National Guidelines for Small Scale Irrigation Development MOA

3 SPRING DEVELOPMENT AND PROTECTION WORKS

3.1 GENERAL

The quantity of water from a spring can be substantially increased by digging out the area around
the spring down to an impervious layer, to remove silt, decomposed rock and other rock
fragments, and mineral matter sometimes deposited by the emerging groundwater. However, in
doing this, particular care should be taken, especially in fissured limestone areas, to avoid
disturbing underground formations to the extent that the spring is deflected in another direction or
into other fissures. Such process of improving yield of springs is known as spring development.
Thus, springs need to be collected and developed before they are protected. There are three
techniques of spring development for using it as water sources:
 Spring boxes;
 Horizontal wells; and
 Seep development.
Case study: “There was a spring locally named as “Burka Birbisa” in eastern part of Oromia
National Regional State, Ethiopia. In 1995 GC, a small scale irrigation project which was
supported by IFAD was built to develop a 40ha gross command area to serve 100 household
beneficiaries on this spring eye. However, after some years of service, the protection works of the
project headwork was collapsed and dismantled due to piping effects. Consequently, maintenance
was required to reestablish it. However, the spring was totally disappeared as a result of
disturbance in local water bearing geology while excavating around the spring eye, and finally the
project stopped functioning.”

3.2 SPRING SITE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION

3.2.1 Assessment of potential spring site

First of all, we need to inspect the geologic conditions around the potential spring site. If the
geologic formation around it is found rocky, it indicates that it can have a high infiltration rate
through fractures, and contaminants may not be filtered out. If this geologic formation is mostly
sand, the water will infiltrate, but will be filtered to some degree depending on the depth of the
aquifer. If this geologic formation contains a high degree of clay, contaminated water will have a
difficult time infiltrating the aquifer and the spring can be said it is relatively safe for our purpose.

Then after it needs to decide if this spring is able to meet farmers‟ demand and is accessible for
irrigating the proposed command area. This requires to answer the questions: “how easy will it be
to transport construction materials and tools to the site?” As a consequence, we need to think at
this stage, about the conveyance system of irrigation water as well. How the construction and
maintenance can be done and who will cover the cost? Can the community afford the project and
will they able to maintain the spring? The development of spring should be demand based, and
needs discussion with the beneficiaries and needs confirmation of their commitments.

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3.2.2 Yield estimation

An assessment of yield of a spring and its seasonal variation of flow are indispensable. The yield
and the reliability of a spring flow can be influenced by the construction of the spring water
collection works. Information about the yield is crucial in the decision-making process for the
tapping of a spring. Yield is studied in terms of flow rate and consistency. Variation in the yield of a
spring during the dry season and the rainy season is an important criterion to determine whether
the spring is a suitable source. If the ratio between the highest yield in the rainy season and the
yield in the dry season is below 20, then the spring has an acceptable consistency and can be
regarded as a reliable source in both wet and dry seasons.

3.2.3 Analysis of demand of spring water

Demand of spring water in general need to determine the amount of water required for irrigation,
drinking water, livestock and domestics and losses. Based on the monthly potential
evapotranspiration determined in Hydrology and estimated monthly crop water requirement in
Agronomy part we need to compute monthly water balance in consideration of the above
consumption rates.

Domestic and livestock water requirements can be estimated using the expression:

Vd = N*q*t ……………………………………………………………………...………… (3-1)

Where, Vd = Volume of water required for domestic purposes (liters or m3)

N = Number of people and livestock (Number)
q = Daily water consumption (lpcd)
t = Number of days for water consumption (days)

Usually, twenty percent of the above estimated water demand is considered as various losses,
consequently,

Total water demand = Gross Irrigation req‟t + Total domestic water req‟t + 20% for loss … (3-2)

To estimate projected population after base year, Po:

P 
r n
Pn  0
1 ……………………………………………………………………… (3-3)
100

Where, P0 = Initial or base year population (Nr)

Pn= Projected population after n decades (Nr)
r = Growth rate (%)
n = Number of years

