Forensic 6

Forensic Ballistics
Prepared by: Hannah Lou L. San Diego, RCrim.
Khevin Dave T. Espinosa, RCrim.

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 FORENSIC BALLISTICS

COURSE OVERVIEW

The course deals with the study of firearm identification with the use of
scientific laboratory equipment. The subject gives emphasis on the study of forensic
ballistics and its branches, firearms, its history and classification, the study of
ammunitions (cartridge or rounds), projectiles (bullet, slug, shots or balls),
gunpowder, primer and other explosives. It includes also the principles in the
examination of evidence and the preparation of reports for legal proceedings for the
solutions of cases involving firearms.

To ensure student’s learning, this course pack has been structured into three
modules as follows:

Module 1: Introduction to Ballistics

Module 2: Essentials of Firearms
Module 3: Firearm and its Components

At the completion of this course pack learners should be able to:

 Explain the importance of forensic ballistics in the field of law enforcement in
our country;
 Distinguish the different types, kinds, make and classification of firearms;
 Name the pioneers on the discovery of firearms, including their respective
contributions;
 Classify different types of ammunitions, explosives and its components;
 Compare the class and individual characteristics of firearms;
 Explain the different functions of the various parts of the firearms;
 Demonstrate the use of the various laboratory equipment in the examination of
firearms;
 Prepare reports and present ballistic exhibits during court proceedings.

Students in this course are encouraged to go through each lessons in every

module sequentially to maximize their learning. You should work on all exercises as
they build on the concepts of each topic introduced in each lesson.
So to make this learning experience rewarding for you, study this course pack
with your co-learners at your own pace and at the comfort of your home. You can also
ask the help of your friends, family and me as your instructor.
Feel free to contact or reach me through my mobile number 0918-703-8311 or
my email address hannahlou.sandiego@cvsc.edu.ph.
Good luck and have fun learning!

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Module 1: Introduction to Ballistics

Module Overview……………………………………………………………….. 4
Lesson 1: Ballistics………………………………………………………. 5
Lesson 2: Firearms……………………………………………………….. 10
Module Summary………………………………………………………………... 16
Module Assessment……………………………………………………………... 17
Reference………………………………………………………………………… 17

Module 2: Essentials of Firearms

Module Overview………………………………………………………………… 18
Lesson 1: Cartridge ……….……………………………………………... 19
Lesson 2: Primer…………………………………………...…………….. 24
Module Summary………………………………………………………………… 28
Module Assessment………………………………………………………………. 29
Reference…………………………………………………………………………. 30

Module 3: Firearm and its Components

Module Overview…………………………………………………………………. 31
Lesson 1: Projectile ………………………………………………………. 32
Lesson 2: Gun Powder ………………………………………….………… 42
Lesson 3: Firearms Identification….…………………………………….. 47
Module Summary………………………………………………………………… 58
Module Assessment………………………………………………………………. 59
Reference…………………………………………………………………………. 60

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 MODULE 1

Module Overview

Introduction to Ballistics

Lessons in this Module

Ballistics
Firearms

Welcome to Module 1! This module presents two lessons about ballistics and
firearms. Lesson 1 tackles the branches of ballistics which is interior, exterior and
terminal ballistics and the lesson also comprehensively discusses forensic ballistics.
Lesson 2 is all about firearms, the very important persons of firearm and classification
of firearm according to internal construction, use, size of bore, mechanical design and
action.

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Learn the definition and difference of ballistics and forensic ballistics;
 Know the different branches of ballistics, learn its definition and being
able to differentiate them;
 To acquaint ourselves with the important persons of firearms;
 To familiarize the different classification of firearms according to its
internal construction, usage, size of its bore and its mechanical design and
action.

That’s it! Are you excited? Are you ready to learn? Then let’s start the lesson
now! Have fun learning.

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 LESSON 1 MODULE 1

BALLISTICS

This lesson focuses on the definition of ballistics, the three branches of

ballistics and the explanation of the meaning of the term forensic ballistics.

There are ten reactions that take place inside the gun
during firing. Supply the appropriate information that matters the
phenomenon inside the firearm.
1. F - ____________________________________________________________
2. I - ____________________________________________________________
3. C - ____________________________________________________________
4. E - ____________________________________________________________
5. P - ____________________________________________________________
6. E - ____________________________________________________________
7. R - ____________________________________________________________
8. V - ____________________________________________________________
9. R - ____________________________________________________________
10. E - ____________________________________________________________

 Is there a difference between Ballistics and Forensic Ballistics?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 What do you think is the importance of forensic ballistics in the
field of law enforcement?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Does the terms Interior, External & Terminal Ballistics the same?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Feel free to read the abstraction to learn the answers to these reflective
questions.

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 INTRODUCTION
Ballistics is the science of the motion and
general behavior of projectiles. The term “Ballistics” was
derived from the Greek word “Ballo” or “Ballien” which
means “to throw”. Its root was said to be derived from the
Roman weapon “ballista” that means a gigantic bow or
catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as stones.

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

Interior Ballistics

It is the branch of science that has something to do with the properties and attributes
of the projectile while still inside the gun. This extends from the breech to the muzzle
of the gun.

Actions inside the Gun

The modern gun is essentially a heat engine. When the charge is ignited, gases
are emitted from the surface of each grain of powder, and pressure builds.

Firing pin hitting the primer

Ignition of the priming mixture
Combustion of the gunpowder
Expansion of the heated gas
Pressure developed
Energy generated
Recoil of the gun
Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel
Rotation of the bullet
Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

Exterior Ballistics

It is the branch of science that has something to do with the attributes and movements
of the bullet after it has left the gun muzzle. This branch of science involves;

Muzzle blast – the sound created at the muzzle and of the barrel of the firearm after
explosion
Muzzle energy - is the kinetic energy of a bullet as it is expelled from the muzzle of a
firearm. It is often used as a rough indication of the destructive potential of a given

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firearm or load. The heavier the bullet and especially the faster it moves, the higher
its muzzle energy and the more damage it will do
Trajectory - is the actual pattern or the curved path of the bullet in flight
Gyroscopic action – is the spinning motion of the bullet while in flight
Range – the distance between the firearm and the target
Velocity – the speed of the bullet
Air resistance – encountered by the bullet in flight
Pull of gravity – the downward movement of the bullet

Terminal Ballistics

The branch of science that deals with the effects of the impact of the projectile to the
target. It is the study of how a projectile behaves when it hits its target and transfers
its kinetic energy to the target. This involves;

Terminal accuracy – the size of the bullet grouping on the target

Terminal energy – energy of the bullet
Terminal penetration – the depth of the bullet on the target

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 FORENSIC BALLISTICS

It involves the investigation and identification of firearms by means of ammunitions

fired through them. This is the real branch of science which the police use as their
guide in field investigations.

Stages of Forensic Ballistics

1. Field Investigation

This is the job done by the police officers investigating the case where firearm
has been used. It concerns mostly with the collection, markings, preservation, packing
and transmission of firearms evidences. It includes the study of class characteristics of
firearms and bullets.

2. Technical Examination

The job performed by the firearms examiners within the laboratory involving
marking of ballistic evidence, test firing of evidence firearm, to determine also
whether or not cartridge cases were loaded or ejected from the suspected firearm
submitted and the making of the final report on the findings and observations of the
firearms examiners.

3. Court Presentation

Involves the appearance of the examiner in court as an expert witness

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Essay; Based from your understanding and in your own words define or describe the
following terms. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. Forensic
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Ballistics
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Forensic Ballistics
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. Interior Ballistics
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. Exterior Ballistics
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
6. Terminal Ballistics
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
7. Muzzle Energy
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
8. Air Resistance
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
9. Gyroscopic Action
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
10. Terminal Penetration
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Essay Criteria
Content: Relevance to the Topic, Originality of Ideas - 50%
Grammar: Well-constructed sentences - 20%
Mechanics: Spelling, Punctuation, Capitalization ` - 20%
Vocabulary: Word Choice - 10%
100%

Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module. Should there be any part of the lesson
which you need clarification, please feel free to ask me, your instructor. Now if you are ready, please
proceed to Lesson 2 of this module which will discuss about firearms.

