4.

CARBON AND IT'S COMPOUNDS

Carbon:-

Carbon is a non-metal and it's symbol is C.

Electronic configuration of C (z=6) = 2, 4

Occurrence of Carbon:-
The earth's crust has only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals and the
atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide gas. All the living things, plants and
animals, are made up of cabon based compounds ,which are called organic
compounds.
Allotropes of Carbon :-
The property of an element in which it can exist in more than one form is called
allotropy.
The various forms of an element which have similar chemical properties but
different physical properties are called its allotropic forms. Allotropic forms are
also called allotropes.
For example,
● Carbon, phosphorous and sulphur have allotropes
● The differences in the physical properties of diamond and graphite are
because of the manner in which the carbon atoms are arranged. Their
chemical properties, however, are the same. They both burn in air to form
carbon dioxide.
● Carbon exists in two allotropic form (i) crystalline (ii) amorphous. The
crystalline forms are diamond and graphite whereas the amorphous forms
are coal, charcoal, lamp black etc.
● Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one to be
identified was C-60 (Buckminsterfullerene), which has carbon atoms arranged
in the shape of a football.It consists of 12 pentagonal faces and 20 hexagonal
faces giving it 60 corners.

Diamond is used
■ in jewellery.
■ in making tools for cutting and drilling rocks.
■ in spacecraft to make radiation-proof windows.

Graphite is used
■ as a lubricant - graphite grease.
■ as a crucible to melt metals (because of its high melting point, 3500°C).
■ In electric motors (carbon brushes).
■ for making pencil lead.
Graphite Diamond

1. Each carbon atom is joined to three 1. Each carbon atom is joined to four
other carbon atoms other carbon atoms.

2. The carbon atoms form flat 2. The carbon atoms together form a
hexagonal layers. 3-dimensional structure.

3. Graphite is a greyish black and 3. It is a transparent substance.

opaque substance.

4. It is lighter than diamond and is soft 4. It is the hardest substance known

and slippery.

5. It conducts electricity. 5. It does not conduct electricity.

Covalent Bond :-
The bonds which are formed by the sharing of electron pairs between two
atoms are known as covalent bonds.
■ Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds within the molecule,
but intermolecular forces are small.
■ This gives rise to the low melting and boiling points of these compounds.
■ covalent compounds are generally bad conductors of electricity.
This is because the electrons are shared between atoms and no charged particles
are formed,
Depending upon the number of shared pair of electrons, the covalent
bonds are of three types:-
(i) Single covalent bond involving only one pair (i.e., two) of shared electron.
(ii) Double covalent bond involving two pairs (i.e., four) of shared electrons.
(iii) Triple covalent bond involving three pairs (i.e., six) of shared electrons.

Single Covalent Bond :-

The covalent bond formed due to the sharing of one pair of electrons is called
single bond. The single covalent bond is represented by a short line-between the
two atoms..
Eg:- 1)Formation of H2 molecule

2)Formation of Cl2 molecule

3)Formation of HCl molecule

4)Formation of CH4 molecule

5)Formation of NH3 molecule

6)Formation of H2O molecule

Double Covalent Bond :-

The covalent bond formed due to the sharing of two pairs of electrons between
the two atoms is termed as double covalent bond or simply as double bond.
The double bond is shown conventionally by two short lines (=) joining the atoms.
Each line represents one pair of shared electrons.

Examples:
1. Formation of Oxygen Molecule,

2. Formation of ethene Molecule, C2H4

3. Formation of CO2 Molecule,

Triple Covalent Bond :-

 The bond formed due to the sharing of three pairs of electrons between the
combining atoms is termed as triple covalent bond or triple bond.
Eg:- Formation of N2

Formation of C2H2

COVALENT COMPOUNDS:-
Covalent compounds are the compounds which are formed by the sharing of
electrons between atoms.
Characteristics of covalent compounds :-
Covalent compounds shows the following characteristics :-
• Covalent compounds have low melting and low boiling points.
• Covalent compounds are non - conductor of electricity.
• Covalent compounds are usually insoluble in water and soluble in non polar
solvents like benzene.
• Covalent compounds react slowly.

Differences between Ionic Compounds and Covalent Compounds :-

IONIC COMPOUNDS COVALENT COMPOUNDS

1. Ionic compounds are formed by 1.Covalent compounds are formed by

transfer of electrons. sharing of electrons.

2. Ionic compounds are usually 2.Covalent compounds are usually

crystalline solids. liquids or gases. Only some of them are
solids

3. Ionic compounds have high melting 3.Covalent compounds have usually low
points and boiling points. That is, ionic melting points and boiling points. That
compounds are non- volatile. is, covalent compounds are usually
volatile.

