 × 9.8 × 0.55 × 20 + 16.42
(B) Both merging from left and
vB1 = 22 m/sec
diverging to left are possible.
i.e., VB1 = 22 × 3.6 = 79.2 kmph (C) Merging from left is not
possible, but diverging to left
The original speeds of vehicles A and B before the is possible.
application of brakes are 96kmph and 79.2 kmph (D) Neither merging from left nor
diverging to left is possible.
respectively.
Answer: (b) (GATE-2013, SET-I)

Various measures can be taken to reduce the

accidents which are, categorised into following:

(i) Engineering (ii) Enforcement (iii) Education

(a) E
 ducation of road
(a) R
 oad design (a) Speed control
user

(b) M
 aintenance of
(b) Traffic control (b) Safety drive
vehicle

(c) B
 efore and after
(c) Medical check
studies of collision
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(d) Road lighting (d) Regulation for commercial vehicle

166.
 3.3 DESIGN OF ROAD INTERSECTION
3.3.1 Introduction
y An intersection is where two or more roads join or crosses each other.
y At the intersection there are through, turning and crossing traffic movement.
y The movement of traffic are handled depending upon type of intersection.

3.3.2 Intersection are broadly classified into two:

1. Intersection at grade
⚪ When all the roads meets at about the same level allowing traffic
movements like crossing, weaving, merging and diverging are called
‘Intersection at Grade’.

Crossing

Weaving

Merging

Driver

Figure 3.30

The basic requirements of intersection at grade are:

(a) at the intersection, the area of conflict should be minimum.
Traffic Engineering

(b) the relative speed of vehicle and angle of approach should be small.
(c) adequate visibility should be available for the vehicle.
(d) good lightning at night is desired.
(e) proper sign should be installed.

167.
  The point where the possible path of two vehicle intersect is called
“conflict point”.
 The area containing all possible conflict points is termed as “conflict
area”.
 If the relative speed and angle of approach of two vehicle is more
it increases the possibility of collision between the vehicle and
these conflicts point are termed as “major conflict point” example
crossing and weaving conflict points.
 If relative velocity and angle of approach between the vehicle is less
possibility of collision decreases and these points are termed as
“minor conflict point” example merging and diverging conflict points.
 IRC do not consider diverging conflict.

(1) Conflicts on cross roads with two way tra c on both roads.
C = 4
W = 12
M = 8
24

Figure 3.31

(2) Conflicts on cross roads with one-way regulation on one road.

C = 4
W= 3
M = 4
11
Traffic Engineering

Figure 3.32

168.
 Numbers of conflicts points for road combinations

Numbers of lanes Number of potential conflicts

1: One way Both roads
Road: 1 Road: 2 Both roads two ways
2: Two way one way
2 2 24 11 6
2 4 32 17 10
4 4 44 25 18

At grade intersection are of following types

(a) Unchannelised Intersection
y In this entire intersection area is paved and there is no restriction to the
vehicle to use any part of this intersection area.
y It is very easy to construct but has most complex traffic operation over it,
resulting in large conflict area.
y It is suitable to be provided for low traffic volume.

(b) Channelised Intersection

y It is achieved by introducing Island into the intersection area in order to
channelize the traffic flow to different streams.
y It reduces the total conflict area available.
y It is comparatively difficult to construct.
y Channelizing Island are provided following purpose:
I. reduces relative speed
II. reduces relative angle
III. reduces conflict area
(b) Channelizing Intersection

Traffic Engineering

(TEE) (TEE)
Partial Channelization Complete Channelization

Figure 3.33

169.
 (c) Rotary Intersection
y It’s an extended road intersection where all convergent cars must proceed
in one direction around a big centre island before exiting the traffic flow
and heading in their various directions radiating from the central Island.
y The major goal of installing a rotary is to minimise the need to halt even for
crossing streams of vehicles, hence reducing the conflict zone.
y By providing rotary crossing conflict is eliminated and converted into
“weaving movement” which consists of following:
merging manoeuvre from the left and diverging out to the right.
merging from right and diverging out to the left.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Since in India we follow to keep to the left notation, flow of vehicle

around central island is in clockwise direction.

Figure 3.34
Traffic Engineering

Design factor for rotary intersection

170.
 (a) Design speed
y Vehicles approaching at grade intersection have to slow down their speed
as compared to design speed of that particular road, however there is no
need for vehicles to stop at rotary.
⚪ for rural area design speed is 40 kmph
⚪ for urban area design speed is 30 kmph

(b) Shape of island

y The shape of Central Island depends on the number and layout of the
intersecting road.
y When two equally important road cross at roughly right angle that is all the
four radiating roads are placed symmetrically circular shape is suitable.
y The island may be elongated to accommodate in layout where more than
four intersecting roads are there and is termed as “elliptical shape”.
y “Tangent shape” is not desirable as there is tendency of traffic in long
direction to move much faster than specified speed.
y “Turbine shape” forces reduction in speed of vehicle entering the rotary but
creates the problem at night of headlight glare.
(c) Weaving area
y Since by providing rotary crossing conflict is converted to weaving
movement which takes place in zone termed as “weaving area” hence its
design become significant.
y For smooth traffic flow the weaving angle should be small but not less than
15 degree as it would increase diameter of Central Island.
y The weaving length should be at least four times the width of weaving
section.
y The recommended value of weaving length is 45-90m for design is speed
Traffic Engineering

of 40 kmph and 30-60m for 30 kmph speed.

171.
 Figure 3.35

(d) Radius of central and rotary roadway

y As in case of normal horizontal curve, centrifugal force is resisted by friction
and super-elevation similarly in case rotary roadway it is restricted only by
friction as super-elevation cannot be provided in this case, hence,
v2 V2
e+f = =
gR 127R

V2
f = (e = 0)
127R
V2
R =
127f
y Hence, radius of the entry curve is as follows:

Type of Road Design speed V (kmph) Radius (m)

Rural 40 20-35

Urban 30 15-25

IRC recommends minimum radius of central island to be 1.33 times of

Traffic Engineering

y
radius of entry curve.
y Vehicles leaving the rotary would accelerate to the speed of the radiating
road and hence the exit curve should be of larger radius than entry curve.

172.
y IRC recommends radius of exit curve to be 1.5-2times radius of entry curve.

Figure 3.36

(e) Width of carriageway at entry and exit

y The volume of traffic entering the rotary from the road or departing the
roundabout to the road determines the carriageway width at the entry and
exit of the circular. To avoid clustering of mixed traffic at the approaches,
the normal pavement width at entrance and exit should be similar to two
lanes.
y At the entrance and departure curves, more width must be supplied.
Because the radius of the former is shorter than that of the latter, the
pavement width at the entrance curve will be greater than at the exit curve.
y When the carriageway of the approach road has two, three, four, or six
lanes, the width of the carriageway at entry and exit should be 6.5, 7.0, 8.0,
and 13.0 m, respectively, according to the IRC; when the radius of the entry
curve is 15 to 25 m, the width of carriageway may be 7.0, 7.5, 10 and 15 m,
respectively, for the same set of approach roads.

(f) Width of rotary roadway

y All vehicles entering the traffic circle must travel at least a short distance
Traffic Engineering

around the one-way rotary roadway. The width of the rotary highway
changes from section to section due to the outer kerb lines following the
entrance and exit sides of roadways.

173.
 y The effective width of the rotary highway or weaving section is the minimal
width of the roadway between the edge of the central island and the
bordering kerb, and thus determines the rotary’s capacity.
y The width of the rotary’s non-weaving portion, e2, should be equal to the
width of the rotary’s widest single entry and, in general, smaller than the
weaving section’s width. The weaving segment of the rotor, designated
W, should be one traffic lane wider than the entering and non-weaving
sections combined i.e.

 (e + e2 ) 
W =  1 + 3.5 m
 2 

(g) Entrance and exit curves

y The radius and forms to which the kerb line is to be placed are determined
by the curve made by the inner rear wheel of cars.
y A vehicle approaching a rotary must slow down to the rotary’s design speed,
hence the radius of the entrance curve should be the same as the central
island’s minimum suggested radius. The suggested radius for entering
curves for a design speed of 40 kmph is 20 to 35 m, and for a design speed
of 30 kmph, 15 to 25 m. Instead of a simple circular curve, three centred
entry curves may be provided where possible.
y Exit curves should be bigger in radius than entering bends because vehicles
exiting the rotary will accelerate to the speed of the radiating highways. As
a result, the radius of the exit curve should be 1.5 to 2.0 times the radius
of the entry curve.

Capacity of rotary
The rotary’s practical capacity is determined by the individual weaving
section’s minimum capacity. The capacity is calculated as:

 e  p
280W  1 +  1 − 
 W  3
Qp =
W
1+
L
Traffic Engineering

Here
Qp = p
 ractical capacity of the weaving section of a rotary in PCU per hour
W = width of weaving section (6 to 18 m)

174.
e=a  verage width of entry e1 and width of non-weaving section e2 for the
range, e/W = 0.4 to 1.0
L = length of weaving section between the ends of channelizing islands in
metre for the range of W/L = 0.12 to 0.4.
b+c
p = proportion of weaving traffic given by, p = in the range 0.4
a +b+c+d
to 1.0.
a = left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane
d = right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane
b = crossing/weaving traffic turning towards right while entering the rotary
c = crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving the rotary

Based on the entry, exit, and internal angles, as well as pedestrian traffic in
the rotary intersection, certain changes to the predicted capacity numbers
have been suggested.

For determining the capacity of the rotary intersection, the IRC has proposed
the following PCU values for various types of vehicles:
Cars, light commercial vehicles and three wheelers = 1.0 PCU
Buses, medium and heavy commercial vehicles = 2.8 PCU
Motor cycles, scooters = 0.75 PCU
Pedal cycles = 0.50 PCU
Animal drawn vehicles = 4 to 6 PCU

Traffic Engineering

Figure 3.37

175.
 Example 1.18: Four legs in a rotary intersection are designated as 1, 2, 3,
4. The traffic volume (Vij) in terms of PCU per hour are given are follows:
Compute the proportion of weaving traffic to total traffic in the weaving
section between legs 2 and 3.

V12 150 V21 310 V31 1520 V41 30

V13 450 V23 200 V32 570 V42 1080
V14 412 V24 1090 V33 240 V43 600

Solution: a = V23 = 200

d = V14 = 412
b = V24 + V21 = 1090 + 310 = 1400
c = V13 + V43 = 450 + 600 = 1050
b+c
p =
a +b+c+d
1400 + 1050
= = 0.8
200 + 1400 + 1050 + 412

Example 1.19: A roundabout is given with an average entry width of 8.4m, a

weaving section width of 14m, and a weaving section length of 35m between
Channelizing island. The weaving section’s crossing traffic and total traffic
are 1000 and 2000 PCU per hour, respectively. Calculate the roundabout’s
capacity in PCU/hr.
b+c
Solution: p =
a +b+c+d

1000
= = 0.5
2000

 e  p
280W  1 +  1 − 
 W  3
Qp =
W
1+
L
 8.4   0.5 
280 × 14  1 +  1 − 
 14   3 
=
Traffic Engineering

14
1+
35

Qp = 3733.3 PCU/hr

176.
 (h) Channelizing islands
y These are provided at the entry and exit of the rotary for following
purpose
(a) to reduce the conflict area
(b) to force the vehicle to reduce their speed
(c) to provide space for erecting traffic sign
(d) to improve aesthetic
y The island are provided with kerbs of 150 to 200 mm height.

SIGNALISZED INTERSECTION
y Intersection at grade that are controlled by traffic signals are called
signalized intersection.
y The automatic Traffic control signal are operated to alternatively stop and
let go the traffic entering the intersection from the approach legs thus
preventing the conflict.

2. Grade separated intersection

y It is the highest form of intersection available.
y Grade separation is achieved by means of vertical level separation of
intersecting roads by means of providing
i) An over bridge or flyover
ii) Underpass
y Transfer of route at grade separation or turning facilities are provided by
“interchange”.

These are of following types:

Traffic Engineering

Figure 3.38: Types of Interchange Ramps

177.
 Interchanges
To build a roadway with complete access control, a grade separated
intersection with a complete interchange facility is required. When there
is intolerable congestion and accidents at the intersection at-grade of two
highways carrying very heavy traffic there is no better solution than to
provide grade separated intersection with interchanges.

(a) Diamond
Traffic Engineering

(b) Rotary interchange

178.
 (c) Partial clover leaf

(d) Full clover leaf

Figure 3.39: Different types of interchanges
Traffic Engineering

3.4 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES and regulations

y The devices placed in order to control the traffic flow is termed as traffic
control devices. Example traffic signals, traffic signs, pavement marking etc.

179.
 3.4.1 Traffic Signs:
A. Regulatory Devices
 These gives the road user notice of traffic law or regulation that
apply to given place.
 Disregard of such devices is punishable on violation example stop
sign, no turning, no parking etc.
B. Warning sign
 These call attention of the road user to the condition on the road
way that are potentially hazardous to traffic operation example
narrow road ahead, slipping road etc
C. Guiding informatory devices
 These provide direction and information to the road user regarding
distance, destination, point of interest and their geographical
information.
Traffic Engineering

Figure 3.40: Regulatory signs

180.
Figure 3.41: Compulsory direction control signs

Traffic Engineering

Figure 3.42: Warning Signs

181.
 (a) Road junction approach
Traffic Engineering

(b) Route marker sign

Figure 3.43: Informatory signs

182.
3.4.2 ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTION
(i) Cycle
 A signal cycle is a full rotation of all the given indicators (that is red
amber green).

