EM

Chapter 2 Electrostatics Tsun-Hsu Chang

2.1 The Electric Field: 2.1.1 Introduction 清華物理 張存續

What is the force on the test charge Q due to a source

charge q?
We shall consider the special case of the electrostatics in
which all the source charges are stationary.
The principle of superposition states that the interaction
between any two charges is completely unaffected by the
presence of others.

1
Khan Academy or http://www.falstad.com/mathphysics.html
 2.1.2 Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s law quantitatively describe the interaction of
charges.
Coulomb determined the force law for electrostatic charges
directly by experiment.

kqQ 1 qQ 1 qQ (r − r' )
F= 2
rˆ = rˆ =
r 4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 r − r' 2 r − r'
2
9 N⋅m
Where k = 9 × 10 2
C
2
−12 C
and ε 0 = 8.85 × 10 2
N⋅m
epsilon naught
2
 Action at a distance

Coulomb’s law, like Newton’s law of gravitation, involves the

concept of action at a distance.
It simply states how the particles interact but provides no
explanation of the mechanism by which the force is
transmitted from one point to the other.
Even Newton himself is not comfortable with this aspect of
his theory.

What is the concept of action at a distance? This leads to the

gravitational, electric, and magnetic fields.

3
 2.1.3 The Electric Field
How does one particle sense the presence of the other?
The electric charge creates an electric field in the space
around it. A second charged particle does not interact
directly with the first; rather, it responds to whatever field it
encounters. In this sense, the field acts as an intermediary
between the particles. 媒介

Q q1 q2
F = F1 + F2 +  = ( 2
rˆ1 + 2
rˆ2 + ) = QE
4πε 0 r1 r2
n
1 q1 q2 1 qi
where E =
4πε 0
(
r12
rˆ1 +
r2 2
rˆ2 + ) = 
4πε 0 i =1 ri 2
rˆi

The electric field strength is defined as the force per

unit charge placed at that point.
4
Benson

Example
On a clear day there is an electric field of approximately
100 N/C directed vertically down at the earth’s surface.
Compare the electrical and gravitational forces on an
electron. 1 N C =1 V m 
Solution:
1 N⋅m =1 C⋅V =1 J
The magnitude of the electrical force is
Fe = eE = 1.6×10 ×100
−19 = 1.6×10−17 N. (upward)

The magnitude of the gravitational force is

Fg = mg = 9.11 × 10−31 × 9.8 = 8.9 × 10−30 N. (downward)

5
 2.1.4 Continuous Charge Distributions
In order to find the electric field due to a continuous distribution
of charge, one must divide the charge distribution into
infinitesimal elements of charge dq which may be considered to
be point charges.
1 dq 1 dq
dE =
4 πε 0 r 2
ˆ
r  E= 
4 πε 0 r 2
ˆ
r

Thus the electric field of a 1 λ (r' )

line charge is
E(r ) =
4πε 0  r 2
rˆ dl' ;
P
1 σ (r' )
for a surface charge, E(r ) =
4πε 0  r 2
rˆ da' ;
S
1 ρ (r' )
and for a volume charge, E(r ) =
4πε 0  r 2
rˆ dτ'.
V
6
Benson
Example 2.1
What is the field strength at a distance R from an infinite
line of charge with linear charge density λ C/m.
Solution:
Since the charge carrier is infinitely long,
the electric field in y-direction completely
cancels out. Thus the resultant field is
along the x-axis.
2
1 λ cos θ d  1 λ R sec θ cos θ dθ d  = d ( R tan θ )
dEx = 2
= 2
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 ( R sec θ )
2
1 λ cos θ dθ = R sec θ dθ
=
4πε 0 R r = R secθ
1 λ π /2 λ
Ex = 
4πε 0 R −π /2
cos θ d θ =
2πε 0 R
7
 Example
Non-conducting disk of radius a has a uniform surface
charge density σ C/m . What is the field strength at a
2

distance y from the center along the central axis.