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 LESSON 2 MODULE 1

FIREARMS

This lesson is all about firearms, the very important persons behind the
development of firearms, the classification of firearm according to internal
construction, usage, size of bore, mechanical design and action.

Find any material such as books or magazines that may contain

pictures of different guns or firearms, draw or provide a cut-out picture to complete
the activity and lastly give a short definition, classification or characteristics for every
chosen type of firearm

 Are all types of firearms has the same mechanical design & action?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Are all types of firearm has the same internal construction of its
bore?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Does a barrel of any firearm already considered a complete
firearm?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Feel free to read the abstraction to learn the answers to these reflective
questions.

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 VIPs of Firearms

Col. Calvin H. Goddard

Father of Modern Balistics
Invented comparison microscope and helixometer

John M. Browning
Wizard of Modern Firearms
Pioneered breech loading single-shot rifle
Invented the Winchester rifle, Pump-action shotgun, Colt 45 automatic

Samuel Colt
Produced first practical revolver – Colt 45

Henry Derringer
Gave his name to whole class of firearms
Manufacturer of Pocket Pistol

Alexander John Forsyth

Invented percussion system of ignition

John C. Garand
Father of Semi-Automatic US Rifle Cal.30 M1

John Mahlon Marlin

Founder of Marlin Firearms Company
Famous for Marlin Cal.22 Carbine

Horace Smith & Daniel B. Wesson

Founded the great firm Smith and Wesson
Pioneered the making of breech-loading rifles

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 David “Carbine” Williams
Maker of the first known carbine

John T. Thompson
Pioneered making of Thompson Submachine gun
The first hand held machine gun

LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARMS

Section 877 of revised Administrative code and section 290 of National Internal
Revenue;
“Firearms or arms include rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols,
revolvers, and all other deadly weapons from which bullets, balls, shots, shells, or
other missiles may be discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The
barrel of any firearm is considered a complete firearm for all intents and purpose
thereof”.

TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARMS

Firearm is an instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectile with the aid of the
expansive force of gases from the burning gunpowder.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
According to Internal Construction of the Bore
A. Rifled Bore Firearms – those that contain riflings inside the gun barrel.
Riflings refer to the lands and grooves in firearms, that includes Rifle, Pistol &
Revolver.

B. Smooth Bore Firearms – those that have no riflings inside the gun barrel
such as shotguns and muskets.

According to Use

1. Military Firearms
a. Pistols
b. Rifles
c. Machine Guns
d. Howitzers, Bazooka, Mortars, etc.

2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms

a. Pistols
b. Revolvers
c. Rifles
d. Shotguns

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 3. Target and Outdoor Firearms known as Sporting
a. Pistols
b. Revolvers
c. Air Rifles
d. Shotguns

4. Unusual/ Miscellaneous Firearms – those that are unique in mechanism and

construction.
a. Paltik pistols, revolvers, rifles, shotguns\
b. Cane gun
c. Pen gun
d. Knuckle gun, etc.

According to Size of the Bore

A. Small Arms (Handguns, Shoulder Arms and Machine Guns) – firearms with bore
size lesser than one inch in diameter
B. Artillery – firearms with bore size more than one – inch in diameter.

According to Mechanical Design and Action

A. Single Shot Firearms – type of firearm designed to fire only one shot for
every loading, firearms that hold only a single round of ammunition and must
be reloaded after each shot.

B. Repeating Arms - type of firearm designed to fire several shot in one loading.

C. Bolt Action Type – reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt, a type of

firearm action in which the weapon’s bolt is operated manually by the opening
and closing of the breech (barrel) with a small handle.

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 D. Automatic Loading Type - after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or
feeding of the chamber takes place.

E. Pump/ Slide Action Type - is one in which the handgrip can be pumped back
and forth in order to eject a spent round of ammunition and to chamber a fresh
one.

F. Lever Type or Break Type - is a type of firearms action which uses a lever
located around the trigger guard.

According to its Action

A. Single Action – the trigger perform a single action and that to release the
hammer which contact with the firing pin and discharge the primer which
ignite the powder charge.

B. Double Action- the trigger can both cock the hammer and fire the cartridge,
performing two actions.

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Firearm Designers and Inventors
Give the contributions of the following personalities.

Inventor/ Designer Contribution

1. Henry Derringer
2. Samuel Colt
3. Calvin Goddard
4. John Thompson
5. Alexander Forsyth
6. John Garand
7. John Browning
8. Horace Smith
9. John Marlin
10. David Williams

CONGRATULATIONS! JOB WELL DONE!

You have just finished this module!

Whenever you’re ready, please proceed to Module 2: Essentials of Firearms, Lesson 1 which
will discuss about Cartridge.

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MODULE SUMMARY MODULE 1

You have completed the first module of Forensic Ballistics covering

Introduction to Ballistics. Key points covered in the module include:
Ballistics is the science of the motion and general behavior of projectiles,
while Forensic Ballistics involves the investigation and identification of
firearms by means of ammunitions fired through them.

Branches of Ballistics; Interior Ballistics, Exterior Ballistics & Terminal

Ballistics

Interior Ballistics is the branch of science that has something to do with the
properties and attributes of the projectile while still inside the gun.

Actions inside the gun; Firing pin hitting the primer, Ignition of the priming
mixture, Combustion of the gunpowder, Expansion of the heated gas, Pressure
developed, Energy generated, Recoil of the gun, Velocity of the bullet inside
the barrel, Rotation of the bullet, Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the
bullet.

Exterior Ballistics is the branch of science that has something to do with the
attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left the gun muzzle.

Exterior Ballistics includes Muzzle Blast, Muzzle Energy, Trajectory,

Gyroscopic Action, Range, Velocity, Air Resistance & Pull of Gravity.

Terminal Ballistics is the branch of science that deals with the effects of the
impact of the projectile to the target

Terminal Ballistics include Terminal Accuracy, Terminal Energy, Terminal

Penetration

Stages of Forensic Ballistics; Field Investigation, Technical Examination &

Court Presentation

Classification of Firearm according to Internal Construction of the Bore;

Rifled Bore & Smooth Bore Firearms

Classification of Firearm according to Mechanical Design & Action; Single

Shot, Repeating Firearms; Bolt Type; Automatic; Pump/Slide; Lever or Break
Type. Classification of Firearm according to Size of the Bore; Small Arms &
Artillery.

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 MODULE 1

Nomenclature of Firearms
Label the Parts; Here are some common firearms used in the Philippines.
1. 9mm Berreta 92FS
2. M16A1 Rifle
Look for a model for each gun in the internet or books showing its important external
parts, draw or provide a print-out picture of the said firearm and label the parts by
yourself correctly.
Email your outputs to hannahloulibranosandiego@gmail.com on or before
September 20, 2021
Points deduction on not following instructions.

MODULE 1

Akins, C. (1980) American Pistols and Revolvers, Ted Bryant and Bill Akins.
Archer, Denis (1997) Jane’s Pocket Book of Pistols and Submachine Guns.
Blair, Claude, (1969) Pistols of the World
Grimares, Erdulfo M (2006) Forensic Ballistics, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.
Lajom, Fidel P. Criminalistics. Rex Book Store, Manila, Philippines
Sarmiento, A. (2012) Forensic Ballistics, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.

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 MODULE 2

Module Overview

Essentials of Firearms

Lessons in this Module

Cartridge
Primer

Welcome to Module 2! This module presents two lessons which are all about
Cartridge and Primer. Lesson 1 presents topics about the definition of the word
cartridge and ammunition, the four components of a cartridge, anatomy of rifle
cartridge and a shot shell, the parts of the cartridge case, types of cartridge case, and
classification of cartridge according to its base and primers. Lesson 2 is all about
primers, on how primers are developed, the parts of a primer and their function, and
types of priming system according to the number of flash hole.

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Learn the definition of cartridge and primer;
 To understand more the terms cartridge and ammunitions and know if
there’s a difference between the two;
 Know the different functions of a cartridge and primer for a firearm to
work;
 To acquaint ourselves with the history of development of both cartridge
and primer;
 To enlighten ourselves with the different classification, types and parts of a
cartridge and a primer.

That’s it! Are you excited? Are you ready to learn? Then let’s start the lesson
now! Have fun learning.

