HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

Pilot 5 Hazardous Attitudes / Antidotes

1. Anti Authority - “Don’t tell me.”

Antidote: Follow the rules, they are usually
right.
2. Impulsivity – “Do it quickly.”
Antidote: Not so fast. Think first.
3. Invulnerability – “It won’t happen to me.”
Antidote: It could happen to me.
4. Macho – “I can do it.”
Antidote: Taking chances is foolish.
5. Resignation – “What’s the use?”
Antidote: I’m not helpless. I can make a
difference.
AIRLAW Scheduled Flights – a flight for which an agreement
has been reached between signatory states as
PCAR (Philippine Civil Aviation Regulations)
regards to the schedule.
1. General Policies, Procedures and Definitions
Non-Scheduled Flights – flights not flown on a
2. Personnel Licensing
regular basis (such as charter flights)
3. Approved Training Organizations
4. Aircraft Registration and Marking Cabotage – transfer of goods or passengers between
5. Airworthiness two points in the same country.
6. Approved Maintenance Organization
Sovereignty – right of a country or ICAO contracting
7. Instrument
state to impose national law to users of the state’s
and Equipment
territorial airspace.
8. Operations
9. Air Operator Certification and Suzerainty – acceptance by a state of all rules and
Administration regulations agreed by a common consent at
10. Commercial Air Transport by Foreign Air international conventions without compromising
Carriers within the Republic of the sovereignty
Philippines
11. Aerial Work and Operating Limitations for Visual Flight Rules (VFR) – unless authorized by ATC,
Non-Type Certificated Aircraft VFR flights are prohibited:
13. Accident & Incident Reporting and
1. Cloud ceiling is below 1,500 ft.
Investigation
2. Ground visibility is less than 5km.
18. Transportation of Dangerous Goods by Air
3. Above FL285 where RVSM is applied
Annexes – are agreements and not mandatory 4. Over congesoted areas at a height less than
1,000 feet above the highest obstacle and
Laws – are state rules & regulations and are within a 6Nm radius from the aircraft
mandatory 5. Height not less than 500 ft above ground /
water
SARPS – standards and recommended practices
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) – exist when VMC
PANS – procedures for air navigation services
doesn’t
Freedoms of the Air
1. Pilot should be qualified to fly IMC
1. st
1 Freedom – Privilege to fly across the 2. Aircraft should be equipped to fly IMC
territory of another participating state 3. Minimums – except for takeoff and landing
without landing or when authorized by ATC, IFT flights shall
2. 2nd Freedom – Privilege to land in another be flown below MSA
participating state for non-traffic purposes
Half Moon Principle (NOSE)
(refueling / repair but not for passengers
nor cargo) 1. VFR Flights – N (000 to 179): Odd +500 / S
3. 3rd Freedom – privilege to put down, in (180 to 359): Even + 500
another state, traffic taken on from the 2. IFR Flights – N (000 to 179): Odd / S (180 to
state of registration 359): Even
4. 4th Freedom – privilege to take on, from
another state, traffic destined to the state of Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) –
registration separation for IFR flights between FL290 and FL410 is
5. 5th Freedom – privilege for an airline 1,000 ft. Aircraft should be equipped with TCAS.
registered in one state en-route to or from
that state to take on traffic in a second state
and put them down on a third state
Special VFR (SVFR) – VFR flight with conditions Light Gun Signals
below BMC but is cleared by ATC to fly into, out of or
within a CTR. Ground visibility should not be less Light Air Ground
Cleared for
than 1,500m. Flight visibility not less than 3,000m. Steady Green Cleared to Land
Takeoff
Continue
Proximity & Right of Way Steady Red Stop
Circling
1. Approaching Head On – each aircraft shall Return for
Green Flashes Cleared to Taxi
Landing
veer to the RIGHT
Unsafe, do not Taxi clear of the
2. Converging Aircrafts – aircraft on the RIGHT Ref Flashes
land runway
has the Right of Way Return to the
3. Heavier than air aircrafts shall give way to White Flashes N/A starting point on
airships, gliders and balloons the aerodrome
4. Lighter than air aircrafts shall give way to Red Alternating Exercise Exercise
Green extreme caution extreme caution
gliders and balloons.
5. Gliders shall give way to balloons
6. Power driven aircraft shall give way to ALERTING SERVICE
aircrafts towing another aircraft.
7. An aircraft being overtaken has the right of 1. Incerfa – uncertainty phase
way. The airplane overtaking shall keep out  Stage wherein no communication
of the way of the other aircraft altering its has been received from an aircraft
course to the right and if necessary, climb or for 30 mins. Or fails to arrive within
descend. 30 mins. of the EET.
2. Alerfa – alert phase
Distress – an aircraft in grave and imminent danger  Declared following the uncertainty
requiring immediate assistance. “mayday mayday phase.
mayday”  Subsequent attempts to make
communication have failed and no
Urgency – a condition concerning the safety of an
further news of the aircraft
aircraft, or of someone on board within sight, but
 Aircraft fails to land within 5 mins.
which do not require immediate assistance. “pan
upon receiving clearance.
pan, pan pan, pan pan”
 Info has been received regarding
Transponder Emergency Codes aircraft operating efficiency is
impaired.
1. g – Civil Emergency  Aircraft was reported to experience
2. 7600 – Communications Failure unlawful interference.
3. 7500 – Unlawful Interference / Hi Jack 3. Destresfa – distress phase
 Declared following the alert phase
 Further attempts at
communication have failed and
widespread info indicate the
probability that the aircraft is in
distress.
 Fuel on board is considered to be