Solution:
The y-component of the field is
kdq y
dE y = dE cos θ = 2
r r
2 2 2
where r = x + y and dq = σ (2π xdx)
a 2 xdx
E y = π kσ y 
0 ( x 2 + y 2 )3/2
2
a dx
= π kσ y  2 2 3/2
0 (x + y )
1 1 σ y
= 2π kσ y ( − )= (1 − )
y 2
y +a 2 2ε 0 2
y +a 2
8
 Example: Use cylindrical coordinates
Non-conducting disk of radius a has a uniform surface
charge density σ C/m . What is the field strength at a
2

distance z from the center along the central axis.

Solution: The z-component of the field is

Observer P = (0,0, z ) and sources (x′, y′,0)
 2 2 2 2
r = (− x′, − y′, z ), r = ( x′ + y′ + z )
x′ = r cos φ 2 2 2 2 2 2
y′ = r sin φ  r = ( x′ + y′ + z ) = r + z

kdq z
dE z = dE cos θ = 2 2 , where dq = σ (2π rdr )
(r + z ) (r 2 + z 2 )
2
a 2rdr a dr 1 1
E z = π kσ z  2 2 3/2
= π kσ z  2 2 3/2
= 2π kσ z ( − )
0 (r + z ) 0 (r + z ) 2 2 2
z z +a
σ z
= (1 − ), for z ≥ 0
2ε 0 2
z +a 2 9
 EM
2.2 Divergence and Curl of Electrostatics Fields Tsun-Hsu Chang
2.2.1 Field Lines, Flux, and Gauss’s Law 清華物理 張存續

How do we express the magnitude and vector properties of

the field strength?
The field strength at any point could be represented by an
arrow drawn to scale. However, when several charges are
present, the use of arrows of varying length and orientations
becomes confusing. Instead we represent the electric field by
continuous field lines or lines of force.

http://www.falstad.com/mathphysics.html 10
Benson
Field Lines
How do we determine the field strength from the field lines?
The lines are crowed together when the field is strong and
spread apart where the field is weak. The field strength is
proportional to the density of the lines.

11
Benson

Example
Sketch the field lines for two point charges 2q and –q.

Solution:

(a)Symmetry
(b)Near field
(c)Far field
(d)Null point
(e)Number of lines

12
 Flux
The electric flux ΦE through
this surface is defined as
Φ E = EA cos θ
= E⋅A

For a nonuniform electric field

Φ E =  E ⋅ nˆ da

13
Benson
Flux
Flux leaving a closed surface is positive, whereas flux
entering a closed surface is negative.
The net flux through the surface is zero if the number of
lines that enter the surface is equal to the number that
leave.

14
 Gauss’s Law
How much is the flux for a spherical Gaussian surface around
a point charge?
The total flux through this closed
Gaussian surface is

ΦE =  E ⋅ ˆ
n da
Q 2 Q
= 2
⋅ 4π r =
4πε 0 r ε0
The net flux through a closed surface equals 1/ε0 times the
net charge enclosed by the surface.

Can we prove the above statement for arbitrary closed shape?

15
 Gauss’s Law (II)
•The circle on the integral sign indicates that the Gaussian
surface must be enclosed.
•The flux through a surface is determined by the net charge
enclosed.

How do we apply Gauss’s law?

1. Use symmetry.
2. Properly choose a Gaussian surface (E//A or E⊥A).
16
 Turn Gauss’s Law
from integral equation into differential form
Qenc
S E ⋅ da = S E ⋅ nˆ da =
ε0
By applying the divergence theorem
Qenc 1
S E ⋅ nˆ da =  (∇ ⋅ E)dτ
v
and
ε0
=
ε0 
v
ρ dτ

1
So v
(∇ ⋅ E ) d τ =
ε0 
v
ρd τ
Since this holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal
1
∇⋅E = ρ Gauss’s Law in differential form.
ε0
17
 EM
2.2.2 The Divergence of Electric Field & Tsun-Hsu Chang
2.2.3 Application of Gauss’s Law 清華物理 張存續
The electric field can be expressed in the following form
1 dq 1 rˆ
E=
4 πε 0 all space r 2 4πε 0
ˆ
r = all space r 2
ρ ( r ′)dτ ′