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 LESSON 1 MODULE 2

CARTRIDGE

Lesson 1 presents topics about the definition of the word cartridge and
ammunition, the four components of a cartridge, anatomy of rifle cartridge and a shot
shell, the parts of the cartridge case, types of cartridge case, and classification of
cartridge according to its base and primers.

Label the five basic parts of the

1.__________________
2.__________________
3.__________________
4.__________________
5.__________________

 Is there a difference between cartridge and ammunitions?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Is there a difference between a rifle cartridge and a shotshell?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Are all cartridges having the same sizes, base form and primers?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Feel free to read the abstraction to learn the answers to these reflective
questions.

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CARTRIDGE
The term cartridge is derived from the word “charta”, the Latin word for paper and
from the French word “cartouche” meaning a roll of paper, which indicates that the
original cartridges were not brass gilding – metal of today’s modern ammunition.

AMMUNITION
Is a destructive material used against an enemy. It includes rockets, bombs, grenades,
torpedoes, mines, guided missiles, pyrotechnics and complete rounds for all types of
firearms.

Legal Definition of Ammunition

Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the National Internal Revenue Code & Sec. 877 of the
Revised Administrative Code. Ammunition is a loaded shell for rifles, muskets,
carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other
missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives.

Technical Definition of Ammunition

It refers to group of cartridge or a single unit or single cartridge – meaning a complete
unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer.

The Four Components of a Cartridge

Case – which is the major part of the cartridge and contains the other three
and is mostly made from brass and aluminum alloy.
Primer – which is located at the bottom of the cartridge and plays an
important role in the ignition system of modern cartridges.
Gunpowder – which is also known as propellant
Bullet – which is seated in the mouth of the case. It is the most important part
of the cartridge since this performs the desired purpose of a firearm. Also
known as projectile.

Anatomy of a Center Fire Rifle Cartridge

Case – Usually made of brass and contains the powder

charge, the primer and the bullet.
Bullet – The projectile
Crimp – The portion of a cartridge case that is bent
inward to hold the bullet in place.
Powder – The chemical compound or mixture used in
firearms that burn upon ignition.

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Primer – The collective term for the chemical primer compound, cup and anvil.
When struck it ignites the powder charge.
Rim – The edge on the base of a cartridge case, it gripped by the extractor to remove
it from the chamber.

Anatomy of a Shotshell
Case – A tube usually made of plastic or paper with a
steel or brass head.
Crimp – It is bent inward to hold the shot in place
Primer - The collective term for the chemical primer
compound, cup and anvil. When struck it ignites the
powder charge.
Shot – Small, round pellets of lead, steel or bismuth
Wad – A disc used to separate powder from shot to seal
propellant gases behind the shot or to hold shot together
in the barrel.

Parts of the Cartridge Case

Rim – Its purpose is to limit the forward travel of cartridges into the chamber
Primer Pocket – It holds the primer securely in certain position, prevent the escape
of gas to the rear of the cartridge and provide a support for primer anvil.
Vents/ Flash Holes – Is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket through
which the primer “flash” provides ignition to the powder charge.
The Head and Body – It constitute the cork that plugs the breech of the barrel against
the escape of the gas.
Neck – Occupied by the bullet to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or
loosened.
Cannelures – The serrated grooves that are sometimes rolled into the neck and body
of cases at the location of the base of the bullet that prevent the bullet from being
pushed back or loosened.
Crimp – Part of the mouth of the case that aids in holding the bullet in place and
offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the
burning of gunpowder.
Base – The bottom portion of the case that holds the primer which contains the
priming mixture and the shell head which contains the head stamp, caliber and year of
manufacture.
Shoulder – The portion that supports the neck
Extracting Groove – The circular groove near the base of the case designed for the
automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.

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Classification of Cartridge According to the Base Form
Rimmed – is the oldest of the types and has a rim that is significantly larger in
diameter than the base of the cartridge.
Semi-Rimmed – it has a rim which is slightly larger than the diameter of the cartridge
case.
Rimless – the rim is the same diameter as the base of the case.
Rebated – it has a rim which is less than the diameter of the cartridge case.
Belted Case – it has a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge.

Classification of Cartridge According to Primers

Pin Fire - is an obsolete type of metallic firearm cartridge in which the priming
compound is ignited by striking a small pin which protrudes radially from just above
the base of the cartridge.

Rim Fire - A major class of metal-cased cartridges which have the priming
compound distributed in ring usually at the base of the case

Center Fire - a cartridge case whose primer is located at the geometrical center of the
base. Such case are usually reloadable

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Multiple Choices. Select the best answer. Write the letter of your answer on the space
provided that corresponds to the given question.
_______1. A center-fire cartridge case whose rim diameter is smaller than the
diameter of the body of the case:
a. rimmed cartridge b. rebated cartridge c. tapered cartridge d. rimless cartridge
_______2. A complete unfired unit of ammunition inserted into the chamber of
firearm ready for firing is referred to as:
a. Bullet b. Shell c. Primer d. Cartridge
_______3. Refers to metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from firearms.
a. projectiles b. slug c. bullets d. all of the above
_______4. Rifle, pistol, and revolver ammunitions are called cartridges. Shotgun
ammunition is called?
a. shell b. pellets c. shot shell d. all of the above
_______5. A rim that is smaller than the base of the cartridge

a. Belted b. Rimmed c. Semi-Rimmed d. Rimless

_______6. Its function is to holds the primer, bullet and the gunpowder

a. Cartridge b. Ammunition c. Case d. Projectile

_______7. It is the most common type of primer wherein it can be found at the center
of the base of the cartridge case.

a. Rim Fire b. Center Fire c. Firing Pin d. Pin Fire

_______8. Without it the ignition system will not occur. This refers to?

a. Gunpowder b. Case c. Bullet d. Primer

_______9. That part of a cartridge case that is bent inward that holds the bullet in
place is called?

a. Crimp b. Neck c. Cannelures d. Shoulder

_______10. One of its purposes is to hold the cartridge in place to prevent it from
going to the chamber.

a. Crimp b. Rim c. Cannelures d. Neck

Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module. Should there be any part of the lesson
which you need clarification, please feel free to ask me, your instructor. Now if you are ready, please
proceed to Lesson 2 of this module which will discuss about primers.

23
 LESSON 2 MODULE 2

PRIMERS

Lesson 2 is all about primers, on how primers are developed, the parts of a primer
and their function, and types of priming system according to the number of flash hole.

Complete the words in the puzzle below by writing the correct

letter on the blanks. Then read the words and familiarize them as they
are part of this lesson.

 Is there a difference between Berdan and Boxer Primer?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Which primer comes first? Mercury Fulminate, Chlorate Priming,
or Lead Styphnate?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 What are the parts of a primer?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Feel free to read the abstraction to learn the answers to these reflective
questions.
24
Primers
Primers are devices that when sharply struck, burn or explode to provide heat source
required to ignite the propellant charge. It provide an initial spark or flame, establish
the pre-ignition pressure for the main charge and provide a gas seal for the cartridge.

History of Primers
Mercury Fulminate or Mercuric Priming was the most commonly used
primer for how many decades, although it contains potassium chlorate whose residues
promoted rust it was still preferred since it will not corrode the gunmetal. When brass
cartridges were developed mercuric residues resulted in brittle cartridge cases. Such
cartridges were fine for the first firing but could not be safely reloaded. Thus mercuric
priming was replaced with Chlorate Priming. At the beginning of the smokeless
powder era mercuric priming was totally abandoned and replaced by Lead Styphnate
or Styphnate Priming because it did not produce corrosive residues. Styphnate
Priming contains three main compounds the Lead Styphnate, Antimony Sulfide
(Fuel) and Barium Nitrate (Oxidizer). The Lead Styphnate percussion primer has
remained nearly unchanged in form or chemistry since the 1930s.

Parts of Primer and Function

Primer Cap – it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of priming
mixture, paper disc and anvil.
Priming Mixture – contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is
sufficiently sensitive to result of chemical reaction being set up by the caused by a
sudden blow.
Paper Disc – this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that protects the priming
mixture that will cause its disintegration.
Anvil – it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer and it is on this
side or point which the priming mixture is crushed.
Battery Cap – battery cap as applied to shotgun primer serves as the main support for
the whole primer components.

