CHEMISTRY

Ch 4- CARBON AND ITS COMPOUND-Notes

Class X
Occurrence

Carbon exists in the free as well as combined states in nature.

Free states of carbon
• Diamond – purest form
• Graphite – somewhat less pure
• Coal – impure form, percentage of carbon in it varies from 60% to 90%

Combined states of carbon

Exists in solid liquid and gaseous states
• Solid : Animal and plant products – cellulose, carbohydrates, fats ,
proteins etc.
As mineral salts in the form of carbonates- lime, marble, chalk
(CaCO3), Magnesite ( MgCO3) , Dolomite ( MgCO3. CaCO3),
Calamine ( ZnCO3)
• Liquid : Petroleum and vegetable oils
• Gaseous : Air contains 0.03% by volume of CO2, natural gas, marsh gas,
petroleum gas, coal gas

Allotropy The property possessed by certain elements to exist in two or more distinct
forms that are chemically identical but have different physical properties due to the
difference in arrangement of atoms

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON:
Graphite, charcoal, and diamond are all allotropes of carbon.
1. Diamond : Each carbon is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a
tetrahedral rigid three – dimensional structure.

Structure Properties of diamond

Hardest substance known to man

brittle (not malleable)
insulator (non-conductor)
insoluble in water
 very high melting point
2.

2. Graphite : Each carbon is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same
plane giving a hexagonal array

Structure Properties

Brittle
Soft and slippery
Electrical conductor
Insoluble in water.
Very high melting point

3. Buckminsterfullerene: C – 60 has carbon

atoms arranged in the shape of a football.

Bonding in carbon – Covalent bond

Carbon has 4 electrons in the outermost shell. The valence electrons in carbon are 4.
In order to attain noble gas configuration, it has the following options:
• Lose 4 electrons from the outermost shell: This requires a large amount of
energy to pull out the 4 electrons from the attractive pull of the 6 protons in the
nucleus. It will form an asymmetric cation ( C4+) in which 6 protons are
holding only 2 electrons.

• Gain 4 electrons to form an anion ( C4-): This is however difficult for the
nucleus of 6 protons to hold 10 electrons, i.e 4 extra electrons.

• Both the options being impracticable, carbon overcomes the problem by

sharing of valence electrons with either other carbon atoms or the atoms of
other non metals.

Covalent bond and Covalency

This kind of bond is formed by non-metallic elements having 7,6,5 or 4 electrons in
their valence shell. Only exception is hydrogen that has 1 electron.

During the sharing of electrons between atoms, each atom of an element contributes
electrons, thereby forming an electron pair, which is mutually shared by both the
elements. This new bond due to sharing of electrons is called a covalent bond and is
represented by a small line ( ---)

Definitions:
1. Covalent bond: A chemical bond formed between two non metallic
elements by mutual sharing of one or more electron pairs, is called a
covalent bond.

2. Single covalent bond: A chemical bond formed

between two non metallic elements by mutual sharing
of one electron pair, is called a single covalent bond.

Example: Hydrogen molecule (H2)

3. Double covalent bond: A chemical bond formed

between two non metallic elements by mutual sharing
of two electron pairs, is called a double covalent bond.

Example: Oxygen molecule (O2)

4. Triple covalent bond: A chemical bond formed between

two non metallic elements by mutual sharing of three
electron pairs, is called a triple covalent bond.

Example: Nitrogen molecule ( N2 )

Covalent compounds: The chemical compound formed by mutual

sharing of electron pairs between two or more different kind of atoms, is called a
covalent compound.

Properties of covalent compounds

• They have low melting and boiling point as they are held by weak forces of
attraction, hence need small amount of energy to break the bonds between the
molecules.

• They are generally gaseous or volatile liquids. In solid state they are soft solids.

• They have low density, less than that of water,

 • They are insoluble in water as they do not contain ions. They readily dissolve in
organic solvents such as petrol, kerosene, alcohol, Benzene etc.