Table 3-1: Indicative Daily Water Consumption Rate for Livestock, in lit/day
SN Livestock type Weight (kg) Mean (lit) Maximum (lit) For planning purposes (lit)
1 Cattle 350 16.4 56.1 25
2 Sheep 35 1.9 5.2 5
3 Goats 30 2 5.4 5
4 Equines 12
Avg. 11.8
Source: National Water Sector strategy, MoWR, 2001

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Table 3-2: Indicative daily water consumption rate for base year in l/c/d
Per Capita Demand, l/c/d
SN Demand Remark
Rural Town City (e.g. AA)
1 Domestic demand 15-25 65-80 120 National Water Sector strategy
2 Institutional Demand 15% of Domestic - -
3 Public Demand 3% of Domestic - -
4 Livestock Demand 12 - - Taken avg. from above table
5 D/s Release 10% of (1+2+3+4) - -
Source: National Water Sector strategy, MoWR, 2001

Box-3-1:
Worked Example-1: Consider a Spring Development SSI Project called Bereda Lencha in ONRS,
East Hararge Zone, Gola Oda Woreda. Other related given data: Water demand is proportional to
population growth; Base year population which were using this spring water in 2012 is 5,544
Livestock Population is 5,000; rural population Growth Rate from CSA is 2.5% per annum for
domestic and 2.0% for Livestock Population. Design Period is 20 years; Institutional Demand is
15% of Domestic demand; Public Demand is 3% of Domestic demand; Demand is assumed to be
20 l/s/d for the 1st ten years, 23 l/s/d for next 10yrs & 25l/s/d for last years; Measured discharge is
assumed available for all the days of a year, i.e. 198 l/s can be obtained every day Rural
Population. Assuming peak hour factors of 1.9, 1.9, 1.7, 1.7 and 1.7 every five years respectively,
compute overall peak hourly demand.

Solution:

Table 3-3: Computed Water Demand at Every Five Years Interval

SN Description Unit 2012 2017 2022 2027 2032
1 Population to be served
1.1 Rural Population Nr 5,544 6,273 7,097 8,029 9,084
1.2 Livestock Population Nr 5,000 5,520 6,095 6,729 7,430
Sub Total 10,544 11,793 13,192 14,759 16,514
2 Demand
2.1 Rural Domestic demand m3/d 111 125 163 185 227
3
2.2 Institutional water demand m /d 17 19 24 28 34
2.3 Public Demand m3/d 3 4 5 6 7
3
2.4 Livestock Demand m /d 60 66 73 81 89
Sub Total of daily demand m3/d 191 214 266 299 357
2.5 Unexpected d/s release m3/d 19 21 27 30 36
3
Total average daily demand m /d 210 236 292 329 393
l/s 2.4 2.7 3.4 3.8 4.5
2.7 Average per capita demand l/c/d 20 20 22 22 24
2.8 Maximum daily factor 1.25 1.25 1.2 1.2 1.2
3
2.9 Maximum daily demand m /d 262 295 351 394 471
2.10 Maximum daily flow l/s 3.0 3.4 4.1 4.6 5.5
2.11 Peak hour factor 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.7
2.12 Overall Peak Hour Demand l/s 5.8 6.5 6.9 7.8 9.3
Note: Institutional includes e.g. schools, clinic, etc.; Public includes taking bath & washing around the spring eye. Source
of this Population data is CSA, 2007.

Thus, take overall peak hourly design demands 9.3 l/s.

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3.2.4 Spring reliability & quality

It is necessary to determine the reliability, quality and the average/minimum flow of the spring for
the whole season of irrigation. Basically, we need to ask the local residents for the history of the
spring then decide if the spring is seasonal or if it is fairly constant all year round from the
assessed historical backgrounds.

Following this, it needs to check the quality of the spring water if it is also required for drinking (as
such water resource need to be developed for multipurpose scheme). If we have no equipment to
do this, look at the turbidity and check how the water smells. If there is a strong odor, or the water
is very turbid (has a lot of suspended sediment), it will probably need additional treatment than the
standard spring water. This could include settling, filtering, and disinfecting.

If we can see nothing wrong from observation, make a judgment based on the survey of the area.
If the conditions/use of the land is suspect, it may still be necessary to at least disinfect the water
before consumption from findings expected from the collected samples for physical and chemical
analysis in the laboratory.