(ii) Cycle length (C)

 It is the time it takes the signal to complete one full cycle of
indications in seconds.

(iii) Interval
 It represents the change from one stage to other.

These are of two types:

(a) Change interval
 It represents yellow/amber time. it indicates the interval between
green and red signal.
(b) Clearance interval
 It represent all red time.
 It’s added after each yellow interval, marking a time when all signal
faces turn red, and it’s utilised to empty the intersection of vehicles.

Traffic Engineering

Figure 3.44

183.
 C = GA + AA + RA …(i)
Gray Matter Alert!!!
Or C = GB + AB + RB …(ii)
GA + AA = RB …(iii) Clearance interval is provided
GB + AB = RA …(iv) after yellow interval and is
Hence, C = GA + AA + GA + AB …(v) optional hence if the intersection
Or C = RA + RB …(vi) is small then there is no need of
clearance interval.
(iv) Green time/interval (G)
y It is provided to allow traffic flow through the
intersection. It is designed on the basis of traffic volume of a given road. It
is the actual time duration the green signal is turned on.

(v) Red time/ interval

y It is provided to stop the traffic flow on the intersection. It is designed on
the basis of traffic volume of cross road. It is actual duration the red light
is turned on.

(vi) Amber time/interval

y It is the clearance time provided after the green time just for clearance of
the traffic at intersection so that traffic on cross road can be started.

Figure 3.45

(vii) Phase
y The sum of the displayed green, yellow, red times for a movement or a
combination of movement that receives the right of way simultaneously
Traffic Engineering

during the cycle.

y The sum of phase length in second is the cycle length.
y In the traffic movement at intersection following types of phases may be
observed:

184.
 ⚪ Two phase system is adopted if through traffic is significant as compared
to the turning movement.
⚪ If turning movement are significant in that case 4 phase system is
provided which can be given through different ways.
⚪ If the intersection control is adaptive, that is, the signal phase and
timing adapt to real-time traffic volume situations, a 5 or 6 phase signal
is commonly supplied.

Figure 3.46
Traffic Engineering

(vii) Lost time (tl)

y Due to traffic signal traffic stream are continuously started and stop and
every time this happens a portion of cycle length is not been utilised

185.
 completely which is termed as “lost time” that is time which is not serving
to the traffic movement.

Figure 3.47

3.4.3 Total loss time is combination of:

A. Start up lost time (tsl)
y It occurs when a signal indication turns green from red, driver in the queue
do not instantly start moving, there is instead lag due to reaction to the
change of signal indication.
y This start up delay result in a portion of green time not being utilised.
y As the signal is initiated the time interval between two vehicle, referred as
headway is noted.
y The first headway is the time interval between the initiation of green signal
and the instant vehicle crosses the curb line.
y Successive head way are now noted and are observed to be comparatively
lower because 2nd driver can overlap his reaction time with that of the first
driver.
y After few vehicles the head will become constant.
Traffic Engineering

B. Clearance lost time (tcl)

y When the signal turn yellow from green the latter portion of the time during
yellow interval is not utilised by traffic generally.

186.
y Additionally if there is all red interval this time period is also generally not
utilised for traffic movement.
y The period of time during change and clearance interval that are not
effectively utilised is termed as “clearance lost time”.
y Total lost time (TL) = tsl + tcl
y Due to this lost time, time available for the movement of vehicle in actual
is reduced and is termed as “Effective Green Time” (gi).

Figure 3.48

gi = Gi + Ai – (tsl + tcl)
gi = Gi + Ai – tL

(ix) Capacity of lane

y If C = cycle length (sec), then
3600
y Number of cycle in one hour =
C
y Effective green time of each cycle gi
3600
y Total effective green time = × gi
C
y If time headway between vehicles in ‘h’ sec.
y Total number of vehicle crossing the intersection in one hr,
3600 1
= × gi ×
C h
3600gi
Capacity per lane = ( veh/hr )
Ch
3600
Here, = saturation flow rate/saturation capacity
h
Traffic Engineering

gi
= green ratio
C
=
Capacity of lane Saturation capacity × green ratio

187.
 Example 1.20: Cycle time of an intersection is 55 sec. Green time is 25 sec.
corresponding yellow time is 3 second. If the saturation headway is 2.4 sec
per vehicle and start up loss time is 2 sec and clearance time is 1 sec. What
is the capacity of movement per lane?
(a) 681 veh/hr (b) 702 veh/hr
(c) 629 veh/hr (d) 715 veh/hr

Solution: (a)
gi = Gi + Ai – tL = 25 + 3 – (2 + 1) = 25 sec
3600 gi 3600 25
Capacity of lane = × = ×
h C 2.4 55
= 681.81 veh/hr

NOTE: Hence total time required by ‘N’ number of vehicle to clear the
intersection.

T = Nh + tsl

Example 1.21: Compute the number of vehicles out of 15 at this

intersection (in above question) that would not be able to pass.

Solution: Ist approach

T = gi = Nh + tsl
gi − tsl
N = = 9.58 ~ 10
h
Vehicle that would not be able to pass = 15 – 10 = 5

3.4.4 Critical lane volume

y Several lanes on one or more approaches are allowed to travel during any
green signal periode.
y One of these will have more traffic volume than the others and will require
more time, than any other lane moving at same time.
y If sufficient time is allocated for this lane, than all the other lanes, will also
be accommodated.
y The volume of this lane is termed as “Critical Lane Volume”.
Traffic Engineering

3.4.5 Signal designing by Webster Method

y In this method, optimum cycle time is computed from least total delay at
signalised intersection.

188.
Optimum cycle time,
1.5L + 5
⇒ C0 = (sec)
1−Y

L = ntL + R
n = number of phases
tL = start up loss time and clearance loss time
R = All red time
Hence, L = 2n + R
Y = y1 + y2 + … + yn
q1 q2 qn
y1 == , y2 = , ..., yn
s1 s2 sn

qi = critical lane volume for ith phase

si = saturation capacity for ith phase
3600
si = ( veh/hr )
h

h = time headway (sec)

NOTE: Here value of ‘Y’ must be less than 1. This method is rational in
approach.
Here green time is given by
G1 =
(C0 − L ) y1
y1 + y2 + ...yn

G2 =
(C0 − L ) y2
y1 + y2 + ...yn




Gn =
(C0 − L ) yn
y1 + y2 + ...yn

Example 1.22: During the design period, the average normal traffic flow
on cross roads A and B was 400 and 250 PCU per hour, respectively. 1250
Traffic Engineering

PCU/hr and 1000 PCU/hr, respectively, are the saturation flow values. For
pedestrian crossings, the total red-time necessary is 12 seconds. Using
Webster’s method, create a two-phase traffic signal.

189.
 1.5L + 5
Solution: C0 =
1−Y

L = ntsl + R
= 2n + R = 2 × 2 + 12 = 16 sec
q 400
y1 = 1 = = 0.32
s1 1250
q2 250
y2 = = = 0.25
s2 1000

Y = y1 + y2 = 0.32 + 0.25 = 0.57

1.5 × 16 + 5
C0 =
1 − 0.57

C0 = 67.44 sec ~ 67.5 sec

y
G1 = 1 (C0 − L )
Y
0.32
= (67.5 − 16) =
28.879 sec
0.57
y2
G2 = (C0 − L)
Y
0.25
= (67.5 − 16) =
22.56 sec
0.57

C0 = G1 + A1 + R1
C0 = G1 + A1 + G2+ A2
67.5 = 28.88 + A1 + 22.56 + A2
A1 + A2 = 16 sec (It includes all red time)
A1´ + A2´ = 16 – R = 16 – 12 = 4 sec
A1´ = A2¢ = 2 sec

0 67.5 sec
G1 = 28.88 sec A1´ = 2 sec All red = 12 sec R1 = 24.6 sec
Traffic Engineering

R2 = 30.94 sec All red = 12 sec G2 = 22.56 sec A2´ = 2 sec

190.
Example 1.23: A fixed time two phase traffic signal is to be designed for an
urban intersection using Webster’s approach. The intersection is having N –
S and E-W roads, where only straight moving traffic is permitted. The design
hourly traffic flow from various arms and the corresponding saturation flow
are given as follows.

Intersection North Sourth East West

Design hour traffic
1000 600 950 800
flow (PCU/hr)
Saturation traffic
3000 2400 3600 2000
flow (PCU/hr)

Compute optimum cycle length by assuming all red period per phase and
time lost per phase due to starting delay as 3 sec and 2 sec respectively.

1.5L + 5
Solution: C0 =
1−Y

L = ntsL + R = 2 × 2 + 3 × 2 = 10 sec
 1000 
 3000 = 0.33
y1 = max  
 600 = 0.25 
 2400 
 950 
 3600 = 0.264
y2 = max  
 800 = 0.4 
 2000 

Y = y1 + y2 = 0.33 + 0.4 = 0.733

1.5 × 10 + 5
C0 = = 75 sec
1 − 0.733
Traffic Engineering

191.
 Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The critical flow ratios for a three-phase signal are found
to be 0.30, 0.25, and 0.25. The total time lost in the cycle is 10
s. Pedestrian crossings at this junction are not significant. The
respective Green times (expressed in seconds and rounded off to
the nearest integer) for the three phases are
(a) 34, 28, and 28 (b) 40, 25, and 25
(c) 40, 30, and 30 (d) 50, 25, and 25
Answer: (a)

(GATE-2016, SET-II)

Keywords

Š Introduction
Š Traffic Study and Analysis
Š Design of Road Intersection
Š Traffic Control Devices and Regulations
Traffic Engineering

192.
 4 Highway Materials

Chapter 4
Material used for pavement construction are called as highway material.
These are as follows:
4.1. SUB-GRADE SOIL
It is formed via weathering of rocks, properties of which depends on mode
of weathering.
Soil sub-grade must possess following properties:
(a) Stability (b) Incompressibility
(c) Strength (d) Good drainage
(e) Low permeability
To evaluate the strength of soil following test are performed.
(i) Shear strength test
Shear strength is defined as the maximum shear stress that the soil may
sustain without experiencing failure. E.g. of shear strength test: direct
shear test, triaxial test etc.
(ii) Bearing test
y It is loading test carried out on subgrade soil in situ or in lab with a load
bearing area, which is used to ascertain overall stability of soil.
y Following test falls in this category:
(a) California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR)
 It is an empirical test used to evaluate the soil subgrade.
 In this test standard piston of diameter 50 mm is penetrated at
the rate of 1.25 mm/min in the soil specimen (soaked in water for 4
days) placed in mould of diameter 50 mm, and its resistance against
penetration is noted.
 The penetration is continued up to 12.5mm and the result is
expressed in the form of curve, showing resistance required for a
particular depth of penetration.
 Resistance corresponding to 2.5mm and 5mm penetration are noted
from the curve.

P5.0
Load
(kg)
P2.5
Highway Materials

2.5 5.0 12.5

Penetration (mm)
Figure 4.1

193.
Chapter 4

 The load resistance required for 2.5mm and 5mm penetration in soil
is further compared with that of crushed stone standard sample.
 The load values for 2.5mm and 5mm penetration in standard sample
are 1370 kg (70 kg/cm2) and 2055 kg (105 kg/cm2) respectively.
 CBR is thus defined as
load carried by specimen
CBR = × 100
load carried by s tandard sample
 Generally with depth CBR values decreases, but if in some cases
(CBR5) comes more than (CBR2.5) the test is repeated. If again we get
higher value at 5 mm penetration, then this value is reported as the
CBR value.
 If the specimen has surface irregularity the initial portion of curve
may have concavity upwards, that is eliminated by drawing the
tangent at the point of inflection (or point of maximum curvature).
Convex
Need no correction

Need correction
Load
vea
nc
Co

(0, 0) (0, 0) Penetration (mm)

0 0′
Figure 4.2

(b) Plate bearing test

 This is used to evaluated the support capability of sub-grades and
in some cases, that of complete pavement.
 Data from this test is applicable for design of both flexible and rigid
pavement.
 In this test, compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement
layer through rigid plates relatively larger in size and the deflection
are measured for different stress values.
 In this test site is prepared by removing the loose material from top
and 75 cm diameter plate is placed in contact with soil sub-grade.
Highway Materials

 By a seating equipment, load of 320 kg (giving the pressure of 0.07

kg/cm2) is applied over it and released after few seconds. The
settlement dial gauge is now set at zero.

194.
 Chapter 4
 Now load over the plate is applied and corresponding settlement is noted over three
dial gauge (average of three reading is considered as result) up to an extent the total
settlement of 1.75 mm is achieved.
 Result is thus plotted in the form of curve of load/pressure corresponding to 1.25
mm or 0.125cm settlement is noted from the curve and is termed as ‘Modulus of
Subgrade Reaction’ (K).