• Most of the covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity.

Formation of some covalent compounds

1. Formation of water

2. Formation of ammonia

3. Formation of methane

4. Formation of sulphur

Versatile nature of carbon

More than 4 million compounds of carbon are known to us. This property of forming
vast number of compounds seen in carbon due is to its versatile nature. The two
important factors are:
1. Catenation: It has a unique property to form bonds with other carbon
atoms, so as to form long straight, chains, branched chains and closed rings,
giving rise to large number of molecules. The carbon atoms link with each
other to form single, double and triple bond. This property of carbon to link
with other carbon atoms with single, double and triple covalent bonds so as to
form large number of compounds is called catenation.

This property is also exhibited by silicon that can react with hydrogen to form
chain of 7 to 8 atoms of silicon. But these compounds are very reactive.

The carbon- carbon single bond is very strong and stable and helps in the
formation of large number of compounds. The reason for the formation of
strong bonds by carbon is its small size which enables the nucleus to hold on
the shared pairs of electrons strongly.

2. Tetravalency: As carbon atom has 4 valence electrons, therefore, it can

bind with 4 more carbon atoms with single covalent bonds, or with different
atoms of elements.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Definitions
Organic chemistry: The branch of chemistry dealing with carbon compounds, other
than CO, CO2, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates is called Organic chemistry
Organic compounds: The compounds of carbon, other than oxides, carbonates and
hydro carbonates are called organic compounds

HYDROCARBONS
Organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen are called as hydrocarbons. They are
classified as:
Saturated hydrocarbons

The compounds of carbon in which each valency of carbon is satisfied by a single

covalent bond are called Saturated Carbon Compounds. E.g. Methane, Propane, etc.
They have a general formula: C2nH2n+2
Characteristics

1. All the valencies in the molecule of the saturated carbon compounds are
fully satisfied by single covalent bonds.
2. These compounds are not reactive in nature.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons

The compounds of carbon in which the valency between two carbon atoms in a
carbon chain is satisfied by a double or triple covalent bond are called Unsaturated
Carbon Compounds. E.g. Ethene, Ethyne, propene, etc.
1. There is a double or triple covalent bond between any two carbon atoms in a
carbon chain of molecules.
2. These compounds chemically are far more reactive than saturated carbon
compounds.

• Hydrocarbons having all C—C bonds (single) are called alkanes. CnH2n+2

• Hydrocarbons having one C=C bond are known as alkenes. CnH2n

• Hydrocarbons with one C=C are termed as alkynes. CnH2n-2

• Alkanes are therefore saturated hydrocarbons while alkenes and alkynes are
unsaturated in nature.

• Unsaturated hydrocarbons become saturated by taking part in chemical reactions.

Straight chains, Branched chains and Rings in Hydrocarbons

Straight chain saturated hydrocarbons:

In this type of hydrocarbons, all the carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a
straight chain such that they are bound to one another by single covalent bonds.

E.g. Structure of Butane

Straight chain unsaturated hydrocarbons

In this type of hydrocarbons all carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a straight
chain, such that there is either a double covalent bond or triple covalent bond
between a pair of carbon atoms in the chain. e.g. ethyne, propene

Structure of propene Structure of ethyne

Branched chain saturated hydrocarbons

In this type of hydrocarbons, one or more carbon atoms are attached to the main
straight chain of carbon atoms, such that all carbon atoms are bound to one another
by a single covalent bond.

E.g. Structure of Isobutane

Ring chain saturated hydrocarbons:

In this kind of hydrocarbons, the carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a ring and
are bounded by single covalent bonds. An example of this kind of hydrocarbons is
cyclohexane of molecular formula C6H12.