Finally, determine the flow of the spring in dry season using the above mentioned methods. This
can be done by constructing a temporary dike to retain the spring flow. Then insert a pipe through
the clay dike, and read the time for how long it takes to fill a container with a known volume. It will
be the best to perform this test for several times, and at least once during the dry season. The
objective is to determine average and minimum flows in order to predict if the spring will be
sufficient for the needs of the community or to fix the size of irrigable land.

3.3 SPRING DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURES

3.3.1 Conditions for spring development

Spring development procedure depends on type and nature of springs. The following sections
show procedures to develop springs based on their nature.

Seepage springs are difficult to develop. They are also highly susceptible to contamination from
surface sources and they need to be monitored before development to ensure that they will
provide a dependable source of water during the entire year. Flow is often lower from such
springs, making them less dependable.

3.3.2 Procedures for developing a seepage spring

 Dig test holes upslope from the seep until you locate the point where the impervious
layer is 90cm underground.
 Create a trench approximately 45 to 60 cm wide across the slope. Trench should be
extended 15 cm into the impervious layer (below the water-bearing layer) and should
extend 120 to 180cm beyond the seepage area. Install 120cm of collection tile and
surround the tile with gravel.
 Installation of a collecting wall will help prevent water from escaping the collection tile.
This collecting wall should be constructed of 10 to 15 cm thick of concrete.
 Collection tile should be connected to a pipe that leads to the spring box. Box inlet must
be below the elevation of the collector tile.
 Remove potential sources of contamination and divert surface water away from spring
box or collection area.

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3.3.3 Procedures for developing a concentrated spring

Major steps required for developing a concentrated spring are:

Excavate the land upslope from the spring discharge until 90 cm of water is flowing.
 Install a rock bed to form an interception reservoir.
 Build a collecting wall of concrete or plastic down slope from the spring discharge.
 Install a pipe low in the collecting wall to direct the water from the interception reservoir
to a concrete or plastic spring box. (Note: problems with spring flow can occur if water is
permitted to back up behind the wall, such as disappearance of spring eye.)
 Remove potential sources of contamination and divert surface water away from the
spring box or collection area by trench/dyke depending on degree of expected flood
from the upstream side.
 Alternative types of interception reservoirs and collecting walls can be constructed as
shown in figure below.

Figure 3-1: Alternative collecting system and cross sectional view of concentrated spring

3.3.4 Concentrated springs in lowland areas

Some concentrated springs emerge in valleys or lowland areas. A spring that forms in a low area
may be very difficult to safeguard from bacterial contamination since surface water in general
tends to flow toward these valleys. For this reason, it is critical that water collected from these
areas is regularly tested and, if necessary, receives disinfection treatment.

To develop a lowland spring, follow the steps described above for the development of a
concentrated spring, but a collecting wall may not be needed.

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3.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF PROTECTION WORKS

3.4.1 General design considerations

The ever increasing demands due to both increase of population and increases in per capita due
to standard of living needs to be considered in addition to the reductions expected in outputs of
existing springs.

Design of all types of spring boxes is basically the same and includes the following features:
 Water-tight collection box constructed of concrete, brick, clay pipe or other material.
 A heavy removable cover that prevents contamination and provides seepage for
cleaning.
 An overflow pipe,
 A drainage pipe underneath and
 A connection to a storage tank or directly to a distribution system.

When considering a spring as our source of irrigation/water supply, it is important to ensure that
the rate of flow is reliable throughout all seasons of the year or within the crop water requirement
duration.

Spring flow that fluctuates greatly throughout a year is an indication that the source is unreliable as
well as may have the potential for contamination since they are fed by shallow groundwater, which
usually flows through the ground for only a short period of time and may interact with surface
water. The engineer or hydrologist should be able to learn about historical flow of the spring from
the previous owner or a neighbor to deduce trend of that spring flow.

