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 ENGLISH
GRAMMAR

ARNOLD .

5
 Miss Grances B.I. Wilson
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 AN

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

FOR

CLASSICAL SCHOOLS,

WITH

QUESTIONS, AND A COURSE OF EXERCISES ;

BEING A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH

PROSE COMPOSITION.

BY

THOMAS KERCHEVER ARNOLD, M.A.

RECTOR OF LYNDON,

AND LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

FOURTH EDITION .

LONDON :

FRANCIS & JOHN RIVINGTON,

ST. PAUL'S CHURCH YARD, AND WATERLOO PLACE .

1848 .
 LONDON :

GILBERT & RIVINGTON, PRINTERS,

ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
 262404
FEB -8 1923
XGC
AR65
PREFACE

TO

THE SECOND EDITION .

THE following work is the offspring not so much

of knowledge as of despair. It was drawn up for
the use of my own pupils, after I had in vain
attempted to meet with any thing like a sensible
English Grammar of moderate extent. The former
edition contained only the Accidence : undeterred
by the dictum of Dr. Johnson, I have now added
to it a Syntax, and also an accompanying course
of Exercises, constructed on a new, and, in my
opinion, very useful plan. In most works of the
kind the correction of errours is the task pro-
posed: it is here the changing of one construction
into another equivalent one. Practice of this kind
will be found to give the pupil a mastery over the
idioms and laws of construction of his own lan-
guage; to which he will soon learn to refer, for
comparison, those of any foreign language he may
happen to be studying. I may add, that without
this kind of knowledge, it is impossible for any one
A2
iv PREFACE .

to translate Latin with freedom and idiomatic pro-

priety; for as that language employs participles
with a frequency that would be absolutely intole-
rable in English, a good translator must have ac-
quired readiness and tact in changing participial
clauses into accessory or even principal sentences.
P

Τ. Κ. Α .
LYNDON,
November 4, 1841 .
 PREFACE

TO

THE FIRST EDITION .

EVERY one who has had any thing to do with

teaching boys, knows by vexatious experience that
there are some mistakes into which they all do and
must fall. They are taught, for instance, that ' I
did write ' is an imperfect, and ' was built ' is an
imperfect, and so on; being then thus taught, what
can they do, when they come to such a sentence as
' Caius was made Prætor, but put fiebat for factus
est ? It is the object of this Grammar to save boys
from these almost universal mistakes, by grounding
them thoroughly in the English verb ; especially in
its participles, its auxiliaries, and that most im-
portant form of it, the participial substantive.
Of our English grammarians I have chiefly con-
sulted Lowth, Pickbourn, and Crombie ; but I am
deeply indebted to some admirable essays in the
Philological Magazine, and to Becker's German
Grammar, of which an English edition has been
written and published by the able and accomplished
A 3
vi PREFACE .

author : to these I must add Rask, whose Anglo-

Saxon Grammar I have often referred to, and
Buttmann, Thiersch, &c. whose Greek Grammars
are of the very highest authority on all gram-
matical questions that depend upon general princi-
ples. I may add, that I have seldom come to a
decision upon any disputed point without deter-
mining, if possible, the practice of Middleton, who
is referred to by the letter (M.).
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I.- ACCIDENCE .

PAGE

§ 1. The Letters ...... 1

2
§ 2. The Parts of Speech
§3. Divisions of Substantives .... 5

§ 4. Number. Formation of the Plural .. 7

§ 5. Cases 10

Formation of the Genitive .. .. 11

§ 6. The Gender of Nouns 13

§ 7. Adjectives-Comparison of Adjectives .. .. 14
§ 8. Pronouns, and Words allied to the Pronoun... 16

(A.) Personal Pronouns .... .... 17

Declension of Pronouns .. .... ib.

(B.) Demonstrative Pronouns ...... 19

(C.) Relative Pronouns .... 21

(D.) Interrogative Pronouns .... 22

(E.) Reciprocal Pronouns 23

Numerals .......... ib.

24
(F.) Indefinite Numerals
(G.) Definite Numerals .. 28

THE VERB.

§9. Division of Verbs 30

§ 10. The Tenses 32

§ 11. On the Persons 33

Examples of the Personal Forms 35

§ 12. The Participles .......... ib.

§ 13. Table of the Auxiliary Verbs, ' am,' ' have,' ' do ' ....... 37
 CONTENTS .

PAGE

§ 14. Forms for Present Time ... .. 37

§ 15. Forms for Past Time .. .. 40

§ 16. Forms for Future Time ... ib.

§ 17. Of the Moods of a Verb ..... 42

§ 18. The Imperative Mood .. ..... 43

§ 19. The Infinitive ib.

$ 20. The Compound Participles..... .. 44

$ 21 . The Voices ... ib.

§ 22. Passive Voice 45

§ 23. The Participial Substantives ..... 47

§ 24. On the Verbs of Mood and Subjunctive Forms ........ 48

§ 25. Tables of the English Verb 53

Notes on the Table .... ..... 54

$ 26. The Particles .. .. ib.

(a) Adverbs ......... .... 55

Correlative Adverbs of Place. ... ib.

(b) Prepositions .. 57

(c) Conjunctions ....... 58

PART II.-ETYMOLOGY.

§ 27. Division of the Letters ........ ....

60

§ 28. Of the Verbs usually called Irregular ..... 63

(a) Modern Form ...... .... 64

(b) Ancient Form and Irregular Verbs ..... 66

§ 29. On Gender ..... 69

$ 30. On the Plural of Foreign Nouns ...... ....

70
$ 31 . Derivation .. 71

(a) Prefixes ib.

(b) Terminations ... 72

Principal Terminations of Words derived from

Latin and Greek ... .................. 74

APPENDIX .
On Punctuation .. 79

(a) The Comma ....... ..... 80

(b) Colon and Semi -colon .......... .. 84

 CONTENTS . ix

PAGE

(c) Notes of Interrogation and Admiration ........ 85

(d) Parenthesis ... ...... 86

SYNTAX .

§i. THE PREDICATIVE COMBINATION . 87

Simple Interrogative Sentences 93

§ ii . THE ATtributive COMBINATION . ib.

Genitive Combination-' of' 97

§ iii . THE OBJECTIVE COMBINATION .. 98

Infinitive Mood .... 100

Copulative (or Apposition) Verbs . 103

Objective Genitive Relations . ib.

Dative Relations-' to,' 'for' . 105

Ablative Relations ' by, ' ' with ' . 107

Other Prepositions .. ib .

Space and Time .. 108

A Sentence 109
§ iv. COMPOUND SENTENCES ... 110

Substantive Accessory Sentences . 111

Adjective Accessory Sentences ... .. 112

§ v. ADVERBIAL ACCESSORY SENTENCES .. ... 115

(a) Time ........ ib.

(b) Comparison ...... 117

(c) Cause . 119

ib.
(d) Condition ....

(e) Adversative Relation ....... .. .. 121

Purpose : Consequence-' that ' . 122

Dependent Interrogative Sentences ......... 123

Participles ... 124

Questions on the Accidence 127

Syntax ..... 134

141
Examples of Parsing ...............
 EXERCISES .

PART I.
PAGE

ON THE ACCIDENCE .......... ................ 145

PART II .

ON THE SYNTAX .... 157

PART III .

ON MIDDLETON'S STYLE ..... 195-220

 EXPLANATIONS OF THE MARKS USED IN THE
EXERCISES ON MIDDLETON'S STYLE .

• denotes that the word to which it is prefixed is to be omitted.

* denotes that a sentence has some superfluous words that are to
be omitted.

† denotes that the connexion between this and the following sen-
tence is to be changed.
I denotes that the words to which it is prefixed are to be made a
sentence ; generally, of course, an adjective or adverbial
accessory sentence.

§ denotes that a sentence is to be got rid of; i. e.

(1) turned into an attributive clause, an apposition, or
a participial clause.
(2) a participial or other subst. governed
by a preposition.
(3) an infinitive clause.

Words that are printed widely thus (printed), without any mark
prefixed, are to be changed into more idiomatic expres-
sions.

Words in Italics without any mark prefixed, are to be changed

from simple into figurative expressions.
1
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR .

PART I.—ACCIDENCE .

§1 . THE LETTERS .
1
THE English language has twenty-six letters :
ABCDEFG H I J K L M N O P Q R S TU
VWXY Z.
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.
Those letters which can be sounded by them- 2
selves, are called vowels¹.
(a) There are five vowels, a, e, i, o, u.
Two vowels coming together form a diph- 3
thong, when the two sounds are blended into one, so
that neither of them is quite lost.
The only proper diphthongs in our language are eu, oi, ou ;
but two vowels are often used to mark a simple vowel sound.

Those letters which cannot be sounded by 4

themselves, are called consonants².
Y is a consonant when it stands at the begin- 5
ning of a word or syllable, but a vowel in other
positions.
W after a vowel in the same syllable, is also a 6
mere vowel.

1 In Latin, vocalis, vocal, sounding.

2 From consonare, to sound with (something else).
B
 2 PARTS OF SPEECH . [7-10.
(a) The different parts of the mouth, principally the
palate, the tongue, and the lips, are called the organs (that is,
the instruments ) of speech.
(b) The vowel sounds are formed rather by the voice pass-
ing through the cavity of the mouth more or less enlarged
in different directions, than by the action of the palate,
tongue, or lips. But in sounding a consonant there is always
some pressing of the organs. No consonant can be spoken
or heard without some helping sound. If it has not the dis-
tinct sound of a vowel, it must have something of a hiss,
hum, or breathing.
7 Vowels pronounced by themselves, or with con-
sonants, form syllables : syllables, by themselves
or with other syllables, form words : words are used
as signs of notions (or conceptions) : and words are
put together so as to form sentences, expressing
thoughts, opinions, and the like.

§ 2. THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

8 The name of every object that has, or is con-
ceived by the mind to have, an independent exist-
ence, is called a noun substantive, or merely a
substantive.
(Rose, flower, man, London, modesty.)
9 Such words as can stand immediately before a
substantive, to denote some property that we per-
ceive in objects, is called a noun adjective, or merely
an adjective³ .
(Sweet, sour, sharp, heavy, light.)
(a) It will be seen below, that a particular class of
adjective-words are called participles. See 11 (d) (e).
10 The peculiar adjective-words ' a' or ' an' and
' the' are called articles.
(a) A or an is called the indefinite article, and marks that
we are speaking of some one of the objects named.
3 From the Latin adjectus, thrown to, added to. Noun, from
nomen (Lat.), a name.
 11 , 12.] PARTS OF SPEECH. 3

(b) The is called the definite article, and marks that we

are speaking of a particular object.
Every word by which we express that per- 11
sons or things do any thing, or are any thing, or
have any thing done to them, is called a verb *.
(To run, to walk, to hurt, to bless.)
(a) To be (to which belong the forms is, are) is a peculiar
verb, by means of which wejoin the name of a property to the
name of a thing. 'The rose is red.' ' The colours are bright.'
(b) Since the properties that we perceive in things are
subject to change, the words ' is,' ' are,' are altered to denote
whether the property existed at a former time, or exists now,
or will exist at a future time :
The rose is red. The roses are red.
The rose was red, The roses were red.
The rose will be red. The roses will be red.

(c) To become is a similar verb, by which we mark the

acquisition ofa new property. The road becomes impracticable.'
(d) The notion of a verb may be added to a substantive
without being formally asserted of it. The forms which are
6

used for this purpose are called participles. A sleeping boy.'

' A broken stick .'

(e) Hence a participle is an adjective-word that, besides

the notion of a property, conveys that of time ; or of a com-
pleted or incompleted state.
Such words as add to the notion of a pro- 12
perty or action some circumstance of time, place, or
manner, are called adverbs.
(a) Though called ad-verbs, or words joined to verbs, they
are also added to adjectives.
A very nasty medicine. The storm rages violently. A
terribly passionate man. He runs swiftly.
(b) " The adjective and adverb are essentially the same,

4 From the Latin verbum, a word, as being the principal word

in a sentence.
5 Such words are called participles, because they participate in
the nature of both adjectives and verbs.
в2
 4 PARTS OF SPEECH .
[13-16.
both being names of property ." We shall find that some-
times the same word is both adjective and adverb.
13 A pronoun is a word that stands for a
noun .
(a) Pronouns save us from the necessity of repeating the
noun; so that they are a convenient, but not a necessary part
of speech. When the persons spoken of are known, they
sometimes make it unnecessary to name them at all.
Suppose Henry speaking : he may say, ' I think so and
so,' instead of, ' Henry thinks so and so.' If he is speaking
of himself and Charles, he may say, ' We think so and so,'
instead of, Henry and Charles think so and so.'
14 A word that marks the relation of one thing
to another, is called a preposition " .
(a) Hence on, in, over, under, through, above, below, from,
&c. are prepositions. They stand immediately before a sub-
stantive, or some adjective-words prefixed to a substantive.
(b) The primary relations marked by prepositions are re-
lations in space ; relations of local position. The prepositions
used to denote these relations in space, were then transferred
to analogous relations of time. Thus, ' He stood before me'
(in space). He lived before Cæsar' (in time).
15 A word that joins notions or assertions to-
gether, is called a conjunction . ' The rose is red
6
and sweet .' ' I wish that I could see him .'
16 A word, generally a simple sound, used to
express some inward feeling (such as sorrow, sur-
prise, anger, pain) is called an interjection ' .
5 Thiersch .
6 Latin, pro, for : a pronoun is therefore a for-noun ; a word
usedfor a noun.
7 Præpositus, placed before (the noun it governs).
8 By adjective-word is here meant any adjective, pronoun, article,
or participle that is used adjectively with a substantive.
Conjungere, tojoin together.
1 From interjectus, thrown in between or amongst ; it being
thrown into the sentence, as it were, without belonging to its
grammatical structure.
17-19. ] DIVISION OF SUBSTANTIVES . 5

EXERCISE .

Find all the substantives in the following 17

passages :
[And so on for all parts of speech.]
I. The herring, which lives in shoals, and the sheep, which
lives in flocks, are not more happy in a crowd, or more con-
tented amongst their companions, than is the pike or the lion
with the deep solitude of the pool or the forest.- PALEY.
II. My dog, my dear, is a spaniel. (2) Till Miss Gunning
begged him, he was the property of a farmer ; and while he
was his property, had been accustomed to lie in the chimney-
corner, among the embers, till the hair was singed from his
back, and till nothing was left of his tail but the gristle.
(3) Allowing for these disadvantages, he is really handsome ;
and when nature shall have furnished him with a new coat,
a gift which, in consideration of the ragged condition of the
old one, it is hoped she will not long delay, he will then be
unrivalled in personal endowments by any dog in this coun-
try. (4) He and my cat are excessively fond of each other,
and play a thousand gambols together, that it is impossible
not to admire.- COWPER.

§ 3. DIVISION OF SUBSTANTIVES .
When a child has learnt to know that a rose is a18
flower, a daisy a flower, and so on, if you show it a buttercup,
it will probably know that that is a flower too. If so, it will
have got the notion of a class ofthings, which are alike in some
considerable points, though unlike in others.
Such names as denote any of the individuals 19
that are contained in a class of things, are called
common nouns or appellatives.
(Tree, flower, soldier, house .)
(a) Common, because they are common to every individual
comprised in the class. Appellative from appellare to call,
because they are the names by which external objects are
called.

в3
 6 DIVISION OF SUBSTANTIVES . 20-26 . ]
20
In the names of materials no individual is dis-
tinguished.
(Water, milk, sand, iron, money, grass.)
21
The names of persons and places are called proper
names .

(a) Proper from being proper, that is peculiar, to the

individual bearing the name. (John, the Thames, London. )
22 Another class of substantives represent qualities or
modes of action which are conceived by the mind as having
an independent existence. When I have seen, or read of, a
number of virtuous actions, I get the general notion of virtue.
When I have seen a number of red things, I form the notion
of redness, and so on. The names of such notions are called
abstract substantives, from abstrahere to draw away, because
the notions themselves are drawn off, as it were, from the
mass of appearances presented to our view. Hence :
23 An abstract substantive is the name of a
quality or property conceived by the mind ashaving
an independent existence.
24 As distinguished from abstract substantives,
the names of things that really exist are called
concrete.

(a) Concrete from concretus, condensed or compacted ; the

abstract notion being compressed, as it were, and fixed in
an actually existing individual.
25
A collective substantive, or noun of multitude,
is a singular substantive that expresses a collection
of many individuals.
(Flock, swarm, nation, people.)
(a) The whole body forms one notion in the mind, which is
quite distinct from our notion of each of the individuals com-
posing it.
EXAMPLES .
26
What kind of noun is man ? tree ? soldier ? army ? John ?
king ? strength ? grotto? gravity ? prudence ? iron ? temperance ?
robber ? Cæsar ? London ? soberness ? laughter ? silver ? length?
27-33.] FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 7
,

§ 4. NUMBER. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

It would soon be found convenient, though not necessary, 27
to indicate by an alteration in theform of a substantive, whether
one was spoken of, or more than one.
It would be possible to invent forms to indicate many 28
particulars with respect to number : but such forms would
probably be very clumsy and unmanageable, and the end is
more simply and conveniently attained by the addition of a
numeral adjective to those forms of a noun which indicate
that more than one are spoken of.
In some languages, as in Hebrew and Greek, there is 29
aform called the dual (from duo, two), which is used to indi-
cate that two are spoken of. In English, as in Latin and
many other languages, we have only two numbers, as they are
called ; the singular, which indicates that we are speaking of
one ; the plural, which indicates that we are speaking of more
than one .

The plural number of a substantive is the 30

substantive so altered as to express that we are
speaking of more than one.
The plural of a substantive is generally formed 31
by adding s to the singular, that is to the substan-
tive itself.
32
But to this rule there are some exceptions.
(a) Substantives that end in ch, sh, s, x, or o after a con-
sonant, add es to the singular.

(b) Many that end in f, and fe, form their plural in ves.
(c) Those that end in y after a consonant, form their plural
in ies.
COUNTER- EXCEPTIONS. 33

(a) Of those in o after a consonant, canto, tyro, quarto, and

occasionally some others, are generally written cantos, &c. in
theplural.
(b) When ch is pronounced hard, like k, s only is added.
в4
 8 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL . [34-36-
(c) Words that end in
oof,
ief (except thief, thieves)
ff ( except staff, staves ; leaf, leaves) , do not change
rf
, finto v.
together with strife, fife,
(d) Several nouns have peculiar forms in the plural. In
some of these the vowels of the word are changed : in goose,
foot, and tooth, oo is changed into ee (geese, feet, teeth) ; in
mouse and louse, ou is changed into i, and s into c (mice, lice) ;
others form the plural in en, which stands as an added syl-
lable in ox, oxen, and child, children ; and takes the place of
the singular termination in man, woman (men, women). Die,
sow, and penny, have in the plural, dice, swine, pence. Brother
(brother-en), brethren.
34 Die takes dies, when it means a stamp for coining. Bro-
ther makes brothers, except when it is used to denote persons
of the same society or profession : ' The United Brethren ;'
' My Christian brethren ;' ' His medical brethren look shy
upon him.' Penny makes pennies, when the particular coin
is meant, and not the sum or value.
35 Abstract substantives, when used as such, have
no plural.
(a) But abstract substantives are often used in the plural to
express particular acts agreeing with the general notion. Thus
we have in the Liturgy, negligences and ignorances, for sins of
negligence and ignorance : and Hume uses insolences for acts
of insolence. So kindnesses for acts of kindness, and sometimes
providences for acts of providential interference.
(b) The plural of abstract substantives in y is used to com-
pare the different degree in which the abstract quality exists
in different substances. ' The respective affinities of lead
and iron for manganese.' ' The specific gravities of oil and
water.'

36 Ashes, bellows, bowels, lungs, scissors, have no sin-

gular.
2 For childer- en ; apparently a double plural, the termination
er being a plural termination in German.
37.] FORMATION OF THE PLURAL . 9

(a) Deer, sheep, are both singular and plural. "Fish is

used collectively for the race offishes."-JOHNSON.
(b) Names of materials have no plural, except when differ-
ent kinds or varieties are spoken of.
' Sugar is dear. ' ' There is a heavy duty upon wine.' But
we may say, ' Fine sugars are dearer.' ' There is a heavy
duty upon French wines .'
(c) The names of sciences ending in ics, are sometimes used
as singular nouns.
(d) Folk is properly a noun of multitude ; but the plural is
used to express individuals of a particular character.- Merry
folks,' ' plainfolks .'
(e) Means is both singular and plural : mean is now used
only to express the middle between two extremes ; the point of
neither too much or too little.

(f) News is generally singular, but is now and then found

in the plural.
(g) Pains is generally plural, but is often found in the sin-
gular. Crombie observes that we can say, much pains, though
much cannot be used with a plural noun.
(h) Riches and alms are now considered plural. The trans-
lators of the Bible used them as either singular or plural.
They often use ' much riches.' Tobit iv. 10 : " Alms do
deliver," &c.; and in the next verse, " Alms is a good gift
unto all that give it in the sight of the Most High ."
(i) Wages appears to be used as a singular noun in the
Bible : " The wages of sin is death." Rom . vi. 23. "Appoint
me thy wages, and I will give it." Gen. xxx. 28. Also Tobit
iv. 14.

