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It is a 7-layer avchitecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe. The OSI reference model sys developed by ISO ~ “International Organization for Standardization *, in the year 1984. he OSI mode! provides a theoretical foundation for understanding network communication . However, it is usually not directly implemented in its entirety in real-world networking hardware or software Insieaal specific protocols and technologies are often designed based on the principles outlined in the OSI niodel to facilitate efficient data transmission and networking operations ‘he OSI model, ereated in 1984 by ISO. is a reference framework that explains the process of ‘vansmitting data between computers, It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions , allowing for a more systematic approach to networking. oS Responsible for providing services to the user. Take care of syntax and semantics of the information exchange Between two communication system, It stablish, maintain, synchronize, and terminate the interaction between sender and receiver, Responsible for process to process delive Responsible for delivery of individual packet from Source to destination. Responsible for moving frame from one hep te next hop. Responsible for moving individual bits from one to the next device. Data Flow In OSI Model When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First dala travels down through 7 layers from the sender's end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver's end Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process: + Application Layer: Applications create the data. + Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted. + Session Layer: Connections are established and managed. + Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery. + Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and routed. + Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device. + Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.vl) Layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and these steps © reversed upon arrival } [emaiocere | a [1 } = | sep ELT om} Nenvork Laver Transport Layer Application Layer Physical Laver ~ Layer 1 he lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is esponsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will zi the signal received and convert it into Os and Is and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put ‘ack together ctions of the Physical Layer + Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. Lis clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level. + Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate ie, the number of bits sent per second. + Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology. + lransmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected evices, The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duples and full-duplex Data Link Layer (DLL) ~ Layer 2 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer, When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC ucldress © frame 1_Link Control (LLC) cess Control (MAC. tt ved from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header. Ihe Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address. packet rec13) wy J unetions of the Data Link Layer + ranting: Framing is a funetion ‘of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of tte thet are meaning to the receiver, This ean be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame. + Physical Addressing: After creating f al addresses ( MAC. nes, the Data link layer adds physi iddresses ) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame. s the mechanism of error control in which it detects and «J rror Control: The data link layer provid rotransmits damaged or lost frames. «Slow contrat. The data rate nmust be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, low control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment. cee Ghutrel: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub- secret the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given me Network Layer [packet Data Link Layer ees Facet naam As mae cl | |Frame Physical Layer Network Laver ~ Layer 3 wetwork layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different “sso takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from vimber of routes available, The sender & receiver’s IP address es are placed in the header by the work layer. sections of the Network Layer = Routing: ‘The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination ‘his function of the network layer is known as routing 1] Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines an ressing scheme. The sender & receiver's IP addresses are placed in the header by the network +, Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally. 1 sport Layer er 4 he transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services trom the network layer. J he data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments . It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of c complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data yomission and re-tansmits the data if an error is found, the sender’s side: The uansport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation , and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission. It tls adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer Ai the receiver's side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which. it has received to the respective application, It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the nted data.Junctions of the Pransport Lay + Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (s sage into smaller units. Fach of the segments produced has a header associ ansport layer at the destination station reassembles the message. + Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header nneludes a type of address ealled servive point address or port address, Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process, ion) layer, and breaks the ted with it. The + Connection-Oriented Service + Connectionless Serviee 1. Conneetion-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes + Connection Establishment + Data Transter nation disconnection his Qype of wansmission. the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a macket or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure. ionless service: I is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster tion between devices, Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Conne smission, the receiver does communi on Laver = Laver cr is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, so ensures security tions of the Session Layer + Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish. use. and terminate a comnection. + Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization ats in the data, ‘These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re- synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided. Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in uplex or full-duplex. Presentation Laver ~ Laver 6 hie presentation layer is also called the Translation layer . The data from the application layer is extracted re end manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. | unctions of the Presentation Layer + lrunslation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC + [ ncryption’ Decryption: Data encryption translates the cata into another form or code. The encrypted ata is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for cocrypting as well as decrypting data. + Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network. Application Laver — Laver 7 1) top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer whieh is vuplemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred over the chsork, This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for lisplty ing the received information to the user ircuit Switchin Circuit Switching is a type of switching, in which a connection is established between the source and destination beforehand. This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network unui the data is transferred completely. However, circuit switching can be inefficient and costly Gue to its requirement for dedicated resources, making it less suitable for high-traffic or large- networks In this article, we will discuss every point about Circuit SwitchingWhat is Circuit Switching? uit switching network resources (bandwidth) are divided into pieces and the bit delay is > connection. The dedicated path/circuit established between the sender and \smitted without any delays once the t during “iver provides a guaranteed data rate, Data can be tra ed it ys establis! pt pa telephone system network is one of the examples of Circuit switching. TDM (Time Division sjultiplexing) and FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) are two methods of multiplexing ip nals into a single carrier. Frequency Division Multiplexing: Frequency Division Multiplexing or FM is used when \iple data signals are combined for simultaneous transmission via a shared cation medium. Itis a technique by which the total bandwidth is divided into a series ing frequency sub-bands, where each sub-band carries different signal P al use in radio spectrum & optical fiber to share multiple independent signals. time Division Multiplexing: Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting al .9 independent signals over a common signal path using synchronized switches nd of the transmission line. TDM is used for long-distance communication links and data traffic loads from the end user. 1 multiplexing (TDM) is also known as a digital circuit switch cvantages of Circuit Switching advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission channel is St ed between the computers which give a guaranteed data rate. Circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated transmission path Reliability: Circuit switching provides a high level of reliability since the dedicated tion path is reserved for the entire duration of the communication. This ensures 2! the data will be transmitted without any loss or corruption Quality of service: Circuit switching provides a guaranteed quality of service, which means network can prioritize certain types of traffic, such as voice and video, over other traffic, such as email and web browsing, curity: Crcult switching provides a higher level of security compared to packet switching © dedicated communication path is only accessible to the two communicating parties. an prevent unauthorized access and data breaches. Ease of management: Circuit switching is relatively easy to manage since the mmunication path is pre-established and dedicated to a specific communication. This can lp simplify network management and reduce the risk of errors. Compatibility: Circuit switching is compatible with a wide range of devices and protocols, vhich means that it can be used with different types of networks and applications, This nakes it a versatile technology for various industries and use cases.advantages of Circuit Switching Limited scalability: Circuit switching is not well-suited for large-scale networks with many nodes. as it requires a dedicated communication path between each pair of nodes. This can It in a high degree of complexity and difficulty in managing the network Vulnerability to failures: Circuit switching relies on a dedicated communication path, which an make the network vulnerable to failures, such as cable cuts or switch failures. In the ny of a failure, the communication path must be re-established, which can result in delays loss of data. Limited Flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it requires a dedicated circuit between yunicating devices. The circuit cannot be used Waste of Resources for any other nil the communication is complete, which limits the flexibility of the network Vaste of Resources: Circuit switching reserves the bandwidth and network resources for {the commur ion. even if there is no data veing transmitted. This results in ge of 1esources and inefficient use of the network Expensive: Circuit switching is an expensive technology as it requires dedicated Yunication paths, which can be costly to set up and maintain. This makes it less feasible small-scale networks and applications ceptible to Failure: Circuit switching is susceptible to failure as it relies on a dedicated yunication path, If the path fails, the entire communication is disrupted. This makes it © than other networking technologies, such as packet switching, Not suitable for high traffic: Circuit switching is not suitable for high traffic, where data is {ted intermittently at irregular intervals. This is because a dedicated circuit needs to ablished for each communication, which can result in delays and inefficient use of latency: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a dedicated at hn. which can result in delay and latency in