Pu
P

Pressure
(kg/cm2)

1.25 1.75
Settlement (mm)
Figure 4.3
P
K = Kg/cm3
0.125
 If 30 cm diameter plate is used, then as per IRC,
E
K1a1 = K2a2 =
1.18
K75 = 0.5 K30
 1.18Pa 
 But theoretically K75 = 0.4K30 as ∆ = E 
 
4.2 AGGREGATES
y Aggregates are obtained from weathering of rock and are mineral rich materials e.g. Sand,
gravel, stones etc.
y They are used for preparation of bituminous or cement concrete.
y By volume, aggregate generally accounts for 92-96% of bituminous concrete and about 70-
80% of cement concrete.
y For the aggregates to be used as pavement material, following properties are required.
(a) Strength: Resistance against crushing on gradual loading.
(b) Hardness: Resistance against abrasion or wear and tear.
Highway Materials

(c) Toughness: Resistance against impact loading.

(d) Shape of aggregates: Those shapes of aggregates are required which gives higher strength
and higher workability.

195.
Chapter 4

(e) Adhesion with bitumen: The aggregates used in bituminous pavement

should have less affinity for water when compared with bituminous
material, otherwise the bituminous coating would be stripped off from
the aggregate in the presence of water.
(f) Durability: The aggregates must be durable enough to withstand the
weathering action of weather like rain, temperature, humidity, freezing
and thawing.
(g) Inert: Aggregates used must be chemically inactive/inert else they
would react with binding material or bituminous material.

4.2.1 Testing of aggregates can be done by any of following methods:

(i) Crushing test

12.5 mm

w1
10 mm

w1
2.36 mm

w2

Figure 4.4

y This test is performed to find the strength of aggregates.

y Results are reported in terms of aggregate crushing value (ACV).
y Size of aggregates: 12.5-10mm.
y Tested in cylinder of diameter 11.5 cm and height 18 cm.
y The sample is prepared in three layer and each layer is tamped 25 times
with standard rod.
y Rate of loading is 4 tonnes/min.
y Time of loading 10 minutes.
Highway Materials

y Total load after 10 minutes is 40 tonnes.

y Sample is then passed through 2.36 mm size and weight of aggregates
passing through it is noted (w2).

196.
 Chapter 4
w2 1
y ACV = × 100 ∝
w1 strength
y ACV < 10% signifies exceptional strong aggregates and ACV > 35% signifies
exceptional weak aggregates.
y For surface course ACV >/ 30%.
y For base course ACV >/ 45%.

(ii) Abrasion test

Gray Matter Alert!!!
y This test is performed to find the hardness of the
aggregates.
y Results of this test is reported in terms of Abrasion signifies rubbing
aggregates abrasion value (AAV). between aggregates and steel
y These tests are of following types. balls whereas attrition signifies
(a) Los Angeles test (adopted by IRC) rubbing between the aggregate
(b) Devel abrasion test only.
(c) Dowry abrasion test
y Principles of all test is same.
y Specifications of Los-angeles test are as following:
⚪ Size of steel balls: 48 mm
⚪ Weight of steel balls: 340-443 gm
⚪ Number of steel balls: variable (as per grading of aggregates)
⚪ Diameter of cylinder; 700 mm
⚪ Weight of aggregates: 5-10 kg
⚪ RPM of cylinder: 30-33
⚪ Number of revolution 500-1000
⚪ Sample is then passed through 1.7mm sieve and weight of aggregates
passed is noted (w2).
w2 1
⚪ AAV = × 100 ∝
w1 hardness
⚪ For surface course: AAV >/ 30%
⚪ For base course: AAV >/ 50%
⚪ For WBM: AAV >/ 40%

1.7 mm
Highway Materials

w1
w2

Figure: 4.5

197.
Chapter 4

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : The Los Angeles test for stone aggregates is used to examine
(a) abrasion resistance (b) crushing strength
(c) soundness (d) specific gravity
Answer: (a) [GATE 2013; SET-I]

Gray Matter Alert!!!

A parameter can also be used to represent the hardness of aggregates

termed as
loss of weight (gm)
Coefficient of hardness = 20 −
3

(iii) Impact test

12.5 mm

(w1)

10 mm

2.36 mm
h = 38 cm

w2
Figure: 4.6

y This test is performed to find toughness of aggregates.

Here results is reported in terms of “Aggregates Impact Value (AIV)”.
Highway Materials

y
y Size of aggregates: (12.5-10)mm.
y Size of cup: Diameter –10.2 cm, depth –5cm.
y Materials is filled in 3 layers and each layers is compacted 25 times.

198.
 Chapter 4
y Weight of hammer = 14kg.
y Height of free fall of hammer = 38 cm
y Number of blows: 15
y Sample is then passed through 2.36mm sieve and weight of aggregates
passing through it is noted (w2).
w 1
y AIV = 2 × 100 ∝
w1 toughness
y For surface course: AIV >/ 30%
y For base course: AIV >/ 35%
y For bituminous macadam: AIV >/ 40%.

(iv) Soundness test

y This test is performed to check the durability and resistance against
weathering action of aggregates.
y Aggregates of specified size (5kg) are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting
in a saturated solution of sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate for 16-
18 hours and then dried in oven at temperature of 105°-110°C to a constant
weight for 3-4 hrs.
y After 5 cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out
all the under-sized particles.
y Loss in weight should not exceed by 12% when tested with sodium sulphate
and by 18% when tested with magnesium sulphate.
NOTE: MgSO4 solution is comparatively more strong than Na2SO4.

(v) Shape test

Figure 4.7

y Use of angular aggregate results in formation of strong mix.

y Angularity/roundness of aggregates is measured in terms of parameter
known as angularity number (AN) which is further related with % of voids
Highway Materials

in sample.
y AN varies in range of (0-11).
y If Vv% = 33

199.
Chapter 4

⇒ AN = 0
⇒ and if Vv% = 44 AN (angularity number) = 11
y AN can also be computed as
AN = 67 – % solid volume
w
AN = 67 –
Gg w

Where, w → total weight of aggregate

G → specific gravity
gw → unit weight of water
y For rounded aggregates AN = 0
y For angular aggregates AN ≠ 0
y Flakiness and elongation of the aggregates is measured by performing
flakiness index test and elongation index text using thickness and length
gauge respectively.
y Both these test are not applicable for particles of size smaller than 6.3 mm.
y Flaky particles are those, least size of which is smaller than 0.6 times
of mean size and elongated particle are those, greatest size of which is
greater than 1.8 times of mean size.
y As per IRC
FI >/ 25% for bituminous concrete

FI >/ 15% for WBM

EI >/ 15%
(vi) Specific Gravity test
y It is the ratio of mass of solids to that of an equal volume of standard fluid
(water) at a specified temperature.
y As the aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so to measure the
specific gravity of aggregates two terms are used.
(a) Apparent specific gravity (Gapp)
It is computed on the basis of net volume of aggregate i.e., volume
excluding water permeable voids.
MD /VN
Gapp =
Highway Materials

ρw

VN = net volume of aggregate excluding voids.

200.
 Chapter 4
(b) Bulk specific gravity (GB)
It is computed on the basis of total volume of aggregates including
water permeable voids.
M /V
GB = D
ρw
V = total volume of aggregates including voids
y For aggregate to be used in pavement construction
G = 2.6 – 2.9
(vii) Water absorption test
y The difference of apparent and bulk specific gravity signifies the amount of
water permeable voids of aggregates.
y We can measure the volume of such voids by weighing the aggregates dry
and in a saturated surface dry condition, with all the permeable voids filled
with water.
y Water absorption must not be greater than 0.6% by weight of aggregates
(generally it is in range of 0.1-0.2%).

(viii) Bitumen Adhesion test

y Bitumen adheres well to all normal type of aggregates used for pavement
construction.
y In the presence of water, stripping of binder from the coated aggregates
takes place.
y Several test are available to find the adhesion of bitumen binder to an
aggregates in the presence of water.
y As per IRC, static immersion test is used in which aggregates coated with
bitumen is immersed in water at 40°C temperature for 24 hrs.
y As per IRC maximum stripping value >/ 5%.

4.3 BITUMEN
y It is obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil.
y It is used for preparation of riding surface, bituminous maintenance
material.
y Physical properties of bitumen are as follows:
(a) G = 0.97 – 1.02
(b) It is black in colour
(c) Free carbon content is less
(d) Less temperature susceptibility
(e) More resistance to water
(f) Soluble in CS2 and CCl4
Highway Materials

(g) It is chemically inert

(h) It oxidises slowly
(i) It is highly viscous.

201.
Chapter 4

y Grading of bitumen is done on the basis of its viscosity and is termed as

viscosity grading (VG) e.g.:
⚪ VG-40 (3200 poise): Used in high stress area e.g. toll plaza/truck
terminal.
⚪ VG-30 (2400 poise): Used for paving application.
⚪ VG-20 (1600 poise): Used for paving application in cold climate.
⚪ VG-10 (800 poise): Used for spraying application.

Tar
y It is manufactured by destructive distillation of coal or wood.
y Gtar = 1.10 – 1.25
y Here free carbon content is comparatively more.
y It is also more susceptible to temperature.
y Its resistance against water is less.
y Tar is soluble in ‘Toluene’.
y Here the grading of tar is done an the basic of strength as follows (RT ⇒
Road Tar)

Tar Suitable for use in

(a) RT-1 Surface dressing in cold weather

(b) RT-2 Surface dressing in normal climate

(c) RT-3 Surface dressing and renewal coat

(d) RT-4 Premix tar macadam

(e) RT-5 Grouting

Cutback Bitumen
y It is obtained by blending, bitumen binder with volatile dilutants or solvents
in order to reduce its viscosity to desired range.
y It is used in following condition
(a) For application in cold regions
(b) For tack coating without heating
Highway Materials

(c) For soil stabilisation

(d) For bitumen mixes

202.
 Chapter 4
y Cutback bitumen is graded on the basis of its curing i.e., on the basis of the
relative speed of evaporation as follows:
(i) RC (Rapid curing)
(ii) MC (Medium curing)
(iii) SC (Slow curing)

y The cutbacks are designated by minerals representing progressive thickness

or viscosity.
y For e.g. RC-2 is more thick than RC-1, but RC-2, MC-2, SC-2 have same
viscosity.

Bitumen Emulsion
y Emulsion is a two phase system consisting of two immiscible liquid.
y The bitumen/tar content in the emulsion range from 40-60% and remaining
portion is water.
y The average size of bitumen particles in this emulsion is about 2mm.
y These are especially used in maintenance and patch repair work.
y It can be used even in wet weather condition.
y These emulsions are of two types:
(a) Anionic bituminous emulsions
(b) Cationic bituminous emulsions
(In India mostly second one is used)
y Grading of Bituminous emulsion is on the basis of speed at which water
evaporate and bitumen particles separates from water. These are as
follows:
(i) Rapid setting emulsion (RS)
(ii) Medium setting emulsion (MS)
(iii) Slow setting emulsion (SS)

NOTE: Here word setting does not mean loss of plasticity, rather it means
the time taken by the bitumen to separate from water.

Asphalt
y It is produced by heating the mixture of bitumen, aggregate and sand into
a composite mix.

4.3.1 Testing of Bitumen

(i) Viscosity test
Highway Materials

y It is the property of bitumen by which it resist flow due to internal friction.

y It is determined by efflux-viscometer are ‘Saybolt Furol’.
y In this test bitumen is kept at constant temperature and made to pass

203.
Chapter 4

through an orifice.
y The time required to pass is measured in ‘seconds’ and is used to indicate
the viscosity of bitumen.
y Temperature during test is in range of 25-50°C.
y The diameter of orifice is 3-10 mm and volume of bitumen is 50-200 ml.

(ii) Ductility test Gray Matter Alert!!!

y It is the ability of bitumen to the stretched without
breaking. Viscosity of tar is determined
y It is measured by stretching a standard briquette of area by ‘Tar Viscometer’.
1 cm at temperature of 27°C and at the rate of 5cm/min.
2

y The distance in “cm” that the briquette can be stretched before breaking is
related to its ductility.
y Its value varies from 5-100 cm.
y A minimum of 50cm is commonly specified.
y As per IRC minimum ductility of grade 45 and above is 75cm.
Bitumen at 27°C

Ductility (cm)

Start
Break

End
Figure 4.8: Ductility test
75 mm
20 mm

10 mm

32 mm

Specimen

Spacer
Highway Materials

30 mm

Figure 4.9: Ductility test specimen and mould

204.
 Chapter 4
(iii) Penetration test
y It is the measure of hardness and softness of bitumen.
y It measures the distance a standard blunt pointed needle will vertically
penetrate a sample of material at 25°C.
y The load being of 100 gm and time penetration is 5 sec.
y Unit of measurement is 1/10 mm.
80
y Here result is reported as x/y, for example a result of means penetration
100
of 8-10 mm.