4. Ionic compounds conduct electricity 4. Covalent compounds do not conduct

when dissolved in water or in molten electricity.
state

5.Ionic compounds are usually soluble 5.Covalent compounds are usually

in water but insoluble in organic insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents (like alcohol, ether, acetone, solvents.
etc.)
Why does carbon form covalent bonds ?

Carbon has 4 electrons in its outermost shell. So, it should either lose these four
electrons or gain another four electrons to attain a stable octet electronic
configuration.
■ It is difficult for a small atom of carbon to add another four electrons to its shell to
form C4- due to strong repulsion force between the electrons.

■ The removal of four electrons from the outermost shell of the carbon atom would
require a very large amount of energy. So, carbon atom cannot form C4+ ion by
losing its valence electrons.
Thus, carbon atom cannot enter into bonding both by either losing its valence
electrons or by gaining 4 more electrons.
Carbon atom overcomes this difficulty by sharing its valence electrons with
other carbon atoms or with the atoms of other elements.

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON :-

About three million (or thirty lakh) compounds of carbon are known. The factors
which appear to be responsible for such a unique property of carbon are described
below:
1.TETRAVALENCY :-
Carbon shows a valency of four. As a result, a carbon atom can form four single
bonds with other carbon atoms or with the atoms of some other elements, such as,
hydrogen, chlorine etc.Thus,carbon atom can form bonds in three dimensions.
2.CATENATION :-
Self-linking property of carbon leading to the formation of long chains of carbons,
branched chains of carbon atoms and rings of carbon atoms is called catenation or
self-linking.
■ Carbon shows the highest tendency for catenation because carbon-carbon
bonds are very strong and stable.

HYDROCARBONS
A compound made up of hydrogen and carbon only is called hydrocarbon .
Eg :- Methane (CH4), ethane (C₂H6), ethene (C₂H₄), and ethyne (C₂H₂) ,
■ The most important natural source of hydrocarbons is petroleum (or crude oil).
Types of Hydrocarbons.:-
Hydrocarbons are of two types:- Saturated hydrocarbons and Unsaturated
carbons.
(i) Saturated Hydrocarbons :-
 A hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms are connected by only single bonds is
called a saturated hydrocarbon. Saturated hydrocarbons are also called alkanes.
Eg :- methane, ethane, propane and butane .
■The general formula of saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes is CnH2n+2 where n is
the number of carbon atoms in one molecule of the alkane.
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3 H8
Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12

(ii) Unsaturated Hydrocarbons :-

A hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by a 'double bond'
or a 'triple bond' is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Eg :- Ethene and ethyne
■ Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types: (i) those containing carbon-carbon
double bonds (alkenes), and (ii) those containing carbon-carbon triple bonds
(alkynes).

(i) Alkenes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by a
double bond is called an alkene.
■Ethene H₂C=CH₂, and propene CH3-CH=CH₂ are two alkenes.
■ The general formula of an alkene is C₂H2n where n is the number of carbon atoms
in its one molecule.
Ethene C2H4
Propene C3H6
Butane C4H8

(ii) Alkynes:-
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by a
triple bond is called an alkyne.
Eg:- Ethyne HC=CH
propyne CH3-C=CH
■ The general formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2 where n is the number of carbon atoms
in one molecule of alkyne.
Ethyne C2H2
Propyne C3H4
Butane C4H6

CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS:-
 Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a ring are
called cyclic hydrocarbons.

Eg :- 1) cyclopropane C3H6
2) cyclobutane C4H8
3) cyclopentane C5H10
4) cyclohexane C6H12
● The cyclic hydrocarbons may be saturated or unsaturated.
● A saturated cyclic hydrocarbon is 'cyclohexane'. The formula of cyclohexane
is C6H12.

■ An unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon is

'benzene'. The formula of benzene is C6H6.

Differences between saturated hydrocarbons and Unsaturated hydrocarbons

:-

SATURATED HYDROCARBONS UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS

A hydrocarbon in which the carbon A hydrocarbon in which the two carbon

atoms are connected by only single atoms are connected by a ‘double bond’
bonds is called a saturated or a ‘triple bond’ is called an
hydrocarbons. unsaturated hydrocarbon.

They are less reactive They are more reactive than saturated
hydrocarbons

burn in air with a burn in air with a yellow, sooty flame

blue, non-sooty flame.

These compounds donot decolourises These compounds decolourises reddish

reddish brown colour of bromine water brown colour of bromine water.