(j) Amends is used is a singular noun.

ON THE PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES, AND FOREIGN WORDS ADOPTED
INTO THE LANGUAGE .

With respect to the plural of proper names, usage is 37

still unsettled. Some persons would say the Miss Thompsons,
others the Misses Thompson : the former mode is clearly more
in keeping with the general practice of the language, and
one's leaning at first would be toward it : but those who
plume themselves on their accuracy adopt the latter ; and at
в 5
 10 CASES, [38-43.
all events they can allege the authority of Swift, who writes,
" I went to the Ladies Butler³ ."
38 Middleton writes, " Among the Scipio's, Paullus's, Marius's,
Pompey's," &c.; and he forms the plural of foreign words
in a by adding s, with the mark of apostrophe. "He
denounced anathema's against all who did so." "Three
periods distinguished by as many remarkable epocha's."
66
In one of Cowper's letters (Southey's edition) I find,
you and all your et ceteras with you."
39 With respect to the Miss Thompsons, or the Misses Thomp-
son, I am decidedly for the Miss Thompsons : no one would
think of speaking as we are told we ought to write. I
should form the plural regularly, except where the termina-
tion of the proper name would be altered by doing so. 'The
Pompeys, ' the Scipios, ' the Mariuses.'-" The Miss Brady's."
I should also give a plural termination to the names of the
vowels in this way. In the genitive of the fifth (Latin)
declension, e is long when it stands between two i's.'

§ 5. CASES.
40 It is obvious that we think and speak of things that are
closely connected with other things. We do not conceive every
thing as standing alone and independent. We may think not
only of a crown, but of the king's crown, a crown of gold, and
so on .

41 When we think of a king's crown, we add to the notion

of a crown the notion of its belonging to the king. When we
think of a crown ofgold, we add to the notion of a crown the
notion of its being made ofgold.
42 We can also think of an action that is done for the
benefit of a person. We can think of such an action as being
done by such a person, or with such an instrument, or from
such a cause.
43 If by a case we understand one of the altered forms by
which the various relations ofa noun to other notions may be
expressed, the English language has only one case for sub-
stantives, and two for some of the pronouns.

3 Philological Mag. vol. i. p. 255.

 44-48.] CASES, 11

But if by the case of a noun we understood the expres- 44

sion ofany of these relations, whether indicated by its termi-
nation or in any other way, we have as many cases as any
other nation .

NOMINATIVE CASE . GENITIVE. ACCUSATIVE.

The simple form of the noun, which is of course 45

used when we consider it independently, is called
the nominative case* .
(a) The nominative was placed at the head of the cases,
though properly it is no case, but merely the word in
its unaltered form. The word case means ' fall: the old
Greek grammarians wrote the nominative in an upright line,
and the other cases in lines inclined to it at certain angles, so
that the forms of the genitive, accusative, &c. seem to be
falling, as it were, from the original word. Hence these forms
were called the oblique cases.
English substantives have only one case (the 46
genitive) formed by inflexion.
(a) Inflectere is to bend in ; to bend. The noun was bent,
as it were, into a fitness to denote the relation to be ex-
pressed.
GENITIVE .

The genitive is now formed by adding s with an 47

apostrophe (thus, 's) to the nominative.
In plural words ending in s, the genitive is 48
like the nominative, but it is now customary to
mark an apostrophe after the s. " On eagles'
wings."
(a) So in the phrase, 'for righteousness' sake : but we also
say, 'for conscience sake.'
(b) The apostrophe after the genitive plural is absurd, for
an apostrophe marks that a vowel has been dropt, whereas
no vowel ever followed the s of the plural to form a genitive.
" The present practice is scarcely of a hundred years stand-
ing." (Phil. Mag. i. 675.)

* From nominare, to name.

в6
 12 CASES . [49.
(c) The Anglo- Saxon genitive of the second declension
ended in es (leaf, leafes : word, wordes). Hence this is the
only case we have kept, the apostrophe marking the omission
of the e.

Probably therefore the apostrophe should never be marked,

but where an e has been dropt. A notion came into fashion,
" probably in the latter half of the sixteenth century," that the
s of the genitive stood for his : under this notion the his was
often written at length, especially where the substantive ended
ins. Even good writers , such as Clarendon, Barrow, Dry-
den, Pope, followed the fashion ; though its absurdity is im-
mediately perceived, when we consider that s follows feminine
nouns and plurals, where his can have no place 6.
(d) Many persons merely mark the apostrophe after the
final s, to form the genitive of singular nouns ending in that
letter. Thus " Eneas' young son." In the Bible we have
"Mars hill" (now printed Mars' hill) : and Spenser and
Milton write, Venus Sonne, Phœbus lamp, Morpheus train,
&c. This practice accords with that of the Germans, who
regard names ending in s as indeclinable ; Tantalus Sohn,
Æschylos Agamemnon . In Anglo-Saxon, proper names in s
sometimes did, and sometimes did not, receive an additional
es in the genitive. ' Mattheus gerecednys, Matthew's narra-
tive; ' Urias wif,' Uriah's wife. But also ' Philippuses ,'
' Remuses 8.' Middleton writes the second s wherever we
should pronounce it : " Judas's :" it would be far better
to write Judases, Remuses, &c. if one durst.

49
When two or more words are so closely joined
together as almost to form one complex no-
tion, the sign of the genitive is added to the last
word, so as to put the whole phrase in the geni-
tive. " Beaumont and Fletcher's plays." " Howell
and James's shop." " The king of England's
palace."
5 His occurs in a letter of Cranmer's ( 1536) : " the Bishop of
Rome his authority." Vol. i. p. 173. Ed. Jenkyns.
6 Phil . Mag. i. 669-678. 7 Phil. Mag. i. 67.
8 Rask , 35.
50-52.] GENDER OF NOUNS . 13
:

ACCUSATIVE .

The suffering object, that is, the object im- 50

mediately affected by the action expressed by the
verb, stands in the accusative case.
The verbs that take an accusative case, or in other words
express an action done to an object, are called transitive
verbs.

The accusative case, therefore, assigns the immediate object

*

affected by the action, in answer to the question whom ? or

what? " He struck Richard."-Whom did he strike ? Richard.

In English substantives the nominative and 51

accusative are alike ; but in the personal pronouns
the accusative is formed by inflexion (46).
{John (nom.) struck Peter.
Peter struck John (accus.).
JI (nom.) struck John.
{John struck me (accus.).

§ 6. THE GENDER OF NOUNS .

All animals are either male orfemale. In other 52
objects there is no distinction of sex. So that
all things are either masculine, feminine, or neuter,
-that is, neither of the two.
(a) We speak, however, of some inanimate things, as if they
had a sex. In other words, we may ( not must) speak of some
things as if they were persons, and give them a sex. We con-
sider the Sun as masculine, the Moon as feminine. Time and
Death are masculine ; Religion, Virtue, and all particular Vir-
tues, feminine ; the Earth, feminine ; Spring, feminine ; Winter,
Summer, Autumn, Love, the Winter, &c. masculine : a Ship, a
State, a City, our Country, Law, the Mind, Health, &c. femi-
nine.

(b) When we are speaking of any animal in a general

way, we often use a particular sex, making the more fierce,
robust, and vigorous, masculine ; the more timid, quiet, and
demure, feminine.
 14 ADJECTIVES .
[53-57.
Thus elephant, horse, ass , dog, for, masculine ; hare, cat,
feminine.

§ 7. ADJECTIVES-COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES .
53 Adjectives are not declined in the English lan-
guage.
54 An adjective undergoes a change of form to
express a comparison between different objects.
55
When the form of an adjective is so altered,
as to express that a property exists in the subject
we are speaking of, in a greater degree than in
some other or others, the adjective is said to be in
the comparative degree .
(a) ' Summer is hotter than winter : i. e. Summer pos-
sesses the property signified by the adjective hot in a higher
degree than winter does. ' The Andes are higher than the
Alps.'
56
When the form of an adjective is so altered,
as to express that, of all the individuals compared
together, the property belongs in the highest degree
to that of which we are speaking, the adjective is
said to be in the superlative.
(a) Hence the comparative and superlative are called
' degrees of comparison.'
57 The comparative ends in er, the superlative
in est.
(a) These endings are added to the adjective ; but if it
ends in e already, only ris added, which, however, increases
the word by a syllable. (Safe, safer.) Those that end in y
change y into i before er and est. (Lofty, loftier.)
(b) The adjective, in its simple form, is said to be in the
positive degree 9.

Positivus, placed, put ; because the property is simply put down

without any comparison made with other objects.
58-61 .] ADJECTIVES . 15

Adjectives of more than one syllable, with the 58

exception of those of two syllables ending in a
vowel, do not admit of this change.
(a) This is the modern practice. In Milton, virtuousest,
famousest, &c.
(b) We use the adverbs more and most, when we wish to
compare the properties that are expressed by such adjec-
tives.

The following adjectives have peculiar forms 59

for their comparatives and superlatives :
Good better best Much more most
Bad worse worst Many more most
Little less least

Late and near have last and next for their super- 60
latives, as well as latest and nearest.
There are also some superlatives in most : 61
nethermost, lowermost, undermost ; hindmost and
hindermost ; upmost and uppermost ; inmost and
innermost ; topmost, foremost.
(a) Observe, that in some of these most is added to the
positive, in some to the comparative, and in others to adverbs ,
or prepositions (used adverbially).
( b) Further, furthest, have nothing to do withfar, but come
from an old adjective forth : consequently, we should not
write farther, farthest.
(c) The comparative and superlative are more nearly defined
by such words of quantity as much, far, considerably,-а
little, somewhat, &c. , and the existence of any excess is
denied by no, not at all, &c., with the comparative. She is
no better.'

(d) In many languages the superlative is used without a

direct comparison of the object with others, to express that
it possesses the quality in a very high degree. The superla-
tive thus used, is called the superlative of eminence. In Eng-
lish, we commonly use the adverb very for this purpose. ' A
very good house.'
 16 PRONOUNS . [62, 63.
(e) Sometimes, however, our superlative is used as a su-
perlative of eminence, especially when it is modified by such
an adjective as possible, imaginable, conceivable, &c. It will
generally, however, be found, that there is an implied refer-
ence to other objects : ' He received me in the kindest pos-
sible manner.' ' The greatest imaginable folly.' Here the
reference is to all the possible degrees of kindness ; to every
imaginable species of folly.
(f) In most languages we find a few comparatives and
superlatives from words which already denote the highest
degree of a quality. One would not wish to get rid of such
forms, when they have once obtained a firm footing, and may
be considered as naturalized in the language.
(g) There seems to be authority for the following
forms :-

Extremest. " The extremest of evils ." Bacon. " The ex-
tremest verge." Shakespeare. " His extremest state." Spen-
ser.
Also Dryden and Addison. [So the Greek ἐσχατώ-
τατος.]
Chiefest. " Chiefest of the herdmen." Bib. " Chiefest
courtier." Shak . " First and chiefest." Milt.

Perfect. " Usage has given to it (more perfect) a sanction

which we dare hardly controvert." Crombie. " Having more
perfect knowledge of that way." Acts xxiv. 22.

§ 8. PRONOUNS, AND WORDS ALLIED TO THE

PRONOUN .
66
62 Buttmann well observes, that pronouns cannot be so
precisely defined in theory, as not to admit many words which
may also be considered as adjectives."
63 (a) All words may be considered pronouns, or at least to have
a pronominal character, which are capable of being used as
nouns, but carry with them a simply relational notion ; or,
in other words, which, instead of naming or describing an
object, enable us to recognize it by some relation, of definiteness
or indefiniteness, of place, of kind, & c.
64, 65.] PRONOUNS . 17

(b) Thus a pronoun denotes whether the thing spoken of is or be-

longs to the speaker himself; whether it is or belongs to the person he
is addressing ; whether it is or belongs to some third person or thing,
ofwhich he is speaking ; whether it is some object near him, or near
another, and so on. In classing pronouns, the speaker is called the
first person ( I, we) ; the person spoken to, the second person (thou,
you) ; the person or thing spoken of, the third person (he, she, it :
they). There are five principal classes of pronouns : Personal,
Demonstrative, Relative, Indefinite, and Interrogative pronouns.
(Α.)
Personal Pronouns (which are all Substantive Pro-
nouns) .
(a) I, plural we, is called the pronoun of the 64
first person.
(b) Thou, plural you, is called the pronoun of the
second person.
(c) He, she, it, plural they, are the pronouns of
the third person.
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS . 65

Nom. Genitive . Accus.

I my or mine me
Pers . 1
Plur. we our or ours us.

Sing. thou thee

thy or thine
Pers. 2 ye
Plur.
you } your or yours you.

mas . he his him

Pers

Sing. fem. she her or hers her

neut it its
.3

it
Plur. they their or theirs them .
Relative and who whose whom
Interroga- which
ofwhich
tive { or whose which .

Demonstrative (this, plural these.

that,plural those.
 18 PRONOUNS .
[66, 67.
(a) Ofthe two forms of the genitive, the first is used when
it is to stand before its substantive; the second, when it stands
6
alone. This hat is mine.' This is my hat.'

(b) But formerly mine was used before a substantive begin-

ning with a vowel or silent h.

(c) The forms set down for the genitive case are sometimes
called possessive pronouns, and considered as adjectives.

As the genitive denotes possession, there is no determining

whether they are genitives, or possessive (adjective) pronouns,
In Anglo- Saxon, the possessive pronouns were formed from
the genitives of the two first persons, by declining them as
indefinite adjectives : the third person had no exclusive pos-
sessive pronoun ; the genitive of the personal pronoun being
used for it unchanged. (Rask, p. 55.) As then the posses-
sive pronouns were the genitives of the personal pronouns
with adjective terminations, when we lost our terminations,
we lost all that made a difference between the possessive
pronouns, and the genitives of the personal ones.

(d) [Since other languages express possession by adjective

pronouns, as well as by genitive cases, in translating from
English into another language, we must consider whether the
word to be used is, or is not, an adjective, equivalent in all its
forms to our genitive case. When it is, it must of course agree
with its substantive. " Suus liber," his (own) book ; because
suus is an adjective meaning his own : but " ejus liber," his
book, because his is not an adjective meaning his throughout.]

66 Personal pronouns are reflexive, when the

thing or person denoted by the pronoun is the
same with the subject ; that is, with the thing or
person spoken of.

67 Our reflexive forms for the nominative and accu-

sative are obtained from the personal pronouns
by the addition of self, plural selves.
68-71.] PRONOUNS . 19

Sing. Plur. Obs.

1. myself ourselves . The terminations are

2. thyself yourselves . added to the genitives of
himself the two first persons, to
3. herself themselves . the accusatives of the third
itself } person.

To make the genitive cases (or possessive pronouns)

reflexive, we use the pronominal adjective own.
' He killed himself with his own sword.'

(a) Sylf (self, seolf) is declined like an adjective, both defi-

nitely and indefinitely, in Anglo-Saxon. Rask, 54. Own is
the Anglo-Saxon agen.

(B.)
Demonstrative Pronouns .

The Demonstrative (or pointing-out) pronouns 68

are : ' this,' pl. these ; that, pl. those.
This' points out what is near the speaker ; 69
' that what is further from him .
' Such ' and ' same may also be considered de- 70
monstrative pronouns.
When ' this ' and ' that ' relate to two things 71
before mentioned, this means the nearest, which is
of course the one last mentioned .
(a) Consequently, that ' is in such cases equivalent to the
former ; ' this ' to the latter.
(b) This ' is used of a coming statement, or one that has
just been made; ' that ' generally refers to a past one.
(c) Crombie says, it is abundantly evident that ' this ' and
' that' are not pronouns, for they never represent a noun.
But surely, to go no further, ' that ' does stand for a noun in
the example quoted by himself :

* From de - monstrare, to point out.

 20 PRONOUNS . [72.

the only good on earth

Was pleasure ; not to follow that was sin.
Here ' that ' stands simply for ' pleasure :' there is no ellipse,
for we cannot put in the word ' pleasure,' without striking out
that. ' That ' stands for ' pleasure,' and not for ' that pleasure.'
So in such sentences as, " the first opportunity was that of the
Prince of Denmark's death," ' that ' stands for ' the opportunity.'
72 ' Such ' may be considered a demonstrative pro-
nouns, indicating or pointing out the kind.
(a) If the substantive requires the article (which must be
the indefinite article), it stands after such. ' Such a man.'
(b) ' Such ' may stand before another attributive adjective :
the article, if necessary, must stand between them. " How
long shall all the wicked doers speak so disdainfully, and
make such proud boasting ? " Ps. xciv. 4.
(c) Lindley Murray unfortunately took it into his head to
order ' such ' to be turned into ' so,' whenever and wherever it
might be found in company with another attributive. Ac-
cording in Parker's Progressive Exercises, part ii. p. 12, we
have a set of exercises on this errour.

The notion has no foundation in truth or reason ; but it is

necessary to combat it at some length. ( 1.) The German
solcher stands before another attributive exactly as our such.
Solch schönes Wetter, suchfine weather. Solch grosse Güte, &c.
(2.) The practice is found in almost every page of our best
writers. " Such moderate showers." Prayer for Rain. " Such
worthy attempts;" " such an awful repulse ; " " such a low
esteem." Milton. " Such great and strange passages." South.
" Such wretched passions and prejudices." Middleton. " Such
palpable sophistry;" " such exquisite delicacy :" " such an exact
accord." Cowper. (3.) It is exactly like another idiom :
' What pernicious influence.' Middleton . ' What a brutal

5 " Since Mr. Newton went, and till this lady came, there was
not in the kingdom a retirement more absolutely such than ours."
In this instance such is used for the noun, retirement.
6 It must be the indefinite article, because such denotes that the
thing in question belongs to a particular class ; it can therefore
only be an individual of that class.
73-76.] PRONOUNS . 21

fellow ! is just like ' such a brutal fellow ; but no Lindley

Murray, I believe, has ever ordered me to correct this into,
'How brutal a fellow.' (4.) To say nothing of the close
resemblance between adjectives and adverbs, it is obvious
that the such modifies the substantive; ' Such palpable
sophistry,' i. e. palpable sophistry ofthis kind.
(d) ' Such' is sometimes used to denote a particular thing,
which it is not necessary to mention. ' I told him that he
must pay me on such a day.' In this meaning we often find
' such and such : (" I would have given thee such and such
things, " or, such or such. A law forbidding such or such an
action.')

To this class belongs also ' the same,' which 73

points out an object by means of the relation of
identity.
" He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same bringeth
forth much fruit." John xv. 5.

(a) By ' the same,' we express not only absolute but virtual
identity; that is, extreme similarity, sufficient to constitute
one object as good as the same with another. The degree of
similarity that is sufficient to constitute two objects virtually
the same, must be determined by the purposes for which they
are to be employed.

(C.)
Relative Pronouns.

The relative pronouns are : ' who ' for per- 74

sons, ' which ' for things, and that ' for either per-
sons, or things.
(a) They are called relative, because they refer to an object
6

already mentioned. The house, which you have bought :

-the house, which house you have bought.'

' What ' is also a relative pronoun, which is 75

equivalent to that which.'
' Who,' ' what,' and ' that ' are substantive pro- 76
nouns, and cannot stand before the substantive
 22 PRONOUNS . [77.

they refer to. Which is an adjective pronoun,

and canbe immediately followed by its substantive.
(a) Our use of ' that' as a relative comes to us from the
Anglo-Saxon. "The demonstrative pronoun that, se, seó, is
also used relatively, like the English that, and is, in general,
repeated in the sentence, so that in the first clause it
stands as a demonstrative, and in the next as a relative."
Rask, p. 58.
(b) Whose, as the genitive of ' which, has been objected
to by many writers. Johnson says: " it is rather the poetical
than the regular genitive of which." It occurs in the Bible
(as well as in Shakspeare, Milton, &c.) : " Nebuchadnezzar
the king made an image of gold, whose height was threescore
cubits," &c. Dan. iii. 1.
(c) Which' formerly took the definite article, the. "In
the which ye also walked sometime." Col. iii. 7.
(d) From ' who, which,' and ' what,' are formed compounds
by the addition of ' ever,' ' soever.' Whoever, whichever, what-
ever ; whosoever, whichsoever, whatsoever.
Whoever is equivalent to any man who : and so of the rest.
Lindley Murray says of these compound pronouns, that
" they are seldom used in modern style." This is by no
means true of whoever, whatever, and whichever.
(e) Whoso is another compound of who, which is now out
ofuse.

(D.)
Interrogative (or question-asking) Pronouns.
6
77
Who,' ' which,' and ' what,' are also interro-
gative pronouns.
(a) Which' is used to ask which individual of a known
class or number is the object we are enquiring about.
' Who did this ?' carries with it no notion of our having
any knowledge on the subject. ' Which of you did it?' im-
plies that I know it was done by one of you.

7 From interrogare, to ask.

78-82.] FRONOUNS . 23

(b) ' Whether' was formerly used instead of which, when

the enquiry related to two objects. As a pronoun, it has
gone out of use. " Whether of them twain did the will of his
father ? " Matt. xxi. 31 .