Penetration (1/10 mm units)

100 g
100 g

Bitumen at 25°C

Start After 5 sec

Figure 4.10: Penetration test of bitumen

Highway Materials

Figure 4.11: Penetrometer

205.
Chapter 4

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The penetration value of a bitumen sample tested at 25°C is

80. When this sample is heated to 60°C and tested again, the needle
of the penetration test apparatus penetrates the bitumen sample by d
mm. The value of ‘d’ CANNOT be less than _______________ mm.
Answer: (8) (8-8) [GATE 2015; SET-II]

Gray Matter Alert!!!

Tar is not being tested by penetration test as it is comparatively very

soft.

(iv) Softening point test

y The softening point is measured by ‘Ring and Ball test’.
y Softening point is the temperature at which bitumen attains a particular
degree of softness under standardised condition.
y The temperature at which a standard steel ball placed on the layer of
bitumen kept in standard ring passes through bitumen layer and touches
the bottom plate kept at a distance of 2.54 cm is the ‘Softening point’.
y The softening point of bitumen generally varies between 35–70°C.
y It can also be understood that softening point is the temperature at which
bitumen passes from solid to liquid consistency.

Thermometer
Softening point,
temperature, °C

Steel
ball

Ball with
Bitumen
Highway Materials

Start End
Figure 4.12: Softening point test

206.
 Chapter 4
(v) Flash and fire point test
y At high temperature bitumen becomes volatile Gray Matter Alert!!!
and thus catches fire, which is very dangerous.
y Thus it is necessary to find the temperature at For satisfactory performance and
which different grades of bitumen catches fire. avoidance of ‘bleeding’, bitumen
y The flash point of a bituminous is the lowest should have a softening point
temperature at which application of a test flame 5-10°C above the maximum
causes the vapours of the binder to catch an atmospheric temperature.
instant fire in the form of flash under standard
test conditions.
y The fire point is the lowest temperature in °C at which the application of
test flame causes the bitumen to ignite and burn for at least 5 sec under
specified test conditions.
y The safe limit for heating bitumen is usually 50°C below the flash point.
y It is measured using “PENSKY MARTIN” apparatus.
Flash point
temperature, °C

Small
flame Flash of
flame

Start End
Figure 4.13: Flash point test

(vi) Float test

y Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured by either
penetration test or viscosity test.
y But for certain range of consistency these test are not applicable and float
test is used.
y The float test is a modified viscosity test.
Here consistency is reported in terms of float value which represent time
Highway Materials

y
in second required for small plug of bitumen, which is held in an open
mould attached to the bottom of the float to become sufficiently fluid at a
temperature of approximately 50 degree Celsius.

207.
Chapter 4

(vii) Heating test

y When a bituminous material is heated it loses its volatile content and
hardness.
y The less the loss of weight on heating better is the bitumen.
y The test is conducted by an accelerator test on 50 gram placed in a container
and temperature is increased up to 160 degree Celsius for 5 hours
y Loss in weight of the bitumen is noted and it must not be more than 1%.
Mix design can be done by any of the following method
(i) Marshall method (most popular in India)
(ii) Hubbard field method
(iii) Hveem method
(iv) Smith triaxial method

Mix design is being carried out for the following objective:

(a) to have sufficient bitumen to ensure durable pavement.
(b) to have sufficient strength to resist shear deformation.
(c) to have air voids in compacted bitumen to allow for additional
compaction by traffic.
(d) to have sufficient workability
(e) to have sufficient flexibility, to avoid cracking

Constituents of mix Design consist of following:

(a) Coarse aggregate: crushed stones, granite; provided to impart strength.
(b) Fine aggregate: sand, rock dust; provided to impart stiffness.
(c) Filler: cement, lime; provided to impart stiffness.
(d) Binder: bitumen, asphalt, tar: provided to impart adhesion.

The Design mix involves three important steps:

(a) Selection of aggregate
(b) Aggregate gradation
(c) Proportioning of aggregate

4.4.1 Marshall mix Design

y Marshall mix design determines the optimum bitumen content.
y For evaluation of performance of bitumen, flow test and stability test is
performed.
y The stability portion of the test measures maximum load supported by the
test specimen at a loading rate of 50.8mm/min-51mm/min.
Highway Materials

y Load is applied to the specimen till failure.

y Stability is then defined on maximum load carried by specimen at standard
temperature of 60°C.

208.
 Chapter 4
y Approx. 1200 gm of aggregate and fillers is heated to a temperature of
175-190°C.
y Bitumen is heated to 120-165°C with first trial %of bitumen in range of
3.5-4% by weight.
y The heated aggregate and bitumen are mixed, at temperature of 155-
160°C.
y The mix is placed in pre heated mould at temperature of 135-150°C.
y The thickness of specimen is 63.5mm and its diameter is 101.6mm.
y Vary the bituminous content in the next trial by 0.5% and repeat the
process up to the 8% bituminous content.

Test Specimen

Highway Materials

Figure 4.14: Marshall stability testing machine

209.
Chapter 4

4.5 PROPERTIES OF MIX

va Air wa 0
vvoids

Bitumen wB

v Filler wF w
vsolid

Fine Aggregate wFA

Coarse Aggregate wCA

Figure 4.15

(i) Theoretical Specific Gravity

y It is the specific gravity of mix without considering air voids.

wtotal
GT =
(Vtotal − Vair ) g w

wtotal
=
(VCA + VFA + VF + VB ) g w

wtotal
=
Vsolid g w
⇒ Provided bitumen is considered as solid.

wtotal
GT =
WCA WFA WF WB
+ + +
GCA GFA GF GB

(ii) Bulk specific gravity (GM) actual specific gravity.

y It is the specific gravity of mix considering air voids also.

wtotal
GM =
Vtotal · g w
Highway Materials

Wtotal
= [Bitumen is considered as solid.]
(Vsolid + VAIR )g w

210.
 Chapter 4
NOTE- 1: Since Vtotal > Vsolids, hence GT > GM
NOTE 2: WT – FB = Ww
WT – Vwgw = Ww
Vw = VT
WT – VT × gw = Ww
WT − Ww
VT =
gw
FB

WT

Figure 4.15

wT
Hence, GM =
 WT − Ww 
  gw
 gw 
WT = total weight of mix/weight of mix in air.
Ww= submerged/buoyant weight of mix/weight of mix in water

wT
GM =
WT − Ww

(iii) Air void percent (Vav)

It is the percent of air voids by volume in the mix.
Va
Vav = × 100
VT

GT − GM
Or Vav = × 100
GT

WT WT
−
Highway Materials

GT − GM V ⋅g Vtotal ⋅ g w
NOTE: = solid w
GT WT
Vsolid ⋅ g w

211.
Chapter 4

( Vtotal − Vsolid ) Vsolid

=
Vtotal ⋅ Vsolid

GT − GM V
⇒ = a
GT VT

(iv) Percentage volume of bitumen (Vb)

It is the volume of bitumen to total volume of mix.
Vbitumen
Vb = × 100
Vtotal
wb
Gb
= × 100
WT
GM

wb
Gb
= × 100
WCA + WFA + WF + Wb
GM

wb
Also, Vb = Gm
Gb
Where, wb → %weight of bitumen
Vb → %bitumen by volume

(v) Voids in mineral aggregates (VMA)

y It is the total volume of voids in aggregate expressed in terms of total
volume of mix.
y Here total volume of the voids consists of volume of air voids and volume
of bitumen.
Vvoids
VMA = × 100
VT
Va + Vbitumen
= × 100
VT
Highway Materials

Va V
VMA = × 100 + bitumen × 100
VT VT

VMA = Vav + Vb

212.
 Chapter 4
(vi) Voids filled with bitumen (VFB)
It is the voids in mineral aggregates filled with bitumen

Vbitumen
VFB = × 100
Vvoids

Vbitumen
VT
= × 100
Vvoids
VT

Vb
= × 100
VMA
4.6 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN
(a) Marshall stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required
to produce failure when the specimen is preheated to a prescribed
temperature and load is applied at a constant strain of 50.8 mm/min.
(b) While the stability test is in progress, dial gauge, is used to measure
the vertical deformation of the specimen. The deformation at the
failure point in unit of 0.25 mm is called Marshall flow value of the
specimen.
y The average of above properties are determined for each mix with different
bitumen content and the following graphs are plotted.

Binder content v/s Marshall stability

Marshall
stability
(kg)
Highway Materials

Bitumen (%)
Figure 4.16

213.
Chapter 4

Binder content v/s Marshall flow

Flow
value

Bitumen (%)
Figure 4.17
Binder content v/s % of voids in mix

Air
voids

Bitumen (%)
Figure 4.18
Binder content v/s bulk specific gravity (GM)

Figure 4.19

Bitumen content v/s void filled with bitumen (VFB)

VFB
Highway Materials

Bitumen (%)
Figure 4.20

214.
 Chapter 4
Binder content v/s voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)

VMA

Bitumen (%)
Figure 4.21

y Finally the optimum binder content is determined for the mix design by
taking the average of three bitumen content found from:
(a) Stability curve
(b) Specific gravity curve
(c) % Air voids curve (4%)

Example 4.1: A mixture contains CA with G = 2.7, FA with G = 2.9 and mineral
filler with G = 1.5 in proportion of 60 : 35 : 5 by weight. These materials
when mixed with bitumen having G = 1.01, and compacted to a unit weight
of 2300 kg/m3 containing 5% voids. How much bitumen does the specimen
contain?

Solution: Let volume of the compacted mix be 1 m3

Weight of the compacted mix 2300 × 1 = 2300 kg
Wmix = wa + wb + wF + wFA + wCA

Let w be the total weight of CA, FA and mineral filler

2300 = wb + 0.05w + 0.35w + 0.6w

2300 = wb + w …(i)

Vmix = Va + Vb + VF + VFA + VCA

Vmix – Va = Vb + VF + VCA + VFA

Highway Materials

wb 0.05w 0.35w 0.6w

0.95 = + + +
1.01 ρw 1.5 ρw 2.9ρw 2.7 ρw

950 = 0.99wb + 0.376w …(ii)

215.
Chapter 4

From (i), and (ii)

wb = 138.61 kg

w = 2300 – 138.6 = 2161.4 kg

wCA = 0.6 × 2161.4 = 1297 kg

wFA = 0.35 × 2161.4 = 756 kg

wF = 0.05 × 2161.4 = 108.1 kg

Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The percent voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) and percent

air voids (Vv) in a compacted cylindrical bituminous mix specimen are
15 and 4.5 respectively. The percent voids filled with bitumen (VFB) for
this specimen is:
(a) 24 (b) 30 (c) 54 (d) 70
Answer: (d) [GATE 2013]

Keywords

Š Sub-grade soil Š Properties of Mix

Š Aggregates Š Marshall mix design
Š Bitumen
Š Mix Design Method
Highway Materials

216.
 5 Design of Highway Pavement

Chapter 5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
y A pavement is a load bearing and load distributing component of a
road.
y For geometrical designing we use to consider all types of vehicles, but for
pavement design vehicles having significant heavy loads are considered.
y These vehicles are generally commercial vehicles.
y As per IRC, vehicles having gross load greater than 3 tonnes are called
commercial vehicles.
y Pavements can be classified as follows:
(a) Flexible
(b) Rigid
(c) Semi-rigid
(d) Composite

(a) Flexible Pavement

Surface Course

Base Course

Sub-Base Course

Soil Surface
Figure 5.1

y A flexible pavement is one that is made up of one or more layer of materials,

the highest quality of material forming the top layer.
y The load carrying capacity of the flexible pavement is derived from the load
distribution property and not from its flexural strength.
The flexible pavement layer reflects the deformation of pavement on soil
Design of Highway Pavement

y
sub grade.
y The pavement transmits the vertical or compressive stress to the lower
layer by grain-to-grain contact.
y Major pavement failure are: fatigue, cracking, rutting, thermal cracking etc.
(Rutting is the depression in localised area.)

217.
 (b) Rigid Pavement

Cement Concrete Slab

Base Course

Soil Sub-grade
Figure 5.2: Components of rigid pavement

(i) A rigid pavement is constructed with cement concrete slabs.

(ii) A major contribution to the load bearing capacity in this case is
slabs itself as it derives this property by virtue of its flexural/bending
strength.
(iii) Rigid pavement larger does not reflect the deformation of the lower
layer due to the presence of concrete slab at the top.
(iv) Here the transfer of load does not takes place by the layer-to-layer
contact.
(v) Major pavement failure are fatigue, cracking and pumping. (IRC
considers only fatigue and cracking failure for its design).

Gray Matter Alert!!!

y Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry through joints and cracks

of cement concrete pavement causing a downward movement of
slab under heavy load.
y Expansion and contraction joints are required in rigid pavement
but not in flexible pavement and initial cost of rigid pavement is
Design of Highway Pavement

more as compared to flexible pavement, but maintenance cost is

less.

(c) Semi-rigid pavement

y This pavement represents intermediate stage between the flexible and
rigid type.

218.
y It derives the strength from both load spreading and flexural action.
y In this case bonded material like pozzolana e.g. fly ash, lean cement
concrete or soil cement are used in base course or sub base course which
imparts flexural strength to it.

(d) Composite
y It has a mixture of above type of pavements in layer.
y For e.g. pavement consisting of lean concrete base, a roller compacted
concrete slab over it and a surface of bituminous concrete.