Divergence of the electric field is

Why doesn’t the divergence
operator apply on the r′ coordinate?
1 rˆ
∇⋅E =
4πε 0 all space
(∇ ⋅
r 2
) ρ (r ' ) dτ '

rˆ 3 
Since (∇ ⋅ 2 ) = 4πδ ( r ),
r
1 1

3
∇⋅E = 4 πδ (r − r ' )ρ (r' ) dτ ' = ρ (r )
4πε 0 all space ε0

18
 Example 2.2
A non-conducting charged sphere of radius R has a total
charge Q uniformly distributed throughout its volume. Find
the field (a) inside, and (b) outside the sphere.
Solution:
(a) inside 3
4
Q 3πr
Φenc 1
E= ˆ =(
r ) ˆ
r
2 4 3 2
4π r ε 0 3 π R 4π r
Q
= r ˆ
r
3
4πε 0 R
(b) outside
Φ Q
E= ˆ
r = ˆ
r
4πr 2
4πε 0 r 2

19
Benson
Example 2.3
A long cylinder carries a charge density that is proportional
to the distance from the axis: ρ = ks, for some constant k.
Find the electric field inside the cylinder?
Solution:
Pick up a Gaussian surface as shown in the figure.
The total charge enclosed is
s 2
Qenc =   (ks′) s′ds′dφ = π k s 3
0 3
Qenc 1 2
E= = ks in sˆ direction
ε 0 2π s 3ε 0

http://www.falstad.com/mathphysics.html 20
Benson
Example 2.5
Find the field due to the following: (a) an infinite sheet of
charge with surface charge density +σ; (b) two parallel
infinite sheets with charges density +σ and −σ.
Solution:

21
 How to Choose a Good Gaussian Surface?

Gauss’s Law is always true, but it is not always useful.

Symmetry is crucial to the application of Gauss’s law.
There are only three kinds of symmetry that work:

1. Spherical symmetry: Make your Gaussian surface a

concentric sphere.
2. Cylindrical symmetry: Make your Gaussian surface a
coaxial cylinder.
3. Plane symmetry: Use a Gaussian “pillbox”, which
straddles the surface.

22
 2.2.4 The Curl of the Electric Field
The electric field can be expressed in the following form
1 rˆ −1 1
E=
4πε 0 all space r 2 ρ (r' ) dτ ' =
4πε 0 all space r
(∇ )ρ (r' ) dτ '

Why doesn’t the divergence operator

Curl of the electric field is apply on the r′ coordinate?
−1 1
∇×E = 
4πε 0 all space
(∇ × (∇
r
)) ρ (r' ) dτ '

Curl of gradient is always zero. ∴∇ × E = 0

The principle of superposition states that the total field is

a vector sum of their individual fields E = E1+E2+…

∇ × E = ∇ × (E1 + E 2 + ) = ∇ × E1 + ∇ × E 2 +  = 0
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 EM
2.3 Electric Potential Tsun-Hsu Chang
2.3.1&2 Introduction to and Comments on Potential 清華物理 張存續

Can we apply the concept of potential, first introduced in

mechanics, to electrostatic system and find the law of
conservation of energy?

We can define an electrostatic potential energy, analogous to

gravitational potential energy, and apply the law of
conservation of energy in the analysis of electrical problems.

Potential is not equal to the potential energy.

24
Benson
Mechanical Analogy of Potential
The motion of a particle with positive charge q in a uniform
electric field is analogous to the motion of a particle of mass
m in uniform gravitational field near the earth.
WEXT = + ΔU = U f − U i

If WEXT >0, work is done by the

external agent on the charges.
If WEXT <0, work is done on the
external agent by the field.

Potential energy depends not only on the “source” but also

on the “test” particle. Thus it will be more convenient if we
can define a potential function which is function of “source”
only. 25
 The Unit of Potential: Volt
When a charge q moves between two points in the
electrostatic field, the change in electric potential, ΔV, is
defined as the change in electrostatic potential energy per
unit charge, ΔU
ΔV =
q
The SI unit of electric potential is the volt (V).
1 V = 1 J/C = 1 N ⋅ m/C
The quantity ΔV depends only on the field set up by the
source charges, not on the test charge.

WEXT = qΔV = q(V f − Vi )

26
Benson

Only Changes in Potential are Significant

We see that only changes in potential ΔV, rather than the
specific value of Vi and Vf, are significant.
It is convenient to choose the ground connection to earth as
the zero of potential.

The potential at a point is the external work needs to bring

a positive unit charge, at constant speed, from the position
of zero potential to the given point.