Structure of cyclohexane:
Ring chain unsaturated hydrocarbons Structure of benzene

In this kind of hydrocarbon, the carbon atoms are arranged in the

form of a ring and are bounded by one or more double covalent
bonds. E.g. Benzene (C6H6)

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS ON THE BASIS OF STRUCTURE

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS ON THE BASIS OF TYPES OF COVALENT

BONDS
Homologous Series

Members of the same class of organic compounds, which differ from each other by --
-CH2 group or 14u molecular mass, when arranged in ascending order of molecular
mass, is called homologous series
The members of the same class of organic compound are called homologues.
Characteristics of Homologous Series
• All members of a homologous series can be represented by a general formula, for
e.g. general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2, where n is the number of carbon
atoms in one molecule of the compound.
• Each member of the homologous series differs from the next member by a –CH2
group.
• Each member of the homologous series differs from the next member in
molecular mass by 14 amu.
• Due to the change in molecular mass, physical properties of homologues differ
from other homologues. E.g. First four members of the alkane series from CH4 to
C4H10 are gases. The homologues between C5H12 to C16H34 are liquids and
beyond 17 to 36 are solids. The melting point, boiling point, density etc. of
homologues increase, with the increase in molecular mass. Thus we can say that
homologues in a particular series have graded physical properties.
• All homologues have same chemical properties.
• All homologues can be prepared by the same general method of preparation.

ISOMERISM
Isomers are compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural
formula due to the difference in the arrangements of carbon atoms. They have
different physical and chemical properties. The phenomenon exhibited is called
isomerism.
Characteristics of isomers
• same molecular formula

• different structural formula

• Different arrangement of carbon atoms.

• Different physical and chemical properties.

Functional group

In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen can be replaced by atoms of other

elements, such that the valency of carbon remains satisfied. In such compounds, the
element replacing hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom. This heteroatom confers
specific properties to the organic compound, regardless of the length and nature of
the carbon chain and hence is called functional groups.
The functional groups are specific groups of atoms within an organic compound that
are responsible for its characteristic chemical properties.
 Some important functional groups are:

Functional Elements General Structural IUPAC Example

group present formula formula naming

Haloalkane C,H,Halogen R-X Chloro

Haloalkan methane
e

Alcohol C,H,O R-OH Replace Methanol

‘e’ with
‘ol’

Aldehydes C,H,O R-CHO Replace Methanal

‘e’ with
‘al’

Ketone C,H,O O Replace Propanone

|| ‘e’ with
R-C-R ‘one’

Carboxylic C,H,O RCOOH Replace Methanoic

acid ‘e’ with acid
‘oic’
Ester C,H,O RCOOR1 alkyl Methyl
alkanoate ethanoate

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

 1. Combustion

The process of burning a carbon compound in air to give carbon dioxide, water , heat
and light is known as combustion.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + heat + light
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat + light
Note
• Carbon and its compounds such as coal, natural gas (methane), cooking gas
(LPG- butane) are excellent fuels because they burn in air releasing a lot of
heat energy.

• The saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) generally burn in air with a blue non
sooty flame because the percentage of carbon in them is comparatively low
which get completely oxidized by the oxygen present in the air.

• If however the supply of air for burning is limited then the incomplete
combustion of the saturated hydrocarbons will take place and they will burn
producing a sooty flame. That is why gas burners need to be cleaned regularly
to open the blocked air holes which may lead to incomplete combustion and
thereby blacken the bottom of the cooking vessels due to the sooty flame
produced.

• The unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a yellow sooty flame because the
percentage of carbon is higher in them and therefore they do not get oxidized
completely.

• However when unsaturated hydrocarbons are burnt in pure oxygen they

produce a blue flame. A mixture of acetylene (ethyne ) and oxygen when
burnt produces oxy acetylene blue flame which is extremely hot and is
used for welding purposes.

• A mixture of acetylene (ethyne) and air cannot be used for welding because of
the low percentage of oxygen in the air; it leads to incomplete combustion
producing a yellow sooty flame which is not enough to melt metals.