When an interrogative pronoun stands at the 78

head of a dependent clause, there is danger of
mistaking it for a relative.
(a) To determine whether ' who, which,' or ' what' is an
interrogative, turn the sentence on which it depends into a
question. If the dependent clause gives the answer to such
a question, the pronoun is an interrogative. ' I asked who
was there. ' What did you ask ? Ans. ' Who was there.' 'I
asked what he was going to do.' What did you ask ? Ans. 1

'What he was going to do.' In these sentences who and

what are interrogative pronouns.

(Ε.)
Reciprocal Pronouns.
A reciprocal pronoun is one that denotes 79
the mutual action of different agents upon each
other..

(a) ' Each other, and ' one another,' are our reciprocal
forms, which are treated exactly as if they were compound
pronouns, taking for their genitives, ' each-other's ;' ' one-
another's.' ' Each other' is used of two or more ; ' one another'
can only be used of more than two.

Numerals.

Numerals express the relations of number and 80

quantity.
Numerals are definite, if they denote a particular 81
number, as one, two, three.
Numerals are indefinite, if they denote no 82
particular number or quantity ; as many, some,
much.
 24 PRONOUNS . [83, 84.
(F.)
Indefinite Numerals.
8

83 The indefinite numerals are each, every ; either,

neither ; many, much ; few, several ; all, no, more,
some, any, enough ; other, another ; one (used in-
definitely) , only, alone, &c.
(a) ' Each,' ' every,' are used to separate, as it were, a num-
ber into the individuals of which it is made up.
(b) ' Every' can only be applied to each of more than two
individuals .

'Each' can be applied to each of two or any greater number.

Johnson says that each, in the sense of every one of more
than two, is rare except in poetry. It is not rare in the
Bible. " Cloven tongues sat upon each of them ; " " the four
beasts had each of them six wings." It comes from the Anglo-
Saxon alc, which is applicable to each of any number.
(c) ' Either' and ' neither' relate to two objects.
(d) ' Either' means the one or the other ; and also which of
the two you please.
(e) ' Either' has also the meaning of each, both. " On either
side of the river."

" Sev'n times the sun hath either tropic viewed."

84 Many, few, several, denote number : much de-
notes quantity. Many shillings : much money.
(a) ' Many' is used with a singular substantive, with the in-
definite article a between it and the substantive. "You, I
know, have many a time sacrificed your own feelings to those
ofothers ."

We also find " a great many."

(b) Is it possible that this idiom came from a substantive,
the German Menge (Anglo- Saxon, menegu) ? " Eine Menge
Hasen," is exactly " a many hares," as country people often

8 The indefinite pronouns are, pot without reason, called also

indefinite numerals. Rask, p. 60.
85, 86.] PRONOUNS . 25

speak, and indeed as Shakespeare often spoke : "told of

amany thousand warlike French."
(c) ' Few' is joined with a plural substantive, but may take
the indefinite article a before it, although that article cannot
be used with a plural word. ' Can you lend me a few
shillings ?'
(d) ' Few' is equivalent to but few, if any.
' A few' some, though not many.
When we use 'few, we are approaching to a denial of there
being any ; we use ' afew, when we wish to assert that there
are some .

' There are few men who would have acted as he did.'
' I know a few men who would have acted precisely as he
did.'

(e) Just so, ' little ' is equivalent to ' but little, if any ;' ' a
little,' to ' some, though not much.'

All, no, none, some, any, enough, denote either 85

number or quantity.
(a) All men (number) ; all the cloth (quantity). When all
denotes quantity, the noun will commonly have the, or the
genitive case ofa personal pronoun with it.
(b) No and none differ as my and mine, &c. ( 65 a.) ' I have
no paper.' ' As to paper, I have none.'-None, like mine, was
formerly used before a vowel. " This is none other but the
house of God. " Gen. xxviii. 17.
(c) ' None,' though compounded of no one, is used as either
singular or plural. " All King Solomon's vessels were of
gold . there were none of silver." 1 Kings x. 21 .

Some. 86

(a) Some men (number) ; some beef (quantity).

(b) ' Some' is used with numerals to signify about. "Some
fifty years ago." Mr. Crombie considers " this phraseology
highly objectionable;" but it is a good old Saxon idiom.
"Sum is often found combined with the genitive plural of
6
the cardinal numbers, and signifies ' about,' some ; as ....
sume ten gear, some ten years. " (Rask, p. 61.) So fut.
aliqui viginti dies, and Germ. einige zwanzig Tage.]
C
 26 PRONOUNS . [87-91 .

87 'Any ' has several meanings which must be

carefully distinguished, because in other languages
these meanings are not all expressed by the same
words.
(a) After negative words, and such words and phrases as
have a negative force, ' any ' marks the exclusion of all :
' He did it without any hesitation.' 'We cannot make any
difference between you. So after ' scarcely,' ' without,' and com-
paratives, and in ' questions of appeal ' where the expected
answer is nobody, none. Scarcely any one.' ' Without any
difficulty.' ' He is taller than any of his schoolfellows.'
' Can any man believe this ?'
(b) It is sometimes equivalent to ' any you please,' ' every
body.' ' Any body can do that.'
(c) Again it is sometimes indefinite, being equivalent to
some one. Shall we tell any body of our misfortunes ?" the
particular person being left undecided.

88 Enough (enow) .
Johnson says : " It is not easy to determine whether this
word be an adjective or adverb ; perhaps, when it is joined
to a substantive, it is an adjective, of which enow was the
plural. In other situations it seems an adverb ; except that
after the verb to have, or to be, either expressed or understood,
it may be accounted a substantive." It comes from the
Anglo-Saxon genoh, enough, " which follows the indefinite de-
clension of adjectives." ( Rask, p. 61.) So in German, genug
is an adjective, and, as in English, commonly stands after its
substantive : ' Geld genug,' money enough.
89 ' Other takes a plural others, when it is used
without a substantive.
The other day ' means a day or two ago ; a few days ago.
6

Johnson confines it to " the third day past."

90 ' Another ' means one more, some one other.
91 ' One,' when not a numeral, has two principal
uses :
(1.) It is used (like the German ' man,' and the French
' on ') in a general and indefinite way for a man, any man.
" One would imagine these to be the expressions of a man
92-94.] PRONOUNS . 27

blessed with ease, affluence, and power." "One's leaning at

first would be towards it."-From this one is formed a reflexive
pronoun, oneself. [There is no more reason for writing one's
self than there is for saying his self instead of himself. See 67.]
(2.) ' One ' often stands as a substitute for a substantive
already mentioned. Johnson says : " this relative mode of
speech, whether singular or plural, is in my ears not very
elegant, yet is used by good authors."
It will be seen from the examples, that Middleton's ears
were less fastidious on this point than Dr. Johnson's.
" There are many whose waking thoughts are wholly em-
ployed on their sleeping ones." Addison. " But I have
already undergone, he says, the worst sort of banishment a
liberal mind can suffer ; a total one from the hearts and
affections of all good men." Middleton. " You say withal,
that you did not intend to attack all my quotations, but only
the original ones ." Middleton.
(a) One has also a plural when it stands for persons
indefinitely, as ' the great ones of the world.'
(b) ' One ' often stands in company with every, any, no.
' Only' commonly stands after its substan- 92
tive, as ' Man only :' except when the substantive
has an article or possessive pronoun (genitive of a
6

personal pronoun) with it. The only way ;' ' an

or his only son.'
' Alone ' stands after its substantive . 93
(a) To complete the indefinite numerals, we may add,
aught, naught ; something, nothing ; somewhat, a little. Naught
is used in the sense of worthless, of no value.
(b) These are generally used as substantives, but sometimes
as adverbs. (See 94. )
Of the indefinite numerals or pronouns, those94
that relate to quantity, whether exclusively or not,
are used adverbially, with comparative adjectives
to express the degree.
(a) Are you any better ?' ' I am all the better for ' ' I
am no better for '-' I am none the better for '-'I am some-
thing, somewhat, a little better for.'-She " had spent much
money, and was nothing bettered."-' I am much better,'
&c.
c2
 28 PRONOUNS . [95-99 .
(b) ' Enough ' naturally goes with the positive. 'Good
enough.'
(c) Much ' sometimes has the force of nearly, pretty nearly.
" Clemens and Eusebius say much the same thing."

(G.)
Definite Numerals.
95 Numerals denote the number of things. A
few numerals are substantives : a unit, a pair, a
couple, a dozen, a score, a hundred, a thousand, a
million, &c.
(a) After numerals, the words pair, couple, &c. do not take
the plural form, six pair of shoes,' &c.
(b) So in German : ' zwei Paar Schuhe,' two pair of shoes ;
' drei Dutzend Aepfel,' three dozen of apples ; ' sechs Fuss
lang,' which Becker translates, ' sixfoot long.'
(b) In such examples as ' a hundred altars,' &c. Johnson
considers hundred an adjective; but the omission of the pre-
position of does not make it necessary to suppose this. He
himself does not call dozen an adjective, merely because we
can say ' a dozen miles (one of his own examples).
96 Such numerals as answer to how many ? are car-
dinals : one, two, three, four, &c.
97 Such as express what place in a series the thing
we are speaking of occupies, are called ordinals :
first, second, third, &c .
98 Such as express how many times one thing ex-
ceeds another, or what multiple it is of itself, are
called multiplicatives : double, twofold, triple, treble,
threefold, fourfold, &c. Single may stand at the
head of this class, to begin the series.
99 Numeral adverbs answer to the question, how
often ? Once, twice, thrice, &c.

9 Half and quarter are also substantives. After half, of is

omitted : half an acre.
100-102.] PRONOUNS . 29

In compound numerals of the ordinal series, 100

it is only the last number that takes the ordinal
termination .

The twenty-fifth year. The five hundred and eighty -fourth

year.

(a) Thus five hundred and sixty seven is turned into the
ordinal form, by merely giving the ordinal termination (th)
to the last number, ' seven.' ' The five hundred and sixty
seventh year.' We may compare this with our mode of
adding a genitive termination to such a phrase as ' the King of
England ;' ' the King of England's crown.' As we consider
King- of-England a sort of compound substantive, and add
the mark of the genitive to the end of it, so we consider
five-hundred-and-sixty-seven a compound adjective, and are
satisfied with having the mark of its class put on to the end.

When the units are combined with tens, they 101

are placed either first with ' and,' or last with-
out ' and ' (twenty-four, or four and twenty) : but
after a hundred the smaller number is always last-
hundred and twentyfour¹ .
To express number distributively (to express, 102
that is, parties of so many together), the car-
dinal number is repeated : ' two and two ;' ' three
and three .'

" And he called the twelve, and began to send them two
and two." Mark vi. 7. Tyndale's translation.
(a) Sometimes by is used before the repeated numeral
(" by two and two " in the same passage of the English
Bible); sometimes by with the numeral not repeated (" I hid
them by fifty in a cave "), the numeral being generally in the
plural : " We are not to stay all together, but to come by
him, where he stands, by ones, by twos, and by threes. ”
Shakespeare.

1 i. e. The tens follow the hundreds , the units the tens. In

" six hundred and thirty," the six denotes how many hundreds are
taken.
c3
 30 THE VERB .
[103.
The sun has long been set,
The stars are out by twos and threes,
The little birds are piping yet
Among the bushes and trees.-Wordsworth .
One by one one at a time ; or, in singlefile.
(b) It has been fashionable of late to write the first three,
and so on, instead of the three first. Thus where Thiersch
writes, " Declination der vier ersten Zahlwörter," his trans-
lator has, " Declension of the first four Numerals." People
write in this way to avoid the seeming absurdity of implying
that more than one thing can be the first; but it is at least
equally absurd, to talk about the first four, when (as often
happens) there is no secondfour.
It may perhaps remove the scruples of those who ask how
there can be more than one first, to consider that as soon as
thefirst is removed, another first succeeds, and so on. "The
fathers of the five first centuries." Middleton. (Misc. 333. )
" I have not numbered the lines, except of the four first
books2. " Cowper. (Vol. v. p. 73. Southey's ed. )

THE VERB.

§ 9. DIVISION OF VERBS.
103 Every verb, except to be, combines the no-
tion of some property, the notion of being, and
generally the notion of time.
(a) John runs = John is now in that state which we call
running. Cæsar will conquer = will be in that state which we
call victorious.

(b) Some properties may be considered as being confined,

as it were, to the person or thing spoken of, without affecting
any thing else. He breathes ;' ' the tree blossoms ;' ' the
stone falls .' The verbs that denote such properties, convey
a complete notion, without requiring the mention of any
object conceived to be affected by it. They are called neuter
or (better) intransitive verbs.
2 So in Latin. Thus the Decem-primi were magistrates in
municipal towns.
104, 105.] THE VERB . 31

(c) There are properties, however, which go forth, as it

were, from the subject, and produce an effect upon some
external object. " Samuel reproved Saul." " Faith overcomes
the world. " The verbs that denote such properties, are called
transitive verbs : transitive from the Latin word transire (to
pass over), the action being considered to pass over, as it
were, to some external object : ' Rain fertilizes the soil.'
Here the fertilizing is considered as something imparted to
the soil ; as something passing over to it.
Verbs are called transitive, if their notion 104
is incomplete without the supplementary notion of
an object conceived to be affected by the action
which the verb expresses.
Verbs are called intransitive, if their notion 105
is complete without the addition of any supplemen-
tary notion.
(a) Strictly speaking this is not a division of verbs, but a
division of their uses, for many verbs are sometimes transitive,
sometimes intransitive ; and this is especially the case with
the oldest and simplest verbs of the language : ' The fire
burns bright ' (intrans.) ; ' The fire has burnt my finger '
(trans.) ; ' He has broken the glass' (trans.) ; ' Glass breaks
easily' (intrans.); ' The earth moves round the sun ;' ' You
must move the table.'
(b) It is not easy, if possible, to frame a definition that will
take in all the verbs that are usually considered transitive.
Take, for instance, to require care ; there is no passing over of
the notion of the verb to the object denoted by the noun ;
nor is there any thing of the kind, when we speak of begging
afavour. The best mark of a transitive verb is the incom-
pleteness of the notion ; but then there is room for a good
deal of arbitrary choice in fixing upon the notion that shall
be considered to complete the notion of the verb. For in-
stance, after such a notion as begging or requesting, one nation
considers the person of whom the favour is asked to be the
object immediately affected ; whilst another chooses to ex-
press that relation by a preposition or a genitive case, and
makes thefavour asked the immediate object of the verb 3.
3 " Individual instances, where the object is in the accusative in
one language, as proximate to the verb, and in another as more
c4
 32 THE TENSES . [106-110.

§ 10. THE TENSES.

106 We naturally divide time into that which is
past, that which now is, and that which is to come.
And as we can think and speak of past actions and
states, of present actions and states, and future
actions and states ; it is convenient to mark whe-
ther we are speaking of what has been, what is, or
what will be, by appropriating a particular form of
the verb to each division of time.

107 Hence arise three principal forms of the verb,

one for present time, one for past time, and one
for future time. Each of these forms is called a
tense ; and hence we get a present tense ; a past
tense, or preterite* ; and a future tense.
108 The present tense is the verb itself.
109 The preterite tense is generally formed by in-
flexion, and that in two ways :
Either ( 1 ) d or ed is added to the verb ; or
(2) the vowels of the verb, and sometimes its final
consonants, are changed ; but
(3) sometimes the preterite is of the same form as
the present.
EXAMPLES .

(a) ( 1) Love, loved ; move , moved ; try, tried.

(2) Strive, strove ; catch, caught ; bring, brought.
(3) Put, put ; cast, cast.
110 When the verb ends in a single consonant fol-
lowing a short vowel, and has the accent on the
remote in the genitive or dative, or construed with a preposition,
can be learnt only by practice and from dictionaries ; as, for in-
stance, to imitate a person requires the dative in German, while in
Greek, Latin, French, and English, it governs the accusative."-
Buttmann, Larger Greek Grammar, p. 333.
* From præteritum, past. It is called also the perfect.
 111, 112.] THE PERSONS . 33

last syllable, the final consonant is doubled before

ed : refer, referred.-Y impure is changed into i
before ed : try, tried.
The future tense is not formed by inflexion, 111
but by the auxiliary (or helping) verbs, shall and
will.
I shall love. I will come.- He will know better next time.

§ 11. ON THE PERSONS .

A person may represent himself as doing so 112
and so ; or the person or persens he is speaking to ;
or any other person or persons.
(a) In most languages each tense has a particular form to
denote so far the subject or subjects of which the verb is
predicated. Each of these forms is called a person of that
tense.

(b) The first person refers to the speaker himself (I) ; the
second to the person spoken to (thou) ; the third to any other
person or thing spoken of. So, in the plural, the first person
refers to the speaker himself and some others (we) ; the second
to the persons spoken to, or the person spoken to and some
others ( ye or you) ; the third to any other persons or things
spoken of.
(c) The persons might be more numerous : for instance,
there might be separate forms for every possible number of
persons; for every possible combination ofso many men and
so many women, and so on .
(d) Some languages have three persons for the dual num-
ber, and others separate forms to be used when the subject
is afemale.

5 That is, y following a consonant.

6 " An Englishman or a Frenchman has only one word for we,
but a native of Hawaii or Tahiti has perfectly distinct terms for
I and thou, I and he, I and you, I and they, I and my company."
-Quarterly Review, cxiii. 109.
c5
 34 THE PERSONS . [113-117.
113
The English language has distinct forms for
only two of the persons, the second and third sin-
gular.
114 All the persons of the plural, and in the pre-
terite the third person singular also, are like the
first person singular.
115 The second person singular is formed by adding
st, or est, to the first person.
(a) The st is added when the first person ends in e : the
addition forms a new syllable.
(6) When the verb ends in a single consonant after a short
vowel, and has the accent on the last syllable, the final conso-
nant is doubled before est (defer, deferrest ; put, puttest).
(c) Preterites ending in ed form the second person singular
in edst.

116
In English the second person plural is gene-
rally used instead of the second person singular.
You say' instead of thou sayest .'
(a) We find a similar peculiarity in other languages. It
is felt, we must suppose, a point of courtesy not to make our
approaches to one another so directly, as we do when we use
the second person singular.
(b) The Quakers, oddly enough, think it a deviation from
truth, to say you to a single person ; they keep therefore to
thou and thee.

(c) In English the use of ' thou' is confined to poetry, and

to addresses to the Deity, to whom it would be natural to
appropriate the form, when once it had become a peculiar
one.

117 The third person singular of the present tense

is formed by adding s to the first person.
(a) When the verb ends in y impure [see p. 33, note 5] , the
y is changed into ie (fly, flies ; but delay, delays).
(b) When the verb ends in a consonant or consonants after
which s could not be pronounced, es is added, exactly as in
 118-121 .] PARTICIPLES . 35

forming the plural of nouns (brush, brushes ; hoax, hoaxes ;

fish ,fishes ; hiss, hisses).
(c) Formerly, the third person singular ended in th, as it
now stands in the English Bible, and occasionally in poetry.
Examples of the personal forms. 118

Singular. Plural.

1 2 3 1 23
I thou he, she, or
it we,lyou,
ye or they
Prese nt

write writest writes write

delay delayest delays delay
.

catch catchest catches catch

take takest takes take
refer referrest refers refer
Perfect

wrote wrotest wrote wrote

delayed delayedst delayed delayed

.

caught caughtest caught caught

took tookest took took
referred referredst referred referred

§ 12. THE PARTICIPLES " .

A participle is a verbal adjective, differing 119
from other adjectives by carrying with it a notion
of time.

We have in English only two participles 120

formed by inflexion, the present and the past par-
ticiple.
The present participle ends in ng, and has an 121
active meaning.
7 So called from participare, to partake, because they partake of
the nature both of verb and adjective.
c6
 36 PARTICIPLES . [122-128.
122
The past participle mostly ends in d, t, or
n, and has a passive meaning when the verb is
transitive ; it is then no further expressive of a
past time, than as an action suffered is generally a
completed action.
123
The past participle of an intransitive verb has
an active meaning, and expresses past time.
124 The past participles of both transitive and in-
transitive verbs are used with have, to form some
of the compound tenses of the active voice ( I have
loved ; I have run ; I have written) .
125 The present participle is formed by adding the
termination ing to the verb.
(a) When the verb ends in e after a consonant, the e must
be thrown away before the termination is added (move,
moving ; see , seeing).
(b) When the verb ends in ie, the ie is changed into y
(die, dying) .
(c) The final consonant of the verb must be doubled when
the accent is on that syllable, if the verb ends in a single
consonant following a short vowel (refér, referring).
126 It is better not to double the final consonant
when a termination is added to a word that is not
accented on the last syllable.
(a) There are, however, many words in which the doubling
of the consonant before a syllabic termination is the usual
mode of spelling (worshipper, travelling, &c.).

127 When the preterite is formed by the addition

of d, or ed, the same form serves also for the past
participle.
128 When the preterite is formed by changing the
vowel sound of the present, the past participle
regularly ends in en, but is often of the same form
with the preterite. See 226.
 129, 130.] FORMS FOR PRESENT TIME . 37

§ 13 .
129
Table of the Auxiliary Verbs am, have, do.
Participles .
Infinitive . Present . Past .
To be being been .
To have having had.
To do doing done .