exhausted.
 Info has been received that the
aircraft is about to or has made a
forced landing.
Aerodrome – place on the surface of the earth where rata share of the operating expenses
aircrafts takeoff and land involves only fuel, oil, airport expenditures,
or rental fees; any simulated engine failures
Movement Area – part of the aerodrome intended
and emergency landings, and an in-flight
for aircraft movement including the maneuvering
simulation of abnormal situations are
area, apron and other parts of the aerodrome
prohibited when carrying passengers.
provided for aircraft maintenance.
Commercial Pilot License
Maneuvering Area – part of the aerodrome intended
for takeoff, landing, and movement of aircraft 1. Age: not less than 18 years old
excluding the apron and other parts of aerodrome 2. Holds a current class 1 medical certificate
used for aircraft maintenance. Basically, movement 3. Shall have completed not less than 200
area excluding apron. hours of flight time, or 150 hours if
completed during an authority approved
Apron – part of the aerodrome intended for loading
training course provided for in an approved
of passengers, cargo and refuelling.
training organization
4. 100 hours as PIC, or in the case of an ATO,
70 hours
Aerodrome Lights 5. 20hours of cross-country flight time as PIC
including a cross-country flight totaling not
1. White – Runway Center Line; Lights and
less than 540km (300NM) in the course of
Runway Edge Lights
which full-stop landings at two different
2. Blue – Taxiway Edge Lights
aerodromes shall be made
3. Green – Taxiway Center Line Lights
6. Privileges – all privileges of a PPL, to act as
4. Red – Stop Bar Lights
PIC in any airplane engaged in operations
5. Yellow – Intermediate Holding Position Light
other than commercial air transport, to act
Student Pilot License as PIC in commercial air transportation in
any airplane certified for single pilot
1. Age: not less than 16 years old operation; to act as co-pilot in commercial
2. Holds at least a class 2 medical certificate air transportation in airplanes required to
3. Validity: 2 years be operated with a co pilot
4. Privileges – ability to log training, no
passenger carrying, cannot act as PIC Medical Licenses
without specific endorsement from an
1. Class 1 – ATPL, MPL< CPL
authorized instructor
if Below 40 years old
Private Pilot License  ATPL – 6 months
 CPL, MPL – 1 year
1. Age: not less than 17 years old
2. Holds a current class 2 medical certificate If Above 40 years old
3. 40 hours flight time
 ATPL, CPL and MPL – 6 months
4. 5 hours in simulator
2. Class 2 – PPL, SPL
5. Not less than 10 hours of solo time
Below 40 years old
6. 5 hours of cross-country time with 1 flight
 PPL, SPL – 2 years
with a total of 150NM distance with full
Above 40 years old
stops at 2 different aerodromes.
 PPL, SPL – 1 year
7. 20 hours of dual instruction time
8. Validity: 5 years
9. Privileges – may act as PIC for an aircraft
which he/she is rated on, passenger
carrying authorized, not less than the pro-
AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 5. Powerplant – includes both the engine and
propeller. Engine primarily functions to
Categories of Aircrafts
provide power to the propeller, but also to
1. Airplane provide electric power and vacuum for
2. Glider some flight instruments and source of heat
3. Rotorcraft for the pilot and passengers. The propeller
4. Lighter than Air is a rotating airfoil that produces thrust
through aerodynamic actions.
Categories of Airplanes & Load Factors
Primary Flight Controls
1. Normal – 3.8 G
2. Utility – 4.4 G 1. Ailerons – extend from about the midpoint
3. Acrobatic – 6 G of each wing outward toward the tip, and
move in opposite directions to create
Classes of Airplanes aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane
to roll.
1. Single Engine – Land
2. Rudder – attached to the back of the
2. Multi Engine – Land
vertical stabilizer and is used to move the
3. Single Engine – Sea
airplane’s nose left and right.
4. Multi Engine – Sea
3. Elevator – attached to the back of the
Types of Aircraft Construction horizontal stabilizer and is used to move the
nose of the airplane up and down.
1. Truss Structure
2. Monocoque Secondary Flight Controls
3. Semi Monocoque – consists of formers,
1. Flaps – extend outward from the fuselage to
stringers, skin and bulkhead
near the midpoint of the trailing edge of
4. Composite
each wing. When extended, increases the
Major Components of an Aircraft lifting force of the wings. A C172 has a
slotted type of flaps.
1. Fuselage – central body of an airplane 2. Slats – high lift devices on the leading edge
designed to accommodate the crew, of the wings that increases lift during low-
passengers and cargo. speed operations.
2. Wings – airfoils attached to each side of the 3. Slots – a fixed feature at the leading edge of
fuselage and are the main lifting services the wing that reduces the stall speed and
that support the airplane in flight. promote good low-speed handling qualities
Composed of Spar, Ribs, Stringers and Skin. 4. Spoilers – set on the upper surface of the
3. Empennage – includes the entire tail group wing to spoil or reduce lift.
such as the vertical stabilizer, horizontal
stabilizer, rudder, elevator and trim tabs. Reciprocating Engine Designs
4. Landing Gear – principal support of the
1. Spark Ignition – uses a spark plug to ignite a
airplane when parked, taxiing, taking off
pre-mixed fuel and air mixture
and landing. It consists of three wheels –
2. Compression Ignition – compresses the air
two main and one positioned at the front or
in the cylinder, raising its temperature to a
rear of the airplane.
degree necessary for automatic ignition
when fuel is introduced into the cylinder.
Main Parts of the Reciprocating Engine Induction System