Combustion of Fuels: Production of flame

A flame is a region where combustion of gaseous substances takes place. All the
gaseous fuels burn with a flame but only those solids and liquids fuel which vaporize
on heating burn with flame. E.g candle, Kerosene
Coal and charcoal are solid fuels that do not vaporize, hence they turn red hot when
burnt and do not produce flame.

Types of flame:
Blue flame: When the oxygen supply is sufficient then the fuels burn completely
producing a blue or non-luminous flame.

Yellow flame: When the oxygen supply is insufficient, it leads to incomplete

combustion of the fuels resulting in a yellow or luminous flame.

2. Substitution reaction

The reaction in which one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon are replaced by
other atoms like chlorine, bromine, fluorine is called substitution.

Saturated hydrocarbons are unreactive because they contain carbon - carbon single
bonds .These compounds undergo substitution reaction in presence of sunlight. This
reaction is a characteristic property of saturated hydrocarbons.

3. Oxidation (controlled combustion):

When ethanol is heated with any strong oxidizing agent like alkaline potassium
permanganate (KMnO4 + NaOH ) or acidified potassium dichromate
solution(K2Cr2O7+ H2SO4) it gets oxidized to form ethanoic acid.

4. Addition reaction

The reaction in which an unsaturated hydrocarbon combines with another

substance to give a single product is called an addition reaction. It is a
characteristic property of an unsaturated hydrocarbon ( alkenes and alkynes).
The two important addition reactions are:
a. Hydrogenation: The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon
to obtain a saturated hydrocarbon is called hydrogenation. It takes place in
the presence of a catalyst such as nickel or palladium.

The process of hydrogenation has an important industrial application: It is

used to prepare vanaspati/ vegetable ghee from vegetable oil.
Hydrogenation of oil: The vegetable oil like groundnut oil is heated with
hydrogen in the presence of finely divided nickel as catalyst, then a saturated
fat called vegetable ghee is formed. This reaction is known as hydrogenation
of oils and is represented as:

Vegetable oil + H2 Vegetable ghee

b. Bromination : The addition of bromine to an unsaturated hydrocarbon to

obtain a saturated hydrocarbon is called bromination.

It is particularly important because it is used as a test for unsaturated

hydrocarbons. For this purpose bromine is used in the form of bromine water
(a solution of bromine which is red brown in colour).
• When bromine water is added to an unsaturated hydrocarbon the red
colour of bromine water is discharged and it becomes colourless. So if
an organic compound decolourizes bromine water then is an unsaturated
hydrocarbon.
• Saturated hydrocarbons do not decolourise bromine water.
• Thus we can distinguish chemically between cooking oil (unsaturated
hydrocarbon) and butter (saturated hydrocarbon) by the bromine
water test.
 ETHANOIC ACID
Ethanoic acid is one of the commercially important organic compounds. It is the
second member of the homologous series of carboxylic acids. The molecular formula
of ethanoic acid is CH3COOH..The common name of ethanoic acid is acetic acid. A
dilute solution of the acid is called vinegar.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The physical properties of acetic acid are:
• It is a colourless liquid
• It is sour in taste
• It smells like vinegar
• Its boiling point is 118°C
• Its melting point is 17°C , hence it often freezes in winters ,to form ice –
like flakes resembling glacier therefore, it is also known as glacial acetic
acid.
• It is miscible with water in all proportions.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The chemical properties of acetic acid are:

1) Action on litmus – Turns blue litmus to red.

Comparing the strength of acetic acid with that of hydrochloric acid with a
universal indicator it is seen that:
Acetic acid changes it to orange indicating a pH of 4 in comparison to HCl which
turns it to red indicating a pH of 1. This shows that HCl is a strong acid whereas
acetic acid is a weak acid. This is because carboxylic acids are only partially
ionized in solution to give a small number of hydrogen ions
CH3COOH + H2O ↔ CH3COO- + H3O+

2) Reaction with carbonate or bicarbonate

It reacts with carbonate or bicarbonate to form sodium ethanoate, CO2 and water.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
The gas evolves with a brisk effervescence and when passed through lime water
turns it milky indicating the evolution of CO2.
• This reaction is used as a test for ethanoic acid

3) Reaction with alcohol (esterification)

 When ethanoic acid is warmed with ethanol in the presence of a few drops of
concentrated H2SO4 reacts to form a sweet smelling substance called ester. The
reaction of a carboxylic acid with alcohol to form ester is called esterification.