Singular. Plural.

1 2 3 1 2 3

I thou he, she, or ye or

it
we they
you,
Present
.Perfect

am art is are

have hast has have

do dost does do

was wast was were

had hadst had had

did didst did did

(a) To be has a conditional form for the present ( If I be, if

thou beest, if he be, &c.); and for the imperfect ( If I were, if
thou wert, if he were, &c. )
(b) To do sometimes makes doest in the second pers. sing.
when it is not used as an auxiliary. Its old forms of the
third person are doeth, doth : from have, the old third person
is hath.

(c) Be, as well as am, is the present in old writers. The

Anglo- Saxon had two verbs : eom, eart, is, or ys-plur. synd :
and beó, byst, byth-plur. beóth.

§ 14. FORMS FOR PRESENT TIME .

Besides the leading tenses which express 130
time absolutely, there are several that express it
 38 FORMS FOR PRESENT TIME. [131-136.

relatively ; that is, as compared with some other

time.

131
An action may be conceived as doing, done,
or about to be done; and that at any time : so a
state may be conceived as existing, or having existed,
or about to exist ; and that at any time.
132 Hence for each time we have three forms that
denote the state of the act on .

For present time these forms are, I am writing ( now) ; I

have written (now) ; I am (now) going, or about, to write.
133 We have also a form that represents the
action, whether finished or unfinished, as having
been in progress for some time. I have been
writing.
134 The forms for present time are five : I
write ; I do write ; I am writing ; I have been
writing ; I have written ; I am going (or about) to
write.

135
The present, I do write, is used instead of
Iwrite, after negative words, and in questions and
strong affirmations.
(a) Negative words are such as express a denial, from
negare, to deny. Not, neither, nor.
(b) This rule does not apply to poetry, where the simple
present is often used after negatives and interrogatives.
136 The forms I write, and I do write, mark pre-
sent time in the least definite way, and are, there-
fore, the natural forms for such assertions as are
true at all times .
Charles writes a good hand. Henry dances well. Virtue
is its own reward .

These are general assertions, the truth of which may be

proved at any time.
(a) The present tense is used of assertions found in the
137.] FORMS FOR PRESENT TIME . 39

extant works of authors, no matter when they lived. " Cicero

6

tells us, in his book of a commonwealth, that a legislator

should take especial care not to lodge the greatest power in
the hands of the greatest number."
(b) Sometimes the present is used for the future, when
the action is to be described as nearly certain to happen. ' I
go to London next week.'
(c) When two actions are spoken of, one of which must
precede the other, the futurity of the preceding action is
carefully marked in many languages ; and also its completion,
if it is to be completed before the commencement of the
other. But in English we often use " the present tense
to point out the relative time of a future action: ' When he
arrives, he will hear the news.' ' He will not hear the news
till he arrives.'"-Pickbourn .

(d) Thus in Rom. xv.-" Whensoever I take myjourney

into Spain, I will come to you." " When I have performed
this, I will come by you into Spain." " When I come, I
shall," &c .
[In Latin we must say : when he shall have arrived ; till he
shall have arrived.]
I have written is called the ' perfect de- 137
finite.'
(a) It is called definite, because it defines the action as
havinghappened in a portion of time which is not yet expired :
it brings a past action into connexion with present time, and
is therefore a present-perfect tense.
(b) The portion of time may be of any length : " Great men
have been among us." The poet here begins with the begin-
ning of our history ; but he uses have been, because the time
for producing great men is, we trust, not yet over with us.
(c) The forms I am writing, and I have been writing, pre-
sent no difficulty : the former represents the action as now
going on : the latter as having been carried on for some
time, and continued up to, or nearly up to, the present time.
It does not however decide, whether it be now finished, or
not.

(a) From some intransitive verbs that denote motion, &c. the
perfect definite is formed with an : ' I am come.'
 40 FORMS FOR FUTURE TIME . [ 138-142.

§ 15. FORMS FOR PAST TIME .

138
The forms that represent an action as doing,
done, or about to be done ; or a state as exist-
ing, having existed, or about to exist, at some past
time, are : I was writing (when, &c.) ; I had
written (when, &c.) ; I was going, or about, to write
(when, &c.) .
The form that represents the action, whether finished or
unfinished, as having been in progress for some time, is, I
had been writing. Hence,
139 The forms for past time are : I wrote; I did
write ; I was writing ; I had written ; I had been
writing ; I was going to write ; I had been going
to write.
140 The forms I wrote and I did write are inde-
finites with respect to time.
(a) The only intimation of time, that I wrote or did write
carries with it, is that the action was done at some past
time. They are therefore indefinite past tenses ; for the
exact description of time, they must be defined by the
addition of a date.

(b) From this indefinite character, they are naturally used

to express habits and repeated actions , when the habits ex-
isted, or the actions used to take place, in past time.
' My eldest son wrote a beautiful hand.'
141 I was writing is the imperfect (or preter-imper-
fect) tense : it describes an action begun and still
going on at a past time.

§ 16. FORMS FOR FUTURE TIME .

142 The forms for future time that represent
an action as doing, being done, or going to be done ;
8 Thats, they are aorists : à , not ; ὁρίζειν , to limit.
143.] FORMS FOR FUTURE TIME . 41

or a state as existing, having existed, or going to

exist, are : I shall be writing ; I shall have written ;
and, I shall be going, or about, to write. I shall have
been writing, represents that the action, whether
finished or unfinished, will have been in progress for
some time . Hence :
The forms for future time are : I shall or 143
will write ; I shall or will be writing ; I shall or
will have written ; I shall or will be going (or about)
to write.

(a) Shall, in the first person, simply foretells ; in the other

persons it commands.
Will in the first person declares the speaker's intention in a
positive manner ; in the other persons it simply foretells.
(b) Brightland's rule is :
In the first person, simply shall foretells ;
In will a threat or else a promise dwells :
Shall in the second and the third does threat ;
Will simply then foretells the coming feat.
(c) Will is still an independent verb, expressing volition, an
act or resolution of a man's will. Hence, in the first per-
son it denotes the intention to act in a particular way ; this
declaration of an intention is all that the word denotes, though
such a declaration will obviously amount in many cases to a
promise or threat. For the other persons, ' will' simply fore-
tells : it can only be understood as a declaration of what we
think will take place in the mind of other persons. It is now
however used as the simple future, whether we are speaking
of events or persons.-Shall denotes moral necessity enforced
by the will of the speaker; it naturally, therefore, implies
command, and the intention to compel. But, for the first per-
son, it simply foretells :-its notion of compulsion, since it is
only exercised by the speaker on himself, does not affect the
thought ; and our acknowledging that we ought to do this or
that, should come to the same thing as a declaration of our
intention to do it 9.

9 See Mitford, Harmony of Language, and Note 5 in Rev. R.

Twopeny's Dissertations on the Old and New Testament.

1
 42 MOODS OF A VERB . [144-148 .

§ 17. OF THE MOODS OF A VERB .

144
The being or doing of a thing may be con-
ceived and spoken of in different ways, or modes.
The altered forms which the verb assumes to ex-
press the different modes of our conceptions, are
classed together in what are called the moods of a
verb.

145 The indicative mood expresses actual ex-

istence .

146 The subjunctive mood expresses what may be ;

such as purposes, conditions, &c.
147 The imperative mood commands.
148 The infinitive mood is the notion of the verb,
standing in its simplest form, without reference
to any particular subject.
(a) Indicative, from indicare to express or indicate (simply
and absolutely). Subjunctive, from subjungere to subjoin, be-
cause the tenses of the subjunctive, as implying dependent
notions, are generally subjoined to other verbs and proposi-
tions. Imperative, from imperare to command. Infinitive,
from infinitus unlimited, from its not being limited or
restricted to a particular subject.
(b) The subjunctive, in Greek, was appropriated to what
was contemplated as actually possible under certain conditions ;
the optative was a mood used to express that, the possibility
ofwhich was conceivable. It took its name from optare, to wish,
from one of its uses.
(c) The conditional is sometimes considered a separate
mood, and sometimes included in the subjunctive. The con-
ditional forms express that ' possibility which is not conceived
as really existing.' (Becker.)
(d) The infinitive is not properly a mood, for it represents
no modification of the notion of the verb, but the simple notion
itself. It is reckoned, however, amongst the moods, just as
the nominative is amongst the cases.
149-152.] THE INFINITIVE . 43

§ 18. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

The imperative mood is used, not only to com- 149
mand, but also to request, to exhort or encourage,
to permit, and with negatives to forbid.
(a) A command not to do a thing is of course a prohibition ;
and the other uses of the imperative flow naturally from the
principal use, that of commanding. A command, of course
involves a wish : when then I command a man for whom I
am known to entertain a kindly feeling, to do any thing, I
virtually encourage him to do it, and wish him success .
Again, if I have the power to prevent, my command im-
plies permission; and when we use the language ofcommand,
without having any power to enforce it, our commanding
comes to no more than a request.
(b) Since our commands are commonly addressed to a per-
son or persons in company with us, the second person is the
principal person of the imperative. As a command laid by
the speaker upon himself, is little more than an expression
ofhis will, the first person singular is generally wanting.
The imperative in English has no distinct 150
form : the verb itself is used for the second person
singular and plural, the nominative case being gene-
rally omitted. If expressed, it follows the verb.
Come (thou) : come (ye).
Do thou come. Do ye or you come.

§19. THE INFINITIVE.

The simple infinitive, or infinitive of the pre- 151
sent tense, is the verb itself with the preposition
to before it .
(a) But to is omitted after the verbs of mood (i . e. auxiliary
verbs), and see, hear, feel, bid, dare, make.
The following are the compound infinitives 152
for the active voice : to be writing ; to have been
writing ; to have written ; to be going, or about, to
write .
 44 THE VOICES . [153-155.
(a) " To write, to be writing, always denote something con-
temporary with, or subsequent to, the time of the governing
verb: to have been writing, and to have written, always denote
something antecedent to the time of the governing verb."-
Pickbourn.

§ 20. THE COMPOUND PARTICIPLES.

153
The compound participles for the active voice
are : having written, having been writing, going
(or about) to write.
154 The form of the infinitive passive is often em-
ployed as a (virtually) participle implying pos-
sibility, duty, or necessity. It answers to the Latin
gerundive (participle indus) .
A consummation devoutly to be wished.' ' The thing to
be aimed at is this.'

(a) In Anglo-Saxon " eom with the gerund expresses duty

or obligation : as, he is tó lufigenne, he is to love ; i. e. is to be,
or ought to be loved."-Rask. So in German, the future
participle (passive) is formed from the supine; der zu fra-
gende Schüler, ' the scholar to be examined.' In the same
way the form of the infinitive active is used participially in a
future sense. There are many things to do.' ' For the time to
come.' ' Art thou he that is to come ?' Wiclif translates this :
" Thou that art to comynge?" for which the Anglo- Saxon is
" the to cumenne eart. " Horne Tooke speaks of such ex-
pressions as to comynge, as shifts to which the translators
were driven ; but his last editor, Mr. Taylor, justly remarks
that they were " ancient forms in common use, evidently
having their origin from the ancient derivative or future in-
finitive " (the gerund). He remarks that Grimm considers
the infinitive as declinable, and makes the gerund a dative
case. Vol. i. p. 33.

§ 21. THE VOICES .

155 When a verb is put in the form which ex-
presses that the subject spoken of is acted upon, it
is said to be in the passive voice.
156-158 .] PASSIVE VOICE . 45

(a) Passus is a Latin word, meaning ' having suffered.'

The passive voice is so called, because it expresses that an
object suffers an action; the active voice expresses that the
subject does an action, or is in a state which is not repre-
sented as produced by some external power.
(b) Transitive verbs have a passive voice ; but intransitive
ones have not.
(c) No object can suffer without being acted upon ; hence
its suffering cannot be expressed by those verbs which ex-
press only such notions as do not affect, or act upon, any
object.
(d) It may, however, happen, that an intransitive verb
comes to the same thing as a passive verb ; ' I burn with
rage' =' I am inflamed with rage.'
The passive forms are in English made up of the 156
verb to be and the past participle.

§ 22. PASSIVE VOICE.

(Α.)
Present Time.

The past participle with the verb I am, is 157

sometimes the present of the passive voice, some-
times the preterite of the passive voice, and some-
times the preterite (perfect definite) of the active
voice.
' I am defended by all the best citizens' (pres. pass.
defendor) ; ' The house is built ' (preter. pass. ædificata est) ;
' Henry is come ' (preter. act. venit).
When the passive participle marks a com- 158
pleted action, and a permanent state consequent
upon it, the passive participle with thepresent tense,
of the verb to be, is equivalent to a preterite.
The verbs that have their passive preterites of this form,
denote definite actions, such as are likely to advance to their
completion, be completed, and remain permanently in their
 46 PASSIVE VOICE .
[159-161 .
effects. To build, to make, to prepare : preter. pass. ' the house
is built,' ' the box is made,' ' the room is prepared.'

159 The same form may be in one sense the

present passive, in another the preterite : ‘ I am 6
' I am
dressed every morning by a servant.'
dressed, and ready for my breakfast.'
160 When the participle, though passive in form,
is the past participle of a neuter verb, this par-
ticiple, with the present tense of the verb to be,
forms a preterite of the active voice : ' My servant
is come' (venit).-See 137, d.
161
When the passive participle with the present
tense of to be forms the preterite, the present
and imperfect are formed with what is, in form, the
participle of the present active ; but it is proba-
bly the participial substantive (162), which used to
be governed by the preposition on or in, shortened
into a.

(a) The house is building, the house was building, &c.; or

the house is a building. In the Bible we have a and in :
" While the ark was a preparing" ( 1 Pet. iii. 20) ; and so
Tyndale: "While the arcke was a preparynge." So also
Cranmer's Bible. The Rhemish version is : " when the arke
was a building." " Forty and six years was this temple in
building." " Was this temple abuyldinge" ( Tyndale), “ a
byldynge" ( Cranmer). (John ii. 20 ; and so 1 Kings vi. 7. 38.)
(b) " The propriety of these imperfect passive tenses,"
says Mr. Pickbourn, " has been doubted by almost all our
grammarians ; though, I believe, but few of them have
written many pages without condescending to make use of
them." It would be an absurdity, indeed, to give up the
only way we have of denoting the incomplete state of action
by a passive form. The form can be used only where it occa-
sions no ambiguity ; that is, in other words, where the subject
spoken of cannot be mistaken for the agent, or doer of the
action.
* 162-164.] PARTICIPIAL SUBSTANTIVES. 47

§ 23. THE PARTICIPIAL SUBSTANTIVES .

Connected with the verb are the participial 162
substantives, which are the same in form with the
participles, but differ from them in being sub-
stantives in use, though retaining the power of
taking an object (163) .
(a) Though identical in form with the participles, they are
more nearly allied to the infinitive in use, expressing the
notion of a verb substantively.

The participial substantives belonging to tran- 163

sitive verbs, may take an object in the accusa-
tive ; but the object is often joined to them, as it is
to other substantives by ' of.'
(a) The use of these forms is of great extent in the
English language, and the learner must be taught at once to
distinguish them, by their use, from participles.
(b) When they are of the present active form, they nearly
answer to the Latin gerunds; but they occur in the nomina-
tive case, which the gerunds do not.
(c) The past participle has no corresponding participial
substantive.

EXAMPLES . 164

(1) Truth is a great strong-hold, fortified by God and

nature; and diligence is properly the understanding's laying
siege to it. South.
(2) I was considering the fate of those men, who have in
all ages, through an affectation of being distinguished from the
vulgar, or some unaccountable turn of thought, pretended
either to believe nothing at all, or to believe the most extra-
vagant things in the world.
(3) The warlike king next engaged in hostilities with the
Sabines, on the pretext of their having seized some Roman
traders at the fair held at the temple of Feronia.
(4) The carrying about in his person the supreme dignity
of the empire, added no small authority to his cause, by
making the cities and states abroad the more cautious of
 48 VERBS OF MOOD, &c, [165.
acting against him, or giving them a better pretence, at
least, for opening their gates to the consul of Rome.
(5) Is it not strange, that after having been revolving and
tumbling about in his mind one poor sentence for above four
years together, his memory should happen to fail him just in
the nick, when he came to the very use and application of
what he had so long been thinking about ?
(6) These persons are now making atonement for having
been betrayed into any appearance of virtue, by a quick return
to their natural character.

(7) To require sycophants to blush is exacting too great

departure from the decorum of their character.

24. ON THE VERBS OF MOOD AND SUBJUNCTIVE

FORMS .

165 Table of the Verbs of Mood .

I thou he, she, we, yeor you.

or it they
Present may mayest may may
Preterite might mightest might might
Present can canst can can

Preterite could couldst could could

Present shall shalt shall shall

Preterite should shouldst should should

Present will wilt will will

Preterite would wouldst would would

Present ought oughtest ought ought

Present must must must must
 166, 167.] VERBS OF MOOD, &c. 49

(a) These verbs all agree in not takings as the termina-

tion of the third person singular; and with the exception of
ought, they are followed by the infinitive without to.
(b) The verb need is also used without s in the third per-
1
son singular, when followed by the infinitive ; and to is
omitted. Our common grammars do not sanction this usage,
but I am persuaded it is correct. It is probable, that the
rejection of thes by the verbs of mood, arises from the close
connexion between such verbs and the following infinitive,
to which the s would form a disagreeable impediment. Thus
in the formation of Greek words, wherever s would stand
between two consonants, it was rejected.
" For the age of these books of Clement and Hermas, one
need only enquire for the time of Clement's death."-Wall
on Infant Baptism, i. 58. " How little weight need be at-
tacht to his opinion," &c.-Niebuhr, ii. 408 (Hare and
Thirlwall's Translation) . " Tracing the remnant of the
Apostolical tradition need not prove such a very overwhelming
task. "-Keble, Apost. Trad. p. 41.
(c) For the same reason dare often drops the s, at least in
conversation ; and I find it so used by Middleton : " Our
Editor knows full well, that he has no right to the style of
Doctor ; and whenever he speaks or acts in his own person,
dare not so much as assume it himself."--Miscell. p. 358.
The English verb (with a partial exception in 166
the case of to be) has no inflectedforms for the sub-
junctive mood; but supplies the place of such a
mood by the auxiliary verbs, may, can, &c.
It must be particularly remembered, that may, 167
can, &c. are not always verbs of mood ; but are
often used as indicative verbs, to express per-
mission, power, duty, &c. as actually existing states
or conditions.
(a) " The mere expression of will, possibility, liberty,
obligation, &c. belong to the indicative mood : it is their
conditionality, their being subsequent, and depending upon
something preceding, that determines them to the subjunctive
mood."- Lowth.
(b) After if, though, although, and sometimes that and
D
 50 VERBS OF MOOD, &C. [168-173.
whether, the present tense of the verb often stands without
its personal endings (est and s).- Though he slay me,' &c.
Lowth, Johnson, &c., consider this a present tense of the sub-
junctive mood, and at all events it is virtually a subjunctive
form.

168 May (preterite might) expresses liberty and

permission.
' He may purchase the field, if he pleases.' ' He might pur-
chase the field, if he pleased.'
9

169 May, in a sentence beginning with that, often

expresses a purpose.
' I am come, that I may see it with my own eyes.' ' He
went there that he might see it with his own eyes.'
170 May is also used of events, the possibility of
which is granted by the speaker.
' It may rain to-morrow.' ' The vessel may have arrived
in port.' ' He may have set out already.' In such ex-
pressions may means no more than that the speaker knows
ofno reason against the event in question.
171 In sentences dependent on another, may is
used when the verb of the principal sentence is in
the present, future, or perfect definite. Might follows
the past tenses of the indicative.
172 (a) May, when it stands before its subject,
expresses a wish. May he come.' ' Might it
but turn out to be no worse than this ! '
(b) In negative and interrogative sentences it
denotes possibility. [' May not a book be very
amusing though disfiguredbymany blemishes ?"]
So also in ' might have.' [' I might have seen it. ']
173 Can (preterite could) expresses possibility, power,
&c.
(a) Cannot sometimes expresses, not actual, but moral or
conditional impossibility. Thus the Angel said to Lot: " I
cannot do any thing till thou be come thither ;" that is, I
cannot without disobeying Him that sent me.
9 The principal exception is after verbs of declaring and feeling.
174-176.] VERBS OF MOOD, &c. 51

(b) Can and cannot are often followed by but with the
infinitive ; ' You can but try : i. e. ' You can do no more than
that,-generally with the notion of its being advisable to do
that at all events. "As he is your son, and worthy of you, I
cannot but look upon him as my brother. " I can do nothing
else: I feel constrained to do that.
(c) Can is used in questions as a more courteous form than
will. It implies that the person addressed will not refuse to
eomply with the request, if it should so happen, that he is able
to do the thing required. In this way could is still more
courteous and more pressing than can. " Can you lend me a
penknife ?" " Could you have the kindness to inform me, &c. ?"
Should (preterite of shall) expresses duty, sup- 174
positions, and future events dependent on verbs of
past time.
'You should pay the money immediately (duty) .' ' If it
should rain to-morrow, I shall not be able to keep my pro-
mise (supposition).' ' You promised me, that he should go
to-morrow (fut. event dependent on apast tense).'
(a) Should' is used, in such sentences as the following,
without implying any thing of contingency or doubtfulness :
' It is strange that you should say so ;' i. e. your (actually)
saying so is strange,
Should is also used to express an opinion doubt- 175
fully or modestly.
(a) Such an opinion may be firmly and deliberately held
though doubtfully expressed. It is probable that this use
arose from its use in conditional sentences : ' I should think
so,' i. e. if youdid not hold a contraryopinion ; ifyourauthority
did not make me hesitate.