1. Piston – compresses fuel / air mixture. 1. Fuel / Air Ratio – ratio of fuel to air by
Receives the chemical energy from weight entering the cylinder
expansion of gases. 2. Properly Leaned Engines
2. Connecting Rod – simply connects the  better engine performance
piston and crankshaft  better fuel efficiency
3. Crankshaft – converts the energy from 3. Mixture too Lean
piston into rotary motion  high engine temperature
4. Intake Valve – introduction of fuel and air  lower engine power output
mixture  rough engine
5. Exhaust Valve – Removal of burned gasses  detonation & pre-ignition
6. Spark Plug – for ignition 4. Mixture too rich
 Lower engine power output
Otto Cycles / 4 Stroke Cycles
 High fuel consumption
1. Intake  Fouling of spark plugs
 Intake valve opens
Magnetos – part of Engine Ignition System
 Pistons start its downward travel
 Fuel / air mixture is drawn to the  engine driven and uses a permanent
cylinders magnet to generate electrical current
2. Compression  generates high voltage to jump a spark
 Intake valve closes across the spark plug in each cylinder
 Piston starts moving back to the  continues to operate whenever the
top of cylinder to compress the crankshaft is rotating
fuel and air mixture
Fuel Types
3. Power
 Fuel / air mixture is ignited 1. AVGas 80 – Red, low lead content
 Causes a tremendous pressure 2. AVGas 100 – Green, high lead content
increase in the cylinder forcing the 3. AVGas 100LL – Blue, low lead content
piston to move downward away 4. Jet – Colorless
from the cylinder head
 Power that is being created turns / Fuel System
move the crankshaft
1. Gravity & Pump Fed – provide an
4. Exhaust
uninterrupted flow of clean fuel from the
 Exhaust valve opens
fuel tanks to the engine
 Piston starts to move toward the
2. Gravity-feed System – utilizes the force of
cylinder head
gravity to transfer fuel
 Exhaust gases are vented out the
3. Fuel-pump System – the main fuel pump
Cylinder
system is engine driven
Fuel Related Problems Disadvantages