5.2 Functions of Pavement Components

(i) Soil Subgrade
y Its main function is to ultimately carry the vehicular load and to drain of
the water seeping from the surface.
y Top 50cm layer of soil subgrade is compacted properly.

(ii) Sub-base and Base course

y These layers are composed of broken stones aggregate of smaller
size.
y Base and sub base course are used in flexible pavement for increasing load
carrying capacity by distribution.
y Base course is provided under rigid pavement for preventing pumping and
protecting the sub grade against frost action.

(iii) Wearing course

y Purpose of this course is to give smooth riding surface to the vehicles.
y It resists pressure exerted by the vehicles and is subjected to wear and
tear.
y It offers water tightness to the pavement.

5.3 DESIGN CONCEPT OF PAVEMENT

(i) Load transfer through wheels
y While analysing load transfer through wheels we need to consider total
wheel load and distribution of pressure.
Design of Highway Pavement

y Pressure generated at the point of contact between tyre and pavement is

termed as “Contact Pressure” where as pressure inside the tyre is termed
as “Tyre Pressure”.

For designing, tyre pressure = 7kg/cm2

wheel load P
Contact pressure = =
contact area A

219.
 P

Contact
a area

Figure 5.3

NOTE:
y If contact area is assumed to be circular, then area of contact = pa2
y At low tyre pressure, tyre comes under compression and contact pressure
(CP) is greater than tyre pressure (TP).
y At high tyre pressure, tyres come under tension and CP is less than TP.

Tyre pressure
Design of Highway Pavement

Contact
pressure
Tyre under compression Tyre under tension
Figure 5.4

220.
y For designing purpose these pressure are related with a factor termed as
‘Rigidity factor’.
contact pressure
Rigidity factor =
tyre pressure
For designing CP = TP = 7 kg/cm2
If, TP = 7 kg/cm2, RF = 1
TP > 7 kg/cm2, RF < 1

TP < 7 kg/cm2, RF > 1

y For designing of pavement, design load is computed by considering following
factors.
(a) The traffic volume will increase with time.
(b) Different vehicles will have different weights.
(c) Wheel loads will be dispersed across the pavement.
The factor is accounted by designing the pavement for future traffic
(i.e., at the end of design life).
365A[(1 + r)n − 1]
N=
r
N = Cumulative number of vehicles at the end of design life.
A = Initial design traffic in (vehicle/day) in the year of completion of
construction.
A = P(1 + r)x
P = Number of commercial vehicles per day at last count.
r = Rate of increase of traffic.
x = Construction period (years).
n = Design life of pavement.

NOTE: Here “A” is always taken as total traffic per carriageway, which
includes traffic in both directions.

A A Design of Highway Pavement

A
2 lane 2 way single carriage way Dual/Double two lane carriage way
Figure 5.5

221.
 (d) This is accounted by using a factor which distributes the commercial
traffic in each direction on each lane and is termed as “lane distributed
factor”/lateral or directional distribution factor, “D”.

As per IRC: 37-2018 D (Distribution Factor)

1. Sigle lane road

2. Intermediate lane road 0.75

3. 2 lane 2 way single carriageway

road

0.5

D = 0.5

4. 4 lane single carriageway road

Design of Highway Pavement

0.4

222.
As per IRC: 37-2018 D (Distribution Factor)

5. Dual carriageway 2 lane road

A A

0.75

D = 0.75

6. Dual carriageway 3 lane road

A A

0.6

D = 0.6

7. Dual carriageway 4 lane road

A A Design of Highway Pavement

0.45

D = 0.45

223.
 5.4 TRAFFIC LOAD CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN
In pavement design, traffic load consideration is done by following approach.

5.4.1 Fixed Traffic Approach

y In this method heaviest vehicle is taken in consideration.
y Here number of repetitions are not considered.
y Pavement is designed based on single lane load.
y Multiple wheels loads are converted to ‘ESWL’ i.e., ‘Equivalent Single Wheel
Load’.
y This approach is needed for designing of airport pavement as here single
load movement is sufficient to cause the damage.
y ESWL is defined as load on single tyre/wheel which will cause an equivalent
magnitude of pre-selected parameter (stress, strain, deflection etc)
at a given location to that resulting form multiple wheel load at same
location.
y In our case pre-selected parameter is stress.

S
P P
d

45° d/2 45°

z

2S

Figure 5.6

S = c/c spacing between the wheels

d = clear spacing between the wheels
Design of Highway Pavement

d
For, z ≤ , ESWL = P [As there in no stress overlap]
2
z ≥ 2S, ESWL = 2P [Full overlap of stress is considered]
d
< z < 2S, ESWL is computed by interpolation considering the variation of
2
ESWL to be linear with depth on log scale.

224.
 Figure 5.7
 
 log 2P − log P   2z 
Log P′ = log P +  log  
d  d
 log 2S − log 
 2

log 2  2z 
=
LogP′ log P + log  
 4S   d
log  
 d 

Example 5.1: Calculate the ESWL of dual wheel assembly carrying 2050 kg,
each for pavement thickness of 5 cm, 40 cm and 65 cm, c/c spacing between
tyre is 30 cm and distance between adjacent wall of type is 20 cm.

Solution: d = 20 cm, S = 30 cm
d 20
(i) z = 5 cm < = = 10 cm
2 2
ESWL = 2050 kg
(ii) z = 65 cm > 2S = 2 × 30 = 60 cm
Design of Highway Pavement

ESWL = 2 × 2050 = 4100 kg

d
(iii) z = 40 cm, < z < 2S
2
 
ESWL = Antilog log 2050 + log 4100 − log 2050  log  2 × 40  
  log 60 − log 10   20 

= 3504.8 kg

225.
 5.4.2 Fixed Vehicles Approach
y In this case design is governed by number of repetitions of standard axle.
y 80 kN single axle is considered to be standard axle load.
y Axles that are not either single or not equal to 80 kN are converted to
equivalent number of standard axle load using a factor termed as ‘Equivalent
Axle Load Factor’ (EALF).
y “EALF hence defines the damage caused to the pavement by application of
the axle load under consideration relative to the damage caused by single
application of a standard axle of 80kN load”.
y EALF is computed as follows:
4
 axle load 
EALF =  
 s tandard axle load 
y We multiply the repetition of given load by EALF to obtain equivalent
number of repetition of 80 kN axle load.
y Sum of the equivalent number of repetition obtained from all the axle load
during design life is used for designing of pavement.
y This approach is used for designing of highway.
Total number of repetition of equivalent standard axle load (80 kN) =
m

∑ EALF .n
i=1
i i

m = number of axle load group.

EALFi = equivalent axle load factor for ith group
ni = number of repetitions of axle load of ith group.
y With the help of total number of repetitions of standard axle a parameter
termed as vehicle damage factor (F) can be computed.
y VDF(F) is equivalent to number of standard axle per commercial vehicle.

Example 5.2: (a) The result of 1 day axle load survey of trucks on a road is
tabulated as below. Find the number of repetition of a standard 80 kN axle
in a year.
(b) If 950 number of axle were surveyed and the number of vehicles were
Design of Highway Pavement

400 find VDF.

W (kN) 0-40 40-80 80-120 120-160

Frequency 50 250 400 25

226.
Solution: (a)

4
 Avg. W 
W (kN) f(n) Avg W (kN) EALF =   EALFi ni
 80 

0-40 50 20 0.0039 0.195

40-80 250 60 0.316 79

80-120 400 100 2.441 976.4

120-160 25 140 9.37 234.25

Total number of repetition of standard axle load = 1289.8

Total number of repetition of standard axle for one year = 1289.8 × 365
= 4.7 × 105
1289.8
(b) VDF = = 3.2245
400

Example 5.3: Number of commercial vehicles per day when construction is

completed = 5640.
Design life = 20 yrs
Rate of growth of traffic = 7.5%
Load safety factor = 1.3
Lane distribution factor = 0.75
Find out design traffic in msa (million standard axle) for the following data:

Axle (Tonnes) 18 14 10 8 6

Frequency (%) 10 20 35 15 20

Solution: Number of vehicles at the end of construction period = 5640 veh/

day
Design of Highway Pavement

Number of commercial vehicles at the end of design life

365A[(1 + r)n − 1]
⇒ N =
r
365 × 5640 × (1 + 0.075)20 − 1
N =
0.075
N = 89147017

227.
 y If lane distribution is also accounted for design traffic = N × D
= 89147017 × 0.75

= 66860262.75
y If damaging potential of this traffic is accounted number of standard axle
in design life = design traffic × VDF × LSF
n
VDF = ∑ f EALF
i=1
i i

4 4 4 4 4
 180   140   100   80   60 
= 0.1   + 0.2   + 0.35   + 0.15   + 0.2  
 80   80   80   80   80 

VDF = 5.496
Number of standard axle in design life = 66860262.75 × 5.496 × 1.3
= 477.7 × 106

= 477.7 msa
NOTE: Cumulative number of standard axle (csa) load repetition, throughout
the design of a road is,
365A[(1 + r)n − 1] × D × VDF × LSF
Ns =
r

365A[(1 + r)n − 1] × D × VDF × LSF

or Ns = msa
r × 106

5.5 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT THICKNESS

Design of flexible pavement is classified as :
(a) Empirical method
y These are based on physical properties and strength parameter of soil
subgrade.
y Group index method, CBR method stabilometer method and MC-LEOD
method are empirical in approach.
Design of Highway Pavement

(b) Semi empirical/semi-theoretical method

y These are based on stress-strain function and observations.
y Triaxial method is semi-empirical.

(c) Theoretical Method

y These are based on mathematical computation.
y Burmisters method is an example of theoretical method.

228.
 5.5.1 Group index method
y This method is based an index property of soil, i.e., the properties which
help in identification and classification of soil.
y In this method a characteristic “Group Index” is used to indicate the
performance of soil when used as pavement materials.
y GI varies from 0-20
y Higher the GI poorer is the performance of soil when used as pavement
materials, hence higher thickness of pavement is required.
y GI is given by:
GI = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
a = p – 35 >| 40 (0-40)
p = % finer i.e., % of particles passing through 75 µm sieve.
b = p – 15 >| 40 (0-40)
c = wL – 40 >| 20 [0-20]
wL = liquid limit
d = IP – 10 >| 20 (0-20)
IP = Plasticity index
y To design the pavement thickness by this method, first GI of soil is found.
y Anticipated traffic is estimated and is designated as follows.

Traffic volume Light Medium Heavy

Number of vehicle/day < 50 50-300 > 300

y Based on the anticipated traffic and GI value, thickness of pavement layer

is found.
y The thickness sub-base depends on only GI but thickness of “Base and
surface course” us dependent on both GI and traffic.

Surface
GI + Traffic
Base
Design of Highway Pavement

Sub base GI

Sub grade
Figure 5.8

y Value of thickness of different layers of pavement is directly read from the

curve or table.

229.
 y This method does not consider quality of material used for pavement
construction; hence thickness of pavement comes out to be same for poor
and good quality materials.

Example 5.4: A soil subgrade sample collected from site was analysed and
the results are:
(i) Soil proportion passing through 0.075 mm sieve = 60%
(ii) wL = 45%
(iii) wP = 23%

Determine the GI of subgrade and design pavement thickness using GI. Use
the following data:

GI Values 0 5 10 15 20

Total thickness Required (cm) 22 35 43 48 52

Solution: a = p – 35 = 60 – 35 = 25

b = p – 15 = 60 – 15 = 45 > 40 so, b = 40
c = wL – 40 = 45 – 40 = 5
d = IP – 10 = (wL – wP) – 10
= (45 – 23) – 10 = 12
GI = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
= 0.2 × 25 + 0.005 × 25 × 5 + 0.01 × 40 × 12 = 10.425

By Interpolation, thickness = 43.42 cm

Design of Highway Pavement

5.5.2 California Bearing Ratio Method

y It is based on strength parameter of sub-grade soil and subsequent
pavement materials.
y In order to design a pavement by CBR method, first the soaked CBR value
of soil subgrade is evaluated and the appropriate design curve is chosen

230.
 by taking the design wheel load or by anticipated traffic into consideration.
y The total thickness of pavement needed to cover the subgrade of the
known CBR value is obtained.
y In case there is a material superior than the soil sub-grade, such that it
may be used as sub base/base course thickness of construction over this
materials could also be obtained from the curve.
y Based on CBR value of any materials, over which a flexible pavement is
required, thickness of pavement over this is given by
1 1
 1.75 1 2  1.75P P  2
t= P −  =  − 
 CBR pp   CBR pp 
1
 1.75P A  2
t=  − 
 CBR p
t = pavement thickness (cm)
P = wheel load (kg)
CBR = California bearing ratio (%)
p = tyre pressure (kg/cm2)
A = area of contact (cm2)

NOTE:
(i) This expression is not valid when CBR value of this subgrade soil is
less than 12%.
(ii) The thickness by this method can also be read from the standard
curves.
CBR (%)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0

10

20
Traffic Classification
30 A
Number of commercial vehicles
Curve
40 exceeding 3 tonnes/day
Depth of
A 0-15
Design of Highway Pavement

construction
50 B B 15-45
(cm) C 45-150
60 D 150-450
C
E 450-1500
70 F 1500-4500
D G >4500
80
Figure 5.9

231.
 y CBR test is used to determine the material property for pavement design.
y In this test a standard piston of diameter 50 mm (Area = 19.62 cm2) is used
to penetrate the soil at rate of 1.25 mm/min upto 12.5 mm.
y Load required by piston to penetrate upto the depth of 2.5 mm and 5mm is
noted and is compared with that load required by the piston to penetrate
into the standard sample of crushed aggregate.
y In most cases CBR decreases with penetration, CBR2.5 > CBR5.
y If CBR5 is found more than CBR2.5 then test should be repeated and after
repetition of that test, whichever value is found to be more is accepted as
CBR value.
NOTE: This method gives the total thickness requirement of the pavement
above the subgrade, and this is independent of quality of material used.