Would (preterite of will) properly implies 176

volition ; but is frequently used as a simple future
dependent on a verb of past time.
'He said that it would rain to-day.' ' He said that he
would come next week.'

(a) The difference between would and should, when used

as futures in connexion with past tenses, is the same as that
between will and shall ; that is, ' would' promises or threatens
in the first person, and simply foretells in the others.
D2
 52 VERBS OF MOOD, &C. [177-180.
' Should ' simplyforetells in the first person, and promises or
threatens in the other persons.
177 Would is often used, without any thing of con-
ditional meaning, to express volition.
" I often requested them, but they would not " (noluerunt).
178 Would is often used to express a wish .
(a) In the Anglo- Saxon, willan, to will, had wolde for the
imperfect of the subjunctive, as well as for the imperfect of
1
the indicative ; hence, would God, as in German wollte Gott,
is, might God will, or please ; and ' I would,' a softened form
of expressing an actual wish (vellem). Hence, ' I would that,'
&c.; and, would God that, ' &c.
(b) But we have also, Would to God ;' [where the to
may possibly be the termination of wolde (woll- te.)] ' I would
to God; and would sometimes stands as a mere particle,
its subject being omitted. Would that you had seen him.'
" In the morning thou shalt say, Would God it were even !
and at even thou shalt say, Would God it were morning !"
Deut. xxviii. 67. " I would there were a sword in mine
hand." " And I would to God that ye did reign, that we
also might reign with you." 1 Cor. iv. 8.
(c) In " ye would none of my reproof" (Prov. i. 25), the
word expresses inclination for a thing, willingness to receive it.
179 There is a peculiar use of would in the ex-
pression of habitual actions. Their being habitual
implies their conformity with the agent's inclina-
tion. He would talk [= used to talk] upon the
subject for hours together.'
180 Let, signifying permission, is used to make up
our Imperative forms.
(a) Like other imperatives, let may express wishes, requests,
commands and exhortations. Lættan, in Anglo- Saxon, im-
plied, not only permission, but also command and causation ;
as lassen does in German .
" Let us go." " Let me die the death of the righteous."
"Let the soldiers seize him." " Let my orders be carefully
attended to. " It has, of course, a noun or pronoun in the
accusative between it and the infinitive.]
181.] THE ENGLISH VERB . 53

§ 25. TABLE OF THE ENGLISH VERBS . 181

Indicative Mood.
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.

Present.
Defend
Am defending Am defended.

Imperfect.
Dodefend
Was defending
} •
(None. )
Perfect
Definite Have defended •

Have been defended.

PreteriteDefended Was defended.
(orPerf.) Diddefend }.
Pluperfect. Had defended Had been defended.
Future. Shall or will defend Shall or will be defended.
Future
Perfect. } [Shall or will have (Shall orwill have been
{Shaufended Jdefended.
Imperative Mood.
S. P. S. P.

Defend (thou) . Defend (ye) . Be thou defended. Be ye defended.

Forms that answer (in dependent sentences) to
the tenses of the Latin subjunctive.
Present. May (should) defend May (should) be defended.
Imperfect. Might, should, or
[Might, should, or would
would defend be defended.
Perfect. [May (should) have) May (should) have been
defended S defended.
Pluperfect. Might, should, or Might, should, or would
wouldhave defendeds have been defended.
Infinitive Mood.
Present. To defend To be defended.
•

Perfect, To have defended . To have been defended.

Future. To be going, or about To be going, or about to
to defend .} be defended.
Participles.
Present. Defending Defended(pastpart.).
Being defended.
Perfect. Having defended Having been defended.
Future. [Going to defend SGoing to he defended.
About to defend About to be defended.
D3
 54 THE PARTICLES . [182, 183.
182 NOTES ON THE TABLE.

(a) The present ' do defend,' and the perfect ' did defend,'
are used in questions, denials, and strong affirmations.
(b) The perfect definite (or present perfect) is used of
actions that have taken place in a space of time not yet
expired.
(c) The past participle is not passive in meaning, unless
the verb is transitive. The past participle of an intransitive
verb belongs to the active voice.
(d) There is no trusting the mere look of a form, as the
following tables will show :
1 He iscoming .present active.
2 The house . is building • present passive.
3 This . is asking (too much) ' is' with the parti-
cipial substantive.
1 He iscome . preterite active.
2 The house . is built preterite passive.
3 He is loved (by all) . present passive.
(e) There is also a progressive form, I am defending, which
may be conjugated throughout. I was defending (imperf.) ;
Ihave been defending ; I had been defending ; I shall be defend-
ing ; I shall have been defending, &c. I had been defending
is the pluperfect of the progressiveform.
(f) In the verbs that can take a present passive of the
form ' is building, the imperfect is 'was building.' These
verbs, which can only be so used in the third person, are the
only verbs that have an imperfect of the passive voice.

§ 26. THE PARTICLES.

183 The difference between a preposition and an adverb is,
that the preposition does not denote any property that
belongs to a thing or notion considered by itself, but merely
the manner in which it depends on some other thing or
notion.

1 The space of time may be of any length : a week, a year,

a century.
184-188.] THE PARTICLES . 55

Prepositions denote such connexions or mutual relations 184

as we consider to belong to notions themselves, not merely
to the mind that joins them together.
Conjunctions, on the other hand, denote such connexions 185
as are formed between notions and the mind that perceives
them and puts them together, contemplating them as true,
or probable, or necessary.
When a word that is usually an adverb is joined to a 186
noun, it should be considered a preposition ; and so a pre-
position, when it stands without a noun, should be reckoned
an adverb. For the difference between a preposition and an
adverb, is a difference in the use and meaning of words, not a
difference in their form; so that the same word should be
considered sometimes as an adverb, and sometimes as a pre-
position.-Hermann, De emendanda, &c. c. 13.

(a) Adverbs.
The simplest adverbs of place are here, there 187
(= in this place, in that place, respectively) ; hither
and thither ( = to this place, to that place) ; hence
and thence ( = from this place, from that place) .
(a) These adverbs, which are demonstrative, have cor-
responding relative and interrogative forms, as given in the
following table.
Correlative Adverbs of Place . 188

Relat. and
Demonst. Obs.
Interrog.

Here The forms beginning

Where
There with h belong to this place,
Hither those with th to that place;
Whither and those that begin with
Thither J
wh are relative, interroga-
Hence tive, and sometimes indefi-
Whence
Thence nite.

(a) The forms for in a place, have almost superseded the

proper forms for to a place. Thus we say : ' Where are you
going ?' ' He is coming here to-morrow,' &c.
D4
 56 THE PARTICLES . [189, 190.
(b) The forms for from a place, though they express by
themselves the relation of motion from, are often preceded by
the preposition: 'from whence,' &c.
(c) These adverbs, with ' then ' and ' when ' for time, have
been called pronominal adverbs; and when compounded with
of, in, by, with,for (writtenfore) after, forth, &c. are equivalent
to pronouns governed by prepositions.
Hereof, thereof; herein, therein, &c.
(d) ' Hence ' and ' thence ' with ' forth ' and 'forward, form
adverbs, not of place, but of time (henceforth, thenceforth ;
henceforward, thenceforward). So here' compounded with
' after,' is an adverb offuture time ; but ' thereafter ' an adverb
ofmanner.

(e) Instead of ' hence,' ' thence, ' whence, we sometimes

find from here, there, where. When ' where' is used with
'from' the preposition generally stands last : ' Where do you
comefrom?'

189 The adverb where is compounded with else,

and the indefinite numerals, any, no, some, with
which it loses its relative and interrogative
character. (Elsewhere, anywhere, nowhere, some-
where.)
(a) The two words are often written separately, just as if
where were a substantive. Perhaps it would be better to do
so ; at all events in the compound adverbial form, ' some
where or other.' So with the adverb of manner, ' some how
or other.' Middleton writes many compounds of every,
any, no, as separate words : any body, every body, no body,
every where.
190
Adverbs of place ending in ward or wards,
signify the direction of motion towards an object,
or in a particular direction. Forward, forwards ;
backward, backwards ; westward ; southward ; up-
wards, downwards.
It is not necessary to enumerate the other adverbs of time
and place, of quality, of limitation and degree, of affirmation
and denial, &c.
191-195.] THE PARTICLES . 57

Many adverbs modify other adverbs : just now, 191

very lightly, &c.
Manyphrases (for instance, substantives governed 192
by prepositions) are quite adverbial in meaning,
denoting simply some circumstance of time, place,
or manner : on this side, on that side ; to the right,
to the left, &c.; of a sudden, at random, at present,
of late, in general, &c .
(a) The adverb ' rather' has two very different meanings :
it sometimes limits a property to a very small degree, and
sometimes expresses preference. ' She is rather pretty.'-
'Will you take that rather than this ?' A few adverbs have
degrees of comparison : as soon, sooner, soonest.

(b) Prepositions.
Prepositions express primarily the relation 193
of place, and also the relations of time and
causality.
(List of Prepositions.) 194
Above before in throughout
about behind into till
across below near until
after beneath next to
against beside nigh unto
between of toward
along
among betwixt } off towards
amongst beyond over under
amid by over-against underneath
amidst down on up
around
round
during upon
save
} with
within
except
at for since without
athwart from through

As several phrases have an adverbial mean- 195

ing, so there are several that have a prepositional
meaning ; e. g. on account of, for the sake of, on this
side, on that side, &c . ' Out of is a compound
preposition.
D5
 58 THE PARTICLES . [196-200.

196 (c) Conjunctions.

Hermann says, that, since adverbs denote some condition
inherent in things, it follows that they can both be understood
by themselves, and can actually stand alone, whenever there
is some notion to which they may be referred ; but such is
the nature of conjunctions, that they cannot be understood
by themselves, but necessarily require to be associated with
some thoughts before their force can be understood. Butt-
mann says, " Any connecting particle should properly be
called a conjunction ; especially when it has on the verb an
influence similar to that of the preposition on the noun, and
requires one of the dependent moods."

(a) The following particles are generally con-

sidered as conjunctions : and, also ; either-or, nei-
ther-nor ; though, although, albeit, yet, still, never-
theless, but, however, for, that, because, since, as, so,
lest, than ; therefore, wherefore, then, else ; if, unless,
except.
197 All relative adverbs, and indeed all relatives,
have a conjunctive force. So have many adverbs
and prepositions, that mark the relation of time ;
such as, before, after, since, till, until, when .
(a) They may be called conjunctional adverbs and pre-
positions, or adverbs and prepositions used conjunctionally.

198 There are many conjunctional forms that " con-

sist of two or more separate, but mutually de-
pendent words." (Rask.) Such are, as well- as ;
not only but (or but also), & c .
199 There are also many phrases, expressive of
time, purpose, &c. which have the force of conjunc-
tions : the moment, the instant ;-in order that, seeing
that, &c.
200 Овѕ.
B
Some of the conjunctions are also adverbs
or prepositions: e. g. then, conjunct. and adv.-
for, conjunct. and prepos. &c.
200.] THE PARTICLES . 59

(2) Horne Tooke is probably right in supposing that all

particles were originally verbs or nouns ; but it does not
follow from this, that they are not distinct parts of speech.
The principle of division for the parts of speech is not origin
or derivation, but use.
(b) The same author supposes two buts, of different use
and origin. In Anglo- Saxon there is a preposition butan
(without, except), and a conjunction butan, which takes the
subjunctive in the sense of unless, the indicative in the sense
of but. (Rask, p. 131.)

D6
 PART II .- ETYMOLOGY .

§ 27. DIVISION OF THE LETTERS .

201 THE English alphabet is very imperfect. With
respect to the vowels, it employs some single
characters to express diphthongs ; and some com-
binations of two vowels, to express simple vowel
sounds.

202 Every simple vowel sound may be pronounced

as either long or short at pleasure.
203 There are three a sounds : the broad, as in
hall (long), folly (short) ; the middle as in father
(long) fathom (short) ; the close or slender, as in
mane (long), of which the e in men gives nearly the
corresponding short sound¹ .
(a) The sound of broad a is also expressed by au, aw, and
o : fault, raw,frost.
(b) The sound of middle a is sometimes, though seldom,
expressed by au, as in laugh : and in the proper name Derby
by e.
(c) The slender sound of a is represented by e in the
alphabet of most other languages. In English it is repre-
sented in several ways : by ai, ay, ea, ei, and e followed by
silente : taint, may, bear, heir, there.
204 There is only one e sound, as in evil (long), and
bed (short.)
1 The remarks on the vowels are from Mitford, "On the
Principles of Harmony in Language."
205-209 .] DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. 61

(a) The long sound is also represented by ee, ea, ie, ei, i,
and e followed by silent e : seen, tear, belief, receive, machine,
scene.

(b) The short sound is represented, not only by short i,

but also by e, and y final ; of which the two last syllables of
enemy give examples.

There is only one o sound : long as in the last, 205

and short as in the first syllable of jocose.
(a) The long sound is also represented by oa, ou, ow, 00 :
load, soul, bowl, door.

There are two u sounds : the close, as in chuse 206

(long), bull (short) ; and the open, as in dull (short),
of which there is no long sound.
(a) The long close sound is also represented by o with
silent e, by oo, ew, oo, ue : move, noose, blew, blue.
(b) The short sound of close u is also represented by oo, ou :
book, could.
(c) The open sound of u, which is always short, is also
represented by o, o with silent e, ou, oo, e and i beforer : son,
done ; rough, young ; blood, err, stir.

I and u are often diphthongs ; that is, they 207

often represent the combination or union of two
vowel sounds.
The concurrence of three vowels (eau, ieu, iew) 208
is sometimes called a triphthong, but absurdly,
because such combinations do not represent a union
or blending of three vowel sounds, which the name
would indicate. They are all pronounced like eu
(beauty, adieu, view) ; but eau, like o in French
words (flambeau).
The following consonants are called mutes : 209
pb

k t (smooth mutes),
g (hard) d (middle mutes) ;
to which may be added c hard, which is equivalent
to k.
 62 DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. [210-212.
(a) Lowth adds q, which is always followed by u; qu
being equivalent to kw (as in queen) ; or to k, in words
borrowed from the French (pique). Ben Jonson speaks of
" This halting q, with her waiting-woman u after her."
(b) C is a useless character, representing sometimes k
(carry), sometimes s (certain) .
210 Mutes are either smooth, middle, or aspirate ;
but the English alphabet has no single character for
the aspirate mutes :
Smooth. Middle. Aspirate.

bgd
p sounds •

P b ph
3
k sounds k2 ch
t sounds t •
th

fand v are nearly related to ph : fgives the sound

of ph without the aspiration ; v is the same sound
pronouncedflatter.
211
L, m, n, r, are called liquids, from theirflowing
or gliding easily into combination with other con-
sonants .

212 The liquids with s, f³, and v, are called by

English grammarians semivowels : the names of all
but v, have the vowel before the consonant.
(a) The p sounds (p, b, f, v) with m, are labial, or lip-
sounds ; the k sounds (k, g hard) palatals, or palate sounds ;
the t sounds (t, d) with l, n, r, and s, linguals or dentals
(tongue or teeth sounds).
(b) H is no consonant, but a mere aspiration. Ch, pro-
nounced as in chemist, is an aspirated mute, the Greek Chi ;
and all the words in which it has this sound are derived from
theGreek .

(c) CH, as in chain, is the sound of tsh.

(d) NG final ( sing), is a simple sound.
(e) " X is a double consonant (cs or ks) ; z seems not to be

2 C hard is the same sound. 3 Ghard: not as in ginger.

4 As in chemist.
5 F should be reckoned a mute.
213-216.] IRREGULAR VERBS . 63

a double consonant in English:-it has the same relation to

s that v has tof, being a thicker and coarser expression of it."
-Lowth .

" Th and share simple consonants, and should 213

be marked by single letters. J, as the English
pronounce it, is a double consonant, and should
have two characters."

" In the following table the seven couple of214

simple consonants differ each from its partner by
no variation whatever of articulation, but singly by
a certain unnoticed and almost imperceptible com-
pression of or near the larynx*."
(sharp) (flat
)
P b
k
gd

g
Without the t d With the
compression. S Z
compression.
th (in thing) . th (in that)
f V

sh j

As we cannot pass from a flat to a sharp with- 215

out altering the conformation of the larynx, the
facility of utterance makes it a rule for all lan-
guages, that if two of these consonants concur,
they will be pronounced as both flats, or both sharps ;
i. e. both with, or both without, the compression of
the larynx '.
(a) Hence in Greek two concurring mutes were of the
same order of breathing ; and Quintilian says, that in obtinuit
the ear heard optinuit.

§ 28. ON THE VERBS USUALLY CALLED

IRREGULAR.

In the Anglo-Saxon, as in all the Gothic 216

6 Horne Tooke, vol. i. p. 93. 7Not a universal rule.
 64 IRREGULAR VERBS . [217-219.

languages, there were two principal ways of forming

the preterites and past participles of verbs.
(1) The first class formed the preterite and past participle
by changing the radical vowel ; and the past participle ended
in en or n.

(2) The second class formed the preterite by the addition

of de or te ; and the past participle ended in d or t.
217 The English language still forms its preterites
and past participles in nearly the same ways :
in some the vowels are changed, and the past parti-
ciple ends in en-these are the oldest and simplest
verbs of the language ; in others the unaccented
syllable ed is added to the verb.
218 It has been usual to call those verbs regular,
which form their preterites and past participles in d
or ed ; and to throw all the others together in one
list of irregular verbs .
This clumsy method of proceeding makes the greater part
of our old Anglo-Saxon verbs irregular. Cobbett, who knew
nothing of the history of the language, and unfortunately
thought that such knowledge was of no use, made it his par-
ticular business to rescue as many verbs as he could from the
heap of these miscalled irregulars ; and many are the strong
genuine English forms, which it pleased him to cashier in
favour of the weak termination ed.

The great grammarian, Grimm, calls the formation of the

preterites and past participles by the addition of ed, the weak
conjugation ; and that by modifying the vowel sound, the
strong conjugation. I prefer, however, to call, with Becker,
the former the modern, and the latter the ancient form of con-
jugation.

(a) Modern Form.

219 In the modern form of conjugation the pre-
terite and past participle are formed, as we have
seen, by adding ed or d to the verb.
(a) In conversation, the e of the weak unaccented syllable
ed is often dropt, so that the word loses its additional syllable,
220, 221.] IRREGULAR VERBS . 65

and the principle given in 215 forces us to pronounce a

t instead of a d. When the e of the termination is dropt, the
d will naturally pass into t after p and sh; after s (when it
has not the sound of z), after x, ch, and ck.
Thus heaped,fished, kissed,fixed, preached, checked, when they
are pronounced as one syllable, must be pronounced heapt,
fisht, kist, fixt, preacht, checkt.
(b) So after the liquids l, m (following a short vowel-sound) ,
and n, it is more natural to us to sound at than a d. Spilt,
dreamt, leant.
(c) Our forefathers spelt these words as they pronounced
them; and it is greatly to be wished (wisht) that we could be
persuaded to return to their more sensible practice. In a
page or two of Milton's prose works, I meet with bedeckt,
fetcht, fixt, stiff-neckt, dampt ; and so in South, and most of
the writers of his day. The title of one of Withers's poems,
" Abuses stript and whipt8."
Many therefore of the verbs usually called 220
irregular, are verbs of the modern form that have
rejected the final d, or turned it into t for the sake
of easier pronunciation.
N.B. In all the lists the verbs in italics have the modern
forms also.
The following in d and t have their preterites 221
and past participles like the present.
Burst9 hit put shed spread
cast hurt rid shred sweat ¹ (intr.)
cost knit set shut thrust
cut let slit split
(a) In this class Lowth puts lift (" I have lift up mine
hand unto the Lord." Gen. xiv. 22.) light, wet, and some
others. Quit may have quit for the perfect.

8 On this subject see the admirable article in Phil. Mag. i. 640.

Even Lowth says : " Verbs ending in ch, ck, p, x, ll, ss, in the past
time active, and the participle perfect or passive, admit the change
of ed into t ; as snatcht, checkt, snapt, mixt."
9 Formerly bursten for partic.
1 " How the drudging goblin swet. "-Milton.
 66 IRREGULAR VERBS . [222-226.
222 The following take t instead of d, and reject
the final d or l. They have all a liquid before their
final consonant (bend, bent).
bend 2 gird send spell
build 3 lend spend spill
gild rend dwell

223 The following reject the final d, but shorten

the vowel sound by changing ee into e ; ea long into
ea short, ore ; 00 into 0.
bleed feed shoot
breed lead(led) | read(read)
224 The following verbs turn the terminative d
into t, and shorten the vowel sounds, as in 223
(keep, kept).
keep creep weep leap
kneel sleep deal learn 4
feel sweep lean mean

OBS. In this list the verbs with ea keep ea (short).