25
Types of Priming System According to the Number of Flash Hole
Berdan Primed – A center fire cartridge design by Hiram Berdan, a primer
consisting of a metal cup filled with priming mixture and sealed with foil or shellac
was inserted into the primer pocket of the cartridge case. Starting in the early 1870s
this type of priming system was widely used for both military and sporting
ammunition.
Boxer Primer – A priming system developed in the late 1860s by Col. E.M. Boxer of
England as an improvement to Daw’s Patent. The primer contained both the priming
mixture and an anvil. This system is used in most modern U.S. center fire cartridges.

26
 What is the difference between the two priming system found in
ammunitions? Show the two differences by providing an image or picture
from books or internet and giving a description about the difference of the two
primers.

BOXER TYPE BERDAN TYPE

Base from the two types of primer mentioned above, give your personal
account or opinion on whose primer is the best.

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

CONGRATULATIONS! JOB WELL DONE!

You have just finished this module! Whenever you’re ready, please proceed to Module 3: Firearm and
its Components, Lesson 1 which will discuss about Projectile.

27
MODULE SUMMARY MODULE 2

You have completed the second module of Forensic Ballistics covering

Essentials of Firearms. Key points covered in the module include:
The term cartridge is derived from the word “charta”, the Latin word for paper
and from the French word “cartouche” meaning a roll of paper.

Ammunition is a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers

and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missile may be fired
by means of gunpowder or other explosives.

Ammunition refers to group of cartridge or a single unit or single cartridge –

meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case,
gunpowder and primer.

Four Components of a Cartridge; Case, Primer, Gunpowder & Bullet

Parts of the Cartridge Case; Rim, Primer Pocket, Vents/Flash Holes, Head and
Body, Neck, Cannelures, Crimp, Base, Shoulder and Extracting Groove

Classification of Cartridge according to the Base Form; Rimmed, Semi-

Rimmed, Rimless, Rebated and Belted Case

Classification of Cartridge According to Primers; Pin Fire, Rim Fire, Center

Fire

Classification of Cartridge Case According to Shapes; Straight Cased, Bottled

Necked & Tapered Case

Primers are devices that when sharply struck, burn or explode to provide heat
source required to ignite the propellant charge.

Primers provide an initial spark or flame, establish the pre-ignition pressure

for the main charge and provide a gas seal for the cartridge.

Parts of a Primer; Primer Cap, Priming Mixture, Paper Disc, Anvil & Battery
Cap

Two Types of Priming System; Berdan Primed & Boxer Primer

28
 MODULE 2

Essay; Based from your understanding and in your own words define or describe the
following terms. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. Cartridge
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Ammunition
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Bullet
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. Cartridge Case
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. Shotshell
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
6. Primers
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
7. Rim
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
8. Mercuric Priming
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
9. Styphnate Priming
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
10. Firing Pin
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Essay Criteria
Content: Relevance to the Topic, Originality of Ideas - 50%
Grammar: Well-constructed sentences - 20%
Mechanics: Spelling, Punctuation, Capitalization ` - 20%
Vocabulary: Word Choice - 10%
100%
29
 MODULE 2

Grimares, Erdulfo M (2006) Forensic Ballistics, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.

Lajom, Fidel P. Criminalistics. Rex Book Store, Manila, Philippines
Sarmiento, A. (2012) Forensic Ballistics, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.
Ammunition General Training Manual 9-1900 (US Army) and Training Order 11A-1-
20 (US Air Force)
Introduction to Ammunition Training Manual 9-1300-2006 (US Army)
Kasler, P.A. (1991). Business Partners: The Best Pistol/ Ammunition Combinations
for Personal Defense. Colorado, Paladin Press
Tradio, Cirilo M., A Compendium on Criminalistics 4th Edition
Saferstein, R. (1995) Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, New
Jersey; Prentice Hall, Inc.

30
 MODULE 3

Module Overview

Firearm and its Components

Lessons in this Module

Projectiles
Gunpowder
Firearms Identification

Welcome to Module 3! This module is divided into three main lessons which are
about Projectiles, Gunpowder, and Firearms Identification.
In the Projectiles it discusses about the principle of projectile and when it
comes to criminology, we will be focused on bullets as projectiles. It tackles about the
different types, classification, and specification.
While in Gunpowder, it talks about the discovery of gunpowder used as a
propellant, the timeline of its development, history of gunpowder, and its different
types and classifications
And the last lesson that is all about the Firearms Identification, it deals with
the different types of firearms, classification, how it was being made, and the use of it
in scientific crime investigation.
At the completion of this module, you should be able to:
 To introduce the projectile
 To understand the bullets’: Types, Weight, Location, Number, Cannelures,
Nose Shape, Base Construction, and Nose Construction
 To learn the history of gun powder, the composition and classification,
timeline in the development of gunpowder
 To understand the principles of Firearms Identification
 To understand the crime scene investigation when firearms or bullet are
present

That’s it! Are you excited? Are you ready to learn? Then let’s start the lesson
now! Have fun learning

31
 LESSON 1 MODULE 3

PROJECTILE

This lesson all about projectiles: their different types, characteristics, and
specifications used; the bullet and its parts; and cartridge types and specifications.

Draw something that can be considered as a projectile and give a

description or explanation on your desired drawing. Use the space
provided.

 What is a projectile base from your own perspective?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Can anything be considered a projectile? Support your answer.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 Does the terms bullet, cartridge and slug are the same?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Feel free to read the abstraction to learn the answers to these reflective
questions.

32
Projectile, an object that is thrown fired, or otherwise impelled toward a target
Projectiles such as stones, bullets, and cannon balls have no capacity for all
propulsion. Others, such as rockets and modern missiles, are self-propelling
Bullet, an elongated metal projectile crimped into the mouth of a metal cartridge case
and designed to be fired from a rile. pistol, machine in, or another weapon. The word
derives from the French boulette meaning "small ball. since early bullets were loose
round metal balls.

Nomenclature of a Bullet

Bullet Non spherical projectile for use in a rifled gun barrel

Tip Extreme forward.end of a bullet
Meplat Blunt tip of some bullets, specifically the diameter of that blunt tip
Ogive Curved forward part of a bullet
Nose Forward end of a bullet, including the tip, the give, and meplat (if
present)
Cannelure Circumferential groove in a bullet generally of a knurled or plain
appearance for the purpose of lubrication or identification, or to assist
in crimping a bullet in the mouth of a cartridge case
Bearing Portion of the outer surface of a bullet that makes direct contact with
Surface the interior surface of a gun barrel
Base Rear portion of a bullet
Heel Configuration of the intersection of the bearing surface and base of a
bullet

Types of Bullets
Bullets are designed for specific purposes. Types include target-shooting, hunting,
tracer, incendiary, and armor-piercing bullets.

33
Two types commonly used: the lead bullet and the jacketed bullet.
Lead bullets are made of lead alloyed with antimony and are either cold
extruded from wire or molded from molten metal Lead bullets are not
satisfactory for use where high velocities are involved, because during
acceleration their softness permits deformation by air resistance, adversely
affecting ballistic performance outside the weapon
Metal jacketed the core is covered by a soft brass or copper plated soft steel
Jacket. The core is a lead-antimony alloy for hunting and for military
antipersonnel cartridges: in military armor-piercing bullets, the core is
hardened steel or tungsten carbide.
Metal jackets were used to

 preserve the physical integrity of the bullet.

 facilitate engagement of the rifling, • allow rapid fire of cylindrical
bullets.