1. Pre-ignition – ignition of the fuel / air  Difficulty in starting a hot engine

mixture ahead of the spark provided by the  Vapor locks during ground operations on
park plugs. hot days
Causes  Problem associated with restarting an
 Unburned carbon deposits in the engine that quits because of fuel starvation
cylinder creates hotspots which
Vapor Lock – prominend in fuel injected aircraft after
ignite the mixture
shutting down the engine; atomized fuel evaporates
 Using a lower than prescribed
into the fuel lines, preventing fuel from reaching the
octane rating
engine during start-up. Solution is to use an auxiliary
Solution
fuel pump.
 Proper leaning
 Proper maintenance and Aircraft Oil System
inspection intervals
2. Detonation – uncontrolled / instantaneous Dry Sump System – oil is contained in a separate tank
explosive ignition of the fuel / air mixture in and circulated through the engine by pumps.
the combustion chamber.
Wet Sump System – oil is carried in a sump that’s
Causes
already part of the engine then drawn by the oil
 Using a lower than prescribed
pump and routes it to the engine.
octane rating
 High engine temperatures Aircraft Oil Properties
 Excessively lean mixtures
Solution  High Viscosity
 Keep cowl flaps open on the  High Flash Point
ground  Low Carbon Content
 Proper grade of fuel to be used  Low Pour Points
 Use rich fuel settings during takeoff Functions of Engine Oil
and initial climb
 Avoid high power and steep climb  Friction Reduction
3. Fuel Contamination due to Condensation –  Cooling
empty space inside the fuel container  Removal of Contaminants
contains moisture that condenses when  Sealing
outside air temperature cools.
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
Solution
 Refilling the fuel tanks to full levels  Temperature at sea level is 15 deg. C.
at the end of each day  Sea level pressure is 29.29 in HG or 1013.2
HPa.
Fuel Injection
 Adiabatic lapse rate is -2 deg. C. per 1,000
Fuel Injection System – the fuel is injected directly feet increase in altitude.
into the cylinders, or just ahead of the intake valve  Rate of pressure decrease is 1 in HG per
1,000 feet increase in altitude.
Advantages  Atmosphere Structure – 78% Nitrogen, 21%
 Reduction in evaporative icing Oxygen, 1% others such as Argon and
 Better fuel flow & distribution Helium. Most of atmosphere’s oxygen is
 Faster throttle response contained below 35,000 feet altitude.
 Precise control of mixture
 Easier cold weather starts
Basic Aircraft Instruments
Static Pressure – pressure exerted by air around us, increase in altitude, increase in pressure = decrease
in all directions. in altitude

Static Port – port located outside the fuselage that  Crosshatch – below 1,000 ft. indication
measures static pressure.  Kollsman Window – tells the altimeter
where the “zero” setting.
Dynamic Pressure – pressure exerted by air resisting
 Types of Altitude
your motion through it
o Indicated Altitude – height above
Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure sea level as read on an altimeter
o Pressure Altitude – reading on the
Pitot Tube – measures TOTAL pressure altimeter when it is set to 29.92 in
Pitot – Static System Instruments Hg
o Density Altitude – pressure altitude
Airspeed Indicator – displays airspeed information. It corrected for temperature
measures the difference between total pressure and o True Altitude – exact height above
static pressure. sea level
o Absolute Altitude – actual height
 White Arc – Normal Flaps Operating Range
above the earth’s surface
o Lower Limit – Stall speed in landing
o Calibrated Altitude – Indicated
configuration (VS0)
Altitude corrected for instrument
o Upper Limit – Maximum Flaps
and installation errors.
extended speed (VFE)
 QNH (Quantum Nautical Height) – Altimeter
 Green Arc – Normal Operating Range
set to measure altitude from sea level
o Lower Limit – stall speed in clean
 QFE (Quantum Field Elevation) – Altimeter
configuration (VS1)
measures altitude from field elevation
o Upper Limit – maximum structural
 QNE (Quantum Nautical Elevation) –
cruising speed (VNO)
Altimeter set to 29.92 in HG.
 Yellow Arc – Caution Operating Range
o High Temperature = Low Pressure
o Lower Limit – maximum structural
Low Temperature = High Pressure
cruising speed (VNO)
o Water Vapor on Humid days
o Upper Limit – Never Exceed Speed
reduces the Density of the Air.
(VNE)
o Increase in Altitude = Increase in
 Red Line – Never Exceed Speed
Density Altitude
Types of Airspeed Decrease in Pressure = Increase in
Density Altitude
 Indicated Airspeed (IAS) – read off the face Increase in Temperature = Increase
of airspeed indicator in Density Altitude
 Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) – IAS corrected  Relative Humidity – amount of water vapor
for instrument and installation error contained in the atmosphere. Warm Air
 True Airspeed (TAS) – CAS corrected for holds more water vapor while Cold Air holds
temperature and pressure variations less
 Ground Speed (GS) – Airspeed with
reference to the gound

Vertical Speed Indicator – measures how fast

you are climbing or descending, a delay of 6 to 9
Altimeter – measures the static pressure and seconds.
interprets it as altitude; decrease in pressure =
Gyroscopic System Instruments

Gyroscope – a rotor or a spinning wheel rotating at

high speed in a universal mounting called gimbal in
such a way that its axle can be pointed in any
direction.

 Rigidity in Space
 Gyroscopic Precession

Directional Gyro (DG) / Heading Indicator – serves as

an alternate for the Magnetic Compass

 Cross check and realign every 15

mins. with magnetic compass

Attitude Indicator – shows the relationship between

the wings and aircraft nose in relation to an artificial
horizon

Turn and Slip Coordinator – indicates the

approximate rate of turn and whether or not a turn is
coordinated.

