Unit 2: Pathogens and diseases

Pathogens:
 Are microorganisms that has potential to cause infectious diseases to their
hosts.
Examples of pathogen:
 Viruses
 Bacteria
 Protozoa
 Helminthic
 Fungi
Lifecycle of pathogen
 The mode of pathogens transmission is either direct or indirect mean.
 They pathogens enter into the body of the host and find their ways of
overcoming the immune resistance from the host in order to survive.
 The war between immune system and the pathogen causes symptoms like
headaches, fatigue, nausea, diarrhea and lack of appetite
 The pathogens multiple within the host and finally exit to infect another
host in order for them to continue existing.
Types of pathogens:
 Obligate pathogens
 Opportunistic pathogens
 Accidental pathogens
Obligate pathogens:
 Are pathogens that cannot complete their lifecycle outside the host
Opportunistic pathogens:
 Are pathogens that exist within a host but only produces disease when the
host’s immune system is compromised.

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Accidental pathogens:
 Are pathogens that can only cause disease in a specific host but find their
way into other hosts and cause disease
Modes of pathogen transmission
 Through physical contact
 This can be spread through sharing of clothes with infected person and also
through sexual intercourse.
 This can cause skin disease and sexual transmitted diseases
 Through food or water.
 Contaminated food and water causes diseases like cholera, amoebic
dysentery, typhoid and bilharzia. Such diseases are called water-borne
diseases.
 Through the air
 Pathogens are spread through liquid droplets released when infected
person cough or sneezes.
 This mode of transmission causes diseases such as common flu,
pneumonia, diphtheria, tuberculosis and whooping cough. These diseases
are called airborne diseases
 Vector transmission:
 Pathogens can be transmitted either by mechanical vector or biological
vector.
 Mechanical transmission is facilitated by a mechanical vectors such as fly
that carries a pathogen from one host to another without being infected.
 Biological transmission occurs when the pathogen reproduces within a
biological vector that transmits the pathogen from one host to another.
 Most of arthropods vectors transmit the pathogens by biting the host,
creating a wound that serves as a portal of entry.
NB:
The ratio of human cells to microorganisms living in them is 1:1

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Viruses:
 Are infectious obligate intracellular parasites that comprise of genetic
material surrounded by a coat and an envelope derived from a host cell.
 Viruses are found everywhere in the air, water and in all living organisms.
Viral infection.
 Is a proliferation of a harmful virus inside the body.
 Viruses cannot reproduce without the assistance of a host
General Lifecycle of viruses.

Viral entry:
 Is a process during which viruses gain access to viral replication sites within
uninfected.
Viral replication:
 Is the process by which virus makes copies of itself.
Steps of gene expression
 Early gene expression
 Viral DNA replication
 Late gene expression

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Viral shedding.
 Is the process by which virus progeny are released to find new host.
Viral latency:
 Is the hiding of viruses within a cell to evade the host cell immune system
or because virus is not interesting to replicate again.
Latent period:
 Is a period between infection of a cell and the appearance of new infectious
virus.
Viral transmission
 Is the process by which viruses spread between the hosts.
Ways of viral transmission:
 Through touch
 Through saliva
 Through sexual contact
 Through sharing contaminated needles
 Through contaminated food and water
 Through air
 Through vectors such as ticks and mosquitoes.
Viral infections includes:
 Common cold
 Polio
 HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus (Virus)
 Is a virus that affects certain types of T cells of the immune system.
 The progression of the infection decreases the body’s ability to fight
disease and infection which cause Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)

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 Structure of Virus.

HIV is transmitted through:

 Contacting in with blood or fluid of infected person
 Breast feeding from infected mother
 Sharing sharp objects with infected person
 Through sexual intercourse
NB/
There is no cure for viral diseases but they can be prevented through vaccination.

Lifecycle of Virus.

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 Beneficial importance of viruses
 They are used in biomedical research by scientists
 Some viruses protect the host against other infections
 They participate in the process of evolution by transferring genes among
different species.

HIV prevalence graph

Vibrio-cholerae:
 Vibro cholera causes cholera which is a serious disease.
 It usually occurs as an epidermic in areas where there a poor sanitation and
overcrowding place or poor sewage treatment.
 The bacteria can live in contaminated food or water contaminated with
human faecal for a long time until they find a suitable host. So a houseflies
can also act as a vector when it feeds on human faecal material and
encounters food.
 Cholera is a waterborne or foodborne disease

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Lifecycle of vibrio cholerae:

 The vibrio cholerae occurs naturally in aquatic sources such as wetlands,

estuaries and stagnant water which often associated with algae bloom.
 The organic pollutants such as human and animal waste can provide the
nutrients to trigger epidermic of the bacteria.
 It risk is increase by disruption of water, sanitation systems and the
displacement of population to overcrowded camps.
 It passes into human digestive system through drinking contaminated
water or food
 It exit the body through faeces.
 Faeces can be contagious for up to 14 days
Infection
 The incubation period of vibrio cholerae is 2 hours to 5 days.
 About 75 percent of infected people do not develop symptoms and 20
percent show symptoms of cute watery, diarrhea and dehydration.
 It can kill within hours if untreated.
 It can be treated successfully with dehydration salts and intravenous fluids.
NB/
Up to 5 million cholera cases annually worldwide, 100,000-120,000 die per year

Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Mycobacterium bovis

 This bacteria causes tuberculosis which kill about 2 million people a year
mostly in sub-Sahara Africa.
 Tuberculosis can affect almost all body tissues or organs especially lungs
have highest risk of infection.
Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis:
 Through inhalation (Droplet infection).

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Risk factors of tuberculosis
 HIV infection
 Diabetes
 Generic factors
 Immunosuppression
 Tobacco smoke
 Alcohol consumption
 Indoor air pollution

Diphtheria:
 Is a serious bacterial disease caused by corynebacterium diphtheria
through drop infect.
Signs and symptoms:
 Slight fever
 Sore throat
 Severe damage of the nerve cells
 Severe damage of the heart and adrenal gland.
Treatment and control
 Immunization with toxoids.
Botulism
 Is a rare and potentially fatal illness caused by clostridium botulinum
through contaminated food.
Signs and symptoms
 Constipation
 Vomiting
 Intense thirstiness
 Paralysis of muscles
Treatment and control
 Administration of antitoxins.

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Bacterial dysentery
 Is the disease caused by shigella dysenteriae through contaminated food.
Signs and symptoms
 Severe diarrhea with mucus and blood
 Abdominal pain
 Nausea
 Vomiting
Treatment and control
 Use of antibiotic
Tetanus
 Is an acute infection caused by clostridium tetani through wound infection.
Signs and symptoms.
 Muscular spasms in the mouth, neck and spread throughout the body
 Swallowing difficulty
 Excessive sweating
 Uncontrolled urination and defecation
 Convulsion
 Death
Treatment and control
 Immunization with toxoids.
Typhus
 Is a cute disease caused by rickettsia through vectors such as rat flea or
louse.
Signs and symptoms:
 Rashes on the forelimbs
 Headache
 Back pain

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  Pain on the limbs
 Delirium
 Coma
Treatment and control
 Use of antibiotics
Gonorrhea
 Is a sexually transmitted infection caused by Neisseria gonorrhea through
sexual contact.
Signs and symptoms.
 Burning feeling when passing urine in both male and female
 Yellow vaginal discharge from female.
 Pelvic or abdominal pain
 Vaginal bleeding between periods.
 Pain or swelling in one testicle
 Pus like discharge from the tip of the penis
Treatment and control.
 Use of antibiotics
 Use a condom during sex
 Limit the number of your sex partners
 Don’t have sex with infected person
Syphilis
 Is a sexually transmitted infection caused by Treponema palladium through
sexual contact.
Signs and symptoms
 Painless sore on the penial glans
 Painless sore on nipple or vaginal
 Fever
 Skin rashes

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Treatment and control
 Use of antibiotics
 Use condom.
 Abstain from sex
 Reduce the number of sex partner
Protozoa
 Is parasite that cause serious diseases such as Trichomoniasis, amoebic
dysentery, malaria and sleeping sick
Plasmodium ssp.
There are various species of plasmodium such as.
 Plasmodium vivax
 Plasmodium falciparum
 Plasmodium malariae
 Plasmodium ovale
Plasmodium
 Is protozoa which causes malaria disease as one of the killer disease in
Africa
Mode of malaria transmission
 Malaria is caused by female anopheles mosquito infected with
plasmodium parasite as it suck blood from an infected person.
 The plasmodium parasite reproduce asexually by binary fission in the
mosquito’s wall.
 The parasite’s offspring migrate to the salivary glands of the mosquito
where they are injected into the human’s circulatory system as female
anopheles mosquito feeds.
 The off springs migrate to the liver where they reproduce asexually.
 The liver cells rupture releasing the parasites into the bloodstream
where they attack the red blood cells or brain.
 This cause cerebral malaria or mental disorder in the brain
Signs and symptoms:

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  Fever
 Shivering
 Headache
 Nausea and vomiting
 Diarrhea
 Muscle and joint pain
 General feeling of discomfort.
Sleeping sickness or trypanosomiasis
 Is an infectious disease that spread from the bites of infected tsetse flies.
 It is caused by Trypanosoma gambiensis and trypanosoma rhodesiense
Life cycle of trypanosoma gambiensis or Trypanosoma rhodesiense.
 When sucking blood from an infected individual, the tsetse flies get
infected.
 The parasites multiply rapidly in the tsetse’ stomach and then migrate to
the salivary glands where they are injected into suitable hosts as they suck
blood.
 Further multiplication occur at the site of the infection. They later invade
the bloodstream where they destroy heart muscles and valves, the blood
clotting mechanism and brain cells.
Pathogenic worms.
 Are endoparasitic worm in human which include blood fluke and bilharzia
worm.
Lifecycle of blood flukes.
 The female lays eggs which have a sharp pointed part which penetrates the
blood vessels into the bladder or intestine.
 The eggs are released through urine and faeces.
 When eggs are released into water, they hatch into miracidium larvae
which penetrate into the tissue of a snail, the immediate host and develop
into sporocysts.
 The sporocycts then develop cercariae which are released into water and
infect a person through by penetrating through the skin.

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  They enter the circulatory system which takes them to the liver, heart,
lungs and finally into the veins, draining into the intestines and the bladder
where they develop into adult flukes,
Tests used to identify Gram Negative bacteria
 Motility Agar
 MacCoonkey Agar
 Simmon’s Citrate Agar
 Urease test
 Sulphur Indole Motility Media (SIm)
 Oxidase test
 Sugar broth with Durham tubes
 Methyl red/voges-proskauer (MR/VP)
 Kliger’s iron Agar (KIA)
 Nitrate Broth.
Test for identifying Gram Positive Bacteria.
 Catalase test
 Starch hydrolysis test
 Manitol salt Agar (MSA)
 Blood Agar Plates (BAP)
 Taxos P (Optochin Sensitivty testing)
 Spirit Blue Agar
 Motility Agar
 Coagulate test
 Taxos A (Bacitracin Sensitivity testing)
 CAMP test
 Bile Esculin Agar
 Nitrate Broth
Methods used to prevent infectious (communicable) diseases.
1. Natural barriers such as skin, antibodies and hydrochloric acid.
2. Boling and chlorination of water
3. Observe personal and environmental hygiene
4. Food treatment and preservation by used of refrigeration and freezing.

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 5. Drug therapy such as antibiotics.
6. Immunization which is the introduction of a vaccine into the body of the
organism to increase the ability of the body to against infectious diseases.
7. Eat balance diet
8. Bath in clean water
9. Avoid overcrowding places
10. Cover your mouth with clean handkerchief when coughing.
11. Cover food all the time.
12. Avoiding risking behavior such as taking excessive alcoholic, having
unprotected sex, prostitution and drug abuse.
Methods of food preservation.
 Boiling
 Smoking
 Drying
 Salting
 Canning
 Pickling
 Pasteurization
 Chemical treatment
Non- communicable diseases.
 Diabetes
 Cancer
Diabetes:
Is a chronic disease that occurs either when the pancreas does not produce
enough insulin or when the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces.
Types of diabetes:
1. Diabetes inssipdus
Is a disorder of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland characterized by a
deficiency of antidiuretic hormone.
This can be caused by disease or injury

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Signs and symptoms.
 Excessive production of pale urine
 Dehydration
 Feeling extremely thirsty
 Involuntary urination at sleep
Diuresis:
 Is the excessive production of large volumes of dilute urine.
The urine can be described as being tasteless or insipid.
Regulation of blood sugar level:
 Blood glucose is the important source of energy for cell respiration in the
body.
 The normal blood glucose level required in the body for cell function is 90-
100mg/100ml of the blood.
 The source of glucose in our body is a diet which the end product of
digestion of carbohydrates.
 It is absorbed into the bloodstream from ileum which raises the blood
glucose level.
2. Diabetes mellitus
 Is a condition in which the pancreas fails to produce insulin or produces
inadequate amounts.
 This may be due to hereditary reasons or disease affecting the islets of
Langerhans cells.
 A person with diabetes mellitus has an abnormally high level of glucose in
the blood (hyperglycemia)
 The kidney eliminates some glucose in the urine which is an unusual
condition known as Glycosuria ( Sweet urine)
Symptoms of diabetes mellitus
 Passing urine frequently
 Constantly feeling thirsty
 Dehydration
 Loss of weight

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  Poor resistance to infection.
NB/
A diabetic person is advised to limit carbohydrates intake in the diet. This ensures
that blood sugar level is manageable.
Diabetes mellitus is becoming common today because of poor diets and
alcoholism.
Diabetes mellitus is administered through injection into vein.
Cancer:
 Is a condition characterized by uncontrolled growth of cells in the body.
Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women while prostate cancer is most
in men.
Can cause death if untreated.
Several parts affected by cancer.
 Liver
 Breasts
 Throat
 Colon
 Cervix
 Skin
 Prostate glands
 Blood.
Causes of cancer.
 Mutation
 Diet or physical inactivity/obesity
 Infection by microorganisms such as oncovirus
 Radiation such gamma or x-rays
 Heredity
Mutation
 Is an abnormal activation of the gene processes that controls cell division.
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Types of cancer.
 Benign tumors
 Malignant tumors.
Tumor
 Is a mass of cells that is form in the body when cell divide and growth.
Benign tumors:
 Are cells that grow at a certain part of the body but do not spread or invade
other cells.
 Benign tumors are harmless and they grow on one part of the body only.
Malignant tumors:
 Are abnormal growths whose cells that spread and invade other cells of the
body.
 They attack and destroy healthy body cells. This tumors spread throughout
the body and eventually cause death.
Examples of Malignant tumors:
a. Leukaemia
b. Skin Cancer.
Leukaemia:
 Is a cancer of the blood especially white blood cells.
 It affects the bone marrow and the lymphatic system.
 This cancer is more common in children and some other form of leukeamia
occur in adults.
 In people with Leukaemia, the bone marrow produces abnormal white
blood cells which do not function properly.
Signs and symptoms of Leukaemia
 Fever or chills
 Persistent fatigue, general body weakness
 Frequent or severe infection
 Loss of weight

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  Swollen lymph nodes and enlarged liver or spleen
 Prolonged bleeding even on bruising
 Recurrent nosebleeds
 Tiny red spots on skin
 Excessive sweating especially at night
 Bone pain or tenderness of bones
Skin cancer:
 Is abnormal growth of skin of skin cells.
 It occurs mostly when the skin is exposed to the Sun’s UV rays.
 It occurs commonly in albinos who lack melanin pigment in their skin.
Signs and symptoms of Skin cancer:
 Darkness lesions on palms, soles, fingertips, toes, or on mucous membrane
lining the mouth, nose, vagina or anus
 Skin appear burnt and dark patches on the skin in albinos.
Factors that increases the risk of cancer:
 Smoking cigarettes which contain substance called Tar
 Excessive alcohol consumption
 Over-exposure of radiation such as X-rays
 Some viral infectious Human Papilloma Virus
 Some chemicals such as mercury.
Effects of cancerous cells in the body.
 They form lumps or masses of tissue called Tumors which interfere with the
various systems in the body.
 Some cancers can release chemicals that can alter body function
 They compete with cells for nutrients
 They cause organs to malfunction
 Normal body cells die.

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Ways of preventing and controlling cancer:
a. Living a healthy lifecycle.
 Avoiding smoking to reduce cancers of the lungs, mouth, esophagus and
larynx
 Stay active and maintain a healthy weight
 Eat plenty of plant foods such as fruits and vegetables.
 Get immunized for hepatitis B to limit liver cancer and Human papilloma
virus that leads to cervical cancer
 Work to reduce stress
 Eat diet high in antioxidant such as Vitamin C and Vitamin E
 Limit fat in the diet
 Avoiding drinking alcohol
 Protect yourself from sunlight.
b. Avoid risky behaviours such as.
 Sharing needles with infected person
 Sexually transmitted infection like HIV
c. Cancer screening
 This is the process by which cancer is detected after it has been
formed but before any noticeable symptoms appears.
These includes:
 Physical examination
 Blood or urine tests
 Medical imaging such as X-rays.
d. Palliative care:
Is a specialized medical care for people with serious illness.

The aims of palliative care include:

 To provide relief to the patient from pain, stress and discomfort
brought by illness
 To improve quality of life for the patients.
 To provide support to cancer patient and other patients with
terminal illnesses.

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Terminal illness:
 Is any illness that has reached a stage where it will automatically
cause death.

Signs and symptoms of terminal illness:

 Difficulties in breathing
 Fatigue
 Constipation
 Difficulties in sleeping
 Depression
 Side effects of drugs

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