Type of bullet according to purpose:

Target-shooting bullets are designed with a sharp shoulder to cut clean holes in
target paper. Hunting and military antipersonnel bullets are designed to expend a
maximum of their energy on the target.
Armor-piercing bullets are designed to perforate thin layers of armor and retain
enough velocity to injure personnel or destroy equipment. Armor piercing bullets are
designed to pierce metal. They usually contain a hardened core or are completely
composed of a substance other than lead or lead alloy.
Expanding bullets (called dumdums after the British arsenal in India where they
were designed and first manufactured) have a metal jacket open at both ends, so they
flatten on contact with living tissue and produce great internal damage. The Hague
Conference of 1899 outlawed the use of dumdum bullets for war.
Rifle bullets are usually slender cylinders with ogival curved taper) points. Pistol,
revolver, and carbine bullets are short blunt cylinders with rounded noses. Rifle
bullets are fired at velocities in excess of the speed of sound, up to 4,000 feet (1.219
meters) per second
Incendiary bullets are military bullets used for starting fires in inflammable targets
incendiary bullets contain a chemical compound that ignites upon impact, starting a
fire.
The tracer bullet has a chemical compound in the base that burns brightly so the firer
can observe its path. Tracer bullets contain a burning compound in the base to permit
observation of bullet flight
Small-arms bullets are designed according to the same principles as apply to
ammunition for artillery. The main differences are in size and in the fact that artillery

34
projectiles are more complicated because they are designed to explode in the vicinity
of the target.
Explosives bullets contains a high charge of high explosive and because of their
small size it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms
ammunition. For this reason, the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to
20mm and above. Exploding bullets contain a primer or other explosive and are
designed to explode upon impact
Ball bullets have soft cores and are used against personnel
Frangible bullets are designed to disintegrate upon -impact with a hard surface in
order to minimize ricochet

Military armor piercing bullet Winchester frangible

Incendiary bullets Tracer bullet

Base Construction
Base construction is a feature relating to all types of both plain lead and jacketed
bullets.
Examples include the following:

 Solid base bullet - composed one material with no jacketing

 Open base exposed - jacketed bullet with the core exposed
 Jacketed solid base -jacketed bullet with the core enclosed
 Gas check bullet - composed of a lead bullet with a shallow copper alloy cup
fitted to the base

35
 Solid base bullet Open base exposed

Jacketed solid base Gas check bullet

Base Shape - there are many systems for describing the geometry of the base of
bullets; the most common variations include these:

 Flat base
 Stepped recess
 Concave recess
 Parabolic concave recess
 Conical recess
 Truncated conical recess
 Concave recess with convex protrusion in the center
 Convex base
 Conical convex base
 Parabolic convex base
 Truncated base bullet

36
 Remington bullet heel
Flat base Conical concave
recessed base

Parabolic concave
Concave recessed Convex recessed base
base recessed base

Truncated base bullet

Nose Construction
Nose construction describes the many variations encountered on all types of
ammunition, for example:
Soft point bullets' provide for exposure of a portion of the core at the nose of a
jacketed bullet.
Jacketed hollow point bullets have a cavity in the nose to facilitate expansion
Semi-jacketed hollow point bullets have an exposed portion of the lead nose that
contains a cavity.
Metal point bullets (capped bullets) consist of a standard lead bullet with a harder
metal jacket over the nose to enhance bullet penetration
Solid nose constructed of a single metal or alloy.

37
 Soft point bullets Hollow point bullets Semi-jacketed hollow
point bullets

Metal point bullets

Full metal jacket

Open point bullets (soft point, hollow point. and semi-jacketed bullets) offer
opportunities to identity the manufacturer or source based on the construction of nose
cavities. The details of the interface between jacket, core, and cavity are often
proprietary in nature and readily observable.

Nose Cavity Details of Open Point Bullets

Details Type
Serrations in the nose Silver tip portion of the bullet Silver tip
jacket

"Petals of jacket Hollow point material folded into the Hollow point
cavity to help retain the core within the jacket even
after impact with a target

Center-post design Hydro-shok

Serrations Folded hollow point Hydro-shok

38
Nose Shape
Bullet nose geometry generally includes the following configurations:

 Round nose bullets are elongated with a nose measuring hall that of the bullet
diameter (half of the bullet diameter)
 Pointed types.
o Spitzer bullets have a sharp point and a long ogive
o Conical bullets/conoidal bullets have a cone shape
 Wadcutter bullets have a sharp shouldered nose intended to cut target paper
cleanly to facilitate accurate scoring
 Flat nosed bullets have a flattened tip at right angles to its axis
 Semi wadcutter bullets have a distinct short truncated cone at the base end.
 Truncated bullets are conical with a flat nose

Round nose bullets Spitzer bullets Wadcutter bullets

Flat nosed bullets Semi wadcutter bullets Truncated bullets

Cannelures
Type - As previously mentioned, there are two types of circumferential grooves

 Knurled
 Smooth

Knurled Smooth

39
Cannelures may or may not serve a functional purpose on a given bullet. They are
very useful in determining the manufacturer and, in some cases, the stock number of
bullets that are used only for specific purposes.

Number
It is useful to document the number of cannelures found on each type of bullet; this
further limit the number of candidates when searching for similar examples in
reference resources (primarily in a laboratory Standard Ammunition File [SAF]).

Location
The location of each cannelure in terms of its height above the base of a bullet is
another physical feature or set of physical features used as an additional filter to limit
the field in searching reference files.

Cannelure distance

Weight
The weight of a bullet is normally measured in rains using a balance. There are 7000
grains per pound of 437.5 grains per ounce.
The weight of a relatively intact bullet is a partial indicator of the type(s) of cartridge
that may have contained the bullet. Weight is one of the factors used to determine
cartridge type(s).
In the following chart, the weight of a bullet in grains corresponds to possible
cartridge types. A bullet weight may overlap several cartridge types. indicating that
more data are needed to narrow the field.

40
 Range of Bullet Weights for Various Cartridge Types
Cartridge Weight Range (grains)
17 Remington 25
22 Short 27-30
22 Long Rifle 36-40
22 Win Mag 30-50
25 ACP 45-50
7.62 Tokarev 84-92
7.65 (30 Luger) 90-96
32 S&W 85-88
32-20 WCF 90-115
32 Short Colt 80
32 Long Colt 82
32 S&W and 32 S&W Long 95-100
32 Auto 60-71
8mm Nambu 90.103
380 Auto 85-102
9mm Parabellum 88-147
9am Makarov 9mm Steyr 114-118
9mm Mauser 123-128
38 S&W 145-150
38 Long Colt/Colt 148. 150 New 148-150
Police
38 Special 95-158
357 Magnum 110-180
38 Auto 115-147
40 S&W 141-180
10mm Auto 155-200
41 Rem Magnum 170-240
41 Short Colt 160-167
44 Rem Magnum 180-275
44 S&W Spl 200-246
45 ACP 175-230
45 Colt 22-255
Popular small caliber excluding reloads Sources: Hatcher, H.P White Lab, CCI,
Winchester, Remington, Federal

1. What does the development of bullet used as a projectile in firearms brings to

us? ____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module. Should there be any part of the lesson
which you need clarification, please feel free to ask me, your instructor. Now if you are ready, please
proceed to Lesson 2 of this module which will discuss about gunpowder.

41
 LESSON 2 MODULE 3

GUNPOWDER

This lesson focuses on the development of gunpowder being used as bullet

propellant, the history and timeline of development of gunpowder, also its different
types and composition.

Search for them below are set of words related to this lesson, search
them by encircling/marking/writing what you have found.

F I N G E R T R I G G G E
O N C E N T R E L L U L A
U C A N N E N I N G S A D
N A D R E N A L A R S E N
D N A D E O X R I B O N U
I S U K C H A R C O A L E
G U N P O W D E R A L B F
N L A S R D A C D E O F A
G F G L D A M V O L C O T
G U L H I I S J K L A M T
N R A O T P S Q R S V Z Y
E X S X E X P L O S I V E

 What is a propellant and what does it do?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
 What do you think are the uses of gunpowder before it was used a
bullet propellant? Cite its uses.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Feel free to read the abstraction to learn the answers to these reflective
questions.

42
Gunpowder is a granular, explosive mixture of potassium nitrate. sulfur, and charcoal
formerly used as a gun propellant and for blasting in mines. quarries, and construction
projects. Beginning about (1875. gunpowder was gradually replaced by safer, more
powerful explosives. Now called black powder. it is used principally to ignite the
main propellant charge in artillery ammunition.