CBR is given by:

Load carried by test specimen (Pt)
CBR =
Load carried by standard specimen (Ps)
Standard Specimen
Test Specimen
(Crushed Stone)
P5.0 P5 = 105 (kg/cm )
2

P5.0 = 2055

Load Load
(kg) Convex (kg)
P2.5 P 2.5 = 1370 2
P 2.5 = 70 (kg/cm )

2.5 5 12.5 2.5 5 12.5

Penetration (mm) Penetration (mm)

Figure 5.10

Example 5.5: A sub grade soil sample was tested using standard CBR
apparatus and the observation are given below:
Design of Highway Pavement

Load, (kg) 61.8 79.2

Penetration (mm) 2.5 5

Assuming that the load-penetration curve is convex throughout, the CBR
value (%) of the sample is:
(a) 4.51% (b) 4.82%
(c) 3.85% (d) 4.24%

232.
 Solution:
specimen load
CBR2.5 = × 100
s tandard aggregate load

61.8
= × 100 = 4.51%
1370
79.2
CBR5 = × 100 = 3.854%
2055
So, correct option is (a)

5.5.3 Triaxial Test Method

y The pavement thickness Tb consisting of materials with modulus Es is given
by 2
 3PXY 
Ts =   −a
2

 2pE S ∆ 
P = wheel load (kg), Es = modulus of elasticity
X = traffic coefficient, ∆ = deflection (0.25 cm)
Y = rainfall coefficient, a = radius of contact area

Figure 5.11

y If pavement and subgrade are considered as two layer system a “Stiffness

factor” has to be introduced to take into account the quality of pavement
material in terms of its modulus of elasticity.
In such case thickness is given by
Design of Highway Pavement

1
 2 
  3PXY  2   ES 
3
TP =   −a  
 2pES ∆   E
    P 
1
E  3
Here, stiffness factor =  S 
 EP 
EP = modulus of elasticity of pavement

233.
 NOTE: The rotation between pavement layers of thickness t1 and t2 of
modulus of elasticity E1 and E2 is given by
1
t1  E 3
=  2
t2  E1 

Example 5.6: Design a pavement section by Triaxial method using following

data:
Wheel load = 4050 kg
Radius of contact area = 15 cm
Traffic coefficient = 1.6
Rainfall coefficient = 0.7
Design deflection = 0.25 cm
Es = 120 kg/cm2
E base course material = 360 kg/cm2
E Bituminous layer = 1200 kg/cm2
Thickness of bituminous layer = 7 cm

Solution: For two layered system including base course,

 2  1
 3PXY  2   ES
 3 
Tp = 
  2pE ∆  − a   E  
 S   P 
   

1/3
= 3 × 4050 × 1.6 × 0.7  120 
− 152 ×  
2p × 120 × 0.25  360 
TB = 48.96 cm
Design of Highway Pavement

TBt = 7 cm, EBt = 1200 kg/cm2

TB = ?, EB = 360 kg/cm2

234.
 1
 TB   EBt  3
  =  
 TBt   EB 
⇒ TB = 10.456 cm
Remaining thickness of base after providing bituminous layer
= 48.96 – 10.456 = 38.504 cm

5.6 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

y Rigid pavement are constructed using cement concrete and its load carrying
capacity is primarily due to rigidity of slab.
y Rigidity is due to high modulus of elasticity of concrete.
y Cement concrete pavement is rested on soil foundation which can be
treated as a spring having spring constant “K”.
y This “K” is termed as “Modulus of sub-grade reaction.”
y “K” is defined as load/pressure required to attain standard settlement
(0.125 cm) and is found using plate load test.

Pressure
2
(kg/cm )

Settlement (cm)
0.125
Figure 5.12

p
k= (kg/cm3 )
∆
Design of Highway Pavement

y To perform plate load test, different size of plate are available 75 cm, 60
cm, 45 cm, 30 cm.
y However IRC recommends use of 75 cm plate for this test.
y As per IRC, the modulus of sub-grade reaction, corresponding to 75 cm
plate used for testing, is taken half of that corresponding to 30 cm plate.

K75 cm = 0.5K30 cm

235.
 1.18pa
NOTE: For plate load test ∆= ...(i)
ES
p
∆ = ...(ii)
K
from (i) and (ii)
1.18pa p
=
ES K

ES
Ka =
1.18
Ka = constant
Hence the value of ‘K’ depends on size (a) of plate
K75 (75) = K30 (30)

K75 = 0.4 K30

Example 5.7: Plate bearing test with 20 cm diameter placed on soil subgrade
yielded, a pressure of 1.25 × 105 N/m2 at 0.5 cm deflection. What is the
elastic modulus of subgrade?
(a) 21.8 × 105 N/m2 (b) 34.7 × 105 N/m2
(c) 32.9 × 10 N/m
5 2
(d) 29.5 × 105 N/m2

1.18pa
Solution: ∆ =
E
∆ = deflection = 0.5 cm
p = pressure = 1.25 × 105 N/m2
a = radius of plate = 20/2 = 10 cm

1.18 × 1.25 × 105 × 10 × 10−2

0.5 × 10–2 =
E
E = 29.5 × 105 N/m2
So, correct option is (d).
Design of Highway Pavement

Radius of relative stiffness

Radius of area of soil, effective in resisting the deformation of slab/pavement
is called radius of relative stiffness.
1
 Eh3 4
l =  2 
 12K(1 − µ ) 

236.
 P
Contact Area

Figure 5.13

E = modulus of elasticity of cement concrete (kg/cm2)

E = 3 × 105 kg/cm2
µ = Poisson ratio of concrete (0.15)
h = thickness of slab
K = modulus of subgrade reaction (kg/cm3)

NOTE:
(i) Only a small area of pavement offers the resistance to the load by
virtue of its moment carrying capacity.
(ii) The radius of this area is termed as equivalent radius of resisting
section and is given by Westergaard’s.

 1.6a2 + h2 − 0.675h, a < 1.724 h

b(cm) = 
a otherwise
h = slab thickness (cm)
a = radius of contact area (cm)

Previous Year’s Questions

Design of Highway Pavement

Question: Select the strength parameter of concrete used in design of

plain jointed cement concrete pavements from the following choices:
(a) Tensile strength (b) Compressive strength
(c) Flexural strength (d) Shear strength
Answer: (c) [GATE 2013]

237.
 Previous Year’s Questions

Question: The radii of relative stiffness of the rigid pavements P and Q are denoted by
LP and Lq, respectively. The geometric and material properties of the concrete slab and
underlying soil are given below:

Concrete Soil

Pavement Subgrade
Length Breadth Thickness Modulus Poisson’s
Reaction
of Slab of Slab of Slab of Elasticity Ratio
Modulus

P L B h E m K

Q L B 0.5h E m 2K

The ratio (up to one decimal place) of LP/LQ is _____

Answer: (2) (1.9-2.1) [GATE 2017, SET-2]

Example 5.8: (a) Compute the radius of relative stiffness of 15 cm thick

cement concrete slab from the following data:
EC = 21 × 104 kg/cm2
m = 0.13
K = 3 kg/cm3
(b) Also compute the equivalent radius of resisting section of this slab
given the radius of contact area of wheel load is 15 cm.
1
 Eh3 4
Solution: (a) Radius of relative stiffness (l) =  2 
 12K(1 − µ ) 
Design of Highway Pavement

1
 21 × 104 × 153  4
l=  2 
 12 × 3 × (1 − 0.13 ) 
l = 66.89 cm
(b)
a 15
= = 1 < 1.724
h 15

238.
 b = 1.6a2 + h2 − 0.675h

b = 1.6 × 152 + 152 − 0.675 × 15

b = 14.062 cm

Analysis of stresses

y Critical location for development of stresses are as follow:

(a) Interior of slab


(b) Edge of slab  (@ both top and bottom of slab)
(c) Corner of slab 

(i) Load stress

y This stress develops in longitudinal direction of the slab, due to wheel load.
y It can be computed using Westergaard’s theory.
(a) For Interior region
Design of Highway Pavement

0.316P  l 
SLi = 2 4 log 10  b  + 1.069
h    
(b) For edge region

0.572P  l 
SLe = 2 4 log 10  b  + 0.359
h    

239.
 (c) At corner region

3P   a 2 
0.6 

SLc = 2 1 −   
h   l  
 

P = wheel load (kg)

h = thickness of slab (cm)

l = radius of relative stiffness (cm)

b = radius of equivalent resisting section (cm)

y Nature of these stresses are as follows:

(a) At interior/edge region

Compression at top
P

Tension at bottom
Figure 5.14

(b) At corner region

Tension at top
Design of Highway Pavement

Compression at bottom
Figure 5.15

240.
 Gray Matter Alert!!!

Position of crack due to corner loading is given by x = 2.58 al .

L Plan

h x-x

Temperature stresses
y These are developed in cement concrete pavement due to variation in the
slab temperature and resistance against deformation by the weight of slab
and friction between slab and ground surface.
y These stresses are caused by
(a) Daily variation of temperature resulting in temperature gradient across
the thickness of slab.
(b) Seasonal variation resulting in overall change in slab temperature.
y These stresses are of two types

1. Warping stress
y Daily variation of temperature leads to warping of slab due to temperature
gradient across the thickness of the slab.
y Daytime (T1 > T2)

T1
e
s iv St
Design of Highway Pavement

e s res
pr s
m
Co
T2 St
ile res
ens s
T
W

Figure 5.16

241.
 y During day time temperature of slab/pavement is more at the top in
comparison to temperature at bottom.
y Due to this slab tries to expand at top but weight of slab tries to resist it
hence leads to development of compressive stress at top.
y Since temperature at bottom of slab is less it tires to contract, but weight
of slab resist this contraction, leading to development of tensile stress at
bottom.
y Night time (T1 < T2)

Te s
ns res
ile St
T1
W1 W2

T2
Compressive stress
Figure 5.17

y During night time temperature at top is less than bottom hence slab tries
to contract at top and expand at the bottom, which is resisted by weights
of slab, that result in development of tensile stress at top and compressive
stress at bottom of slab.

Gray Matter Alert!!!

y If the slab is assumed to be “weight less” then there is no warping

stress as there is no resistance to deformation due to temperature
variation.
y These stresses are critical at the centre of slab.
Design of Highway Pavement

The magnitude of these stresses are as follows:

(a) At interior

Ea t  (Cx + µCy ) 
Stwi =  2 
2  1−µ 

242.
(b) At edge
 C x Ea t 
 2 
Stwe = max  
 C y Ea t 
 2 
(c) At corner

Ea t a
Stwc =
3(1 − µ) l
E = modulus of elasticity of concrete
a = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete.
t = temperature difference between top and bottom of concrete slab.
m = poisson’s ratio of concrete (0.15)
l = radius of relative stiffness (cm)
a = radius of area of contact (cm)
L Ly
Cx, Cy are the factor/coefficient that depends upon x , respectively
l l
and is found graphically
Lx = spacing between transverse joint of slab
Ly = spacing between longitudinal joint of slab

SLAB Ly

Lx

Design of Highway Pavement

Cx Cy

Lx Ly
l l
Figure 5.18

243.
 2. Frictional stress
Winters
B

T h

L L
2 2
(Stc max)

Figure 5.19

y These stresses are developed due to seasonal variation of temperature

and in this case there is no temperature variation (gradient) across the
thickness.
y During winters, slab tries to contract due to temperature fall, and the
internal movement of the slab is resisted by friction, which leads to the
development of tensile stresses in it.
(Bh)St = F = mN = mW
f

St .Bh = mgBhx
f

g - Specific weight of concrete pavement

m - Friction coefficient

NOTE:
(i) Stf ∝ x

Hence at x = 0, Stf = 0

⇒ frictional stress at corner is zero

L µgL
at x = , Stf =
Design of Highway Pavement

2 2
⇒ frictional stress is maximum at centre.
(ii) As slab is trying to contract or expand from both sides only half of
slab is considered for analysis.
(iii) In summers due to rise in temperature, slab tries to expand which is
resisted by friction between slab and ground surface, that leads to
the development of compressive stress in slab.

244.
(iv) Generally frictional stresses are assumed to be constant along the
length, but in actual it varies linearly.

Critical combination of stresses

(a) Out of various wheel stress
(i) Corner stress are maximum, due to discontinuity in both direction.
(ii) Interior stress is minimum.
(iii) Edge stress is in intermediate range.
(b) In combination of wheel load and temperature stress, edge region is
most critical hence designing is done using edge region stress, however
checking is done for corner stresses.

Region Location Load Warping Stress Friction Stress Worst combination

strees of stresses
Day Night Summer Winter
At bottom during
Top C C T C T day time in winters
Interior
Bottom T T C C T Si = SL + Stw + Stf

At bottom during
Top C C T C T day time in winters
Edge
Bottom T T C C T Se = SL + Stw + Stf

At top during
Top T C T C=0 T=0
night time
Corner
Bottom C T C C=0 T=0 Sc = SL + Stw

Figure 5.20

Example 5.9: RCC pavement slab of thickness 20 cm is constructed over

a granular sub-base having modulus of subgrade reaction 15 kg/cm3. The
maximum temperature difference between the top and bottom of slab
Design of Highway Pavement

during summer day and night is 18°C. The spacing between the transverse
contraction joint is 4.5 m and between longitudinal joints is 3.5 m. The
design wheel load is 5100 kg. Radius of contact area is 15 cm, E for CC is
3 × 105 kg/cm2, m = 0.15, a for CC = 10 × 10–6/°C and frictional coefficient
is 1.5. Use Westergaard’s stress equation for wheel stresses and find the
worst combination of stress at interior, edge and corner of slab. The chart
for warping stress calculation is given below

245.
 Lx Ly
or 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
l l

Cx and Cy 0.05 0.5 0.89 1.05 1.06 1.02 1.01

Solution:
(a) Wheel load stress
0.316P  l 
SL =  4log 10   + 1.069 
h2  b 
1 1
 Eh3 4  3 × 105 × 203  4
l =  2  =  2 
 12K(1 − µ )   12 × 15(1 − 0.15 ) 

l = 60.77 cm

a 15
= = 0.75 < 1.724
h 20

b = 1.6a2 + h2 − 0.675h

= 1.6 × 152 + 202 − 0.675 × 20

b = 14.06 cm

0.316 × 5100   60.77  

SLi = 2 4log 10   + 1.069
20   14.06  

SLi = 14.55 kg/cm2

0.572P  l 
Design of Highway Pavement

SLe = 2 4 log 10  b  + 0.359

h    

SLe = 21.15 kg/cm2

3P   a 2 
0.6 

SLc = 2 1 −    = 17.9 kg/cm2

h   l  
 

246.
(b) Warping stress

Eat  Cx + µC y 
Stwi =  
2  1 − µ2 

Lx 450 Ly 350
= = 7.4, = = 5.76
l 60.77 l 60.77

(c) By interpolation
Cx = 1.002, Cy = 0.843
3 × 105 × 10 × 10−6 × 18  1.002 + 0.15 × 0.843 
Stwi =  
2  1 − 0.152 

Stwi = 31.17 kg/cm2

CxE a t 1.002 × 3 × 105 × 10 × 10−6 × 18

Stwe = = = 27 kg/cm2
2 2
Ea t a
Stwc = = 10.52 kg/cm2
3(1 − µ) l

(d) Frictional stresses

1 1
Stfi/e = fgL = × 1.5 × 2400 × 4.5 × 10−4 = 0.81 kg/cm2
2 2

Si = 14.55 + 31.17 + 0.81 = 46.5 kg/cm2

Sc = 21.15 + 27 + 0.81 = 48.96 kg/cm2
Se = 17.9 + 10.52 = 28.43 kg/cm2

Previous Year’s Questions

Question : In the context of the IRC 58-2011 guidelines for rigid pavement
design, consider the following pair of statements.
I: Radius of relative stiffness is directly related to modulus of elasticity
of concrete and inversely related to Poisson’s ratio
Design of Highway Pavement

II: Radius of relative stiffness is directly related to thickness of slab

and modulus of subgrade reaction.
Which one of the following combinations is correct?
(a) I: True; II: True (b) I: False; II: False
(c) I: True; II: False (d) I: False; II: True
Answer: (b) [GATE 2016, SET-II]

247.
 Design of Joints

Joints

Transverse Longitudinal
joints joints

Expansion Contraction
Joints Joints
Tie bars Longitudinal Joint

Dowel
bars B

Expansion Joint Contraction Joint Expansion Joint

Figure 5.21

(i) Expansion Joints

y The purpose of this joint is to allow expansion of pavement due to rise in
temperature with respect to construction temperature.
y To design these joints we find out the joint spacing for a given joint thickness
of 2.5 cm maximum, as specified by IRC.

NOTE: As per IRC thickness/width (d) >| 2.5 cm

Design of Highway Pavement

Spacing (L) >| 140 m

y At the expansion joint dowel bars are provided which develops bending,
bearing and shearing stresses and helps in load transfer.
y The fillers provided at the expansion joint are assumed to be compressed
by 50% of its thickness during expansion, hence the gap of joint should be
twice the expansion in concrete.

248.
 δ L δ

h
δ/2 δ/2

δ/4 δ/4 δ/4 δ/4

Figure 5.22

δ δ δ
Allowable expansion = + =
4 4 2
δ
= L a∆T
2
∆T = maximum rise in temperature w.r.t construction temperature.
∆T = Tmax – Tconstruction

δ
L=
2a∆T

Design of Highway Pavement

Figure 5.23

y Dowel bars are provided to serve the following:

(i) To transfer the load from one slab to another
(ii) To avoid differential settlement

249.
 y As per IRC
(i) f = 25 mm
(ii) Length = 50 cm @ {20 cm is bounded and 30 cm is unbounded}
(iii) These are positioned at centre of slab (across thickness)
(iv) c/c spacing @ 300 mm or less

(ii) Contraction Joints

y It is provided to control the cracking of slab due to shrinkage and moisture
variation.
y To regulate the crack i.e. to ensure that crack form at pre-determined
location, slabs is weakened at certain intervals.
y These locations are contraction joints/pre-defined crack lines.

Sealer

Crack

Contraction Joints

Figure 5.24

y Contraction joint can be provided with or without dowel bars.

Case 1: Without Dowel bars

Design of Highway Pavement

Stf (Bh) = F = fN

L
Stf Bh = fW = fg × B·h
2

2Stf
L=
gf

250.
 B
L/2

f
f
Stf h
f
Figure 5.25

Case 2: With Dowel Bars

sst Ast = F = fN = fW

L
sst Ast = fg Bh
2

2sst Ast
L=
fgBh

B
L/2

Design of Highway Pavement

f
f
h
s st
f
Figure 5.26

251.
 NOTE: In this case as per IRC spacing of contraction joint L >| 4.5 m
Longitudinal Joints
y They are provided along length of pavement.
y It reduces the working stresses.
y The normal width of slab is generally 3.5-3.75 m. If width of slab becomes
more, two slabs are provided along with longitudinal joints.
y Tie bars are provided at longitudinal joints.
y These bars are not designed as load transfer device but to ensure that the
slab remain firmly together.
y These are bounded with concrete and we mostly use deformed bar for this
case.
As per IRC
f >| 20 mm
Spacing C/C >| 75 cm

1m

B
Ld

L
Figure 5.27

sstAst = F = fN = fW = fg · 1 × Bh
Area of steel required for 1 m slab length

fgBh
Ast =
sst
Design of Highway Pavement

Let diameter of tie bar be f

pf2
Area of one tie bar =
4
Ast A
Number of tie bars in 1 m slab length = = st2
Area pf
4

252.
 1 × 103
Spacing between tie bars =
n
 fsst 
Length of tie bar in slab = 2Ld = 2  
 4tbd 
fsst
LT =
2tbd

NOTE:

Figure 5.28

sst Ast = tbd pfLd

pf2
sst = tbd pfLd
4
fsst
Ld =
4tbd

NOTE:
Tie bars differ from dowel bars in following aspects.

Dowel Bars Tie Bars

1. Placed across transverse joint 1. Placed across longitudinal joint

at the mid depth of the slab. at the mid depth of the slab.

2. They transfer load from slab 2. They prevent lanes from

to another without preventing the separation and differential
Design of Highway Pavement

joint from opening. deflection.

3. Commonly made of round, 3. Made of deformed epoxy

smooth, epoxy coated steel bars. coated steel.

4. These bars reduces joint 4. These bars reduces transverse

faulting and cover cracking. cracking.

253.
 Example 5.10: Calculate the spacing between contraction joints by using
following data.
Width of slab = 4.52 m
Thickness of slab = 25 cm
Coefficient of friction = 1.5
Allowable stress in steel = 1400 kg/cm2
Diameter of bar = 12 mm
Spacing between the bar = 300 mm

Solution:
L
sst Ast = F = fN = fW = fg Bh
2

(1.2) 2 4.52 × 103

2 × 1400 × p ×
2sst Ast 4 300
L= =
fgBh 1.5 × 2400 × 10−6 × 4.52 × 102 × 25

L = 1172.86 cm or 11.72 m

Example 5.11: Width of expansion joint is 2 cm and temperature at the time

of construction of slab is 20°C. What is the spacing between expansion
joint for a maximum temperature of 45°C [a = 12 × 10–6/°C]
(a) 42.8 m (b) 33.3 m
(c) 28.5 m (d) 37.9 m

Solution:
DT = 45° – 20° = 25°C
δ
= L∝DT
2

δ 2
L = =
2a∆T 2 × 12 × 10−6 × 25

L = 3333 cm
L = 33.3 m
So, the correct option is (b)
Design of Highway Pavement

Example 5.12: Cement concrete pavement has a thickness of 24 cm and

has two lane of width 7.2 m with a longitudinal joint in between. Design the
dimension and spacing of the bars by using following data.
Allowable tensile stress in steel = 1400 kg/cm2
Unit weight of concrete = 2400 kg/m3
f = 1.5, bond stress between steel bar and concrete = 24.6 kg/cm2

254.
 Solution: For 1 m length of slab.
sst Ast = f · g · 1 · B · h
7.2
1.5 × 2400 × 1 × × 24 × 10−2
f · g · 1 ·B · h 2
Ast = =
sst 1400 × 104

Ast = 0.00022217 m2= 222.17 mm2

p(102 )
Assume f = 10 mm, Ast1 = = 78.5mm2
4
Ast 222.17
Number of bars (N) = = =3
Area 78.5

1000
Spacing between bars = = 333.33 mm = 30 cm >| 75 cm
3

2fsSt
Length of tie bar (LT) = 2Ld =
4sbd

10 × 1400 × 10−1
LT = = 28.45 cm
2 × 24.6
5.7 HIGHWAY DEFECTS AND MAINTENANCE
y By early detection and repair of defects at initial stage the rapid deterioration
of pavement can be prevented.
y For this survey, inspection and evaluations should be carried out periodically.

Maintenance of highway is classified as:

(a) Routine Maintenance: Filling up the potholes, patch repairs, repair of
shoulder, cross slope, repair of cracks etc.
(b) Periodic Maintenance: Renewal of wearing course etc.
(c) Special Repairs: Overlay, upgrading of pavement etc.

Defects in pavement
Defects in pavement are categorised as follows:
Design of Highway Pavement

(a) Surface Defects

They are associated with the surface layers and is due to excessive or
deficiency of bitumen in the layers.

(i) Fatty surface

 It results when bituminous binder moves upward on the surface
and get collected as a film on the surface.

255.
  The binder collected becomes soft in hot weather and may be picked
up and spread by the traffic.
 In cold and wet weather, the surface is likely to become slippery and
thus resulting in accidents.
 It occurs due to:
1. Excessive binder in pre mix
2. Loss of cover aggregate in surface dressing.
3. Non uniform spreading of cover aggregate.
 In order to treat it, a liquid seal coating may be applied over it.

(ii) Smooth surface

 A smooth surface, has a very low skid resistance and becomes very
slippery when wet.
 It occurs due to polishing of aggregate under traffic and due to
excessive binder used in mix.
 It is treated by resurfacing with a surface dressing course or a premix
carpet.

(iii) Streaking
 It is characterised by the appearance of alternate lean and heavy
lines of bitumen either in longitudinal or in transverse direction.
 It is formed due to mechanical faults or improper application of
bitumen.
 In order to treat it new surface is provided after the removal of
streaked surface.

(iv) Hungry surface

 This defect is characterized by loss of aggregates from surface and
appearance of fine cracks.
 It is caused due to less use of bitumen in the surfacing.
 It can be treated by providing seal coat.

(b) Cracks
y It is the most common defect of bituminous surface and must be repaired/
treated as soon as it is observed, as it promotes the penetration of water
Design of Highway Pavement

into the lower layers of pavement.

y These cracks are of following types:

(i) Hair line cracks

 These cracks appears as short and fine cracks at close interval on
the surface.
 These are developed due to:

256.
a. Insufficient bitumen content
b. Excessive filler at the surface
c. Improper compaction

Hair line Crack

(ii) Alligator cracks

 These appear as interconnected cracks forming a series of small
block which resembles the skin of the alligator.
 It is also termed as map cracking or crazing.
 It occurs due to excessive deflection of the surface over the unstable
subgrade.

Design of Highway Pavement

Alligator Crack

257.
 (iii) Longitudinal cracks
 These cracks seem almost straight line, along the road.
 These cracks can be formed either at joint between the pavements
and the shoulder or joint between the two paving lanes.
 Alternate wetting and drying beneath the poorly drained shoulder
surface or due to weak joint between the two lanes causes
longitudinal cracks.