3.4.2 Specific considerations

The following points specify considerations which need to be taken care of while designing spring
protection works:
 Protection headwork is intended not for storage on its eye but guiding flow to the
designed intakes or collection chamber and hence the right and/or left main canals by
capping structure i.e. spring box works.
 Water from such spring flows in different directions or limited outlet. Spring water which
previously flows out randomly in almost all directions needs to be collected and directed
to the intended outlets by a protection structure.
 Spring development must be undertaken with great care as any form of „back-pressure‟
on the water could cause it to change its route and the eye of the spring to move or
disappear at-all because spring water follows a path of least resistance.
 Proper spring development should involve protecting both the spring and its water
quality from environmental damage and contamination, as well as improving access
(e.g. taps, troughs, bathing area, close washing area.) to the water for all its intended
uses.
 Check from local elders that spring water flows year-round and its variation in rate.
 Elevation of the spring eye with respect to the surrounding area and also the location to
where the water is to be supplied
 Flow rate of the spring and the amount of water required i.e. supply Vs. demand;
 Two basic types of designs are used for spring developments: for low areas and for
hillsides
 A temporary drainage channel should be constructed to ensure that the water can
continue flowing during construction and to prevent puddling/ponding.

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 The area immediately beneath the point of discharge (or seepage area) should be
excavated until either the horizontal water layer or firm rocks are reached.
 Excavation should proceed into the slope until a height of earth above the discharge
point is a minimum of 1m to prevent backwater pressure. A spring from a rock face
requires minimal excavation, but a spring with widespread seepage may require an
excavation of several cubic meters.
 For artesian springs, the excavation is likely to be vertical into the ground, and this
poses additional problems for preventing back-pressure. The two recommended
strategies are thus:
 construct a trench around the area and locate the intake several meters away from
the eye of the spring, and
 Sink large concrete rings around the eye of the spring as the excavation continues to
prevent the surrounding soil from falling back in to the excavation hole. The spring
may have to be left relatively exposed and hence a manhole cover may be required.
The outlet should also be as low as possible to prevent back-pressure, but as high as
existing level to maintain intake to the designed main canals.
 Place loose stones and gravel over the area of the eye of the spring for some temporary
protection;
 After excavation, the spring area should be left for 24-48 hours to enable it stabilize or
regenerate, before additional construction work continue;

Figure 3-2: Cross Section through a typical spring protection box

 All structures have to be located at least few centimetres away from, and below, the
eyes of the spring eye,
 A drainage pipe with gate valve should be provided so that cleaning and maintenance of
the spring capping and the collection box would be possible the pipe should preferably
place at 0.15m above the bottom of the floor of the spring,
 Other aspects specific to the particular spring site should also be taken into
consideration including flood protection, reforestation, catchments area protection, etc.
 The design should consider the use of local material to the extent possible,
 Stability of wing walls section need to be checked for effects of lateral water pressure
and piping under the structure, such that there is no tension under the base of the
structure; and the maximum toe and heel pressures on foundations should not exceed
safe limits.

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3.5 ARRANGEMENT OF SPRING BOXES

3.5.1 General

A spring box is a water-tight structure built around spring to isolate it from contaminated surface
runoff. It is critical that this box be built properly to ensure that surface water, insects, or small
animals cannot enter the structure. If designed properly, it can provide reserve storage during a
situation when the spring flow rate is below normal. It is important to keep surface water away from
the spring box, and animals should be fenced out of the spring‟s drainage area. All activities
should be kept to at least 30 m from the spring box.

There are two basic types of intakes for spring development and collecting water from springs and
seeps. The first, and easiest to install, is the spring box.

A small area is dug out around the spring and lined with gravel. A concrete box with a removable
cover is placed over the spring to collect and store the water. The cover prevents contamination
and should be heavy enough to keep people from removing it to dip buckets and cups into the
collection box. A tap and an overflow to prevent a back-up in the aquifer should be installed.

For springs that flow from one spot on level ground, an open-bottomed spring box should be
placed over the opening to capture all available flow.

For spring development on a hillside, a box with an open back should be placed against the
hillside and the water should be channeled into the collection box.

Intakes for seeps and some springs can be perforated plastic or concrete pipe placed in trenches
or collection ditches. The trenches are deep enough so that the saturated ground above them acts
as a storage reservoir during times of dry weather.