History
Although mixtures of potassium nitrate and carbonaceous fuel were used for
fireworks in China and elsewhere at least as early as the 10th century, their potential
as propellants was not realized until much later. In the 13th century projectiles loaded
with an explosive paste of potassium nitrate, sulfur, and petroleum or pine pitch were
thrown from ballistae by Greek and Muslim armies in the Middle East. Roger Bacon
in 1942 described the ignition of potassium nitrate and sulfur as producing a bright
flash and a thundering noise, but the first use of such an explosion to propel a
projectile was so obscured by military secrecy that it could only be estimated that it
occurred between 1250 and 1300
Until about 1450, gunpowder was simply a pulverized mixture of about 50 parts
potassium nitrate with 25 parts each of sulfur and charcoal. After that date the powder
was usually consolidated in stamp mills with the aid of a little water the resulting
clods were called coms. The French in 1540 were the first to control the pressure in
large cannon by using large, relatively slow-burning powder grains of uniform size.
By 650 the most energetic formula, consisting of 25% potassium nitrate, 10% sulfur,
and 15% charcoal was generally favored for use in military firearms

Classification and Composition

Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:
1. Black Powder (Europeans) - the standard ingredients are Potassium nitrate 75%,
Sulphur 10% and Charcoal 15%
That research showed the following:

 Black powder produces time-pressure curves that are remarkably similar to

modern propellants, indicating progressive burning and a measured release
of energy over time.
 Black powder in finer granulations produced higher pressures than equal
quantities of coarser black powder, indicating the burning rate is
controllable by granulation.
 Black powder peak pressures were as high as 21,000 psi, and roughly
equal to modern factory ammunition for this cartridge.
Disadvantages

 Black powder has a limited amount of total energy per unit of volume. To
gain greater velocity, a larger volume of propellant must be used,
necessitating a larger cartridge case. With the trend to repeating firearms,

43
 large cartridges common to single-shot black powder firearms could not be
accommodated.
 In cartridge firearms, velocities seldom exceed 1400 ft/sec. (426 m/sec).
This again is a limitation of energy content and cartridge size.
 Black powder is volumetrically inefficient. Depending on the grade,
granulation, and loading density, gas production is only 45 to 55 percent of
the total output. The remaining inert solids, largely dense smoke and
fouling, contribute nothing to propulsion.
 Black powder produces a dense smoke cloud. As military tactics shifted
from massed troops to individual riflemen, a smoke puff helped the enemy
to spot the shooter's position.
 Black powder residue is corrosive to steel. Several by-products of black
powder combustion are hygroscopic, releasing corrosive compounds when
hydrolyzed. This accelerates wear to the firearm.

2. Smokeless Powder is the propellant used in guns and small solid-propellant

rockets. It is not a "powder" in the sense of being finely divided. Instead, it is made in
the form of disks, cylinders, cords, spheres, or plates of varying sizes. The term
*smokeless powder" is used to differentiate it from the earlier black powder, which
was quite smoky.

Classification of Smokeless Powder

1. Single based Nitrocellulose – pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with
nitrocellulose
2. Double based - Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine with the following minor
ingredients:
a) Centralite
b) Vaseline phthalate esters
c) Inorganic salt
Purposes of the minor ingredients:

 insure stability
 reduce flash or flame temperature
 improve ignitability
Characteristics:

 a gray green to black in color and grains are similar in size and
shape to the single-base propellants
 almost all have a perfectly definite shape such as: small
squares: discs: nakes: stripes: pellets, and perforated cylindrical
grains
3. Triple based - Nitrocellulose. Nitroglycerine and Nitrogenadineadine
4. High ignition temperature propellant – Its main constituent is from RDX
group of high explosives. It was moderated to the process of gelatinization
and was then developed by Dynamite Noble of Germany in conjunction
with Heckler and Koch for the latter's G11K2 rifle.

44
Materials and Manufacture
Smokeless powder is commonly classified as single base, double base or triple base.
1. Single-base powders in general contain only nitrocellulose, of about 12.5% to
13.5% nitrogen. The most famous single-base powders are the celebrated Poudre B
created in 1884 by Ordnance General Paul
2. Double-base powders are mixtures of nitrocellulose and about 25% nitroglycerin.
They may also contain diphenylamine to ensure stability, and ether alcohol or ethyl
acetate to gelatinize the nitrocellulose Graphite may be added to reduce the tendency
of the powder to acquire charges of static electricity Dinitrotoluens. (DNT).
dibutylphthalate. and diethyldiphenylurea (centralite) are nonvolatile agents added to
moderate the rate of burning and to reduce the tendency to absorb moisture during
damp storage. The most famous examples of double base powders were called
Ballistite and Cordite.
3. Triple-base powders have been developed for some very specific applications
such as high rate of fire automatic weapons or artillery gun. The third explosive
substance used in these is a so-called "cool buring explosives" often nitroguanidine,
which is used to lower the temperature of deflagration

Timeline
1846 - The German-Swiss chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein discovered
nitrocellulose
1884 - The French engineer Paul M. E. Vieille invented the famous poudre B-a dense,
colloided, nitrocellulose powder. Vieille controlled the erratic behavior of
nitrocellulose by gelatinizing it with ether alcohol and rolling the gel into thin sheets.
1888 - The Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel gelatinized nitrocellulose with
nitroglycerine, and by the British development of cordite. The development of
modern smokeless powders followed.
1895 - Cordite was developed by Sir Frederick Abel and James Dewar. It became the
official British cannon propellant. Originally cordite contained 30% cellulose nitrate,
65% nitroglycerin, and 5% petroleum jelly; however, part of the nitroglycerin has
since been replaced by dibutyl phthalate, dinitrotoluene, or nitroguanidine to reduce
the rate of gun barrel erosion and to eliminate muzle flash
Cordite. A type of smokeless nitrocellulose powster which was used widely in British
military and sporting cartridges. Cordite grains usually resemble very thin strands of
spaghetti but sometimes have other forms.

45
Cordite
Guncotton A cellulose material which has been treated with appropriate chemicals to
produce nitrocellulose) an extremely combustible material Used as a bullet propellant.

Gun Cloth

Lesmok Powder - Developed by du Pont in 1 and used by WRA, Rem-UMC and

USC. It was a type of semi-smokeless powder and was used until the 1930s.
Semi-Smokeless Gunpowder - A transitional relatively low-pressure propellant
which bridged the gap between black and smokeless powder "LESMOK was a typical
brand name.

Essay;
1. What was the importance of the development of gunpowder? Cite the
advantages and disadvantages.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Essay Criteria
Content: Relevance to the Topic, Originality of Ideas - 50%
Grammar: Well-constructed sentences - 20%
Mechanics: Spelling, Punctuation, Capitalization ` - 20%
Vocabulary: Word Choice - 10%
100%

Well done! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module. Should there be any part of the lesson
which you need clarification, please feel free to ask me, your instructor. Now if you are ready, please
proceed to Lesson 3 of this module which will discuss about firearm identification.

46
 LESSON 3 MODULE 3

FIREARM IDENTIFICATION

This lesson focuses on the Firearm; how it was made, its classification, its
identification in relation to scientific crime processing and investigation.

Complete the scrambled words below by writing the correct answer of

the corresponding words that being mixed.

1. NALDS & VEROGO

2. SRIFILGN
3. RABREL
4. RIFEMARS
5. FITTEDINIOCAIN

 Is firearm identification necessary? Why?

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
 In firearm identification why there is a need to know the
characteristics of specific firearms?
______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Feel free to read the abstraction to learn the answers to these reflective
questions.

47
Arms Manufacturing Processes Related to Firearms Identification
Knowledge of how firearms are manufactured plays a very vital role in the
identification of firearms. It is an accepted fact that any object or thing that is created
possesses unique and definite characteristics and these could be traced from the
moment of creation. Characteristics of these creations can be explained by identified
reasons may this be common or unique from one another. Firearms pass several
processes and in the making we follow certain designs and specifications. There are
controlled factors and at the same time there are factors that are beyond man’s
control. So, it is clear that in the process the characteristics of the firearms are
acquired. Tools and machines with cutting edge explain the markings found in every
firearm made. These tool marks are transferred in every firearm by deliberate or
accidental operations during the manufacturing process. The markings acquired by the
firearm in the process are transferable which permits the latter identification of said
firearm through the markings. scratches or dents that are discernible in every
discharged bullet and shell.

How Firearms Are Made

Barrel Manufacture
1. Drilling stage - a solid peace of cylindrical metal is drilled by a special deep hole
drill, through the center of which lubricating oil is forced under pressure. This
operation results in comparatively rough hole of uniform diameter that extends
longitudinally from one end to the other end.