In an external electric field, both positive and negative

charges tend to decrease the electrostatic potential energy.
Which side will a charge particle drift if it is in the middle of
two conducting plates with potential difference, higher or
lower potential side? −V +V
27
 Potential is Conservative
In mechanics, the definition of potential energy in terms of
the work done by the conservative force is ΔU = –Wc.. The
negative sign tells us that positive work by the conservative
force leads to a decrease in potential energy.
Therefore, the change in potential energy, associated with an
infinitesimal displacement ds, is
dU = −Fc ⋅ ds = −qE ⋅ ds
dU
dV = = −E ⋅ ds
q
B
VB − VA = −  E ⋅ ds
A
Since the electrostatic field is conservative, the value of
this line integral depends only on the end points A and B,
not on the path taken. 28
 Differential form of Potential
The fundamental theorem of gradient states that
B
VB − VA =  (∇V ) ⋅ ds
A
B
and VB − VA = −  E ⋅ ds so E = −∇V
A

The electric field E is a very special kind of vector function

whose curl is always zero.

∇ × E = −(∇ × ∇V ) = 0
It is often easier to analyze a physical situation in terms of
potential, which is a scalar, rather than the electric field,
which is a vector.
29
Benson
Example 2.6 Find the potential inside and outside a
spherical shell of radius R, which carries a uniform surface
charge. Set the reference point at infinity.
Sol: Use the Gauss's law to find the electric field
and then use the electric field to calculate the potential.
 Inside (r < R) E=0
 q
 outside (r > R) E =
 4 πε 0 r 2

r r q
V ( r ) = −  E ⋅ dl = −  (rˆ ⋅ rˆ )dr'
∞ ∞ 4πε r' 2
0

q r q
= = (r > R )
4πε 0 r' ∞ 4 πε 0 r
q
and V (r ) = (r ≤ R )
4 πε 0 R 30
 2.3.3 Poisson’s Equation and Laplace’s Equation

The electric field can be written as the gradient of a scalar

potential.
E = −∇V
What do the fundamental equations for E looks like,
in terms of V?
ρ 2
Gauss' s law ∇ ⋅ E = −(∇ ⋅ ∇V ) = −∇ V =
ε0
Curl law ∇ × E = −(∇ × ∇V ) = 0

∇ × E = 0 permits E = −∇V ;
in turn, E = −∇V guarantees ∇ × E = 0
31
 EM
Tsun-Hsu Chang
2.3.4 The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution 清華物理 張存續

Setting the reference point at infinity, the potential of a point

charge q at the origin is
r
−1 r q 1 q 1 q
V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∞ r' 2 dr' =
4πε 0 r' ∞
=
4πε 0 r
The conventional minus sign in the definition of V was
chosen precisely in order to make the potential of a positive
charge come out positive.

32
 The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution

In general, the potential of a collection of charges is

n n
1 qi 1 qi
V (r ) =
4πε 0
 r = 4πε  r − ri′
i =1 i 0 i =1
For a continuous distribution
1 dq 1 dq
V (r ) =
4πε 0  r 4πε 0
=  r − r'
For a volume charge ρ; a surface charge σ; a line charge λ.
1 ρ (r' ) 1 σ (r' ) 1 λ (r' )
V (r ) =
4πε 0  r
dτ ' =
4πε 0  r
da' =
4πε 0  r
dl'

1 ρ (r' ) 1 σ (r' ) 1 λ (r' )

= 
4πε 0 r − r'
dτ ' = 
4πε 0 r − r'
da' = 
4πε 0 r − r'
dl'
33
Benson
Example
A non-conducting disk of radius a has a uniform surface
charge density σ C/m . What is the potential at a point P
2

on the axis of the disk at a distance y from its center.

Solution:
dq
dV = , dq = σ (2π xdx)
4πε 0 r
σπ 2
dV = dx
2 2
4πε 0 x + y
a σπ 2
V = dx
0 2 2
4πε 0 x + y
x2 =a2
σ  2 2 σ  2 2 
= x +y = a +y − y
2ε 0   0 2ε 0  

34
Benson

Example 2.6 Example

A shell of radius R has a charge Q uniformly distributed
over its surface. Find the potential at a distance r >R from
its center.
Solution:
It is more straightforward to use the electric field, which we
know from Gauss’s law.
Q r Q 1  1
r
E= ˆ
r V ( r ) − V (∞ ) = −  dr = − Q −
4πε 0 r 2
∞ 4πε r 2 4πε  r 
0 0  ∞
Q
V (r ) =
4πε 0 r
The potential has a fixed value at all points within the
conducting sphere equal to the potential at the surface.
35
2.3.5 Summary; Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

We have derived six formulas

interrelating three fundamental
quantities: ρ, E, and V.