Esters
Esters are usually volatile liquids having a sweet fruity smell. They are used for
making artificial perfumes and soaps. They are also used as a flavouring agent in
making artificial flavours and essences used in ice creams, cold drinks sweets etc.

Reactions of esters

Hydrolysis of ester
When ester is reacted with water in the presence of a dilute acid, the corresponding
alcohol and carboxylic acid (from which they have originally formed) is obtained.
CH3COOC2H5 +H2O CH3COOH + C2H5OH

Alkali hydrolysis of ester (Saponification)

When ester is reacted with an aqueous solution of a base like sodium hydroxide/
Potassium hydroxide, the product is a salt of the base and alcohol.
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH
CH3COOC2H5 + KOH CH3COOK + C2H5OH
In this process ester reacts with an alkali such as sodium hydroxide to form sodium
ethanoate or with potassium hydroxide to form potassium ethanoate . This reaction is
known as saponification because it is used for the preparation of soaps.
4) Neutralisation reaction
In this reaction the acid reacts with a base to form the corresponding salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O

Test for acetic acid

There are two such tests.
1) Litmus test - blue litmus will turn to red in acetic acid
2) Sodium carbonate or bicarbonate test - Acetic acid reacts with sodium
carbonate and releases carbon dioxide which will turn lime water milky.

Uses of acetic acid

1. Dilute acetic acid (vinegar) is used as a food preservative in pickles , sauces
etc and as an appetizer in salads etc.
 2. It is also used to make cellulose acetate which is an important artificial fibre.

3. It is also used in the coagulation rubber from the latex.(sap of rubber plant )

4. It is also used in the preparation of dyes, paints, plastics.

5. It is also used in the manufacture of acetone and esters.

ETHANOL
Ethanol is one of the commercially important organic compounds. It is the second
member of the homologous series of alcohols. The molecular formula of ethanol is
C2H5OH (CH3-CH2-OH).The common name of ethanol is ethyl alcohol and
sometimes just alcohol.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL:

1. State: liquid at room temperature.
2. Boiling point: 78 degree C(351 K).
3. Colour: Colourless.
4. Smell: Pleasant smell.
5. Taste: Burning taste.
6. Solubility: Soluble in water in all proportions due to the presence of hydroxyl
groups in it.
7. Litmus test: It is a neutral compound because it does not contain any hydrogen
ions hence does not have any effect on litmus paper.
Ethanol containing 5% water is called rectified spirit .It is a commercial alcohol.
100% pure ethanol is called absolute alcohol.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL:

1. COMBUSTION:
Ethanol is highly inflammable liquid. It catches fire easily and burns readily in air
with a blue flame to form carbon dioxide and water vapour and releasing a lot of heat
and light:
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 +3H2O + Heat +Light.

Note:

• Ethanol is a clean fuel because it does not produce any harmful gases like
carbon monoxide.
• Ethanol is produced on a large scale from sugar cane crop. Sugar cane juice is
used to obtain sugar by the process of crystallization. After the crystallization,
 the thick concentrated dark brown liquid called molasses is left behind which
still contains about 30% of sugar. Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of
the sugar present in the molasses. The ethanol thus produced is used as an
additive in petrol.
2. OXIDATION (Controlled combustion):
When ethanol is heated with any strong oxidizing agent like alkaline potassium
permanganate (KMnO4 + NaOH ) or acidified potassium dichromate
solution(K2Cr2O7+ H2SO4) it gets oxidized to form ethanoic acid.