Standard Rate of Turn – 180 degrees in 1 min, 360

degrees in 2 mins.

Magnetic Compass – north seeking compass which

points to the magnetic north

Magnetic Variation – is the difference in degrees

between the True North and Magnetic North since
maps are oriented to the True North (geographic
north)

 Magnetic Variation to the East –

subtract the variation from true
heading
 Magnetic Variation to the West-
add the variation to the true
heading
 “East is Least, West is Best”

Magnetic Deviation – Interference caused by metallic

objects in the aircraft panel

Acceleration and Deceleration Errors – when flying

on an easterly or westerly heading, “ANDS”
Accelerate North, Decelerate South

Alternator – connected to the engine, it generates PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

energy to charge the battery and power electrical
components
Airfoil – it is a structure designed to obtain reaction equidistant from the upper and lower
upon its surface from the air through which it moves surfaces
or that moves past such a structure. 2. Upper and Lower Camber – upper and
lower portion of an airfoil
Angle of Attack – angle between the relative wind
3. Maximum Camber – maximum distance of
and chord line.
the mean line from the chord line
Critical Angle of Attack – a point where lift is 4. Chord – distance between the leading edge
maximized and any further increase in the angle of and trailing edge along the chord line
attack will result to the separation of air flow from 5. Chord Line – straight line joining the centers
the wing of the leading edge and trailing edge
6. Leading Edge – part of an airfoil that faces
Angle of Incidence – angle of the wing chord line in the relative wind
relation to the aircraft and the longitudinal axis 7. Trailing Edge – opposite end of the leading
edge
Center of Gravity – specific point where the mass or
8. Center of Pressure – point in chord line
weight of an aircraft may be said to center.
where lift is considered to act
Center of Pressure – the focal point of lift. It does not 9. Aspect Ratio – ratio of the wingspan to its
remain in a constant location and changes as the mean chord
angle of attack change. 10. Symmetrical Airfoils – airfoils which have
the same shape below and above the chord
Flight Path – path of an aircraft as it moves in the air line
independent of pitch attitude 11. Cambered Airfoils – opposite a symmetrical
Relative Wind – relationship between the direction airfoils, upper camber has a bigger area
of airflow and the aircraft wind. Always relative to compared to the lower camber
the aircraft flight path Wingtip Vortices – as the air flows on top and bottom
Laminar / Streamline Flow – occurs when a fluid of the wind, air moves from the wing root to the
flows in parallel layers with no disruption between wing tip. As lift increases, induced drag increases
layers. Can be described as smooth flow especially around the wing tips due to the vortices

Turbulent Flow – any flow of fluid with chaotic Winglets – designed to reduce induced drag by
changes in pressure and velocity. reducing wing tip vortices but increases parasite drag
in return
Transition Point – point where laminar flow becomes
turbulent flow Wake Turbulence – turbulence formed from the
Wingtip Vortices, Jetwash and Propwash.
Parts of an Airfoil
Jet Wash – rapidly moving gases expelled by the jet
engine but in short duration

Propwash – circular movement of air produced by

propellers of the engine

1. Mean or Camber Line – line joining the

leading and trailing edge of an airfoil
Newton’s Laws of Motion through air. Decreases as airspeed
increases.
1. Intertia – body remains in a state of rest or
uniform motion unless acted upon by a net
external force Ground Effect – result of the earth’s surface altering
2. F = MA – the amount of acceleration of a the airflow patterns about the airplane
body is proportional to the acting force &
 Takeoff – may become airborne before the
inversely proportional to the mass of the
rotation speed
body
 Landing – causes the aircraft to float down
3. Action and Reaction – for every action,
the runway and make it difficult to sink
there is an equal but opposite reaction.
Primary Flight Controls
Bernoulli’s Principle – the velocity of a moving fluid
increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases 1. Ailerons – extend from about the midpoint
and vice versa. of each wing outward toward the tip, and
move in opposite directions to create
Four Forces of Flight
aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane
1. Thrust – the forward force produced by the to roll.
powerplant/ propeller or rotor. It opposes 2. Rudder – attached to the back of the
or overcomes the force of drag. vertical stabilizer and is used to move the
2. Drag – a rearward, retarding force caused by airplane’s nose left and right.
disruption of airflow by the wing, rotor, 3. Elevator – attached to the back of the
fuselage, and other protruding objects. horizontal stabilizer and is used to move the
3. Lift – is a force that is produced by the nose of the airplane up and down.
dynamic effect of the air acting on the
Secondary Flight Controls
airfoil, and acts perpendicular to the flight
path through the center of lift (CL) and 1. Flaps – extend outward from the fuselage to
perpendicular to the lateral axis. near the midpoint of the trailing edge of
4. Weight – the combined load of the aircraft each wing. When extended, increases the
itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or lifting force of the wings. A C172 has a
baggage. Weight is a force that pulls the slotted type of flaps.
aircraft downward because of the force of 2. Slats – high lift devices on the leading edge
gravity. of the wings that increases lift during low-
speed operations.
Types of Drag
3. Slots – a fixed feature at the leading edge of
1. Parasite Drag – is the drag that is not the wing that reduces the stall speed and
associated with the production of lift. promote good low-speed handling qualities
Increases as airspeed increases. 4. Spoilers – set on the upper surface of the
a. Form Drag – generated by the aircraft wing to spoil or reduce lift.
due to its shape and airflow around it. 5. Trim Tabs – small moveable portions of the
b. Skin Friction Drag – is the aerodynamic trailing edge and is used to reduce control
resistance due to the contact of moving pressures.
air with the surface of an aircraft.
Stall – An aircraft stall results from a rapid decrease
c. Interference Drag – comes from the
in lift caused by the separation of airflow from the
intersection of airstreams that creates
wing’s surface brought on by exceeding the critical
eddy currents, turbulence, or restricts
AOA.
smooth airflow.
2. Induced Drag – byproduct of lift and is Adverse Yaw – natural and undesirable tendency for
produced by the passage of an aerofoil an aircraft to yaw in the opposite direction of a roll.
Spin – may be defined as an aggravated stall that
results in what is termed “autorotation” wherein the
airplane follows a downward corkscrew path