These equations are obtained from two observations:

•Coulomb’s law: the fundamental law of electrostatics
•The principle of superposition: a general rule applying to
all electromagnetic forces.

36
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions: Normal
The electric field is not continuous at a surface with charge
density σ. Why?

Consider a Gaussian pillbox.

Qenc σA
Gauss’s law states that
S E ⋅ da =
ε0
=
ε0
The sides of the pillbox contribute nothing to the flux, in the
limit as the thickness ϵ goes to zero.

σA σ
(E ⊥
above −E ⊥
below )A =  ( Eabove − Ebelow ) =
⊥ ⊥

ε0 ε0
37
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions: Tangential
The tangential component of E, by contrast,
is always continuous.

Consider a thin rectangular loop.

The curl of the electric field states that P E ⋅ dl = 0

The ends give nothing (as ϵ 0), and the sides give

// // // //
( Eabove − Ebelow ) = 0  Eabove = Ebelow

σ
In short, Eabove − Ebelow = nˆ
ε0
38
 Boundary Conditions in terms of potential

σ σ
Eabove − Ebelow = nˆ  (∇Vabove − ∇Vbelow ) = − nˆ
ε0 ε0
∂Vabove ∂Vbelow σ
or ( − )=−
∂n ∂n ε0
∂Vabove
where ( ≡ ∇V ⋅ nˆ ) denotes the normal derivative of V .
∂n

Vabove = Vbelow Why?

If Vabove ≠ Vbelow , σ = ∞.
39
 Homework of Chap. 2 (part I)
3ˆ
Problem 2.9 Suppose the electric field in some region is found to be E = kr r, in
spherical coordinates (k is some constant).
(a) Find the charge density ρ .
(b) Find the total charge contained in a sphere of radius R, centered at the origin.
(Do it two different ways.)

Problem 2.12 Use Gauss's law to find the electric field inside a uniformly charged
solid sphere (charge density ρ ). Compare your answer to Prob. 2.8.

Problem 2.15 A thick spherical shell carries charge density

k
ρ = 2 (a ≤ r ≤ b)
r
(Fig. 2.25). Find the electric field in the three regions: (i) r < a, (ii) a < r < b, (iii)
r > b. Plot |E| as a function of r , for the case b = 2a.

40
 Homework of Chap. 2 (part I)
Problem 2.20 One of these is an impossible electrostatic field. Which one?
(a) E = k[xy xˆ + 2yz yˆ + 3xz zˆ ];
2 2
(b) E = k [y x + (2xy + z )yˆ + 2yz zˆ ]
ˆ
Here k is a constant with the appropriate units. For the possible one, find the potential,
using the origin as your reference point. Check your answer by computing .∇V .
[Hint: You must select a specific path to integrate along. It doesn't matter what path
you choose, since the answer is path-independent, but you simply cannot integrate
unless you have a definite path in mind.]
Problem 2.25 Using Eqs. 2.27 and 2.30, find the potential at a distance z above the
center of the charge distributions in Fig. 2.34. In each case, compute E = −∇V , and
compare your answers with Ex. 2.1, Ex. 2.2, and Prob. 2.6, respectively. Suppose
that we changed the right-hand charge in Fig. 2.34a to − q; what then is the potential
at P? What field does that suggest? Compare your answer to Prob. 2.2, and explain
carefully any discrepancy.

41
 EM
2.4 Work and Energy in Electrostatics Tsun-Hsu Chang
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge 清華物理 張存續

How much work will you have to do, if

you move a test charge Q from point a
to point b?