Isomerism:-
 The compounds which possess the same molecular formula, but different
structural formulae, are called isomers and the phenomenon is known as
isomerism.

For example,
1) Butane with a molecular formula C4H10 has two structural isomers :- n - butane
& iso-butane (2- methylpropane)
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 & CH3- CH- CH3
n-butane |
CH3
iso-butane
(2-methylpropane)
2) Pentane (C5H12) has 3 isomers :- (see c.w)
3) Hexane (C6H14) has 5 isomers:-

NB :-
● Isomerism is possible only in hydrocarbons containing four or more carbon
atoms. Thus, methane, ethane and propane do not show isomerism. ( there is
only one way to arrange the atoms in each formula so that each carbon atom
has four bonds.. Or no branching possible with 3 or less than 3 carbon
atoms)
● Butane, pentane, hexane and heptane (and so on) show isomerism.

Functional Group :-
The atom or group of atoms which determine the properties of organic compounds is
known as functional group.
e.g. (1) —OH (alcohol),
(2) —CHO (aldehyde),
(3)— COOH (Carboxylic acid)
(4) — X (halogen) Cl or Br
(5) > C = C < (alkene),
(6) -C=C- (alkyne) etc.
Homologous Series :-
A series of organic compounds containing a particular functional group is called
a homologous series.
OR
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds having similar
structures and similar chemical properties in which the successive
compounds differ by CH₂ group.
Eg:-
Alkanes , alkenes, alkenes, alcohols etc.
Homologous series of Alkenes:-
1. Methane CH4
2. Ethane C2H6
3. Propane C3H8
4. Butane C4H10
5. Pentane C5H12

CHARACTERISTICS OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES :-

1. All the members of a homologous series can be represented by the same general
formula.

HOMOLOGOUS General
SERIES formula

ALKANE CnH2n+2.

ALKENE CnH2n

ALKYNE CnH2n-2.

2. Any two adjacent homologues differ by 1 carbon atom and 2 hydrogen atoms in
their molecular formulae.
3.The difference in the molecular masses of any two adjacent homologues is 14 u.
4. All the compounds of a homologous series show similar chemical properties.
5. The members of a homologous series show a gradual change in their physical
properties with increase in molecular mass.

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES OF ALKANES

ALKANE MOLECULAR
FORMULA

1.Methane CH4

2. Ethane C2H6

3. Propane C3H8

4. Butane C4H10

5. Pentane C5H12

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES OF ALKENES

ALKENE MOLECULAR
FORMULA

1. Ethene C2H4
2. Propene C3H6

3. Butene C4H8

4. Pentene C5H10

5. Hexene C6H12

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES OF ALKYNES

ALKYNES MOLECULAR
FORMULA

1. Ethyne C2H2

2. Propyne C3H4

3. Butyne C4H6

4. Pentyne C5H8

5. Hexyne C6H10

NB:-
The organic compounds such as haloalkanes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and
carboxylic acids (organic acids) also
form the homologous series.
Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds :-
(i) Combustion :-
The process of burning of hydrocarbons in air to give carbon dioxide, water,heat
and light is called combustion.
C +O2 → CO2 +heat +light
CH4 +2O2 ---‐-> CO2 + H2O + heat and light.
C2H5OH + 302 (from air) → 2CO₂ + 3H2O + heat +light

NB:-
● The saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) generally burn in air with a
blue, non-sooty flame.
● If the supply of air for burning is reduced (or limited), then incomplete
combustion of saturated hydrocarbons will take place and they will burn
producing a sooty flame (giving a lot of black smoke).
 ● The gas stove (and kerosene stove) used in our homes have tiny holes (or
inlets) for air so that sufficient oxygen of air is available for the complete
burning of fuel to produce a smokeless blue flame.
● if the bottom of the cooking utensils in our homes are getting blackened, it
shows that the air holes of the gas stove (or kerosene stove) are getting
blocked and the fuel is not burning completely.
● The unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes) burn in air with a yellow,
sooty flame (producing black smoke).

(ii) Oxidation : -
When ethanol is heated with alkaline potassium permanganate solution (or
acidified potassium dichromate solution), it gets oxidised to ethanoic acid .
● This ‘Oxidation is also considered as ‘controlled combustion’.
● The substance which are used for oxidation are known as oxidising
agent.(e.g alkaline KMnO4, acidified K2Cr2O7.)

● CH3CH2OH + 2[O] CH3COOH + H2O

● The purple colour of potassium permanganate gets decolourised during the

reaction. When all the alcohol gets consumed, the reaction stops and the
purple colour persists on adding excess KMnO4.

(iii) Addition reaction : -

Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reaction in
presence of catalyststo saturated hydrocarbons.
e.g.
Ethene reacts with hydrogen when heated in the presence of nickel catalyst to form
ethane :

CH2 =CH2 + H2 CH3 - CH3

● The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon to obtain a saturated
hydrocarbon is called hydrogenation. The process of hydrogenation takes
place in the presence of nickel or palladium metals as catalyst. The
process of hydrogenation has an important
industrial application : It is used to prepare vegetable ghee (or vanaspati
ghee) from vegetable oils.
Hydrogenation of Oils:-
When a vegetable oil (like groundnut oil) is heated with hydrogen in the presence of
finely divided nickel as catalyst, then a saturated fat called vegetable ghee (or
vanaspati ghee) is formed. This reaction is called hydrogenation of oils

Vegetable oil (unsaturated oil) + H2(g) Vegetable ghee (saturated fat)

NB :-
● Vegetable oils containing unsaturated fatty acids are good for our health.
 ● The saturated fats like vegetable ghee, obtained by the hydrogenation of oils,
are not good for health.
● The animal fats (like butter and desi ghee) are also saturated fats containing
saturated fatty acids which are said to be harmful for health.

(iv) Substitution reaction :

The reactions in which one or more hydrogen atoms of hydrocarbons are replaced
by some other atoms ( like chlorine) or groups are called substitution reactions.
● Saturated hydrocarbons give substitution reaction e.g. Methane reacts with
chlorine in the presence of
sunlight to form chloromethane and hydrogen chloride :

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

Ethanol (alcohol), CH3CH2OH:-

● Liquid at room temperature
● It is a good solvent for drugs
● Soluble in water in all proportions.
● It is an active and gradient of all alcoholic drinks.
● It is also used in medicines like tincture of iodine and cough syrups and many
tonics.

Chemical Properties of Ethanol :

1. Reaction with sodium :-

Due to its weakly acidic nature, ethanol reacts with sodium to librate H2 gas.
2C₂H5OH + 2Na → 2C2H5ONa + H2

2. Reaction with conc : H2SO4 :-

Ethanol when heated with excess of centrated sulphuric acid at 443 K, gets
dehydrated to give ethene.

CH3-CH2-OH —---→ CH2=CH2 +H₂O

 ● The concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent, it removes a
molecule of water from an ethanol molecule
# Alcohol as a fuel : -
Alcohol (ethanol) is added to petrol upto 20% and the mixture is called
“gasol”.
# Rectified spirit :- 95% ethanol
# Absolute alcohol :- 100% Ethanol
# Denatured alcohol :- The alcohol to be used in industry is made unfit for drinking
by adding certain poisonous substances like CuSO4 ,methanol etc. This is called
denaturation of alcohol and the alcohol is called Denatured alcohol

Harmful Effects of Drinking Alcohol :

● Drinking of alcohol causes loss of senses and slows down his/her reflex
actions. Larger intake of alcohol may lead to the loss of consciousness.
● Drinking alcohol over a long period of time damages liver.)
● If the alcohol used for drinking purposes contains some methyl alcohol
(CH3OH) as impurity then it may cause serious poisoning and loss of eye
sight.
● It is habit forming and damages liver if taken regularly in large quantities.
Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) CH3COOH:-
● Ethanoic acid, commercially known as acetic acid belongs to a group of
acids called carboxylic acid.
● The dilute solution in water is known as vinegar.Vinegar contains about 5 to 8
per cent ethanoic acid. Vinegar is used widely as a preservative in pickles
● The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290K and hence it often freezes
during cold winter in cold freezes and form ice like solid during winter in cold
climates. Due to this, pure ethanoic acid is called glacial ethanoic acid (or
glacial acetic acid).
● Ethanoic acid is miscible with water in all proportions..

Chemical properties :
(i) Reaction with a base :
Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form a salt, sodium ethanoate, and
water
2CH3COOH + 2NaOH → 2CH3COONa +H2O
(ii) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates :
Ethanoic acid react with Carbonates and bicarbonates to form salt, water, and
carbon dioxide.

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
 When sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate is added to a solution of ethanoic
acid, brisk
effervescence of carbon dioxide is given off.
(iii) Reaction with alcohol :- (Esterification)

The reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol to form an ester is known as an

esterification reaction.

CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H₂O

● Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes

an as flavouring agents.

● Esters react is the presence of an acid or a. base to give back the alcohol
and sodium salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is known as saponification.
This reaction is used in the preparation of soaps .
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH → C2H5OH + CH3COONa

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