Generally, the trenches should be 1 meter below the water level. Collection pipes are placed in the
trenches which are lined with gravel and fine sand so that sediment is filtered out of the water as it
flows into the pipes.

There are several possible designs for spring boxes but, their basic principles are similar. Spring
box serves as collector for spring water if its yield is large and a small number of people are being
served and the source is located near the users. When larger numbers of people are served, the
water collected in the spring box flows to larger storage tanks. The two basic types of spring boxes
are a box with one pervious side for collection of water from a hillside, and a box with a pervious
bottom for collection of spring water flowing from a single opening on level ground. To determine
which design to use dig out around the area until an impervious layer is reached, locate the source
of the spring flow, and design to fit the situation.

In general, both the type of spring and its location determine the type of spring box to be built.
There are three basic design types, related to the three types of springs as described in following
section.

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3.5.2 Spring box for artesian springs

If the spring is naturally occurring on relatively flat ground, it is likely to be an artesian spring.
Water flows vertically out of the ground due to the pressure that is accumulated within a confined
aquifer. For this type of spring, a spring box with an open bottom is used, as illustrated below.

Figure 3-3: Spring box for artesian springs

3.5.3 Spring box for gravity springs

If the spring occurs at the base of a slope or hillside, the flow is likely to be gravity driven. Unlike
an artesian spring, a gravity spring will most likely have just one impermeable layer (on the
bottom). In this case, much less pressure will exist in the system.

Due to the nature of the horizontal flow, and low water pressure, a gravity spring in a hillside will
require a spring box with a side entrance for the water, as shown in figure below.

Figure 3-4: Typical Arrangement of Spring Box with Side Entrance for Water

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3.5.4 Spring Box for seepage springs

In the case of a seepage spring, water will likely be flowing from more than one point. Similar to
gravity springs, the flow will result from the force of gravity, and therefore exist almost always at
hillsides or the bottom of a slope. Seepage springs have the highest susceptibility for
contamination; thus appropriate protection against contamination should be constructed if it is
required for safe supply.

A spring box for a seepage spring can be constructed in two ways, depending on the spring
characteristics. The ideal design is to dig far enough back into the hill to reach the single source of
all of the spring flow. In this case, the seepage spring would simply be a gravity spring covered by
a small amount of porous media.

If a single line of water flow cannot be found, it may still be possible to dig far enough back to
ensure all of the water flows into the side opening of the spring box. However, if the lines of spring
flow are too separated and cannot be channeled into one spring box structure, then a different
approach is needed. Rather than a spring box, one should construct what is known as a Seep
Collection System. An example of such a system is shown below.

Figure 3-5: Typical layout plan of a storage box for seepage springs

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3.6 WATER EXTRACTION METHODS

There are several types of systems that can be built to extract water from a spring. The most
common is however to build a spring box. Of-course a lower cost and simpler in design alternative
is the protection of a spring with no box provided that its yield is enough to develop the intended
irrigable command area. But spring boxes are more useful to prevent contamination, and providing
the spring with an easy way to flow into a pipe. So as to improve yield of a spring, it has to be
developed and protected as protective structure increases the volume of water that can be
diverted from the spring and protects the site from contamination by runoff or animals.

For the case of spring box design, there are again two basic design alternatives. These are a box
with one pervious side for collection of water from a hillside and a box with a pervious bottom for
collection of spring water flowing from a single opening on level ground.

To determine which design to use, dig out around the area until an impervious layer is reached,
locate the source of the spring flow, and design to fit the situation. Following successive figures
present typical drawings of spring development arrangements.

A spring can be developed into a drinking/irrigation water supply by collecting the discharged
water using tile or pipe and running the water into some type of storage tank situated at
downstream. Protecting the spring from surface contamination is essential during all phases of
spring development. Springs can be developed in two different ways and the method we choose
will depend on whether it is a concentrated spring or a seepage spring.

Traditional protection work

Traditional trench work

Source: Bereda Lencha Springs, GIRDC, 2010
Figure 3-6: Typical spring protection works & Its surrounding as seen overcrowded

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Figure 3-7: Summary of procedure for spring study, design & implementation

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