What we’re interested is the minimum force you must exert

to do the job.
b b
W = −  F ⋅ dl = −Q  E ⋅ dl = Q(V (b) − V (a))
a a

So V (b) − V (a) = W / Q
The potential difference between points a and b is equal to
the work per unit charge required to carry a particle from a
to b.
42
 2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution

How much work would it take to

assemble an entire collection of point
charges?
1 q1 1 q1 q2
W1 = 0, W2 = q2 ( ) , W3 = q3 ( + )
4πε 0 r12 4πε 0 r13 r23
1 q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3
W= ( + + )
4πε 0 r12 r13 r23
n n qi q j n n qi q j
1 1
The general rule: W = 
4πε 0 i =1 j =1 rij
= 
8πε 0 i =1 j =1 rij
j >i j ≠i
n n qj n
1 1 1
=  qi (  r ) = 2  qiVi (ri )
2 i =1 4πε 0 j =1 ij i =1
j ≠i 43
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge Distribution

Generalizing the point charge distribution result:

1 1
dWi = (dqi )Vi (ri ) = ρ iVi (ri )(dτ )
2 2
1 1 ε0
W =  ρVdτ =  (ε 0∇ ⋅ E)Vdτ =  (∇ ⋅ E)Vdτ
2 2 2

Integration by parts: ∇ ⋅ (VE) = (∇V ) ⋅ E + (∇ ⋅ E)V

ε0 ε0  
W=
2  (∇ ⋅ E )Vdτ =

2
( −∇ V ) ⋅ E dτ +  (V E ) ⋅ d a

ε0  2 
=
2  E dτ +  (V E )
S
⋅ d a
 divergence theorem
ε0
 τ 2
W= E d
2 all space 44
 Potential and Potential Energy: Motion of Charges
The motion of a charge in an electric field may be discussed
in terms of the conservation of energy, ΔK+ΔU = 0. In terms
of potential, the conservation law may be written as
ΔK = −qΔV
It is convenient to measure the energy of elementary
particles, such as electrons and protons, in terms of a non-SI
unit called the electronvolt (1 eV = 1.6x10 −19 J).

According to Einstein famous E = mc2, find the energy in terms

of eV for an electron of rest mass 9.1×10 −31 kg, where the
speed of light is 3×108 m/s.
E = 9.1×10−31×(3x108)2/1.6×10 −19 = 0.511 MeV
45
 Example
A proton, of mass 1.67x10−27
kg, enters the region between
parallel plates a distance 20 cm apart. There is a uniform
electric field of 3x10 V/m between the plates, as shown below.
5

If the initial speed of the proton is 5x106 m/s, what is its final
speed?
Solution:
4
ΔK = −qΔV = −q (− E ⋅ d ) = q ⋅ (6 ×10 )
1 2 1 2
mv f − mvi = − qΔV
2 2
2
vf = vi − 2qΔV / m
6 2 −19 4 −27
= (5 × 10 ) + (2 × 1.6 × 10 × 6 × 10 /1.67 ×10 )
6
= 6 × 10 m/s.

46
Benson

Potential and Potential Energy of Point Charges

47
Benson
Example
In 1913, Bohr proposed a model of the hydrogen atom in
which an electron orbits a stationary proton in a circular
path. Find the total mechanical energy of the electron given
that the radius of the orbit is 0.53x10-10 m.
Solution:
The mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies, E = K+U. The centripetal force is
provided by the coulomb attraction.
2
e
U =−
4πε 0r
2 2 2
e mv 1 2 e
F= 2
=  K = mv =
4πε 0r r 2 8πε 0r
9 −19 2
1 9 × 10 × (1.6 × 10 ) −18
E =U + K = U = − −10
= − 2.18 × 10 J = − 13.6 eV
2 2 × 0.53 × 10 48
 Example
A metal sphere of radius R has a charge Q. Find its
potential energy.
Solution:

q
dW = Vdq = dq
4πε 0 R
2
Q q Q
W = dq =
0 4πε 0 R 8πε 0 R

The potential energy U = 1/2QV

is the work needed to bring the
system of charges together.

49
 2.4.4 Comments on Electrostatic Energy

(i) A perplexing “inconsistency” ΔK = −qΔV

ε0
 τ 2
W= E d ≥ 0 Which equation is correct?
2 all space

1 n Both equations are correct.

W =  qiVi (ri ) ≥ or ≤ 0
2 i =1
∗The energy required to assemble the charges qi.