225 By contraction are formed also, cleave (to
split), cleft ; leave, left ; flee, fled ; bereave, bereft ;
lose, lost ; shoe, shod. Lay, pay, and say, make
laid, paid, said.
(6) Ancient Form and Irregular Verbs.
226 (1) forsake foresook forsaken.
shake shook shaken .
take took taken.
(2
) swear 6 swore sworn.
tear6
{ wear 6
tore
wore
torn.
worn.

2 Bended in " with bended knees ." 3 Builded in Bible.

4 Learned when used adjectively.
5 I have not attempted, from want of knowledge, to reduce
these verbs to order and law ; but Lowth's arrangement, which I
have nearly followed, seems better than a merely alphabetical list.
6 Also pret. sware, tare, ware, formerly.
227.] IRREGULAR VERBS . 67

bear ? bōre börn.

break broke broken.
cleave 8 clove cloven.
shear shore shorn.
speak spoke spoken.
steal stole stolen.
weave wove woven .

tread tröd trodden.

(3) bīte bit bitten9.

chide chid 1 chidden.
hide hid 2 hidden.
slide slid slidden .

drōve driven.
(4) drive
arise arose arisen .
rise rose risen.
shrive shrove shriven.
strive strove striven.
thrive throve thriven .

(The t sounds double the consonant in the participle.)

ride rōde ridden.
smite smote smitten.
stride strode stridden3 .
write wrote written.

(5) blow blew4 blown.

grow grew grown.
know knew known.
throw threw thrown.

bid bade 5 bidden do did done 227

choose chose chosen draw drew drawn

7 Bear, to carry, makes borne for its past participle.

8 Cleave , to cling to, has preterite cleaved or clave ; cleave, to split,
has either clove, cloven, or cleft, cleft.
9 Also, bit. 1 Chode in the Bible.
2 Also, partic. hid. 3Also, perf. strid.
+ So shew from show, in South. Wallis gives snow, snew.
5 Also, bid, bid. " He hath bid his guests." Zeph. i. 7.
 68 IRREGULAR VERBS . [228-230.
eat ate eaten lie lay lain 8
fly flew flown6 see saw seen

fall fell fallen seethe 19

sod9 sodden
forget forgot forgotten" sit sat (sitten) sat
freeze froze frozen slay slew slain
get got (gotten) got spit Sspat spitten
give gave given spit spit

hold held (holden)

held

228 Many verbs form the preterite by changing

the vowel of the present, but do not take the pre-
terite in en. These are really irregular.
So-
(1)begin began begun ... drink.
cling [Lclung
clang clung ſring, shrink, sing, sink, slink,
spin, spring, stink, swim.
Aing flung flung dig, slink, sting, string, swing,
stick.

Nearly so-
strike, struck, struck (stricken)
(2) bind bound bound find, grind, wind 1.

229 abide abode abode run ran run

come came come shine shone shone

clothe clad clad stand stood stood

hang hung hung win won won

light lit lit

230
Some form the preterite and past participle
in ought, aught (in Anglo-Saxon, ohte) .

6 Overflown used as part. from overflow, by Bentley, Swift,

&c.
7 Also, forgot.
8 Lie, lay, lain, intrans. lay, lay, laid ; trans. Lie has partic.
lien in the Bible.
9 Also seethed. Also preterite, winded.
231-234.] ON GENDER . 69

bring brought teach taught

buy bought think thought
catch caught seek sought
fight fought work wrought
(a) Fraught from freight is only used in the figurative
sense. Reach used to make raught.
The following take the past participle in en 231
without change of vowel : the preterite being of the
modern form .
grave graven shave shaven
hew hewn shew, or shewn, or
lade laden show } shown }
load loaden sow sown

mow mown strew, or strewn, or

rive riven strow } strown }
saw sawn wax waxen

shape shapen writhe writhen

(a) Besides which we find baken, folden (in the Bible),

washen (in unwashen hands) : molten from melt, and swollen
from swell.

Go, gone, takes perf. went, from to wend. Wot 232

is preterite from wit or wot, the Anglo-Saxon
witan .

The followinghave their preterites of the ancient 233

and past participles of the modern form.
awake awoke awakened
cleave (cling to) clave cleaved
climb clomb 2 climbed
crow crew crowed
dare3 durst dared

§ 29. ON GENDER.
Many words that denote males, have corre- 234
sponding words to denote females of the same
2 Obsolete, except in poetry. * Dare, to challenge, is regular.
 70 PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS. [235-240.

kind : bachelor-spinster ; boy-girl ; buck-doe ;

bull-cow ; bullock-heifer ; boar-sow ; drake-
duck ; friar-nun ; gander-goose ; milter-spawn-
er ; ram-ewe ; sloven-slut ; widower-widow ;
wizard-witch ; with many others.
(a) Many titles are thus distinguished : as king-queen ;
earl-countess, &c.
235 Some feminine appellatives are formed from
the masculine by adding ess ; sometimes the final
syllable of the masculine is thrown away ; some-
times its vowel only.
(a) The terminations tor, ter, become, by rejection of the
vowel tress ; dor, ger, become dress, gress, respectively. In
governor, sorcerer, the terminations are rejected (governess,
sorceress) ; master makes mistress ; duke, marquis, have duchess,
marchioness, respectively.
236 A few masculines in tor which are Latin
words, have corresponding feminine forms in trix
(executor, executrix).
237 The sex is sometimes designated by a word
prefixed ; a cock-sparrow, a hen-sparrow ; a he-goat,
a she-goat, &c.

§ 30. ON THE PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS.

238 The Hebrew words cherub and seraph form the
plural in im (cherubim, seraphim).
239 Words in us (Latin) make the plural in i ; but
the plural of genus is genera.
240 Words in on (Greek) and um (Latin) make
the plural in a, after throwing off the on or um
(phenomenon, phenomena ; arcanum, arcana) .
241-245.] DERIVATION.

Words in is (Greek and Latin) m 71

in es (thesis, theses).
Words in ix, ex (Latin), make the plural241
(vortex, vortices) .
(a) Genius makes plural geniuses, when it means 12
genius. Index, as the index of a book, has indexes. Si
makes stamina.

(b) The sing. a makes plural e : lamina, lamina ; ana

1
minutiæ, of which the sing. is not used.
Words from the French in eau form their 243
plurals in eaux.

§ 31. DERIVATION.
(a) Prefixes .
Some syllables impart the idea of negation, 244
deterioration, opposition, &c. to the words to which
they are prefixed. Among these are un, mis, for,
with.
(a) Un signifies not ; mis " insinuates some errour"
( = ill, wrongly) ; for (the German ver , distinct from vor,
fore) seems to mark opposition ; with marks opposition. For
occurs inforbid,forsake, &c.
(b) When un is prefixed to a present participle, it turns it
into an adjective (unpitying) . Before verbs it denotes the
undoing of what was done : to unbind, &c.

Be usually gives a transitive signification to 245

verbs. To bestride, bemoan, &c.
(a) Out, over, and up, retain their obvious meanings. Over
implies superiority in overcome.

* The German ver marks loss, deterioration, or mistake ; but

sometimes appears to have no effect on the verb, as in ver-
schönern, to embellish.
 AVATION . [246-249.

72
6) Terminations.
Saxon : or Latin) denotes the doer

246 that end in hood and head, ship, dom,

Oss, y, are mostly abstract substantives
24-g a quality, state, condition, or the like.
hood, priesthood, the Godhead, worship (worth-
), friendship, kingdom, wisdom, worth, might,
avery.

(a) Those in ness are abstract nouns formed from ad-

jectives. A final y is changed into i before a syllabic termi-
nation : likelihood, holiness.

(b) The vowel sound of the root is often modified before

th ( length, depth, from long, broad) ; and there is frequently
some further change, in the way of contraction or rejection ;
as mirth, truth, from merry, true.
(c) " Not only in poetry, but also in popular language, the
meanings of words in the abstract and concrete frequently
run one into the other."-Buttmann .

248 Ing denotes the doing of an action, but some-

times the action done : e.g. a whipping.
(a) The Anglo-Saxon lac, which also signified an action,
condition, or quality, remains in wedlock. Rich or rick, and
wick, especially denote dominion or jurisdiction ; bishopric,
bailywick.

249 Ful, ous, y, denote the possession of the pro-

perty expressed by the root.
(a) Adjectives with these endings are generally derived
from substantives.

(b) Before ful, and all syllabic terminations beginning with

a consonant y is changed into i : as plentiful.

5 A few in er, not appended to verbal roots, are not agents :

bolster, fodder.
250-254 .] DERIVATION . 73

(c) Ful is the adjective full. Middleton writes these

adjectives with ll.

Ly (Anglo-Saxon, lic) denotes agreement with, 250

or suitableness to, the notion of the root.
(a) These adjectives were formed by the addition of the
adj . like to a substantive or adjective. Like is still retained
in childlike, &c .

Ish appended to substantives, expresses manner 251

(like ly) ; appended to adjectives, it diminishes the
notion of the root : childish, reddish .
(a) Ish is also the termination of adjectives denoting
country : British, Irish.
(b) When a language possesses two forms, they are soon
discriminated in practice. Thus, childlike refers to the sim-
plicity and innocence, childish to the weakness and folly, of a
child.

En (adj.) denotes especially the material of which 252

a thing is formed : oaken, earthen, &c.
Ern chiefly denotes the regions of the globe : 253
southern, &c .
Ed indicates that a person or thing is furnished 254
or provided with that which is expressed by the
root : horn, horned.
(a) These adjectives resemble past participles, but there is
often no verb to which they can be referred.
(b) This termination is often appended to an adjective and
substantive, or even to two substantives (of which the first is
used adjectively), thus forming a compound adjective. Ten-
der-hearted, pale-faced, pig-headed.
(c) The same termination is added to other combinations :
e. g. " an out-of-humoured, tea-drinking, arithmetic fop."
fashion'd thing that is agree-
Bashfulness is " the only out-of-
able. "-Wycherly, Phil. Mag. ii. 225.
(d) From some of these compound adjectives in ed, are
formed substantives in ness : as stoutheartedness.
E
 74 TERMINATIONS. [255-261 .
255
Ward expresses situation or direction. A for-
ward course ; a southward direction .
256 Ty ' forms tens in numeration.' Twenty, &c.
257 Less implies the absence or want of what the
root expresses. Fearless .
258 Able (properly a Latin termination : see be-
low, 267) from having an English meaning, was
readily received into the language, and used to
form adjectives from our simplest words : as drink-
able. Cudworth uses knowable ; and Chillingworth
knowable, understandable, &c. Tooke, ii. 488.
259 En is the simplest termination of our deriva-
tive verbs : it is appended to nouns and adjec-
tives, and denotes the making or causing what the
root expresses. To frighten ; to quicken .
(a) Several of these verbs have an intransitive meaning (to
grow or become what the root expresses), as well as the
transitive one which usually belongs to verbs of this class.
' The plot thickens.'

260 The terminations of English diminutives are ling,

kin, and ock. Duckling, lambkin, bullock.
(a) Diminutives express diminution, either simply or with
some accessary notion, which is either that of tenderness and
endearment, or that of contempt. See Phil. Mag. i. 679.
(b) Many diminutives, probably of endearment, were
formed from Christian names, and have given rise to various
surnames : Tomkin, Watkin (from Wat or Walter), Dicken,
Hawkin, for Halkin , from Hal, Henry.

Principal Terminations of Words derived from

Latin and Greek.

261 " While the primary words in our language are

almost all Saxon ; the secondary, as they may
262-264 .] TERMINATIONS . 75

be called, are mostly of French, the tertiary of

Latin origin." Phil. Mag. i. 654.
N.B. Œ, æ, ph, rh, ch (hard, as in chemist), and y as a
vowel in any syllable but the last, mark many words that are
formed from the Greek .

Tion, sion, ure (tio, sio, ūra), denote the doing 262
of the action expressed by the root.
(a) But they sometimes express the result of such an
action: the thing done. A fiction, a creature, a fixture.
(6) " Relative has indeed, within my memory, by a
ridiculous affectation of false and unfounded accuracy, crept
forward into improper use, to the exclusion of relation ....
but these petty fopperies will pass away of themselves, and
when the whim is over, we shall all find our relations again,
as safe and sound as ever. "-Tooke, ii. 496.

Ity, ty, ice, cy, nce, tude, mostly denote quality 263
or habit ; the being what the root (an adjective)
expresses . Atrocity, cruelty, avarice, constancy,
elegance.
(a) [These terminations answer to itas, ia, tia, tudo, all
fem.]
Tor, sor, is, as we have seen, the doer of an 264
action ; and tor has a corresponding feminine trix.
(a) Many in or (or our) after some other consonant (that
is not t or s) express qualities.
(b) The Latin nouns in or, end in eur in French ; and
since they come to us from that language, " it will be well to
leave such affectations as honor and favor to the great vulgar
for their cards of invitation. In honorable and favorable, on
the other hand, the u would be an intruder, having no more
business in them than in the second syllables of clamorous
or laborious ; for they are not home-made derivatives, but
were imported ready-formed from France. A like rule, as
has been observed by others, would be the best guide for our
choice, with regard to the use of in or en in compound words ;
that is to say, to write in where a word has come to us imme-
diately from the Latin, en where it has past through the
E2
 76 TERMINATIONS . [265-271 .
French. The same principle may be applied to a great
variety of cases ; and among other advantages of such a
practice would be its supplying us at a glance with a mass of
evidence concerning the history of our language."-Phil.
Mag. i. 648.
265
Ant and ent (adj.) imply doing, and also habit ;
the being what the root requires. Tolerant,
patient.
266 Tive and sive (Lat.), and ic (Greek), denote
a tendency or aptness to do what the root ex-
presses. Detersive, purgative, cathartic.
(a) Ic is also a termination of national names (Gallic) .
(b) Wilkins proposed unwalkative for one who cannot
walk. Tooke, ii. 493. Tooke calls these, Potential Active
Adjectives.

267 Able, ible, denote fitness to be done.

(a) Tooke calls these Potential Passive Adjectives.
(b) But many English adjectives end in ble, that have sim-
ply the meaning of a habit. These come, not from the Latin
bilis, but from the Italian vole (our ful), which the French
turned into ble (as in diable from diavolo). So Tooke, ii.
485.

268 A few less common terminatives are ose,

abounding in (verbose) ; ean (Greek), belonging to
persons (Epicurean, Pythagorean) ; īne belonging
to animals (canine, feline), &c.
269
From adjectives are formed many abstract
substantives.
270 From ant, ent, come substantives in ancy, ency ;
or ance, ence.
271
From adjectives in able, ible, are formed abstract
substantives in ability, ibility ; besides which, we
have many abstracts from the Latin that end in ty,
from the termination tas in that language. Placa-
bility, sensibility.
272-275. ] LATIN PREPOSITIONS, 77

Ize is the termination ofverbs signifying to make 272

or produce the property expressed by the root ; and
also to be or have that property.
(a) This is properly a Greek termination (as in catechize) ,
but is appended to many adjectives that come to us from the
Latin : humanize, &c. with which it signifies to make.

So many words are borrowed from Greek and 273

Latin, that it is necessary to know the meaning of
the prepositions of those languages.
274
(a) Latin prepositions (or prepositional prefixes), as used in
compound words :
Prefixes.
ab, away, from. | per, through, thoroughly ; (with
ad, to. adj. ) very. It sometimes
amb, round; about ; on adds a bad meaning to the
ambi-, both sides. word.
ante, before. post, after.
circum, around. præ, before ; (with adj.) very.
con, with; in some words præter, by.
completely. pro, forth, forwards.
contra, against. re, back, again, away, un- ;
de, down ; away : in some (sometimes very, or forth
words it adds the notion from within.)
of disagreeableness or dete- retro, backwards.
rioration. sē, aside, apart from.
dis, di, asunder ; in different di- sub, under, away from beneath,
rections ; away from ; un-. from below upwards, some-
ex, out of, thoroughly. what.
in, into, on, against : with ad- subter, underneath, away from
jectives, not. underneath.
inter, between, amongst. super, above.
intro, within. trans, across, through, over to
ob, against : sometimes about. the other side.

The final consonant of ad, in, ob, sub, is often 275

changed, by assimilation, into the initial consonant
of the word to which it is prefixed. Annex, affect,
&c .

(a) E or ex becomes efbeforef: con and in become com, im, be-

E3
 78 GREEK PREPOSITIONS . [276.
fore b, m, p. Before noble it becomes ig6. Imbibe, imminent,
imprudent, ignoble.
(b) Trans appears sometimes as tra : traduce.
276
The following are Greek prepositions :
Amphi around, on both sides . Amphitheatre.
..

Anti ... against. Anti- christ, anti-jacobin.

Hyper over, beyond, too. Hypercritical, too critical.
under. Hypothesis (thesis, a placing, that which is
Hypo placed) that which is placed under, to support a
theory ; a supposition.
Meta Sdenotes transposition, change. To metamorphose,
to change the shape.
Para Sby, beyond, against. A paralogism, an argument
against, or contrary to sound reasoning.
Peri . ...round. Periphrasis, a circumlocution.
Syn (by assimilation syl, sym) with, together.
...

(a) Syn is sym before b and p. Sympathy, a suffering

with, fellow-feeling; symbol.
(b) A,-not, without.

6 But this g really belongs to the root of the word, which was
gno, not no.
 APPENDIX .

ON PUNCTUATION.

THE stops used in English books are the comma (,), 277
the semi-colon (; ), the colon (:), the fullstop (.), the
note of interrogation (?), the note of admiration,
better called the note of exclamation (! ), and the
double mark parenthesis [( )] .
(a) Comma means a portion cut off; colon a member (of a
sentence) ; semi-colon, a half-member ; parenthesis a putting
in by the by. These names are from the Greek.
It is of great importance to settle beforehand 278
the principle of punctuation, which should be this :
It is the business of punctuation to divide written
language into such portions as a correct speaker would
divide it into.
(a) " From such traces of the practice of this doctrine as
we find in old manuscripts and old scholia, we discover, that
its fundamental principle was laid inthe natural divisions of
animated delivery, and not in the strict logical succession of
the thoughts."-Buttmann, i. 69.
(b) The principle just laid down will save us from that
perverse mode of punctuation, which attends only to the
grammatical structure of a sentence, and forbids us to sepa-
rate "the subject from the predicate ; the case governed
from the verb that governs it," &c.-Matthiæ's Greek
Grammar, i. 107.
E4
 80 ON PUNCTUATION . [279-282.

(a) The Comma.

279 The purposes for which commas are required for

the convenience of the reader, are principally three :
(1 ) To keep together what should be kept to-
gether ; (2) To prevent the reader from connecting
words that might be, but are not to be, connected ;
(3) To give due prominence to words or phrases, the
force of which would be injured, if they were passed
over too rapidly.
(a) Buttmann remarks, that writers often deprive them-
selves of strong expressions which a speaker would not hesi-
tate to use, by fearing to employ commas for the second of
these purposes.

280 I shall now give Lindley Murray's rules, and

try them by the fundamental principles just given.
[When inverted commas are not used, the rules are
his in substance, but not in words.]
281 " A simple sentence, when it is a long one, and
the nominative case is accompanied with inse-
parable adjuncts, may admit of a pause immediately
before the verb."
(a) This rule agrees with the principle ; that is to say, with
our practice in speaking ; when the mind has fairly taken in
the notion of a complex subject of this kind, it can wait for
what is to be predicated of it. In such cases, to keep the
subject and the predicate each by itself, consults the conve-
nience of the speaker, without making the sentence less
intelligible for the hearer. So Middleton : " The injustice
and barbarity of this censure on all former editors of the
New Testament, will appear ...." &c.
282 " When the connexion of the different parts of a
simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect
phrase, a comma is usually introduced before the
beginning, and at the end of this phrase."
283-285.] ON PUNCTUATION. 81

(a) This seems unnecessary except when we wish to give

prominence to such an insertion, or to guard against its being
improperly connected with some word near it.

When a conjunction is omitted, the words 283

that it would have connected are separated by a
comma ; and when the last of more than two such
words has the conjunction expressed, a comma is
used before that conjunction, as well as between
the other words. " The husband, wife, and chil-
dren." " Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in
prosperity."
(a) When two words or phrases are joined by a conjunc-
tion, a comma is unnecessary ; but it may be inserted when
"the parts connected are not short." " Wisdom and folly."
" She is modest and retired." " Whether we eat or drink. "
" Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and the
vigour of our minds."
(b) The comma seems unnecessary in the last example :
it may be used when the phrases connected are long, and
where there is danger of mis-connecting.
1

The last adjective is not stopt off from its 284

noun, but the last noun is stopt off from its verb.
(a) Middleton observes the first rule but not the second.
" The absolute, immediate, and as it were personal direction of
their affairs." But : "what an odd accident, what a for-
tuitous concourse of atoms gave birth to this mighty work !"
So, the translators of Niebuhr : " Their lamentations, his
mother's threatened curse bent his mind." (ii. 240.) I am
inclined to agree with Murray, except where there is not
meant to be much distinction between the nouns in point of
meaning ; e. g. when the last is a strengthened expression of
the preceding ones.
A noun in apposition to another, " when 285
accompanied with adjuncts," and participles or
1 By stopt off is to be understood, separated by a comma or
commas .