Spin Recovery

1. P – power idle
2. A – ailerons Neutral
3. R – rudder opposite the spin
4. E – elevator up

Stability

1. Longitudinal Axis – nose to tail, roll.

2. Lateral Axis – wing tip to wing tip, pitch
3. Vertical Axis – vertically, yaw
4. Directional Stability – natural ability of an
airplane to recover from a disturbance in
the yaw plane. Stability along the vertical
axis.
5. Lateral Stability – natural ability of the
airplane to recover from a disturbance from
a roll. Stability along the longitudinal axis.
6. Longitudinal Stability – natural ability of the
airplane to recover from a disturbance from
pitch. Stability along the lateral axis.

Left Turning Tendencies

1. P Factor / Asymmetric Propeller Loading –

the descending propeller blade is taking a
bigger bite of air then the ascending
propeller blade.
2. Torque – for every action, there is an equal
but opposite reaction.
3. Gyroscopic Precession – a force applied is
felt 90 degrees head of the rotation.
4. Spiraling Slipstream – the aircraft slipstream
impacts the left side of the tail.

Glide – descending without power.

Lift to Drag Ratio – used to measure gliding

efficiency. The angle of attack with the highest lift
and minimal drag will give the maximum lift to drag
ratio (L/Dmax)

Rate and Radius of Turn – Lower Angle of Bank,

greater turning radius. Higher airspeed, greater
turning radius.
 Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL) – a list
established for a particular aircraft type containing
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
items, one or more of which is permitted to be
Alternates unserviceable at the commencement of a flight.
Issued by the manufacturer.
1. En-route Alternate – an aerodrome at
which an aircraft would be able to land after Minimum Equipment List (MEL) – a list which
experiencing an abnormal or emergency provides for the operation of aircraft, subject to
condition whilst enroute. specified conditions, with particular equipment
2. Destination Alternate – an aerodrome to inoperative. Issued by the company.
which an aircraft may proceed, should it
Wake Turbulence
become neither impossible or inadvisable to
land at the aerodrome of intended landing  Heavy – more than 136,000 kgs.
 Medium – between 7,000 kgs. To 136,000
Right of Way Rules
kgs.
1. Rotorcraft – Airplane – Airship – Aircraft  Light – less than 7,000 kgs.
Refueling – Glider – Balloon
Wake Turbulence Separation
2. Overtaking – the aircraft being overtaken
has the right of way. Overtaking aircraft  Heavy to Medium – 2 mins.
must pass well clear of the right side.  Heavy to Light – 3 mins.
3. Approaching Head on – both aircrafts must  Medium to Light – 3 mins.
veer to the right.
Contaminated Runway – a runway is considered
4. Converging – aircraft on the other’s right
contaminated when more than 25% of the surface
has the right of way.
area is covered by any of the following:
Accident – an occurrence in which a person is fatally
 Surface water or slush more than 3mm
or seriously injured or the aircraft sustains damage or
deep
structural failure.
 Compacted snow
Incident – an occurrence which could affect the  Ice
safety of the operation of the aircraft.
Wet Runway – a runway is considered wet when it is
Emergency – a condition of being threatened by covered with water, or equivalent, less than specified
serious and / or immediate danger requiring in contaminated runway, or when there is sufficient
immediate assistance. “Mayday Mayday Mayday”. moisture on the runway surface to cause it to appear
reflective.
Urgency – a condition concerning the safety of an
aircraft which does not require immediate Damp Runway – a runway I considered to be damp
assistance. “Pan Pan, Pan Pan, Pan Pan”. when the surface is not dry, but when the moisture
on it does not give shiny appearance.
Alcohol – a crew member must not consume alcohol
8 hours prior to reporting for duty Dry Runway – a runway is considered to be dry when
it is neither wet nor contaminated.
Documents on Board
Hydroplaning – condition that exists when landing on
 A – Airworthiness Certificate
a surface with standing water deeper than the tread
 R – Registration Certificate
depth of tires.
 R – Radio License
 O – Operations Manual Controlled Aerodrome – has an operating control
 W – Weight and Balance tower
Documentation78
Uncontrolled Aerodrome – does not have an  VA – design maneuvering airspeed.
operating control tower Maximum speed at which limit load can be
imposed without causing structural damage.
FLIGHT PLANNING AND PERFORMANCE
 VNO – maximum normal operation speed or
Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) – the maximum structural cruising speed
publication issued by the authority of a state  VNE – never exceed speed
containing aeronautical information essential to air
Available Distances
navigation

Notice to Airmen (NOTAMS) – a notice distributed by

means of telecommunication containing information
concerning the aeronautical facility

Flight Plan – a specified information provided to air

traffic service units, relative to an intended flight or
portion of a flight of an aircraft

Types of Flight (Flight Plan)

 Clearway – area beyond the runway,
 N – non-scheduled flight
centrally located about the extended
 S – scheduled flight
centerline of the runway
 G – general aviation
 Stopway – area beyond the takeoff runway
 M – military
and centered upon the extended centerline
 X – others
of the runway
Speeds  Takeoff Run Available (TORA) – runway
length declared available and suitable for
 Vs0 – stalling speed in the landing ground run of an airplane taking off
configuration (with flaps)  Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) – length
 Vs1 – stalling speed in the clean of TORA plus length of clearway, if provided
configuration  Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) –
 V1 – decision speed. maximum speed at length of TORA plus length of stopway, if
which a rejected takeoff can be initiated in provided, for the acceleration and
the event of an emergency. deceleration of an airplane aborting takeoff
 VR – rotate speed. Speed at which rotation  Landing Distance Available (LDA) – runway
is initiated with the intention of becoming length declared available and suitable for
airborne landing an airplane. Does not include
 VLOF – lift of speed. Speed at which the displaced threshold.
airplane first becomes airborne which is at
the moment the main wheels have left the Center of Gravity (CG) – mass of the center of aircraft
runway or theoretical point at which the entire weight of the
 VX – best angle of climb speed. Speed at aircraft is assumed to be concentrated. It is equal to
which the aircraft obtains the highest the total moment divided by total weight.
altitude gain in a given horizontal distance
Maximum Ramp / Taxi Weight – structural limitation
 VY – best rate of climb speed. Speed at
weight at commencement of taxi
which the aircraft obtains the highest
altitude gain per unit of time Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW) – maximum
 VFE – flaps extended speed. Maximum permissible total aircraft weight at the start of
speed at which the flaps is extended takeoff run
Maximum Landing Weight – maximum permissible Moment – force that tries to cause rotation and is
total aircraft weight on landing in normal the product of the weight and arm
circumstances
Weight Shifting
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight – maximum permissible
W △ CG
weight of an aircraft with no useable fuel
WT = △A
Standard Empty Weight – weight of the aircraft that
consists of the following: W = weight to be shifted
 Airframe W T = Total Weight
△CG = distance center of gravity shifted =
 Engines
 All items of operating equipment that have
fixed location and permanently installed in CG 2−CG 1

△A = distance weight is shifted = A2− A 1

the aircraft
 Fixed ballast
 Hydraulic Fuel
 Unusable Fuel
 Fuel Engine Oil Weight Addition or Removal
Basic Empty Weight – standard empty weight plus
W △ CG
weight of optional and special equipment that have
WT = X
been installed

Payload – weight of occupants, cargo and baggage W = weight added or removed

Useful Load – payload plus usable fuel and drainable W T = New Total Weight
△CG = distance center of gravity shifted =
oil

Ramp Weight – basic empty weight, payload, crew CG 2−CG 1

△A = distance between arm of weight and old CG =
and baggage, usable fuel

Takeoff Weight – ramp weight less taxi fuel

A 2− A 1
Landing Weight – takeoff weight less trip fuel
Top of Descent Quick Calculation
Zero Fuel Weight – ramp weight less usable fuel
△ Altitude
Center of Gravity Limits
TOD = 1000
x3

Descent Speed = GS x 5

Reference Datum – point along the longitudinal axis

of the aircraft designated by the manufacturer of
reference point where all balance arms begin

Balance Arm – horizontal distance between the CG of

an item or object and the datum
  Confirm – Have I correctly received the
following? Or did you correctly receive the
message?
 Correct – that is correct
 Contact – Establish radio contact with...
 Correction – an error has been made in this
transmission. The correct version is…
COMMUNICATIONS
 Disregard – Ignore
Station – a piece of equipment is used to transmit or  Go Ahead – proceed with your message
receive aeronautical information  How do you Read – what is the readability
of my transmission
Blind Transmission – in this case, one station is  I Say Again – I repeat for clarity and
receiving no reply. It could be just his own receiver is emphasis
not working. He/she transmits ‘blind’ hoping the  Maintain -continue in accordance with the
controller can hear him/her conditions specified
Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) – time at which the  Monitor – listen put on (frequency)
pilot estimates that the aircraft will be over a  Negative – no or permission not granted or
specified location that is not correct
 Out – this exchange of transmissions is
Estimated Approach Time (EAT) – time at which ATC ended and no response is expected
expects that an arriving aircraft, following a delay will  Readback – repeat all, or the specified part,
arrive at the holding point to complete its approach of this message back to me exactly as
for landing received
 Recleared – a change has been made to
Readability Scale
your last clearance and this new clearance
1. Unreadable supersedes your previous clearance or part
2. Readable now and then thereof
3. Readable but with difficulty  Report – pass me the following information
4. Readable  Request – I should like to now… or I wish to
5. Perfectly Readable obtain
 Say Again – repeat all, or the following part,
Radio Phraseology of your last transmission
 Acknowledge – let me know that you have  Say Slower – reduce your rate of speech
received and understood this message  Standby – wait and I will call you
 Affirm – yes  Unable – I cannot comply with your request,
 Approved – permission for proposed action instruction or clearance
granted  Verify – check and confirm with originator
 Break – I hereby indicate the separation  Wilco – will comply. I understand your
between portions of the message message and will comply with it.
 Break Break – I hereby indicate the
separation between messages transmitted
to different aircraft in a very busy
environment
 Cancel – annul the previously transmitted
clearance
 Check – examine a system or procedure
 Cleared – authorized to proceed under
conditions specified
 Lambert Conformal Projection – uses one instead of
cylinder, represents lat long more accurately

World Aeronautical Chart (WAC) Map – 1 : 1,000,000

scale
NAVIGATIOIN
Sectional Chart – 1 : 500,000 scale, topographic info,
Earth Circumference – 21,600 NM aeronautical info

Earth rotates from West to East VFR Terminal Chart – 1 : 250,000, topographic info,
aeronautical info

Danger Area (RP-D) – activities dangerous to flight of

aircraft exist in that area: weapons testing, military
exercise

Restricted Area (RP-R) – flight of aircraft is restricted

with specified conditions when flying over that area

Prohibited Area (RP-P) – flight of aircraft is not

allowed

True North – basis of determining direction on maps,

geographic north of the earth

Magnetic North – based on the magnetic compass

Great Circles – largest area that can be achieved
when a disc is cut through the earth Magnetic Variation – angular difference between
true and magnetic north measured in degrees east
Equator – divides the earth into 2 hemispheres, an or west. East is Least (-), West is Best (+) to the
example of a great circle Magnetic Heading
Parallels of Latitude – small circle from west to east Isogonic Lines – join points of equal magnetic
parallel to the equator. Equator is the datum variation
Meridian – semi great circles, join the north and Magnetic Deviation – angular difference between
south poles magnetic north and compass north because of the
Prime Meridian – meridian passing through aircraft’s internal magnetism. East is Least (-), West is
Greenwich Best (+) to the Magnetic Heading

Rhumb Line – straight line track from one point to Oscillation – movement of liquid because of
the other with a constant direction and is used in the Turbulence
old days Pilotage – type of navigation which makes use of
Great Circle track – shortest possible distance from visible land marks, required flying at low altitudes
one point to another and is used in modern Area Navigation – use of navigation using radio aids
navigation
Dead Reckoning – makes use of computation for
Projection – transferring from a globe to a flat paper direction, distance, speed and time
chart
Local Mean Time (LMT) – time based on the rotation
Mercator Projection – cylindrical projection, of the earth
meridians appear parallel, used to get rhumb lines
One Day – time passed between two peak positions
of the sun
Mid-Day – sun is directly above longitude at the
point of observation

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) – LMT of

Greenwhich Meritidan

Radio Navigation Frequency Range

RADIO NAVIGATIOIN

Aircraft Approach Category (ICAO)