Why is the energy of a point charge infinite?

ε0 2 ε0 ∞ q 2 2
W=
2  E dτ =
2 0
(
4πε 0 r 2
) ( r sin θ drdθ d ϕ ) = ∞
all space
Does it make sense? No
50
 Comments on Electrostatic Energy

(ii) Where is the energy stored?

ε0 1 n
W=  ( E ) dτ
2
W =  qiVi (ri )
all space
2 2 i =1
It is unnecessary to worry about where the energy
is located.
(iii) Superposition principle is not valid, because the
electrostatic energy is quadratic in the fields.
ε0 ε0
 τ  τ
2 2
W= E d = ( E1 + E 2 ) d
2 all space
2 all space

ε0
 τ
2 2
= ( E +
1 E + 2
2 E1 ⋅ E 2 ) d
2 all space
51
 EM
2.5 Conductor Tsun-Hsu Chang
2.5.1 Basic Properties 清華物理 張存續

E = 0 inside a conductor

ρ = 0 inside a conductor

Any net charge resides on the surface

A conductor is equipotential

E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor.

※ The correctness of the above statements depends on the size

and the conductivity of the metal, and the frequency of the wave.
52
 Charge Redistribution

Suppose two charged metal spheres with radius R1 and R2

are connected by a long wire. Charge will flow from one to
the other until their potential are equal. The equality of the
potential implies that

Q1 Q2
= , since Q = 4πR σ
2

R1 R2
σ 1 R1 = σ 2 R2
We infer that the surface charge density on each sphere is
inversely proportional to the radius.
The regions with the smallest radii of curvature have the
greatest surface charge densities.
53
 Discharge at Sharp Points on a Conductor

σ 1
E= ∝
ε0 R

The above equation infers that the field strength is greatest

at the sharp points on a conductor.
If the field strength is great enough (about 3×106 V/m for dry
air) it can cause an electrical discharge in air.

How does the breakdown occur in high voltage transmission

line?

54
 Dust Causing High Voltage Breakdown

The potential at the surface of a charged sphere is V = kQ/R

and the field strength is E = kQ/R . So, for a given breakdown
2

field strength, breakdown voltage is proportional to the

radius, VB ∝ R.
The potential of a sphere of radius 10 cm may be raised to
3x10 V before breakdown. On the other hand, a 0.05 mm
5

dust particle can initiate a discharge at 150 V.

A high voltage system must keep at very clean condition.

55
 2.5.2 Induced Charges
Induced charge
on metal sphere

If there is some cavity in the conductor, and within that

cavity there is some charge, then the field in the cavity will
not be zero.

No external fields penetrate the conductor; they are

canceled at the outer surface by the induced charge there.

56
2.5.3 Surface Charge and Force on a Conductor
Using energy density viewpoint
In the immediate neighborhood of the surface, the
energy is
ε0 ε0 σ 2
dW = ( E )dτ = ( ( ) )dadx = fdadx
2

2 2 ε0
σ2
f = ←
⎯⎯ the force per unit area
2ε 0
This amounts to an outward electrostatic pressure on
the surface, tending to draw the charge into the field,
regardless of the sign of σ.
ε0 σ
2
2
P= E =
2 2ε 0
57
 2.5.4 Capacitors
The magnitude of the charge Q stored on either plate of a
capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference V
between the plates. Therefore, we may write

Q = CV
Where C is a constant of proportionality
called the capacitance of the capacitor.
The SI unit of a capacitance is the farad
(F). 1 Farad =1 coulomb/volt

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the geometry

of the plates (their size, shape, and relative positions) and
the medium (such as air, paper, or plastic) between them.
What are supercapacitors/ultracapacitors? 58
 Parallel-plate capacitor
A common arrangement found in capacitors consists of two
plates. σ Q Qd ε0 A
E= =  V = Ed = ∴ C=
ε0 ε0 A ε0 A d
-12
where ε 0 is 8.85 × 10 F / m.

Example 2.10 A parallel-plate capacitor with a plate separation

of 1 mm has a capacitance of 1 F. What is the area of each
plate?
−3
Cd1×10 8 2
A= = = 1 .13 × 10 m
ε 0 8.85 ×10 −12
59
Benson
Example
What is the capacitance of an isolated sphere of radius R?