E5
 82 ON PUNCTUATION . [286-289 .

adjectives with dependent words are generally

stopt off.
" The king, approving the plan, put it into execution."
"Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, preached," &c. " But he,
anxious to refer the cause to arbitration, refused," &c.
286
" When a conjunction is divided by a phrase
or sentence from the verb to which it belongs,
such intervening phrase " is usually stopt off.
(a) This will often be unnecessary. " The people, in the
mean time, grew impatient and clamorous for the death of
the pirates, whom all other prætors used to execute as soon as
taken; and knowing the number of them to be great, could not be
satisfied with the few old and decrepit, whom Verres willingly
sacrificed to their vengeance."-Middleton.

287 Vocative cases, &c. are generally stopt off.

" My son, give me thy heart."
288. " The case absolute and the infinitive mood
absolute" are stopt off. " His father dying, he"
&c. " To confess the truth, I was much in fault."
(a) Middleton often uses a semi-colon or colon after what
Murray here calls the infinitive absolute. "But to pursue
the objection of our Catholic; he declares," &c. " But to
pursue his argument a little farther: while the Mosaic
worship," &c.
(b) I would here add that an infinitive clause expressing
the purpose ; and a clause containing a participial substantive
governed by a preposition, and with some dependent words
attached to it, are often stopt off. " Catiline was ready with
his Tuscan army, to take the benefit of the public confusion."
" Thus far however he must be allowed to act like a generous
adversary, in referring the merit of his argument to the
trial of the press. "
289 Simple members of sentences connected by
comparatives (as, than), are generally stopt off,
unless the comparative sentences are short.
"As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so," &c.
290-292 .] ON PUNCTUATION . 83

"Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and

hatred with it." But, " It is better to get wisdom than
gold." " I think as you do."
Words placed in opposition to each other, or290
with some marked variety, are stopt off; but the
comma is better omitted after the last of two pre-
positions, when it stands before a single word.
" Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull."
" Not only in union with, but in opposition to, the views and
conduct of others." " In alliance with, and under the pro-
tection of Rome."
(a) Middleton does not put a comma after the second of
two words that have a phrase dependent upon both . "This
tends rather to confirm than to confute the inference, which I
have drawn from them."

(b) The use of the second comma will depend on whether

the suspension of the voice at that place will, or will not,
assist the hearer, in perceiving that the following words are
dependent upon both the preceding ones.

" A remarkable expression, or a short observa- 291

tion, somewhat in the manner of a quotation,
may be properly " stopt off.
" It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know." "Plu-
tarch calls lying, the vice of slaves."
(a) Here the comma is useful in giving prominence to the
words.

Relative sentences are generally stopt off, 292

except when they are closely connected with the
other sentence, " restraining the general notion of
the antecedent to a particular sense."
(a) Middleton generally stops off a relative sentence how-
ever short, whether restrictive or not. But I agree with
Murray, in thinking that a comma has no business before
the relative, when it is restrictive ; e.g. when the predicate
is only true of the antecedent, as limited by the relative
clause. "A man who is of a detracting spirit, will miscon-
strue the most innocent words."

E6
 84 ON PUNCTUATION . [293--297.
293 A dependent sentence is generally stopt off;
e. g. sentences introduced by how, that, when,
&c .

(a) This should depend on the length of the sentence :

Murray adds, " if the members succeeding each other are
very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary." "Reve-
lation tells us how we may obtain happiness."
294 When an infinitive mood or a sentence is the
subject, but is placed after the verb, it has generally
a comma before it .
"It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade
one another." " The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw
from the company of bad imen." So Middleton : " It is cer-
tain however, that they could have had," &c. But not
always : " The effectual way of ruining a fabric, is to charge
it with a greater load than it was made to bear."
(a) Here again the comma may, or may not be convenient.
295
" Where a verb is understood, a comma may
often be properly introduced."
" From law arises security ; from security, curiosity."
(a) A comma may be useful in such a case ; that is to say,
a suspension of the voice may make a spoken sentence of this
kind more intelligible.

296 The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly,

formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the
contrary, in the next place, in short, and other
words and phrases of the same kind, must generally
be separated from the context by a comma. [This
will often be unnecessary.]

(6) Colon and Semi-colon.

297 The chief use of these stops is, to separate the
members of a compound sentence.
298-300.] ON PUNCTUATION . 85

When a sentence is of such a kind as to require 298

an answering sentence, it is often enough to sepa-
rate them by a comma ; but it is generally better
to use a semi-colon, when the sentences are some-
what long, especially when several commas are em-
ployed in them.
•When you come, I will tell you.' 'When you come to
me bringing a testimonial of good character, from the clergy-
man, or some other respectable inhabitant of your town ;
then I will,' &c.
(a) We should remember as a general rule ; that a semi-
colon may be used instead of a comma, whenever and wherever
a longer pause is required ; i. e. would make the spoken sen-
tence more intelligible.
(b) So too a colon may be used on all such occasions,
when a still longer pause appears desirable. It will be gene-
rally well to employ it, when the subsequent member of a
compound sentence is not required by the construction of
the preceding one ; but contains some " supplemental remark,
or further illustration." But a good deal will depend on the
degree of connexion.
(c) Murray says : "the colon is commonly used when an
example, a quotation, or a speech, is introduced." Mid-
dleton more frequently uses the semi-colon, and often only a
comma .

(c) Notes of Interrogation and Admiration.

The note of interrogation (?) is to be used at the 299
end of all questions that are asked directly ; but not
after indirect or dependent questions .
(a) The translators of Niebuhr use it after independent
questions : " If we ask, who was the gainer by the death of
his great ancestor ? the answer is, the patricians."

The note of exclamation (!) stands after exclama- 300

tions, invocations, and direct addresses .
 86 ON PUNCTUATION . [301-302.

(d) Parenthesis.
301
Murray says a sentence included within a paren-
thesis, " ought to terminate with the same kind
of stop which the member has that precedes it ;
and to contain that stop within the parenthetical
mark." He excepts cases of interrogation and
exclamation.
(a) This stopping within the parenthetical marks is quite
useless. The following examples are from Middleton : "I
have followed Origen, Didymus, and Apollinaris, (who all
certainly hold opinions contrary to each other) in such a
manner, that," &c. " The learned Huetius (in his, &c.....
prefixed to Origen's Commentaries) has collected," &c.
(b) Perhaps the best rule would be to consider the paren-
thetical marks sufficient without any other stop, unless
where it is necessary to intimate, whether the parenthetical
clause belongs to the words that go before or to those that
follow; which may be done by putting a stop before, or after,
the parenthetical remarks.
" The night (it was the middle of summer) was fair and
calm."-Thirlwall's Greece .

" He has by a number of citations (proving what every-

body knew before), shown," &c.
" So says Cicero (as your grace knows), or so he might
have said."

302
(a) It should be remembered that a full stop is
marked after every abbreviated word. " It was
carried nem.con ." " He is an M.P. "

(6) Inverted commas are used to mark quotations.

 SYNTAX.

§i. PREDICATIVE COMBINATION.

EVERY sentence either asserts something ; or asks 303
a question ; or expresses a command or wish.
The person or thing about which something is 301
asserted or asked, is called the subject.
When a command is expressed, the person com- 305
manded is the subject ; when a wish, the person or
thing about which the wish is uttered, is the
subject.
What is said about the subject, is called the 306
predicate, from prædicare (to publish, to say).
Every predicate must be joined to the subject by 307
the verb to be ; or be itself a verb, with or without
some other words .

Where the verb to be is used to join the pre- 308

dicate to the subject, it is called the ' copula, or
link.

The most usual predicates with the verb to be, 309

are adjectives and substantives ; but adverbs, and
prepositions used adverbially, are frequently em-
ployed as predicates.
'The rose is red.' ' He is a barrister.' ' The play is over.'

Substantives governed by prepositions often stand 310

as predicates.
' He is on his guard.' ' She is in good spirits.'
 88 PREDICATIVE COMBINATION . [311-314 .
(a) The adverb ' so ' is often used as a predicate, instead of
some other predicate already mentioned. ' I am in good
spirits, but my brother is not so ' ( = in good spirits).
311 The form of the infinitive passive (which is then
equivalent to the Latin gerundive, or ' participle
in dus') often stands as the predicate, and expresses
(1) what may or can be done, (2) what ought to be
done, or (3) what it is intended to have done.
' The passage is to be found ( = may be found) at the
seventh page.' ' Conscientious scruples are to be treated ( =
ought to be treated) with delicacy.' ' The man is to be
hanged to-morrow ;' i. e. it is settled or intended that the
man should be hanged to-morrow.
312 The form of the infinitive active (which is then
equivalent to a future participle of the active
voice) often stands as a predicate with the verb to
be, and expresses what is proposed or settled to do.
' He is to come to- morrow.' ' I am to look at the horse for him.'

313 The subject is generally a substantive, or substan-

tive-pronoun. But sometimes an infinitive mood,
with or without some dependent words, and some-
times a sentence introduced by the conjunction
' that, or by some interrogative pronoun or adverb,
stands as the subject.
(a) " To err is human ; toforgive, divine." That Cato should
have said this, is incredible.' ' Whether this problem is a pos-
sible one , remains to be seen.' ' Whether he will come, is still
uncertain .'

(b) An adjective (or even adverb) with the is substantivized

(330), and may be the subject. " The rich too often despise
the poor."
(c) The subject, which always stands in the nominative case,
is often called by English Grammarians the nominative case to
the verb.

314 The verb agrees with its nominative case in

number and person.
315-319 .] PREDICATIVE COMBINATION . 89

[By agreeing with is meant being of the same number and

person.]

A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is some- 315

times joined to a plural verb, when what is asserted
is true of the individuals represented by the noun.
(' The council were divided in their opinions.' )
(a) Ifthe statement is true only of the whole body, the verb
must be in the singular. (' Parliament has determined other-
wise.')

When the same predicate refers to two or more 316

subjects, the verb is in the plural.
(a) The verb is sometimes found in the singular, when the
two subjects may be considered as forming one complex no-
tion. The assumption and dogmatism of this sect was little
likely to satisfy such an inquirer.'
After couple, dozen, score, &c. the verb must be in the 317
plural; but after pair in the singular.

When the verb to be is itself the predicate, it 318

takes the adverb ' there,' and stands before its sub-
ject.
(a) In this case it expresses existence, and is not merely a
copula to join the predicate to the subject. " There is no such
thing as a unicorn " ( = no such thing as a unicorn exists) .
(b) The adverb ' there ' may be used with other verbs : it
is convenient to use it in this way, when we wish the nomi-
native case to stand after its verb, that it may be better con-
nected with a clause that modifies it. " There followed him
great multitudes."

When an infinitive mood, or a sentence, is the 319

nominative case to a verb, it generally follows it,
the pronoun ' it' standing as its representative
before the verb.
'It is easy to deceive a child' ( = to deceive a child
iseasy).
 90 PREDICATIVE COMBINATION. [320-325.
320 When the infinitive has a subject of its own it is
१
preceded by 'for.'
' It is hard for a poor man to have the necessaries of life
highly taxed ' ( = that a poor man should have the necessa-
ries of life highly taxed, is hard).
321
An important use of the construction explained
in 319, is to give emphasis to whatever word or
phrase we wish to be emphatic.
' The freedom of the city was not, however, bestowed only
on individuals.' If we wish the emphasis to be on ' indivi-
duals,' it must be : ' It was not, however, only on individuals,
that the freedom of the city was bestowed.'
: [Hence, when the emphasis in Latin or Greek is upon an
oblique case, this idiom must be employed.]
322 ' It ' stands as the nominative to the verb in
phrases descriptive of the weather.
Instead of ' the night is dark,' we generally say : ' it is a
dark night.'

323 The personal form ' it is,' may also be used to

give emphasis, where it is desired, when the nomi-
native case is a noun or pronoun; and it may be
followed by a plural verb .
'They have done all the mischief.' ' It is they who have
done all the mischief.'

324 So a noun of time is used in the plural after

it is .
'It is now six weeks since he left me.'

(a) " It is odds, that Ibycus is not a patriot." The collo-

quial phrase, ' it is odds,' is equivalent to, ' is a case in which
one would bet odds.'

325
Verbs ofbecoming, turning out, &c.: passive verbs
of calling, appointing, making, considering, think-
ing, take a substantive or adjective (in thenom. case)
to form the predicate with them. (Compare 375.)
326, 327.] PREDICATIVE COMBINATION . 91

' He will turn out a villain.' ' He becomes more and more
troublesome every day.' ' He is called Peter.' ' He was ap-
pointed commander in chief.' ' He was chosen king.'
(a) The verbs that take a predicate in the nominative, are
contained in the following lines :
Undermaking are
Verbs of becoming, being, seeming, included elect-

And passive verbs of making, calling, deeming. ing,appointing,

& c.

(b) A verb of designation, choice, &c. in the

passive voice, is a strengthened copula, being
used to join the predicate to the verb, but
with the addition of some notion which forms
part of the predicate.
•He is chosen general ' = ' He is (by election) general.'
He is thought weak ' ' He is ( in the opinion ofmany) weak .' ..
(c) Theseverbs may therefore be called copu-
lative verbs, from the resemblance of their use
to that of the copula.
(d) They are sometimes called apposition-
verbs ; the second nominative standing in a
sort of apposition (see 338) to the first.
[Compare 375.]
Many English verbs take an adjective with them 326
to form the predicate, where an adverb would be
6
used in other languages. He fell ill ;' ' he looks
pale ;' ' he feels cold ;' ' he grew warm ."
(a) In such phrases as ' to go unfurnished ;
' to stand open ;' ' here lies the difficulty ;' ' to
grow wiser, &c . the verbs are equivalent to a
strengthened copula.
(b) In ' to be sent ambassador, &c. as may be
understood.
The subject follows the verb in questions and 327
exclamatory sentences ; after ' nor,' ' neither,' &c.,
and whenever the predicative adjective stands first.
' What think you ?"-' Neither will he come.' ' Nor did he
say so.' " Great is Diana of the Ephesians."
 92 PREDICATIVE COMBINATION . [328-330.

(a) Ifthe verb is of acompound tense, the nomi-

native case comes between the auxiliary and the
verb . " Is he dressed ? " " Nor will he do it ?"
(6) The verb stands before the subject when
' if' is omitted, and also not unfrequently in the
consequent clause of a conditional proposition.
'Had you told me this before, it would have made a great
difference.' ' If that had happened, then had all been lost.'
328 The participial substantive (of the present active
form) with no is found as the subject to ' there is '
(which it always follows) , and signifies what can-
not be done.
' There is no bearing your impertinence ' = no bearing your
impertinence exists (as a possible thing) .
329
(a) The verb is sometimes omitted, especially
in some interrogatory and exclamatory forms.
What, if he should refuse ?' i. e. what would happen if,
&c . ? " Hard indeed, not to allow me capable of translating
even Latin." " But no matter for that, if they hit men's tem-
pers, and suit their apprehensions, 'tis just the same we see
to this pious observator."
(b) The subject is omitted after imperative
verbs ' speak ' ( = speak thou, or you) : and in
some other cases e. g. before as follows ( = as it
follows) ; as concerns myself, &c.
330 Any part of speech may be used to express the
notion it conveys, as a substantive ; in other words,
may be used substantively.
' Once is too often.' ' Red and green are different colours.'
' Over is not under.' ' Ah ! is an exclamation .'
(a) An adjective is always used substantively when it
stands alone with the definite article.

' The good' = good men.

' The sublime ' = sublimity, in the abstract.
(6) Even a compound phrase may be used
substantively. " From infancy to manhood is
rather a tedious period¹."
1 Cowper, vol. xv. p. 85 (Southey's ed.).
331-335.] ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATION. 93

(Simple Interrogative Sentences .)

Simple interrogative sentences are of two kinds : 331
questionsfor information, and rhetorical questions,
or questions of appeal.
(a) In a rhetorical question, or question of
appeal, the speaker does not need information,
but implies that theperson or persons he is ad-
dressing must agree with him in opinion.
In questions of appeal, a question put positively 332
expects a negative answer, and vice versa. Thus :
'Is pleasure to be pursued at the expense of
health ?" expects the answer ' No ;' and is there-
fore equivalent to ' Pleasure is not to be pursued at
the expense of health ?" ' Is not the reward great?"
implies that the reward is great. Hence,-
To turn a question for assent into an affirmative 333
sentence, if the question has a negative we must
reject it ; if it has not, we must insert one.

§ii . ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATION.

Any notion added to a substantive for the pur- 334
pose of describing it more exactly, but not asserted
of it in theform ofa sentence, is said to be joined to
it attributively2.
Any word or phrase that is capable of being 335
used predicatively with the verb to be, may be used
attributively.
(a) Thus an attributive may be an adjective,

2 A predicative combination (or sentence) expresses one thought :

an attributive combination, on the other hand, expresses one
notion only. (Becker.)
 94 ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATION. [336-340.

a participle, a pronoun, a substantive in appo-

sition (see 338), a substantive in the genitive
case, a substantive governed by a preposition,
and even sometimes an adverb .
(' A red house.' ' Running water.' ' This book.' ' William
the Conqueror.' ' The boy's father.' ' A leg of mutton.' ' The
under side.')

336 From our having so few terminations, the posi-

tion of words in a sentence admits of hardly any
variation. Thus a word or phrase standing imme-
diately before a substantive, is felt to be equivalent
to an adjective modifying it ; and hence we are able
to use another noun or almost any short phrase
adjectively.
'A gold ring.' ' A barn door.' ' The marriage act.' ' An
off-hand manner.' ' Last Tuesday night.'
(a) This is a valuable idiom. How much
more compact is ' the marriage act,' than ' the
act for regulating marriages.'
(b) A Savings Bank ' is a Bank for the Savings of the
Poor. It is quite unnecessary to write " Savings' Bank," as
some people do.

337 There is very little difference in use between the

genitive case and an adjective, when the genitive
case is used to modify the notion of a noun ; i. e.
used attributively.
' Cæsar's party ' = the Cæsarian party.
338 When one substantive is put in the same case
with anotherfor the purpose of defining it more ex-
actly, it is said tobe in apposition to that substantive.
339 Substantives in apposition are, by the definition,
in the same case. Maia, the daughter of Atlas .'
Apersonal-pronoun may have a substantive in appo-
sition : ' I Themistocles,' &c .
340
Though the name of a river stands in appo-
sition to the generic term river ( ' the river
341 , 342.] ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATION. 95

Thames') , the names of towns and islands follow

their generic terms under the government of the
preposition ' of.' ' The city ofRome ;' ' the island
of Malta.'
A substantive often stands in apposition to a 341
sentence . " The weather forbids walking ; a pro-
hibition hurtful to us both." (Cowper.)
When the genitive marking possession follows 342
the noun to which it belongs, it is joined to it by
the preposition of; thus giving the appearance ofa
double genitive to those who call the case with ofa
genitive.
" A picture ofthe king's."
(a) This is generally explained to mean a
picture of the king's pictures. " I confess, how-
ever, that I have some doubt whether this
phrase is indeed to be regarded as elliptical. It
has sometimes struck me that this may be a
relic of the old practice of using the genitive
after nouns as well as before them, only with
the insertion of the preposition of. Else it may
be that we put the genitive after the noun in
such cases, in order to express those relations
which are most appropriately expressed by the
genitive preceding it. A picture of the king is
something very different from the king's picture :
and so many other relations are designated by
ofwith the objective noun, that, if we want to
denote possession thereby, it leaves an am-
biguity: so, for this purpose, when we want to
subjoin the name of the possessor to the thing
possest, we have recourse to the genitive, by
prefixing which we are wont to express the
same idea. At all events as, if we were askt
whose castle Alnwick is, we should answer, the
Duke of Northumberland's, so we should also
 96 ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATION . [343-345.
say, what a grand castle that is of the Duke of
Northumberland's ! without at all taking into
account whether he had other castles besides :
and our expression would be equally appro-
priate whether he had or not ."
(b) On this I would observe, that the form would not be
equally appropriate, if the notion of the person's having
more than one were inadmissible. ' I met a cousin of yours
abroad,' would be right; but ' I met a wife ofyours,' would be
wrong.

343 One attributive word or phrase may often be

expressed by another.
' The royal authority ' = the king's authority. A wooden
box ' = a box of wood.

(a) As no two languages exactly agree, it will often be

necessary, in translating from one language into another, to
translate an adjective by the genitive of a noun, or a noun
governed by a preposition ; and conversely.
344 The genitive often stands alone by an omission
of-house, palace, church, shop, &c.
" I am going to St. Paul's, and afterwards to St. James's.
shall call at Rivingtons' on my way."
(a) Though we may say ' at Johnson the bookseller's ; yet
" if the explanatory term be complex, or if there are more
explanatory terms than one, the sign of the genitive must be
affixed to the name or first substantive ; thus, ' I left the book
at Johnson's, a respectable bookseller, a worthy man, and an old
friend. "-Crombie.