establishing the path and ata. This can impact the real-time performance of applications, such as voice ‘cuit switching requires the reservation of resources, which can result in a high arly in large-scale networks. This can make circuit switching less practical for plications. ‘0 prioritization: Circuit switching does not provide any mechanism for prioritizing certain ic over others. Virtual circuit switching v rtual circuit switching is a packet switching methodology whereby a path is e shed between the source and the final destination through which all the S will be routed during a call. This path is called a virtual circuit because to the the connection appears to be a dedicated physical circuit. However, other nmunications may also be sharing the parts of the same path. ore the data transfer begins, the source and destination identify a suitable path for the virtual circuit. All intermediate nodes between the two points put an entry of ne routing in their routing table for the call. Additional parameters, such as the ximum packet size, are also exchanged between the source and the destination curing call setup. The virtual circuit is cleared after the data transfer is completed. virtual circuit packet switching is connection orientated, This is in contrast to datagram switching, which is a connection less packet switching methodology. Advantages of virtual circuit switching are: + Packets are delivered in order, since they all take the same route;«The overhead in the packets is smaller, (s) since there is no need for each packet to contain the full address; + The connection is more reliable, network resources are allocated at call setup so that even during times of congestion, provided that a call has been setup, the subsequent packets should get through; + Billing is easier, since billing records need only be generated per call and not per packet. Disadvantages of a virtual circuit switched network are: + The switching equipment needs to be more powerful, since each switch needs to store details of all the calls that are passing through it and to allocate capacity for any traffic that each call could generate; + Resilience to the loss of a trunk is more difficult, since if there is a failure all the calls must be dynamically reestablished over a different route. Examples of virtual circuit switching are X.25 and Frame Relay. Guided Transmission Media in Computer Network I ypes of Guided Transmission Media Iwisted Pair Cable: Description: To try to reduce electromagnetic interference, insulated copper wires are twisted the in pairs to create twisted pair cables. | sted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other, A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media, Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy. sid itis a lightweight cable, The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz Characteristics: Twisted pair cables have become common in LANs and phone lines. They are \uilable in two types: unprotected twisted pair and shielded twisted pair. \sted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern, -f reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot, Increasing the rns per foot decreases noise interference. Jacket Twisted Pair Bare Wire A Twisted Pair Unshielded Twisted Pair Shielded Twisted PairUnshielded Twisted Pair: \y unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication, Following are the categories of the unshielded ategory Lz Category 1 iy used fir telephone lines that have low-speed data, Wcan support upto 4Mbps, Ie cam support upto. 16M bps. ; 1k cam support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it ean be used for long-distance communication Iris cheap, Installation ofthe unshielded twisted pair is easy 1 can be used for high-speed LAN. ‘able can only be used for shorter distances because of attenu: Shielded Twisted Pair ‘sited pair isa cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission aracteristies Of Shielded Twisted Pair: « cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low. installation of STP is easy ‘ higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable. vas a higher attenuation, shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate. advantages It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable. It has @ higher attenuation rate. xial Cable . > very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable. sie ol the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other. « higher frequeney as compared to Twisted pair cable. ‘sinner conductor ofthe coaxial eabl is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of copper |), The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor trom the outer i ‘middle ote is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from the FMI Electromagnetic interference). Jacket Shield Insulator Centre Conductor Coaxial eable is of two types:Baseband tra Broadband ¢ mission: 1 is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed. mismission: 11 is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously. Advantages OF Coaxial cable: ‘he data ean be transmitted at high speed. Ir has better shielding as compared to twisted pair eable, Ir provides higher bandwidth Visadyantages OF Coania jr snore expensive as compared to twisted pair cable. 1) ony tant occurs in the cable eauses the failure in the entire network, bre Optic J ibve opti cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication. | ibve optic is a eable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send the data by pulses of he plastie coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from other types of ve optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires. Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable: st adding fndVew Uuasic elements of Fibre optie eable: Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a «transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre. Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the \ding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within ho core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre. Jacket: [he protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a cict isto preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection, | ollowing are the advantages of fibre optie eable over copper: Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper. relive. the fibre optic earries more data as compared to copper cable, Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre optic cable 1o carry the signals at a higher speed. Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at « longer distance as compared to copper cable Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune to any ‘emiperature changes while it ean cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable,Thinner and Sturdi pull pressure than copper eable vz File optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand more Advantages of Guided 1 on Media 1 Retuability:tigh levels of stability are provided by guided transmission mediums such as optical fibers and Jeu pair cables, Reeause these media are real, there is less chanee of interference or signal loss, ensuring sale J constant communication, Security Win compared fo wireless options puided transmission methods give a more secure communication © media ate led il 1s more difficult for hackers to intercept signals, whieh improves © Hagher Bane idahetigher banchvidihs are ensured by guided media, especially optical fibers, than by many Stowes, These are perfeet far applications with high data transfer requirements since this enables the Y of ereater amounts of data at faster speeds, {ess Susceptible fo Interferenee:Compared to wireless transmission twisted pair and coaxial cables are less © 10 clectromagnetic interference. This feature assures signal integrity and makes them useful for high cal noise setting > Predictable Performanee:Media with guided transmission provide consistent performance properties © these media allow for more aecurate control and management of signal behavior, they are perfect for \vhere stability is important » Suitable for Long Distanees:Optical fibers, in particular, have a low si sanee communieation. They are also important for fast data trans Cost fleective for Short Distanees:When compared to building wireless infiast chs nvisted pair eables ean be cheaper for relatively short iclure, guided transmission ances. ‘They are also preferred choiees wections between devied networks, 8 of Gui advantages of Guided Transmission Media Jimited Mobility: The infrastructure phy © less suited to applications that mobility and flexibility ‘ically attaches d quire continues ices connected through guided media, These smovement, like mobile communication, because of \incrability to Physical Damage:tven cables guided transmission media are at tisk of physical harm an be interrupted by the construction of the environment or accidental cuts. These situations and repair Cost for Lang Dist ees:Since optical fibers and other guided media are great tor long-distance ‘se! installation costs of these systems ean be high, For companies with small budgets. this imited Bandwidth for Some Type iivisted pair cables. m ‘ompared to wireless technologies, a Few guided tetnsmission media iy have Tower bandwidth sizes. For applications that require high data cture Dependeney:Media that is puided mostly depends upon physical infasteucture, Any network raules or changes requ justments to the current infrastructure that may’ tesull in delays nnd extrasental Umpacts hore can be envitonmental effets from the production and disposal of guided poeecie mantculaely cables, The creation of amore environmentally iendly and. sustainable sritives is hecoming more and more important as technology develops. \cineleas transmission isa Form of unde media, Wireless communication involves no physical link teen naiween tas ar mote devices, communicating wirelessly, Wireless signals are spread over in the air ‘xt are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas, {ven an antenna isthe! to electrical cituit ofa computer ot wireless device, it converts the digital data into svinclecssiunals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives these Soanals and converts them back to digital data sic past ot electromagnetic spectrum ean be used for wireless transmission, Radio Transmission « frequeney is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate through walls and “actures alike Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm — 100,000 km and have frequency ranging from 3 1 Pxtremely Low Prequeney) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided pio sis bands. adi waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and. ince bach. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover long distance. High frequency jo waves have more power. | ver frequencies such as VLE, LF, ME bands ean travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the earth's seadio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use Tonosphere of wh atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When they reach ck to the earth, ionosphere. they are refracted Microwave Transmission | lectromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them ean be sent by ing those waves towards one particular station, Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender / receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight. saves can have wavelength ranging from | mm — 1 meter and frequerey ranging from 300 MHz to 300 ‘concentrate the waves making a beam of it, As shown in picture above, multiple antennas ean cowaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate wall like obstacles. Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequeney itis us ng.Infrared Transmission Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves, It has wavelength of 700-nm to I-mm and ‘requeney ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz, Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and it’s remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence iti directional by nature, Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles. ight Transmission Highest most electromagnetic spectrum wwhich ean be used for data transmission is ight or optical signaling’ This is achieved by means of LASER. ‘Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line,Hence the sender and receiver must be in the fine-of-sight. Because laser transmission is‘Whidirectional, at both ends of communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is generally Imm wide hence it is a work of precision to align ‘nyo far receptors each pointing to lasers source, Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver). {Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam is distorted by wind, ~stmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path, | aseris safe for data transmission as itis very difficult to tap Imm wide laser without interrupting the ‘communication channel