3. REACTION WITH SODIUM METAL:

Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas:
2C2H5OH + 2Na→2C2H5O-Na+ + H2

Note:
This reaction is used as a test for alcohol. The hydrogen gas produced can be tested
by bringing a burning matchstick. The gas burns with a pop sound.
4. DEHYDRATION:
Dehydration of alcohol means removal of water molecules from it. When ethanol is
heated with excess of concentrated sulphuric acid at 170° C (443 K), it gets
dehydrated to form ethene:

In this reaction, conc. Sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent which removes
water from ethanol.
5. ESTERIFICATION:
Reaction in which a carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol to form ester is called
Esterification. Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid on warming in the presence of few
drops of conc. sulphuric acid to form a sweet smelling ester, ethyl ethanoate (ethyl
acetate):
C2H5OH + CH3COOH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Tests for alcohol are:
• sodium metal test
 • Ester test for alcohol
USES OF ETHANOL:
1. Ethanol is used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, lacquers, medicines ,
perfumes, dyes, soaps and synthetic rubber.
2. It is used as a solvent. Many organic compounds that are not soluble in water,
are soluble in water.
3. Being known as a good solvent, ethanol is used in medicine such as tincture
iodine, cough syrup and many tonics.
4. Ethanol is used as a fuel. Being a clean fuel ethanol is used an additive in
petrol
5. Ethanol is used an antiseptic to sterilize wounds and syringes in hospitals.
6. It is used in alcoholic beverages
USE OF ETHANOL IN ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES:
Ethanol is used in alcoholic beverages like whisky, wine, beer and other liquors.
Whisky contains about 35% of ethanol, wine contains 10-20% of ethanol , and beer
contains 6% of ethanol.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL:
When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends to slow metabolic processes
and to depress the central nervous system. This results in the lack of coordination,
mental confusion, drowsiness, lowering of normal inhibitions, and finally stupor. The
individual may feel relaxed but does not realize that his sense of judgement, sense of
timing, muscular coordination have been seriously impaired.
INTAKE OF METHANOL:
Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause death.
Methanol is oxidized to methanal in the liver. Methanal reacts rapidly with the
components of cells. It causes the protoplasm to get coagulated. Methanol also
effects the optic nerve, causing blindness.
DENATURED ALCOHOL;
Ethanol is an important industrial solvent. To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced
for industrial use, it is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substance like
methanol, pyridine, CuSO4, etc. This is called denatured alcohol.
Dyes are also added to the colour the alcohol blue so that it can be identified easily.
Soaps and detergents

What is soap?
Soaps are molecules of sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic (fatty)
acids, which show cleansing properties in water.
These fatty acids exist as glycerides(esters) in oil and fats which are obtained as a
result of esterification reaction.
Fatty acids + glycerol → glycerides (esters)
Acids used in the manufacture of soaps :-
C17H35COOH – stearic acid
C17H33COOH – oleic acid
C15H31COOH – palmitic acid
Preparation of soap –
A glyceride can be converted into soap by reacting with either aq NaOH or KOH
solution. This process is known as saponification.

Thus soap is formed by ALKALI HYDROLYSIS of esters/glycerides

Structure of a soap molecule

A soap molecule has two parts-

Eg: C17H35COO – Na +
C17H35 - R
Therefore, the above soap molecule can be
represented as:-
R - COO – Na +
The long hydrocarbon part R is the hydrophobic or the fatty end, which is soluble in
oil and grease and the short ionic part (COO – Na +) is the hydrophilic or the ionic end,
which is soluble in water.
Soap Micelle:
Soap molecules have a unique orientation in water. They
form clusters of molecules in which the hydrophobic tail
are in the interior surrounding the dirt particle and the
ionic ends are on the surface. This formation is called a
micelle.