345 When one notion is thus joined attributively to

another, an assertion is assumed which may be
more formally expressed by a relative sentence,
whenever it is convenient or necessary to do so.
'Honesty, the best policy ' = which is the best policy.

3 Phil. Mag. ii. 261 .

346-348 .] ATTRIBUTIVE COMBINATION . 97

The attributive adjective, participle, or pronoun 346

agrees with its substantive in case, gender, and
number.

(a) This is a law ofuniversal grammar, though

in English it is only perceptible in the case of
demonstrative pronouns.
This man : these men . That boy : those boys.

(b) Kind, sort, &c. are singular, and must

have singular pronouns ; though as nouns of
multitude they may have plural verbs. This
kind of potatoes.'
(c) Such expressions as ' a rogue of a lawyer,' ' a rascal of 6

an attorney,' &c. are equivalent to a roguish lawyer,' a

rascally attorney.' [So in French ; un fripon de valet, &c. ]

(d) The singular word ' every ' stands with
a plural word of time in such phrases as ' every
three years ' = ' at the end of each third year ;'
or ' once in each third year.'
' In every three words he named and threatened me.'

Attributive Genitive. Preposition ' of.'

A substantive in the genitive case, or under the 347
government of the preposition of,' is said to be in
the genitive relation, when it is joined to a substan-
tive attributively.
The different kinds of (attributive) genitive rela- 348
tions are-
( 1 ) The relation of the possessor to the thing possessed. ( The
king's crown ; the poet's garden ; the crown of the king.)
(2) The relation of an agent to an action or effect. (Solomon's
temple the temple built by Solomon. A bird's nest =
a nest built by a bird. The march ofan army.)
(3) The mutual relation of persons. (My brother's servant ;
the girl's father, &c.)
F
 98 OBJECTIVE COMBINATION. [349-352 .
(4) The relation of a whole to its parts (partitive genitive).
(The roof of a house ; the wheels of a carriage.)
(5) The relation of a quality to a person or thing. (A man
ofgreat talents ; a man of honour. )
(6) The relation of a substance or material to something made
of it. (A rod ofiron.)
The genitive formed by inflexion is generally used to
express the relation of the possessor ; and, sometimes, to
express the relation of the agent to an action or effect, and
the mutual relation of persons.

349 A substantive stands in the objective (or active)

genitive relation, when it expresses the object of
some feeling or action.
Thus, the love of our country ; the perusal of books ; the
desire ofpraise, &c.
= the injuries done by
them. (subjective
The injuries ofthe Helvetii gen.)
= the injuries done to
them. (obj. gen.)
350 Various other prepositions are in English used
to connect substantives attributively.
An enemy to his country.' ' A friend to the cause.'
' Milkfor babes.' ' The man in the moon.'
(b) Such relations are frequently not expressed attributively
in other languages, but by relative or participial clauses.
Thus ' milk for babes ' = such milk as is suited for babes,
&c.

§ iii. Objective Combination.

351 The object in grammar is the noun that repre-
sents that which is immediately affected by the
action denoted by the transitive verb ; i.e. ' the ac-
cusative case after the verb.'
352 But every notion referred to a verb or adjective,
in whatever form it be expressed, is to be consi-
dered as an objective factor. (Becker.)
 353-357.] OBJECTIVE COMBINATION. 99

'He will come to-morrow.' ' He will stay at home.' ' He

works hard.' ' Inflamed with anger.' ' Grievously mistaken.'
The accusative after the active verb becomes the 353
nominative before the passive verb.
The nominative before the active verb is joined 354
to the passive verb by the preposition by.
' Cæsar conquered Pompey at Pharsalia.'
'Pompey was conquered by Cæsar at Pharsalia.'

A verb with its accusative case is often equiva- 355

lent to a single verb. Thus, to end = toput an end
(to). To assist = to afford assistance (to).
The passive verb does not take an accusative 356
case after it ; but in English there are two im-
portant exceptions to this rule :
(1) When a verb with its accusative case is
equivalent to a single verb (355), it may take
this accusative after it in the passive voice.
This has been put an end to.'
(2) " Verbs signifying to ask, teach, offer,
promise, pay, tell, allow, deny, and some others
of like signification, are sometimes, especially in
colloquial language, followed inthe passive by
an objective case." (Crombie.)
' They are allowed sixpence a day.' ' I was offered a lucra-
tive situation.'

(3) Manypassive verbs are followed by an

Infinitive, which must be considered as an ob-
jective case.
'I am permitted to go;' ' allowed to do it;' ' exhorted to
do it,' &c . See 362.

Prepositions are often used objectively with in- 357

transitive verbs, which then become transitive in
meaning, and may be used in the passive voice.
F2
 100 OBJECTIVE COMBINATION. [358-362.
(a) In most languages the preposition is prefixed to the
verb, so as to form a part of it, as it is in some English com-
pounds, to uphold, to overthrow, &c.
(b) " To cast is to throw ; but to cast up, or compute, an
account is quite a different thing : thus to fall on, to bear out,
togive over." Lowth.
(c) We may observe that in some of these verbs the fol-
lowing noun appears to be strictly under the government of
the preposition ; in others not. Him may be considered as
governed by at, in to laugh at him ; but account cannot well
be supposed under the government of up, in to cast up an
account.

358 Intransitive verbs may take an accusative case of

the substantive, denoting the meaning of the verb
in the abstract.
To sleep a sound sleep.'
(a) This rule holds good of other nouns that express some
kind of the action or state denoted by the verb. ' To run a
race.' [ This is called: ' the accusative of kindred significa-
tion.']
359 In nearly the same way a transitive verb often takes an accusa-
tive case of this kind. To strike a severe blow.' ' To fight a good
fight.'
360 A transitive verb may thus take two accusatives ; one of the
object, and one of the kind of action or state.
' He struck him a severe blow.'

Infinitive Mood.
361
The infinitive mood is joined objectively to many
verbs, participles, adjectives, and substantives.
' I desire to please all reasonable men.'
' Desiring to please, & c. ' Desirous to please, &c.
' My desire to please,' &c .
362 The verbs that are followed by an infinitive
objectively, are such as express feelings, powers, or
operations of the mind ; or some simple action,
state, or endeavour, proceeding from the will or the
understanding.
363-365.] OBJECTIVE COMBINATION. 101

(a) Such verbs are ( 1 ) to be willing ; to wish, desire, strive,

endeavour, seek ; resolve, determine, design, purpose, intend, un-
dertake, venture, dare ; to demand, require, request, command,
persuade, incite, encourage, admonish , warn, exhort ; to let, per-
mit, allow, grant, promise, vouchsafe ;-together with their
opposites , to forbid, refuse, hesitate, delay, & c . ( 2) to believe,
think, suppose , & c. (3) to be able ; to understand ; to know, to
bear, suffer, endure ; to cause, make, & c. ( 4) to learn, teach,
&c. (5) to rejoice, grieve, am glad, am sorry, &c.
The manner in which the infinitive is used must be carefully 363
attended to. I wish to learn.' Here to learn is the infinitive after
' I wish.' ' I read to learn.' Here to learn is the infinitive ex-
pressing the purpose.
Some of the verbs that are immediately followed 364
by an infinitive when the subject is the same, are
followed by the accusative and infinitive when the
subject is different.
' I wish to go.' ' I wish him to go ' ( = I wish that he
should go).
(a) But many of the verbs enumerated in 365
362, are never followed by the infinitive with-
out an accusative, except in the passive voice.
' I advised him to do it.' ' I ordered him to do it.' ' I asked
him to do it.' ' I permitted him to do it.' ' I persuaded him
to do it.'
But passively-I am advised, asked, persuaded, &c. to
do it.

(6) The following classes of verbs are followed

by the accusative and infinitive.
(a) To cause, to make, to have, to suffer, to allow, to permit,
to bid, to order.
(b) To beg, to desire, to wish, to want.
(c) To see, tofeel, to hear, to observe, to perceive, to discover,
to know, to find, to remember, to suspect, to imagine, to believe.
(d) To show, to discover, to prove, to allow, to demonstrate,
to deny, to hold, to take, to think.
F3
 102 OBJECTIVE COMBINATION. [366-370.

366 In this construction the accusative may be con-

sidered as both the object to the finite verb and the
subject to the infinitive mood.
367 (a) The Infinitive may then be resolved into
a sentence. Thus : ' I exhorted him to do it ' = I
exhorted him, (in order) that he might do it.-
Becker considers such Infinitives (and also
Participles and Participial substantives when
they may be expanded in a similar way) ,
abridged accessory sentences. For the term ' ac-
cessory sentence,' see 403.
(6) Even after some of those which are fol-
lowed immediately by the Infinitive, it must be
considered an abridged sentence. Thus : We
all desire to have our share of &c .' =we all
desire that we may have &c. We profess to be
lovers of justice, &c.' = we profess that we are
&c. Hence in other languages we shall often
find that the corresponding verbs are followed
by accessory sentences .
368 The ' to ' of the infinitive is dropt after the verbs of mood, and
bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let.
(a) The ' to ' is also dropt in the phrase ' to do nothing but,'
&c. He does nothing but complain.'
369 ' Would have ' followed by an infinitive (the ' to '
being often omitted) means would wish, would
make, &c .
' Are these your grand theories, to which you would have
heaven and earth to bend ?"

370 To be sure = ' certainly,' ' indeed,' ' I allow :' often with some-
thing of irony. " There is nothing agreeable, to be sure, in being
chronicled for a dunce."

3 Thus the English infinitive after ask, command, advise, strive,

&c. is translated in Latin by ut with an accessory sentence.
371-375.] оBJECTIVE COMBINATION. 103

The Present Infinitive of the active voice, stand- 371

ing as the accusative after have expresses a duty,
or task, or necessity : what is to be, or must be done.
' I have to work hard for my bread.'
The Infinitive passive standing as the accusative 372
after have expresses what remains to be done, or is
to be done.
'A good deal has yet to be done to it.'
When an Infinitive clause stands as the accusa- 373
tive to a verb, the pronoun ' it ' is often placed im-
mediately after the verb, and the Infinitive placed in
apposition to it. [The Infinitive may here too be
considered an abridged sentence. See (a) .]
" I found it to no purpose to lay much stress on those texts
that are usually alledged on the occasion." ( Middleton.)
(a) ' It ' (whether nom. or acc.) may be used in the same
way, as the representative of a sentence introduced by ' that.'
" I lay it down as a fundamental principle, that in a
republican government, which has a democratical basis, the rich
require an additional security beyond what is necessary to them
in monarchies." (Burke.) " It may be considered a funda-
mental principle, that &c.
(For the Infinitive of purpose, see 422.)

Copulative (or Apposition) Verbs.

A substantive or adjective is used objectively 374
in the accusative, with the active voice of such
verbs as to call, appoint, make, consider, think,
&c.
' They call him a hero.' ' They chose Marius general.
(a) Also ' to consider a man as a hypocrite :' to choose
such a onefor their general.'
It thus appears that the verbs to make, to 375
render, to appoint, to elect, to think, to consider, are
(in this use of them) incompletepredicates, requiring
a nominative, if they are in the passive voice (see
F4
 104 OBJECTIVE COMBINATION. [376-378.
325), and a second accusative, if they are in the
active voice, to complete their predication. This
second nom. or acc. may be called ' the Complement
of the Predicate .'
376 Also some verbs that involve the notion of making.
a thing, together with the proper notion of the
verb, take a predicate of this kind.
' He painted the door green.' ' The door was painted
green ' ( = was made green by painting). ' To shut one's eyes
close.' And so with other predicates : ' to run myself out of
breath.'

Relations of the Cases.- Objective Genitive Relations.

377 The following objective relations expressed by ' of,'
may be considered genitive relations :
(1) Substantive expressing the whole after partitives.
(a) The partitive genitive follows numerals, both definite
and indefinite, comparatives, superlatives, &c.
' Some of them ;' ' few of them;' ' the taller of the two ;'
' the most learned of the Greek orators .'

(2) The supplementary notion of various adjectives; especially

of such as form no complete notion without the mention
of an object.
(Such adjectives are mindful, desirous, certain, guilty,
fearful, conscious, &c. )
(3) The charge of which a man is accused or acquitted.
(4) That of which a man is ashamed or repents.
(5) That of which a man is deprived or a vessel emptied.
(The last of these relations is, however, expressed by the
ablative in Latin.)
378 (Other relations expressed by ' of.')
(1) Of about, concerning.
(To think of; to boast of; to complain of; to persuade a
man of, &c.)
(2) Of =from (especially after notions of extricating).
 379-382.] оBJECTIVE COMBINATION. 105

(To ask a favour ofa man ; to rid oneself of; to wean one-
self of; to cure a man of, &c.)
(3) Causal relation *.
(To die of hunger ; to be weary of; to be sick of; proud
of, &c.)

Dative Relations. Prepositions ' to,' 'for.'

' To ' is generally used to express the rela- 379
tions which other languages express by the dative
case.

The following relations expressed by ' to ' may be considered 380

dative relations :

(a) The person to whom the action is done, after transitive

verbs which take an accusative of the suffering object.
(Such verbs are tell, bring, give, offer, lend, send, reach
show, dedicate, promise, &c.)
(b) The person to whom, or thing to which, after adjectives :
denoting agreeableness, likeness, contrariety, hurtfulness, &c.
' To ' after verbs of motion does not express a dative relation. 381
(a) But after ' bring,' ' send,' the ' to ' may be considered as
expressing a dative relation, when the person to whom a thing
is brought or sent is the person for whose benefit the action
was intended.

(b) In this case the ' to ' may be omitted. ' I have sent
you the book ;' but we cannot say ' I have sent them (= to
them) for the book.'
After many verbs the preposition ' to ' is omitted, and thus the 382
verb appears to govern two accusatives.
' Lend me the stick ' ( = to me) ; ' give me the ball '
(= to me) .
* Language conceives and represents every causation as a
motion. The relation of an object which is conceived as a cause,
properly so called, corresponds to the direction from ; whereas, on
the contrary, the relation of an object conceived as suffering the
action, or as an effect or purpose, corresponds to the direction
towards. The direction from is represented by the genitive ( in
Latin) and ablative cases, and by of, from ; the direction towards
by the accusative, and by to, into,for. (Becker.)
F5
 106 OBJECTIVE COMBINATION . [383-386.
383 Soafter the adjective ' like,' the preposition ' to' is omitted.
' He is like his brother.'

384 The preposition ' to ' also denotes :

(1) That with respect to which an assertion is to be under-
stood.

' Sharp to the taste ;' ' deaf to his prayers ;' ' our duty to
our neighbour ' ( = towards).
(2) The point up to which a thing is carried.
'They were to the number of 300 horse.' 'One crow's
nest is like another's to the laying of a stick.' 'Theyare
the same to all intents and purposes.'
(3) The second term of a proportion or comparison.
' They are as ten to one.' ' She is nothing to him.'
(4) The effect or consequence of an act.
'It must be confessed, to the reproach of our country,
that-& c.'

385 Aword under the government of 'for ' is also considered to be in

the dative relation, when it expresses the person to whose satisfaction
or advantage, displeasure or disadvantage, the action is done, or the
thing exists.
(' He made it for me.' ' No roses are blooming for us.'
' He is singing for you.' ' The shoe is too tight for me. ')
(a) The 'for' is sometimes omitted.
' He has made me a shoe ' ( =for me) . ' I will sing
you a song ' ( = for you).
386 ' For' often expresses a cause or motive (for pity, for shame-
eyes sparkling for very wrath : to be sorry for), especially a pre-
ventive cause, generally after negative words (' I could not see him
for the crowd. ' ' I shall do it for all that.' So ' but for that, and
' were it not for,' which express a cause, without which any thing
would, or would not, have been done): the purpose, object, or use
(good for, fit for, to ask for, to serve for, to long for, to wish for) :
substitution, exchange, price ( ' to translate wordfor word ;' ' to give
silver for gold;' ' to buy a thing for so much '). It is often re-
strictive (' I will do it for once ;' 'for this time ;' 'for me ; ' ' for
my part. ' ' This is a good exercisefor so young a boy,' &c.). With
the Participial Substantive, ' to befor ' expresses inclination (' He
wasfor stopping the proceedings ' ).
387-392.] OBJECTIVE COMBINATION. 107

' To take a man for a simpleton ' = to consider him a

simpleton.

Ablative Relations. With, by, &c.

The principal ablative relations are the relations of cause, of387
manner, and ofthe instrument with which an action is done.
(a) Hence the prepositions from, in, with, &c. frequently
denote ablative relations.

(' They proceeded in silence ;' ' he sings from vanity ;'
'he judgesfrom experience ;' ' he was scourged with rods.'
OBS. ' With,' when it denotes companionship ( = together with ; 388
in company with), does not express an ablative relation.
'With ' sometimes stands in an adversative relation to the prin- 389
cipal sentence, and is equivalent to for, notwithstanding, or to an
accessory sentence introduced by though. It is then followed by
' all,' ' no,' ' no more,' &c.
' He is a great bear with all his learning and pene-
tration ' = ' though he possesses great learning and penetration,
he is a great bear.'
(a) With that she told me,' &c. = ' upon that,' &c. de-
noting any thing immediately followed by an action.
(On some particular uses of other Prepositions.)
'Against ' sometimes denotes the time ' by ' which a thing is to 390
be done; generally when the time so mentioned is the occasion for
which the thing is wanted.
'At' stands in the relation of the cause after to be angry, rejoice, 391
&c. It also stands, like on, with, before a cause or occasion that is
immediately followed by an event (' at this news, he dies ;' ' at this,
he turns'). It denotes the being in a particular state ( ' at peace,' ' at
ease,' ' at a loss '-' to be taken at a disadvantage') . With Super-
latives it is equivalent to a sentence introduced by even when or if.
(" Life is short at the longest, and unquiet at the best.")
' By' often marks the time before which something is to be done 392
(' it will be finished by to-morrow') ; an external mark by which a
judgement is formed (' I know him by his coat ') ; with the plural of
a substantive, or between the singular repeated, it has a distributive
force (' piece by piece,' ' limb by limb;' ' they carried it away by
pieces,' &c.) ; ' to do a thing by halves,' is to do it half at one time
and half at another, instead of finishing it at once. To know by
heart,' is to be able to repeat a thing from memory.
F6
 108 OBJECTIVE COMBINATION . [393-398 .
(a) After Comparatives and Superlatives the preposition
' by' may be considered omitted before words denoting the
degree of excess or defect.
' Much greater ' = greater by much .
' A thousand times greater ' = greater by a thousand
times.
393 ' From ' often denotes a cause. ( To actfrom prejudice.' )
394 ' Into.' Many verbs are used with ' into,' to denote the bringing
a person or thing into some state by the action which the verb
denotes . ( He fooled himself into irrecoverable misery.' ' A man
cannot think himself into Atheism .' ' He tired her into compliance.'
' He had cultivated it into a profitable business.' )
395 ' On ' is frequently used to express an event that has some imme-
diate consequence, especially with demonstrative pronouns. (' On
this, he went away.' ' On the receipt of these letters, the senate
decreed,' & c.)
Space and Time.
396 The measure of time and space is put in the
accusative case .
' That was last year.' ' I am to go to Cambridge next Octo-
ber.' ' He came yesterday.' ' He lived in Italy three years.'
' Stamford is eighty-nine miles from London.' ' The cloth is
four yards wide.'
397 With morning, evening, &c. the preposition ' in' is used; and
many other words denoting time must be governed by the prepo-
sitions ' at,' ' on,' &c. ( ' At sunrise,' ' at twelve o'clock,' &c.; ' on
Wednesday.')
(a) He goes to church every Sunday. But indefinitely ;
' he goes to church on Sundays.'
(b) It will be seen that both a point of time (' he came yes-
terday ' ) and duration of time (' he lived here two years ' ) are
put in the accusative.
398 The phrase so many years old, is sometimes
put under the government of a preposition. " From
a month old to five years old .” " An heifer of
69
three years old " "

5 Lev. xxvii. 6. 6 Isa. xv. 5.

399-401 .] OBJECTIVE COMBINATION . 109

(a) To be turned (seven),' &c. is an idiom-

atical expression for having completed the age
of seven years.

(A Sentence.)

(1) From what has been said, it appears that 399

every sentence must contain a subject and a pre-
dicate ; in other words, a nominative and a verb.
(2) Again, every substantive in the sentence
may have aword or phrase joined to it attri-
butively.
(3) Lastly, the verb and every adjective in
the sentence may have one or more notions
made dependent upon it ; i. e. joined to it
objectively.
400
To take an example :
' Henry wrote.' [Add an object to the pre-
dicate.] Henry wrote a letter.' [Add a no-
tion attributively to both substantives.] ' The
anxious Henry wrote a long letter.' [Add no-
tions objectively to both adjectives.] Henry,
anxious to hear from him, wrote a very long
letter.' [Add a notion objectively to the verb.]
' Henry, anxious to hear from him, immediately
wrote a very long letter.' [Add another no-
tion to the verb objectively, and another to the
substantive attributively.] ' His cousin Henry,
anxious to hear from him, immediately wrote a
very long letter to him. And so on.
" