■ Arrays of point sources

■ Field of two isotropic point sources,

■ Principle of pattern multiplication
■ Linear arrays of ‘n’ isotropic point
sources.
■ Array factor, Grating lobes.
■ Design of
– Broadside
– End fire
– Dolph Chebyshev arrays.
■ Concept of Phase array.

1
 COURSE OUTCOME 3 (CO3):
DESIGN OF VARIOUS BROAD BAND ANTENNAS, ARRAYS AND
ITS RADIATION PATTERNS

Course Level Assessment Questions

• Derive the relation for normalized electrical field in the
case of ‘n’ isotropic array sources En= (AF)n.
• Explain the working of a horn antenna. Write down the expression
for gain, HPBW and BWFN.
• Design an End-fire Array and plot its radiation pattern.
• Design a LPDA with τ = 0.85, σ = 0.03 for the frequency range
15-45 MHz.

2
 ANTENNA ARRAYS
• The radiation pattern of a single element is relatively wide & each
element provides low values of directivity (gain).
• In many applications, it is necessary to design antennas with very
directive characteristics (very high gains) to meet the demands of
long distance communication. This can only be accomplished by
increasing the electrical size of the antenna.
• Higher directivity is the basic requirement in point-to-point
communication, radars and space applications.
• Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often leads to more
directive characteristics.

3
• Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without
increasing the size of the individual elements, is to form an assembly
of radiating elements in an electrical and geometrical configuration.
This new antenna, formed by multi-elements, is referred to as an
array.
• The individual element is generally called element of an antenna
array.
• In most cases, the elements of an array are identical.
• Antenna array can be defined as the system of similar antennas
oriented similarly to get required high directivity in the desired
direction.
• In general, antenna array is the radiating system in which several
antennas are spaced properly so as to get greater field strength at a
far distance from the radiating system by combining radiations at
point from all the antennas in the system.
• In general, the total field produced by the antenna array at a far
distance is the vector sum of the fields produced by the individual
4
• The antenna array is said to be linear if the elements of the antenna
array are equally spaced along a straight line.
• It is said to be uniform linear array if all the elements are fed
with a current of equal magnitude with progressive uniform phase
shift along the line.
• Five controls are used to shape the overall pattern of the antenna:-
1. Geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular,
rectangular, spherical, etc.)
2. Relative displacement between the elements
3. Excitation amplitude of the individual elements
4. Excitation phase of the individual elements
5. Relative pattern of the individual elements
5
Broadside • A typical arrangement of a Broadside
array with radiation pattern is shown
Array in Figure .
• A broadside array consists
number of identical antennas placed
parallel to each other along a straight
line and the direction of maximum
radiation is always perpendicular
to the plane consisting elements.
• This straight line is perpendicular to
the axis of individual antenna. It is
known as axis of antenna array.
• Thus each element is perpendicular
to the axis of antenna array.
6
• All the individual antennas are spaced equally
along the axis of antenna array.
• All the elements are fed with currents with equal
magnitude and same phase.
• As the maximum radiation is directed in broadside
direction i.e. perpendicular to the line of axis of
array, the radiation pattern for the broadside
array is bidirectional.
• Thus broadside array can be defined as the
arrangement of antennas in which maximum
radiation is in the direction perpendicular to
the axis of array and plane containing the
elements of array.

7
End-Fire • The end fire array is very much similar
to the broad side array from the point
Antenna Array of view of arrangement.
• But the main difference is in the
direction of maximum radiation.
• In broadside array, the direction of
the maximum radiation is
perpendicular to the axis of array;
while in the end fire array, the
direction of the maximum
radiation is along the axis of
array.
• Thus in the end fire array number of
identical antennas are spaced equally
along a line. 8
■ All the antennas are fed
individually with currents of equal
magnitudes but their phases vary
progressively along the line to get
entire arrangement unidirectional
finally. i.e. maximum radiation
along the axis of array as shown
in Figure.
■ Thus end fire array can be defined as
an array with direction of
maximum radiation coincides with
the direction of the axis of array
to get unidirectional radiation.

9
Co-linear • As the name indicates, in the

Array collinear array, the antennas are

arranged co-axially i.e. the antennas
are arranged end to end along, a single
line as shown in Figure.

• The individual elements in the collinear

array are fed with currents equal in
magnitude and phase.

• This condition is similar to the

broadside array.

• In collinear array the direction of

maximum radiation is perpendicular to
the axis of array.

10
• So the radiation pattern of the collinear array and the broadside array is
very much similar but the radiation pattern of the collinear array has
circular symmetry with main lobe perpendicular everywhere to the
principle axis.

• Thus the collinear array is also called omni directional array or broadcast
array.

• The gain of the collinear array is maximum if the spacing between the
elements is of the order of 0.3 λ to 0.5 λ.

11
 Parasitic Array
• In order to overcome feeding problems of the antenna, sometimes,
the elements of the array are fed through the radiation from the
nearby element.
• The array of antennas in which the parasitic elements get the power
through electromagnetic coupling with driven element in proximity
with the parasitic element is known as parasitic array.
• The simplest form of the parasitic array consists one driven element
and one parasitic element.
• In multi-element parasitic array - one or more driving elements and
also one or more parasitic elements.
• In general the multi-element parasitic array - at least one driven
element and one or more parasitic elements. 12
• The common example of the parasitic array with linear half wave dipoles as
elements of array is Yagi-Uda array or simply Yagi antenna.
• The amplitude and the phase of the current induced in the parasitic element
depends on the spacing between the driven element and parasitic element.
• To make the radiation pattern unidirectional, the relative phases of the
currents are changed by adjusting the spacing between the elements. This is
called tuning of array.
• For a spacing between the driven and parasitic element equal to 𝜆/4 and phase
difference of 𝜋/2 radian, unidirectional radiation pattern is obtained.

13
 ARRAYS OF POINT SOURCES:
The pattern of any antenna can be regarded
as produced by an array of point sources.

• Field of two isotropic point sources,

• Linear arrays of ‘n’ isotropic point sources.
• Principle of pattern multiplication,
• Array factor, Grating lobes.
• Design of Broadside, End fire and Dolph Chebyshev arrays.
• Concept of Phase array.

14
 Field of Two Isotropic Point Sources
■ The array of point sources is nothing but the array of an isotropic
radiators occupying zero volume.
■ For the greater number of point source in the array, the analysis of
antenna array becomes complicated and time consuming.
■ Also the simplest condition of number of point sources in the array is
two.
■ Then conveniently analysis is done by considering first two point
sources, which are separated by distance and having same
polarization.
■ The results obtained for only two point sources can be further
extended for ‘n’ number of point sources in the array.

15
■ Let us consider the array of two isotropic point sources, with a
distance of separation ‘d’ between them.
■ The polarization of two isotropic point sources is assumed to be the
same.
■ To derive different expressions following conditions can be applied
to the antenna array ;
1. Two isotropic point sources with currents of equal magnitudes and with
same phase.
2. Two isotropic point sources with currents of equal magnitude but with
opposite phase.
3. Two isotropic point with currents sources of the same amplitude and in-
phase quadrature
4. Two isotropic point sources with currents of equal magnitudes and
with any phase.
5. Two isotropic point sources with currents of unequal magnitudes and
with any phase.
16
 Case 1: Currents with Equal
magnitude & Phase
■ Consider two point sources A1 and A2,
separated by distance d as shown in the
Figure
■ Consider that both the point sources are
supplied with currents equal in magnitude
and phase.
■ Consider point P far away from the array.
■ Let the distance between point P and
point sources A1 and A2 be r1 and r2
respectively.
■ As these radial distances are extremely
large as compared with the distance of
separation between two point sources i.e.
d, we can assume,
r 1= r 2 = r 17
 Case 1: Currents with Equal magnitude &
Phase
■ The radiation from the point source A will reach earlier at point P than that
2

from point source A1 because of the path difference.

■ The extra distance is travelled by the radiated wave from point source A 1
than that by the wave radiated from point source A2.
■ Hence path difference is given by,
=
■ The path difference can be expressed in terms of wavelength as,

■ Hence the phase difference or phase angle is given by,

Phase angle=2π * = ) = ) rad
■ But phase shift β = 2π/λ, thus equation becomes,
Phase angle = β

18
■ Let E1 be the far field at a distant point P due to point source Al.
■ Similarly let E2 be the far field at point P due to point source A2.
■ Then the total field at point P be the addition of the two field
components due to the point sources A1 and A2.
■ If the phase angle between the two fields is = β then the far field
component at point P due to point source A1 is given by,

■ Similarly the far field component at point P due to the point source
A2 is given by,

■ Note that the amplitude of both the field components is E0 as

currents are same and the point sources are identical.

19
■ The total field at point P is given by,
+
= {+ }
Rearranging the terms on RHS we get
2
where = cos
2 cos
Substituting = β
2 cos
■ Above equation represents total field in intensity at point
P due to two point sources having currents of same
amplitude and phase.
20
■ The total amplitude of the field at point P is 2 while the phase shift is
.
■ The array factor is the ratio of the magnitude of the resultant
field to the magnitude of the maximum field.

■ But maximum field is = 2

= = =
■ The normalized field will be
■ = where d=
■ The array factor represents the relative value of the field as a
function of (the angle) that defines the radiation pattern in a plane
containing the line of the array.

21
 Maxima direction
■ From the equation 2 cos ,
the total field is maximum when cos =1.
■ As we know, the variation of cosine of a angle is ± 1. Hence the
condition for maxima is given by,
cos = ± 1
■ Let spacing between the two point sources be λ/2.
■ Then we can write, cos = ± 1 which is
■ cos = ± 1 i.e.
■ cos ( )= ± 1 i.e.
■ (max)= cos -1
(± 1)= ± n where n=0,1,2 .. …..

22
■ If n = 0, then
(max)= ± n =0
max =0
max = 900 or 2700

23
 Minima direction
■ From the equation 2 cos , the total field is minimum when cos is
0 as cosine of an angle has minimum value 0.
■ Hence the condition for minima is given by,
cos =0
■ Again assuming the spacing between the two point sources be
λ/2.
■ Then we can write, cos = 0 which is cos = 0 i.e.
■ cos ( )= 0 i.e.
■ (min)= cos -1
(0)= ±(2n+1) where n=0,1,2 .. …..

24
■ If n = 0, then
■ (min)= ±(2n+1)
■ i.e.

= ±1
min

min= 0 0
or 180 0

25
 Half Power Point Direction:
■ When the power is half, the voltage or current is 1/√2 times the
maximum value.
■ Hence the condition for half power point is given by,
cos = ±
■ Let d=λ/2 and β=2π/λ, then we can write,
■cos ( )= ± i.e.
■ = cos -1 (± )= ±(2n+1) where n=0,1,2 .. …..

26
■If n = 0, then
■(HPPD)= ±(2n+1)
■HPPD= ±
■HPPD = cos -1
(±)= 600 or 1200

27
■ The field pattern drawn with ET
against for d=λ/2, then the
pattern is bidirectional as shown in
Figure.
■ The field pattern obtained is
bidirectional and it is a figure of
eight.
■ If this pattern is rotated by 3600
about axis, it will represent three
dimensional doughnut shaped
space pattern.
■ This is the simplest type of
broadside array of two point
sources and it is called Broadside
couplet as two radiations of point
sources are in phase.
28
 Case 2: Currents with Equal magnitude & opposite
•
phase
Consider two point sources separated by distance and supplied
with currents equal in magnitude but opposite phase.
• All the conditions are exactly same except the phase of the currents
is opposite i.e. 180°.
• With this condition, the total field at far point 𝑃 is given by,

• Assuming equal magnitudes of currents, the fields at point P due to

the point sources A1 and A2 can be written as,

= {-+ }

29
 2j
where = sin
2 sin
■ Now as the condition for two point sources with currents in
phase and out of phase is exactly same, the phase angle can
be written as previous case.
Substituting = β we get
2 sin
■ The normalized field will be
■ =sin where d=

30
 Maxima direction
■ From the equation 2 sin ,
the total field is maximum when sin = ± 1.
■ As we know, the variation of sine of a angle is ± 1. Hence the
condition for maxima is given by,
sin = ± 1
■ Let spacing between the two point sources be λ/2.
■ Then we can write, sin = ± 1 which is
■ s = ± 1 i.e.
■ sin ( )= ± 1 i.e.
■ (max)= sin -1
(± 1)= ± (2n+1) where n=0,1,2 .. …..

31
■If n = 0, then
(max)= ±(2n+1)= ±
max = ±1
max = 00
or 180 0

32
 Minima direction
■ From the equation 2 sin , the total field is minimum when sin is
0 as sine of an angle has minimum value 0.
■ Hence the condition for minima is given by,
Sin =0
■ Again assuming the spacing between the two point sources be
λ/2.
■ Then we can write, sin = 0 which is sin = 0 i.e.
■ sin ( )= 0 i.e.
■ (min)= sin -1
(0)= ± n where n=0,1,2 .. …..

33
■ If n = 0, then
■ (min)= ± n
■ i.e.

min=0
min= 90 0
or -90 0

min =90 0
or 270 0

34
 Half Power Point Direction:
■ When the power is half, the voltage or current is 1/√2 times the
maximum value.
■ Hence the condition for half power point is given by,
sin = ±
■ Let d=λ/2 and β=2π/λ, then we can write,
■sin ( )= ± i.e.
■ = sin -1 (± )= ±(2n+1) where n=0,1,2 .. …..

35
■If n = 0, then
■(HPPD)= ±(2n+1)
■HPPD= ±
■HPPD = cos -1
(±)= 600 or 1200

36
■ The field pattern drawn with ET against for d=λ/2, then the pattern is bidirectional
as shown in Figure.
■ As compared with the field pattern for two point sources with inphase currents, the
maxima have shifted by 90° along X-axis in case of out-phase currents in two point
source array.
■ Thus the maxima are along the axis of the array or along the line joining two point
sources.
■ In first case, we have obtained vertical figure of eight. Now in above case, we have
obtained horizontal figure of eight.
■ As the maximum field is along the line joining the two point sources, this is the
simple type of the end fire array.

37
Case 5: Currents with unequal magnitude and any phase

■ Assume that the two point sources are separated by distance d and
supplied with currents which are different in magnitudes and with
any phase difference say α.
■ Consider that source 1 is assumed to be reference for phase and
amplitude of the fields E1 and E2, which are due to source 1 and
source 2 respectively at the distant point P.
■ Let us assume that E1 is greater than E2 in magnitude as shown in
the vector diagram in Figure

38
■ Now the total phase difference between the radiations by the two point
sources at any far point P is given by,

where α is the phase angle with which current I2 leads current Il.
■ Now if α = 00 , then the condition is similar to the two point sources with
currents equal in magnitude and phase.
■ Similarly if α = 1800 , then the condition is similar to the two point source
with currents equal in magnitude but opposite in phase.
■ Assume value of phase difference as 00 <α< 1800 . Then the resultant
field at point P is given by,
+
……. The source 1 is assumed to be reference for phase and amplitude. Hence phase is assumed to be zero.

+
+)
39
■ Let =k,
■ Note that E1> E2, the value of k is less than unity. Moreover
the value of k is given by, 0 ≤ k ≤ 1.

+ )
■ The magnitude of the resultant field at point P is given by,
|+ )|

■ The phase angle between two fields at the far point P is given
by,

40
LINEAR ARRAYS OF ‘N’ ISOTROPIC POINT
SOURCES
■ At higher frequencies, for point to point communications it is
necessary to have a pattern with single beam radiation. Such highly
directive single beam pattern can be obtained by increasing the
point sources in the array from 2 to n say.
■ An array of n elements is said to be linear array if all the individual
elements are spaced equally along a line.
■ An array is said to be uniform array if the elements in the array are
fed with currents with equal magnitudes and with uniform
progressive phase shift along the line.

41
■ Consider a general n element linear and uniform array with all the
individual elements spaced equally at distance d from each other
and all elements are fed with currents equal in magnitude and
uniform progressive phase shift along line as shown in the Figure.

42
■ The total resultant field at the distant point P is obtained by adding
the fields due to n individual sources vectorically. Hence we can
write,

+ + + +……+
(1+ + + +……+ )
■ Note that ) indicates the total phase difference of the fields from
adjacent sources calculated at point P.
■ Similarly α is the progressive phase shift between two adjacent
point sources. The value of α may lie between 00 and 1800 .
■ If α = 00 we get n element uniform linear broadside array.
■ If α = 1800 we get n element uniform linear end fire array.

43
 (1+ + + +……+ )………………(1)
■ Multiplying equation (1) by we get,
(+ + +……+ )………………(2)
■ (1)-(2)

=(+ + +……+ )

=()

44
■ Simply mathematically, we get

■ According to trigonometric identity ( )=-2j sinθ

45
■ The resultant field is given by,

……………..(4)
■ This equation (4) indicates the resultant field due to n element array
at distant point P.
■ The magnitude of the resultant field is given by,
||= | |
■ The phase angle θ of the resultant field at the point P is given by
θ= =

46
■ The array factor is the ratio of the magnitude of the resultant field to the
magnitude of the maximum field.

as and assuming reference point is the physical centre

■ If =0 the maximum value of is found by L Hospitals’ rule
=n
■ This is the maximum value that E can attain. Hence, the normalized value of
the total field
() = n
()=() which is the normalised array factor

47
Principle of Pattern Multiplication
■ The field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is
the product of the pattern of the individual sources and the pattern
of isotropic point sources having the same locations, relative
amplitudes, and phase as the non-isotropic point sources.
■ This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays of identical
elements.
■ Advantage: It helps to sketch the radiation pattern of array
antennas rapidly from the simple product of element pattern and
array pattern.
■ Disadvantage: This principle is only applicable for arrays containing
identical elements.
48
Principle of Pattern Multiplication
■ X }X { + }
Multiplication of Phase Pattern X Addition of Field pattern

■ - Field pattern of individual source

■ - Field pattern of array of isotropic source
■ - Phase pattern of individual source
■ - Phase pattern of array of isotropic source

49
 Radiation pattern of 4-

phase & spaced 𝝀/𝟐 apart

isotropic elements fed in

• Consider a 4-element array of

between the elements is 𝝀/𝟐 and

antennas in which the spacing

the currents are in-phase (𝛼 = 0).

• The pattern can be obtained directly
by adding the four electric fields
due to the 4 antennas.
• However the same radiation
pattern can be obtained by pattern
multiplication in the following
manner
50
• Now the elements 1 and 2 are considered as one unit and this
new unit is considered to be placed between the midway of
elements 1, 2 and similarly the elements 3,4. figure

73
51
• Two isotropic point sources spaced 𝜆/2 apart fed in-phase provides
a bidirectional pattern as in figure (b).

52
• 4 elements spaced λ /2 have been replaced by 2 units spaced λ and
therefore the problem of determining radiation of 4 elements has
been reduced to find out the radiation pattern of 2 antennas spaced
λ apart as in figure.
Resultant radiation = Resultant radiation pattern of individual
pattern elements
of 4 elements X
Array of 2 units spaced λ

53
Radiation pattern of 8-isotropic or

spaced 𝝀/𝟐 apart

non-directional fed in phase &

• Centre of the first four elements and

last four elements are marked as A
and B.
• The unit pattern is the pattern of four
elements.
• The group pattern is the pattern of
two elements spaced at 2λ.
• The resultant pattern is again the
product of unit pattern and group
pattern.

54
• Here the width of the principal lobe is the same as the width of
the corresponding lobe of the group pattern.
• The number of secondary lobes can be determined from the
nulls in the resultant pattern, which is sum of the nulls in the
unit and group pattern

55
 Grating lobes
■ Grating lobes are unwanted sidelobes that occur in phased array
systems, such as radar and ultrasound imaging, when the elements
of the array are spaced too far apart.
■ These lobes represent off-axis radiations that can distort the main
beam or cause false signals, reducing the overall performance of the
system.
■ Grating lobes appear when the element spacing exceeds half the
wavelength of the signal being transmitted.
■ The relationship between element spacing and grating lobes can be
explained by the principle of constructive interference.
■ When the element spacing is too large, signals from different
elements can combine constructively at angles other than the main
beam direction, creating additional lobes or directions of radiation.