Mechanism of cleaning action of soaps

• Soap dissolves in water to form a
colloidal suspension. When dirt
comes in contact with water containing
dissolved soap, the hydrophobic end
 of the soap molecule (hydrocarbon end which is oil soluble) attach to the dirt
or grease in the centre. The Hydrophilic end (ionic end) attaches to water and
is directed outwards.
• The soap molecules thus cluster together and arrange radially around the dirt to
form micelles. On agitation, the micelle-dirt system gets detached from the fabric.
The micelles do not come together to precipitate because of ion-ion repulsion.
The micelles containing dirt thus stay in solution as colloid and are easily rinsed
away with the water.
Soap does not lather in hard water.
The hardness of water is due to presence of salts of magnesium and calcium. When
soap is added to hard water containing the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, the sodium salts
present in the soap are converted to the corresponding calcium and magnesium salts
which get precipitated as scum. This hinders the cleansing action of soaps and leads
to wastage of soap.

2RCOO –Na+ + CaCl2 → (RCOO)-2Ca2+ + 2NaCl

Insoluble precipitate ( scum)

The product formed above along with sodium chloride, i.e. (RCOO) 2Ca, is the
insoluble precipitate called SCUM.
Note: Soap is not suitable for washing clothes in hard water
1. As this leads to the wastage of soaps as a large amount of soap is wasted in
reacting with the calcium or magnesium to form scum before the real purpose
of washing takes place.
2. There is no effective cleaning as scum sticks to the fabric and interferes with the
cleaning ability of the additional soap.
Detergents
The difficulty to wash clothes in hard water is overcome by using another kind of
cleansing agents called detergents. They are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long
chain carboxylic acids.
Differences between soaps and detergents –

Soap Detergents
1. Contains Sodium or potassium 1. Contains ammonium or sulphonate salts
salts
2. Soap cannot be used in hard 2. Synthetic detergents can be used in hard water.
water.
3. Soap is made from 3. Synthetic detergents are made from by
vegetable/edible oils products of petroleum industry which helps to
conserve valuable edible oils.
 4. Soaps cannot be used in acidic 4. Synthetic detergents can be used in any
medium as this would precipitate medium including acidic medium.
the fatty acids.
5. Soaps have weak cleansing 5. Synthetic detergents have strong cleansing
action. action.
6. Soaps are not very soluble in 6. Synthetic detergents are highly soluble.
water.
7. Soaps are biodegradable and do 7. Some synthetic detergents are not
not cause any pollution. biodegradable and cause water pollution. This
in some cases can become quite serious.

COAL AND PETROLEUM

Non renewable energy sources
These are energy sources which cannot be replaced easily when they get exhausted
and also called conventional sources of energy.
e.g . Fossil fuels

Fossil fuels: Fuels obtained from the dead remains of plants and animals which got
buried millions of years ago.

Formation of coal: It is formed from vegetable matter which got buried under the
earth millions of years ago. Due to high temperature and pressure and in the absence
of air inside the earth, this vegetable matter changed into coal, hence also called
fossil fuels.

Formation of petroleum: It is formed by decay of very small marine plants and

animals buried under the earth about 400 million years ago. Due to excess of heat and
pressure and in the absence of air it changes into oil called petroleum. Therefore it is
a fossil fuel.

Conservation of coal and petroleum:

It means more efficient use which result in the attainment of higher energy use
efficiencies, minimization of wastage and protection of the environment

Necessity of judicious use of coal and petroleum:

1. They are exhaustible and non-renewable sources of energy.

2. Their combustion pollutes air
• When combustion takes place, oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur are
formed.
 • Carbon monoxide is formed instead of carbon dioxide if there is insufficient air.
• The oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon monoxide are poisonous at high
concentrations.
• Carbon dioxide is a green – house gas which leads to global warming.

Contribution towards the conservation of fossil fuels

• Using fluorescent tubes

• Switching off unnecessary lights and electronic devices
• Using solar devices
• Prefer walking and cycling to using vehicles
• Getting the car properly maintained to improve fuel efficiency