Conventional Lathe Machine Deep Hole Drill Bit

2. Reaming Stage - removes scars and scratches left by the drilling operation. The
reamer used is slightly greater in diameter than that of the drill therefore removes
excess metal from the entire surface of the bore.

48
3. Rifling Stage - the creation of lands and grooves inside the bore to improve
projection of the bullet during firing. We use two modern systems now in the creation
of riling. These are:

Rifling System
Broaching system - we use a broaching cutter that cuts a longitudinal spiral
groove inside the barrel. It produces the desired number of lands and grooves
in a single stroke

An interior looks of a bore

RIFLING BROACH after the
Rifling Stage

Button system - same through with the broaching cutter it produces the
desired number of lands and grooves simultaneously but in a different manner.
It does not cut longitudinal spiral grooves inside but it produces the same by
depressing a portion of the internal surface of the bore thus creating the
grooves.

Double-tapered rifling button

4. Lapping Stage - this is the last stage in the making of the barrel. This is the
polishing operation wherein a lead plug is used in removing many of the larger
imperfections due to the cutting of forming operations.

49
Breech Manufacture
The breech of the gun is another significant part of every gun for it is this
portion of the gun Against which the cartridge case and the primer are forced
backward when the cartridge is fired in the chamber. When this happen the primer
and the whole base of the spent shell will be imprinted with the perfections and
irregularities found on the breech face of the gun. Eventually this happens because of
another important fact that the metal of the cartridge is made up of a softer material
when compared with the metal of the breech. Naturally when a soft surface comes in
contact with a harder surface under remarkably tremendous pressure, it is the softer
surface that is engraved with the irregularities or tool marks found from the harder
surface.

Bolt-action rifle receiver Bolt

Martini-Henry breechblock Revolver cylinder

Forensic Firearms Identification therefore is based on the following basic principles:

1. Firearms identification is actually refined tool marks identification.
2. The natural wear and tear of tools involved produces individuality in a
firearm.
3. When a softer surface comes in contact with a harder surface, it is the softer
surface that acquires impressions or engravings from the irregularities present
on the harder surface.
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike.
Microscopic scratches or striations transferred on the discharged bullet and cartridge
case will provide telltale signs suggesting what firearm was used in firing. These
scratches or striations vary from gun to gun therefore it is impossible that two guns
will leave the same characteristic patterns on bullets and cartridge cases fired through
them. The pattern of markings produced by every gun will therefore be unique
because we believe that no man can mold a piece of work exactly like twice:
Successful identification of firearms from discharged bullets and spent shells depend
upon the basic principle that "there is no duplication in nature" exemptions to this

50
rule are never manifested as result of man's ingenuity. Science has demonstrated the
undeniable fact that regardless of how similar objects may appear to the unaided
senses, a more exhaustive study will reveal much dissimilarity.

Marks Found on Fired Bullets

 Landmarks - caused by the lands

 Groove marks - caused by the grooves
 Skid marks - due to worn out barrel
 Stripping marks - due to bullet jumping on the rifling
 Rifling marks - the collective term for land marks and groove marks

Marks Found on Fired Shells

 Firing pin marks - generally found on the primer cup (center-fire) or on the
cavity of the rim (rim-fire) produced by the blow coming from the firing pin
when knocked by the hammer of the gun.
 Breech face markings-generally found randomly distributed on the surface of
the base produced by the breechblock
 Extractor marks - found in the extracting flange or groove Ejector marks -
marks produced from automatic and semi-auto firearms generally found near
the rim. Shearing marks - sometimes called secondary firing pin impression
 Magazine lips markings - found on the body of the shell produced during
loading of the cartridge in the magazine.
 Chamber marks - found on the periphery of the body of the shell marked by
the irregularities found on the surface of the chamber
 Pivotal marks - also found on the body of the shell produced when the slide
acted on the body of the shell during ejection.

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 Chamber marks Shearing marks
Chamber marks Shearing marks

Firing pin impression Firing pin drag marks

Firing pin impression Firing pin drag marks

Ejector marks (striated) Ejector marks (impressed)

Ejector marks (striated) Ejector marks (impressed)

Breech block mark Breechface mark

Breech block mark Breechface mark

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Characteristics of Firearms
Two Characteristics of Firearms
1. Class characteristics - are those characteristics that are determinable even prior
the manufacture of the firearms. Also called factory specifications that are within the
control of man and they serve as basis to identify a certain group or class of firearms.
These class characteristics are in the form of:

 Bore diameter-caliber measured between two opposite lands

 Number of lands and grooves - the number of lands and grooved are
always proportionate.
 Width of lands - the width depends on the bore diameter, groove width and
number
 Width of grooves - the shortest distance between two edges of a groove
 Direction of twist - the spiral groove cuts impart motion of rotation on the
bullet, which is either to the left or to the right. Ex. Colt type - lest twist
 Pitch of rifling - refers to the distance advance of the rifling in one
complete turn (360)
 Depth of grooves - it is equal to side or the height of the lands

Common Class Characteristics of Firearms

1. Army Type - has a code of 4R G3x meaning it has 4 lands and grooves,
Right twist the width of Grooves is 3x wider than the width of lands.
2. Browning Type - has a code of 6R G2x meaning it has 6 lands and
grooves, Right twist, the width of the Grooves is 2x wider than the width
of the lands
3. Colt Type - has a code of GL G2x meaning it has 6 lands and grooves.
Left twist, the width of the Grooves is 2x wider than the lands.
4. Steyr Type - has a code of 4R G-L meaning it has 4 lands and grooves.
Right twist, the width of the Grooves is equal with the width of the lands
5. Smith and Wesson Type - has a code of 5R G-L meaning it has 5 lands
and grooves. Right twist, the width of the Grooves is equal with the width
of the lands.

53
 6. Webley Type - has a code of 7R G3x meaning it has 7 lands and grooves.
Right twist, the width of the Grooves is 3x wider than the width of lands.

2. Individual characteristics - are those characteristic markings peculiar in character

and which are not found in all other firearms. They serve as basis to identify a
particular firearm. These are determinable only after the manufacture of the gun. They
are acquired during and after the manufacture of the weapon as a result of
coincidental procedure and subsequent mutation. They are in the form of dimensional
divergences that show slight inadvertent deviation. These are minute in character that
are not observed by the naked eye but seen if magnified through the use of a
microscope:
Individual characteristics are represented by striations found on the surface of fired
bullets (periphery) and fired shells base). Striations are small grooves ridges or tiny
scratches imprinted by the gun to the fired bullets and fired shells that usually show
characteristic patterns if it is produced by only one gun.
In a cartridge case, the extent to which these marks are impressed upon the shell or
primer depends on the following factors:

 Powder charge
 Softness of the primer cup
 Sharpness of the striations on the breechblock
 Presence of oil, grease or foreign matter on the block
 Factory stampings and designs on the cartridge head

Striated action marks are common to cartridge cases that have passed through the
action of an auto loading or repeating firearm. Striated action marks can be produced
on cartridge cases by contact with a number of different areas within the firearm.
Some of the more common striated action marks include chamber marks; shear
marks, firing pin drag marks, extractor marks, and ejector marks.
Impressed action marks, with a few exceptions, are produced when a cartridge case is
fired in a firearm. The two most common impressed action marks are firing pin
impressions and breech marks. As mentioned at the end of the Striated Action
Marks page, ejector marks can also be in the form of an impressed action mark.

Principles of Identification
Principle Involved in Shell Identification

 The breechface and the striker of every single firearm have microscopic
individualities of their own.
 Every firearm leaves its "fingerprint" or "thumbmark" on every cartridge it
fires.
 The whole principle of dentification of shell is predicated or based upon the
fact that since the breechface of every firearm must be individually distinct,

54
 the cartridge cases it fires are imprinted with this individuality. The imprints
of all cartridge’s cases fired from the same weapon will be the same and those
on cartridge cases fired from different weapons are different.

Principle Involved in Bullet Identification

 No two barrels are microscopically alike or identical, as the internal surface of

the bore all possesses individual and characteristic markings of their own.
 When a bullet is fired from a rifled gun barrel, it becomes engraved by the
rifling and theses markings will vary in its minute details with every firearm.
So, it happens that the engravings on the bullet fired from one barrel will be
different from that on another bullet fired from another barrel And conversely,
the engravings on bullets fired from the same barrel will be the same.
 Every bullet leaves its "thumbmark" or "fingerprints on every bullet fired on
it.

Problems Encountered in Firearms Identification

Problem Type #1
Given a bullet to determine the caliber and type of firearms used.

Problem Type #2
Given a cartridge case. to determine the caliber, name of manufacturer
and type of firearm used

Problem Type # 3
Given a bullet and a firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet
was fired from the suspected firearm submitted.

Problem Type .4
Given a cartridge case and a firearm, to determine whether or not the
cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm submitted

Problem Type #5
Given two or more bullets to determine whether or not the bullets were
fired from only one weapon

Problem Type #6
Given two or more fired cartridge cases, to determine whether or not
the cartridge cases were fired from only one weapon.

Problem Type #7
Given a firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or not.

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Scientific Crime Investigation
In recent times, science has provided substantial ard to crime detection.
Because anything in the physical universe has the potential of becoming an item of
evidence in an investigation, a wide variety of procedures may be used in analyzing
and interpreting evidence in a criminal case. These procedures include examining
firearms.

Crime Scene Search

The search of the scene for ballistic exhibits is one of the most important
phases of crime investigation Crime of violence, especially wherein firearms had been
used, sometimes involves struggle. a break and the element of unpredictability. In
homicide, murder and armed robberies, the criminal is in contact with physical
surroundings in a forceful manner. Traces of the commission of the crime may be left
in the form of fired bullets, fired shells, and suspected firearm. These firearm
evidences, or ballistic exhibits as sometimes they are called, might be of value in
tracing the perpetrator or perpetrators of the crime so committed. Together with these,
there might be other traces that may link him to the crime committed.
A well-planned and organized method should guide the basic search. The search to be
followed by the investigator should be thorough and complete, and no details of the
surrounding area should be over-looked by the investigator. There might be some
types of evidence, which might be of the highest significance to firearms
investigation. (del Rosario)

Recognition, Collection, Marking, Preservation, and Transmittal of Physical

Evidences
In every crime scene investigation, we give importance to the special operating
procedures observed by the investigators. In this manner we will be able to
reconstruct how the crime happened and be able to present the evidence in the same
nature as they were found in the crime scene In this way the court will be given a
complete and clear picture of the commission of the crime. The following are the five
important activities undertaken by the police in crime scene investigations:

Recognition
Proper recognition of physical evidences that might have come out from the use of
firearms will only be realized if investigators will use their senses keenly particularly
if observing the scene of the crime. Training on the part of the investigator is also
indispensable in recognition of physical evidences that have something to do with
firearms.

Collection
Skills on how to handle sensitive physical evidence are likewise imperative in
order for the successful resolution of criminal cases. Observance of rules on the part
of the investigator is a sign of good discipline and therefore usually results to no
destruction of the evidences. Mutilation, alteration, and contamination of evidence
will be avoided in many ways as long as we conscious and cautious.

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 Marking and Tagging of Physical Evidences
Later identification of physical evidence is another equally important part of
investigation. Investigators are always put on a hot seat every time they are called to
testify in court for preliminary investigation or trials Inaccurate identification of
evidence will be lessened if beforehand, investigators have devised a system in order
not to commit mistake in the presentation of evidence in court. In this way the
integrity of the evidence will be preserved. Two of the usual techniques to identify
physical evidence in the future are marking and tagging Rules on how to mark and tag
evidence are usually made to guide investigators and in this way misrepresentation in
courts will be reduced.

Preservation of Physical Evidence

The time of disposition of cases in court is perceived to be too long from the time
cases are filed until it is finally decided by the court. With this truth authorities should
preserve the evidence in order not to lose its evidentiary values. Proper custody of the
evidence will mean placing the evidence in its proper place under proper condition.
Appropriate preservative and packaging materials should be used to retain the value
of the evidence to its fullest.

Transmittal of Physical Evidence

Collected evidence does not remain on the possession of the officer-in-charge of
the case Physical evidences after its recovery and collection will be transferred to one
person to another. These persons who have handled the evidence have in one way
helped in processing the evidence but we should not isolate the possibility that the
evidences may have change in nature and will not appear exactly the same as they
were recovered when presented in court. We call this series of event as Chain of
Possession of Physical Evidence Documentation of what have happened on the
evidence from the time of recovery to the time it will be presented in court should be
accomplished in order to clear the responsibilities of each person who have handled
the evidences.

Handling Situation;
You are the assigned investigator in a crime recently happened. There were no SOCO
team to conduct crime scene processing, thus only you and your subordinates are the
only available. In the scene there were firearms and ammunitions, what should be the
procedure in handling firearms and its identification. Cite steps or procedures.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

57
 CONGRATULATIONS! JOB WELL DONE!
You have just finished this module, and you completed this course pack.
I hope you learn so many things about Forensic Ballistics
God Bless with your next journey!

MODULE SUMMARY MODULE 3

You have completed the last module of Forensic Ballistics covering Firearm
and its Components. Key points covered in the module include:
 Bullet types commonly used; Lead bullets, and Jacketed bullets

 Type of bullet according to purpose; Target-shooting bullets , Expanding

bullets, Rifle bullets, Incendiary bullets, The tracer bullet, Small-arms bullets,
Explosives bullets, and Frangible bullets

 Base Construction; Solid base bullet, Open base exposed, Jacketed solid base,
and Gas check bullet

 Base Shape; Flat base, Stepped recess, Concave recess, Parabolic concave
recess, Conical recess, Truncated conical recess, Concave recess with convex
protrusion in the center, Convex base, Conical convex base, Parabolic convex
base, and Truncated base bullet.

 Nose Construction; Soft point bullets', Jacketed hollow point bullets, Semi-
jacketed hollow point bullets, Metal point bullets, and Solid nose

 Classification of Gunpowder; Black Powder Potassium nitrate 75%, Sulphur

10% and Charcoal 15%; and Smokeless Powder Single based Nitrocellulose,
Double based - Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine, Triple based -
Nitrocellulose. Nitroglycerine and Nitrogenadineadine,and High ignition
temperature propellant

 Barrel Manufacture; Drilling stage, Reaming Stage, Rifling Stage, and

Lapping Stage

 Marks Found on Fired Bullets; Landmarks, Groove marks, Skid marks,

Stripping marks, Rifling marks

 Marks Found on Fired Shells; Firing pin marks, Breech face markings,
Magazine lips markings, Chamber marks, and Pivotal marks

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 MODULE 3

Essay; Based from your understanding and in your own words define or describe the
following terms. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. Individual Characteristics
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Class Characteristics
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Land Marks
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Groove Marks
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Skid Marks
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. Stripping Marks
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
7. Shaving Marks
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
8. Shearing Marks
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
9. Bore Diameter
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
10. Groove Diameter
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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 MODULE 3

REFERENCES
Akins, C. (1980) American Pistols and Revolvers, Ted Bryant and Bill Akins.
Ammunition General Training Manual 9-1900 (US Army) and Training Order 11A-1-
20 (US Air Force)
Archer, Denis (1997) Jane’s Pocket Book of Pistols and Submachine Guns.
Blair, Claude, (1969) Pistols of the World
Grimares, Erdulfo M (2006) Forensic Ballistics, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.
Grimares, Erdulfo M (2006) Forensic Ballistics, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.
Introduction to Ammunition Training Manual 9-1300-2006 (US Army)
Kasler, P.A. (1991). Business Partners: The Best Pistol/ Ammunition Combinations
for Personal Defense. Colorado, Paladin Press
Lajom, Fidel P. Criminalistics. Rex Book Store, Manila, Philippines
Lajom, Fidel P. Criminalistics. Rex Book Store, Manila, Philippines
Saferstein, R. (1995) Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, New
Jersey; Prentice Hall, Inc.
Sarmiento, A. (2012) Forensic Ballistics, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.
Sarmiento, A. (2012) Forensic Ballistics, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.
Tradio, Cirilo M., A Compendium on Criminalistics 4th Edition

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