56
1.Cause: Grating lobes arise when the element spacing in an
array exceeds half the wavelength, leading to constructive
interference at angles other than the desired direction of the
main beam.
2.Effects: They can cause erroneous signal detection or
interference from undesired directions, reducing system
performance.
3.Mitigation: To avoid grating lobes, the element spacing in
an array is usually kept below half the wavelength.
Techniques like tapering (modifying the amplitude of the
signals across the array) or using more advanced array
designs can also reduce their impact.
■ Grating lobes are particularly important to control in high-
precision applications where accurate directionality and
signal clarity are essential 57
Concept of Phased Array
 In case of the broadside array and the end fire array, the maximum
radiation obtained by adjusting the phase excitation between
elements in the direction normal and along the axis of array
respectively.
 In other words elements of antenna array can be phased in
particular way.
 So we can obtain an array which gives maximum radiation in any
direction by controlling phase excitation in each element. Such an
array is commonly called phased array.
 The array in which the phase and the amplitude of most of the
elements is variable, provided that the direction of maximum
radiation and pattern shape along with the side lobes controlled, is
called as phased array. 58
■ Suppose the array gives maximum radiation in direction 𝜙 = 𝜙0
where 0 ≤ 𝜙0 ≤ 180°, then the phase shift that must be
controlled can be obtained as follows.

■| 𝜙 = 𝜙0 =0
■ Thus from above Equation, that the maximum radiation
can be achieved in any direction if the progressive phase
difference between the elements is controlled.
■ The electronic phased array operates on the same principle.

59
• Consider a three element array as shown in
the Figure.

𝜆/2 dipole. All the cables used are of

• The element of array is considered as

same length.
• All the three cables are brought together at
common feed point. Here mechanical
switches are used.
• Such switch is installed one at each
antenna and one at a common feed point.
• All the switches are ganged together. Thus
by operating switch, the beam can be
shifted to any phase shift.
• To make operation reliable and simple, the
ganged mechanical switch is replaced by
PIN dipole which acts as electronic switch.
• But for precision in results, the number of
cables should be minimized. 60
 Types of Phased Arrays
■ In many applications phase shifter is used instead of
controlling phase by switching cables.
■ It can be achieved by using ferrite device
■ The conducting wires are wrapped around the phase shifter.
■ The current flowing through these wires controls the magnetic
field within ferrite and then the magnetic field in the ferrite
controls the phase shift.
■ The phased array for specialized functional utility are recognized
by different names such as frequency scanning array, retroarray
and adoptive array.

61
Frequency Scanning Array
• The array in which the phase change
controlled by varying the frequency is
called frequency scanning array.
• This is found to be the simplest phased
array as at each element separate
phase control is not necessary.
• A simple transmission line fed
frequency scanning array as shown in
the Figure.
• Each element of the scanning array is • Advantages
fed by a transmission line via • The transmission line is
properly terminated of the
directional coupler. load to avoid reflections.
• The directional couplers are fixed in • There are no moving parts
position, while beam scanning is done and no switches and phase
with a frequency change. shifters are required.
85
62
Retro-array
• The array which automatically reflects an incoming signal
back to the source is called retro-array.
• It acts as a retro-reflector similar to the passive square
corner reflector.
• That means the wave incident on the array is received and
transmitted back in the same direction.
• In other words, each elementof theretro-array reradiates signal
which is actually the conjugate of the received one

88
63
• Simplest form of the retroarray is the Van Atta array as
shown in the Figure in which 8 identical dipole elements are
used, with pairs formed between elements l and 8, 2 and 7, 3

• If the wave arrives at angle say 𝜙 , then it gets transmitted in the

and 6, 4 and 5 using cables of equal length.

same direction.

89
64
 Adaptive Arrays

• An array which automatically turn the maximum beam

in the desired direction while turn the null in the
undesired direction is called adoptive array.
• The adoptive array adjust itself in the desired direction
with awareness of its environment.
• In modem adoptive arrays, the output of each element
in the array is sampled, digitized and then processed
using computers.
• Such arrays are commonly called smart antennas.
90
65
66