Solution:

Q
V=  C = 4πε 0 R
4πε 0 R

If we assume that earth is a conducting sphere of radius

6370 km, then its capacitance would be 710 uF.
Is earth a good capacitor? No.

60
Benson
Example
A spherical capacitor consists of two concentric conducting
spheres, as shown in the figure. The inner sphere, of radius
R1, has charge +Q, while the outer shell of radius R2, has
charge –Q. Find its capacitance.
Solution:
Q R2 Q 1 1
E= 2
 V = − Edr = ( − )
4πε 0 r R1 4πε 0 R2 R1
R1R2
C = −4πε 0 ( )
R2 − R1

The capacitance happens to be negative quantity.

Why we are interested only in its magnitude?

61
Benson
Example
A cylindrical capacitor consists of a central conductor of
radius a surrounded by a cylindrical shell of radius b, as
shown below. Find the capacitance of a length L assuming
that air is between the plates.
Solution: λL λ
Er = = Q
ε 0 2π rL 2πε 0 r
b λ b
Vr = −  Er dr = − ln( )
a 2πε 0 a
Q b
=− ln( )
2πε 0 L a
2πε 0 L
C=−
ln(b / a )

Again, we are interested only in the magnitude of

the capacitance. 62
 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The energy stored in a capacitor is equal to the work done---

for example, by a battery---to charge it.
The work needed to transfer an infinitesimal charge dq from
the negative plate to the positive plate is dW = Vdq = q/Cdq.
The total work done to transfer charge Q is
2 2
Q q Q CV
W = dq = = cf. p.44 and p.59
0 C 2C 2

What kind of the potential energy does this work convert?

Electric potential energy.

63
 Homework of Chap. 2 (part II)
Problem 2.36 Consider two concentric spherical shells, of radii a and b. Suppose
the inner one carries a charge q, and the outer one a charge − q (both of them
uniformly distributed over the surface). Calculate the energy of this configuration,
(a) using Eq. 2.45, and (b) using Eq. 2.47 and the results of Ex. 2.9.
Problem 2.39 Two spherical cavities, of radii a and b, are hollowed out from the
interior of a (neutral) conducting sphere of radius R (Fig. 2.49). At the center of
each cavity a point charge is placed − call these charges qa and qb .
(a) Find the surface charge densities σ a ,σ b ,and σ R .
(b) What is the field outside the conductor?
(c) What is the field within each cavity?
(d) What is the force on qa and qb?

Problem 2.43 Find the capacitance per unit length of two coaxial metal
cylindrical tubes, of radii a and b (Fig. 2.53).

Problem 2.50 The electric potential of some configuration is given by the expression
−λ r
e
V (r ) = A ,
r
where A and λ are constants. Find the electric field E(r ), the charge density ρ (r ),
3 2 −λ r
and the total charge Q. [Answer: ρ = ε 0 A(4πδ (r ) − λ e /r )]
64
 Homework of Chap. 2 (part II)
Problem 2.53 In a vacuum diode, electrons are "boiled" off a hot cathode, at potential
zero, and accelerated across a gap to the anode, which is held at positive potential V0 .
The cloud of moving electrons within the gap (called space charge) quickly builds up
to the point where it reduces the field at the surface of the cathode to zero. From then
on, a steady current I flows between the plates.
2
Suppose the plates are large relative to the separation (A  d in Fig. 2.55), so
that edge effects can be neglected. Then V , ρ , and v (the speed of the electrons) are
all functions of x alone.
(a) Write Poisson's equation for the region between the plates.
(b) Assuming the electrons start from rest at the cathode, what is their speed at point
x, where the potential is V (x)?
(c) In the steady state, I is independent of x. What, then, is the relation between
ρ and v ?
(d) Use these three results to obtain a differential equation for V , by eliminating
ρ and v.
(e) Solve this equation for V as a function of x, V0 , and d . Plot V (x), and compare
it to the potential without space-charge. Also, find ρ and v as functions of x.
3/2
(f) Show that I= KV0 , (2.56)
and find the constant K . (Equation 2.56 is called the Child - Langmuir law.
It holds for other geometries as well, whenever space-charge limits the current.
Notice that the space-charge limited diode is nonlinear − it does not obey Ohm's
law.) 65