Longitudinal Crack

(iv) Edge cracks

 These cracks are formed parallel to the outer edge of the pavement
usually 0.3-0.5m inside from the edge.
 These are caused by:
a. Lack of lateral support from the shoulder.
b. Settlement of underlying material.
c. Inadequate surface drainage.
d. Frost heave.
Design of Highway Pavement

Edge Crack

258.
(v) Shrinkage cracks
 These cracks appear in transverse direction or as interconnected
cracks forming a series of large blocks.
 Primarily shrinkage of the bituminous layer itself with age caused
the shrinkage cracks.
 Ductility of bituminous binder is reduced with age and bitumen
become brittle.

Shrinkage Crack

(vi) Reflection cracks

 Wherever joints and cracks are present in the pavement underneath,
reflections cracks appear on bituminous surface.
 Reflection cracks can be formed in transverse or diagonal, and
longitudinal patterns.
 Joints and cracks in the pavement layer underneath causes the
reflections cracks.

Design of Highway Pavement

Reflection Crack

259.
 Gray Matter Alert!!!

For all the cracks if pavement remains structurally sound, then the
cracks should be filled with bituminous binder having a low viscosity.

(c) Deformation
y If there is any change in shape of pavement from its original shape, it is
termed as deformation.

(i) Slippage
 It is the relative movement between the surface layer and the layer
beneath it.
 It is characterized by the accumulation of bitumen binder and
formation of cracks at a particular point in direction of thrust of
wheels.
 Mainly the unusual thrust of wheels in particular direction or lack of
bond between the surface and lower course causes the slippage in
bitumen surface.
 Its rectification consists of removing the surface layer around the
affected area up to the point where good bond between surface
and underneath layer exist and patching of area with premix can be
done.
Design of Highway Pavement

Slippage Crack

260.
(ii) Rutting
 It is a longitudinal depression or groove due to wheel of heavy
vehicles.
 The width of ruts is generally equal to the width wheel path.
 Rutting is caused due to the heavy channelised traffic and inadequate
compaction of the mix at the surface.
 It can be rectified by filling with premix material and compacting at
desired levels.

Rutting

Previous Year’s Questions

Design of Highway Pavement

Question: Structural failures considered in the mechanistic method of

bituminous pavement design are:
(a) Fatigue and Rutting (b) Fatigue and Shear
(c) Rutting and Shear (d) Shear and Slippage
Answer: (a) [GATE 2019, SET-II]

261.
 (iii) Corrugation
 It is the formation of fairly regular undulations across the bituminous
surface.
 These are formed due to:
a. Lack of stability in mix.
b. Oscillation set up by the vehicle.
c. Faulty laying of surface.
 It is rectified by removing the top surface and by providing new
premix.

(iv) Shoving
 It is a form of plastic movement within the layers resulting in
localised bulging of the pavement.
 It occurs due to:
a. Lack of stability in mix.
b. Lack of bond between bituminous surface and underlying layer.
c. Heavy traffic movement.
 To rectify this defect material is removed from affected area and
stable premix patching is done.

(v) Shallow depression

 These are localised low areas of limited size below the desired
profile in which water is normally collected.
 Due to a pocket of inadequately compacted subgrade, lower
pavement layers get settled and shallow depressions appear on
bitumen surface.
 Shallow depressions are removed by filling with premix Material.

(vi) Settlement and Upheaval

 It is characterized by large deformation of the pavement.
 Inadequately compaction of fill or inadequate pavement thickness
causes settlement and upheaves in bitumen surface.
Design of Highway Pavement

 It is necessary to excavate the defective fill and re do the embankment

if settlement and upheaval indicated the weak soil fill or else premix
is done.

(d) Disintegration
If some defects are not rectified immediately it leads to disintegration
(breaking) of the pavement.

262.
(i) Stripping
 In the presence of moisture bitumen adhering to the surface of
aggregate gets separated, and this defect is called stripping.
 Stripping is caused due to
a. Use of hydrophilic aggregate.
b. Inadequate mix Design.
c. Improper use of bitumen grade.
d. Ageing of bitumen.
 Stripping is treated by surface dressing.

Stripping

(ii) Loss of aggregate

 It occurs in surfaces which have been provided with surface dressing.
 The surface presents a round appearance in this case due to loss
of aggregate.
 It occurs due to:
a. Ageing of the binder.
b. Loss of affinity of binder with the aggregate.
 It can be rectified by applying seal coat.
Design of Highway Pavement

(iii) Ravelling
 It is characterized by progressive disintegration of the surface due
to failure of binder to hold the material together.
 It is due to:
a. Inadequate compaction.
b. Wet weather during construction.

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 c. Overheating of mix.
 It is corrected by relaying the pavement.

Ravelling

(iv) Potholes
 These are bowl shaped holes of varying sizes in surface layer or
extending up to the base course.
 It is caused due to penetration of water into the pavement through
the surface course.
 It may be caused due to lack of bond between bituminous surface
and the underlying aggregate or due to insufficient bitumen.
 It is rectified by filling the pot holes with premix or by penetration
patching.
Design of Highway Pavement

Potholes

264.
 (v) Edge breaking (Frayed edges)
 It is common defect in bituminous surface roads in which edge is
broken in irregular way and if not rectified in time, the surface may
peel off in large chunks at the edges.
 It is caused due to:
a. Infiltration of water weakens the base material.
b. Worn out shoulder having improper side support.
 The entire affected area is removed and relaying of the surface
course is done.

5.8 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

The load pavement consists of following layers.

Wearing Surface

Base Course
Order of Order of
construction Sub-Base Course construction

Soil Subgrade
Figure 5.29

(i) Construction of soil subgrade

y Materials used for construction of soil subgrade includes moorum or gravel
or mixture of these materials which are free from organic matter.
y Materials used in this case must have.
 Liquid limit (wL) < 50%.
 Plasticity index (IP) < 25%.

y These materials must be non-expansive i.e., black cotton soil is to be

Design of Highway Pavement

avoided.
y Construction operation includes:
(a) Spreading of soil
(b) Addition of water up to required proportion
(c) Compaction by PTR.(Pneumatic Tyre Roller)
(d) Process is repeated until desired range of compaction is achieved

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 Gray Matter Alert!!!

As per IRC the specified compaction required for highway subgrade is

97% in terms of maximum dry density.

(ii) Construction of sub-base

 Material used for construction of sub base includes crushed stones/
gravel/coarse sand, moorum which is collectively termed as granular
sub base (GSB).
 Sub base must have:

a. Liquid limit (wl) <25%

b. Plasticity index (Ip) <5%
c. CBR value > 30%
 This layer also acts as drainage layer.
 Here construction operation includes:

a. Spreading of GSB(Granular Sub-Base)

b. Compaction by vibrating roller
c. Process is repeated up to 98% of maximum density

(iii) Construction of base course

 It is constructed using WMM (Wet Mix Macadam) which consists of
a well graded hard crushed aggregates and adequate proportion of
water mixed thoroughly in a mixing plant.
 The prime function of base course is to provide load distribution
and surface drainage.
 Construction operation includes:
Design of Highway Pavement

a. Preparation of WMM
b. Spreading
c. Compaction by vibratory roller

NOTE: Instead of using WMM, WBM (Water Bound Macadam) can also be
used.

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The basic difference between WMM, WBM are as follows:

WMM WBM

1. Stone aggregate and binding 1. Stone aggregates, screening

materials are premixed in a materials and binder are
batching plant. overlaid one after another.
2. It is prepared by stone,
2. It is prepared by stones,
aggregate and binding
aggregates and binder.
materials.
3. Stone aggregate are
3. Stone aggregates bigger in size
comparatively smaller in size
(45-90) mm.
(4.75–20) mm.
4. Water is sprinkled on dry
4. In this case water is pre-mixed.
material.

(iv) Construction of bituminous/surface course

(a) Prime coat
 In this case application of low viscous liquid over an existing porous
pavement surface WBM base course is done.
 The main objective of priming is to fill capillary voids and to bind the
loose material with each other.
 Generally tar, low viscous bitumen of cutback are used in this case.
 Primed surface is allowed to cure for at least 24 hours during which
no traffic is allowed.

(b) Tack Coat

 It is the application of bituminous Material over an existing pavement
surface which is relatively impervious like an existing bituminous
surface.
 It can also be applied to previous surface like WBM which are already
been treated by prime coat.
 Here viscosity is comparatively more than prime coat.
 It provides bonding between two layers.
Design of Highway Pavement

(c) Seal Coat

 It is usually recommended as a top coat over certain bituminous
pavement which are not impervious such as premixed carpet.
 It can also be provided over worn out existing bituminous pavement.
 It’s main function is to drain out water and to provide smooth
surface.

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 (d) Surface dressing
 It is provided over an existing pavement to serve as wearing course.
 The single coat surface dressing consists of single application
of bituminous binder or it may be followed by spreading of
aggregates.
 It’s main function are:
(i) To serve as a wearing coat.
(ii) To drain of the water from the surface.
(iii) To provide mud free/dust free pavement surface.

NOTE:
Penetration Macadam
y It is used as base to binder course.
y The course aggregate are first spread and compacted well in dry state and
then hot bituminous binder is sprayed over it.
y The bitumen penetrates into voids from the surface of compacted aggregate
and fill up a part of void and bind the aggregates.

Premix Method
y In this method the aggregates and bituminous binders are mixed thoroughly
before spreading and compacting.
y Depending upon gradation of aggregates premixed construction is of
following types:
a. Bituminous Macadam
b. Bituminous premix carpet
c. Bituminous concrete
d. Sheet asphalt
e. Mastic asphalt

Pre-Mix Carpet
In this methods of construction, preparation is done by bituminous pre-mix
and coating aggregates with binder in special mixers/plants before spreading
on the road surface. In pre-mixing process aggregates of specified size are
mixed with hot bitumen.
Design of Highway Pavement

y Following steps are involved in pre-mix carpet:

(a) Heating of aggregate and bitumen
(b) Mixing of aggregates and bitumen
(c) Spreading of hot-mix as a layer
(d) Compacting the layer
(e) Application of liquid seal coat or pre-mix seal coat.

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 Bituminous Macadam
Bitumen macadam mix can be open graded or dense graded. An open-
graded type construction is used for base-courses whereas dense graded
is used in binder course.

y Construction operations involved are:

(a) Heating of aggregates and bitumen
(b) Mixing of the two
(c) Laying of hot mix
(d) Compacting the layer

Sand Bitumen Mix and Sheet Asphalt

Sand bitumen base courses are used in desert areas, where no other
construction material except sand is available economically. Mix design is
based on stability requirements using Hubbard test. Type of bitumen used
depends upon type of sand available and atmospheric conditions.
y Sand bitumen construction consists of following steps:
(a) Preparation of road surface
(b) Heating of sand and bitumen
(c) Mixing and laying of hot mix
(d) Compacting the layer and finishing

Bituminous Concrete (Asphalt Concrete)

This concrete consists of a hot mix of crushed aggregates, stone dust, filler
and bitumen and laid and compacted immediately after mixing. The, filler
material used is material whole of which passing 600 micron sieve, at least
90% passing 150 micron sieve and not less than 70% passing 75 micron
sieve. Lime-stone dust, cement, hydrated lime, stone dust, fly-ash etc. can
be used as filler material.
Bituminous concrete is suitable for heavy traffic roads.
y The construction involves following steps:
(a) Preparation of the existing base course layer
(b) Heating of aggregate and bitumen
(c) Mixing hot
Design of Highway Pavement

(d) Spreading the hot-mix as a layer

(e) Compacting the layer and finishing

Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete

This bituminous concrete consists of construction of one course with a hot
mix of crushed aggregates, stone dust/natural sand, and filler, premixed,
with bitumen, laid and compacted, immediately after mixing.

269.
 It uses less fine aggregates as compared to dense bituminous concrete and
thus have more voids. It is coarse graded type construction, good for heavy
traffic roads in low rainfall areas.

y Following steps are involved in its construction:

(a) Heating of aggregates and bitumen
(b) Mixing the aggregates and bitumen
(c) Spreading the hot mix as a layer
(d) Compacting the layer

Mastic Asphalt
Mastic asphalt is a mixture of bitumen, fine aggregates and filler in material,
in suitable proportions to give a void less, coherent, impermeable mass,
solid or semi-solid under normal temperature conditions.
The bitumen mastic can absorb shock, deflection, it is void less, possess
the quality of self-healing of cracks and prevents layer to withstand heavy
traffic. It is therefore used as a surfacing material specially for bridge decks,
bus stops, roundabout, etc.

y Following steps are involved in bituminous mastic construction:

(a) Heating of aggregates and bitumen
(b) Mixing and cooling of ingredients for 2 to 3 hours
(c) Spreading the mastic as a layer

Keywords

Š Functions of Pavement Components

Š Design Concept of Pavement
Š Traffic Load Consideration in Design
Š Design of Pavement Thickness
Š Design of Rigid Pavements
Š Highway Defects and Maintenance
Pavement Construction
Design of Highway Pavement

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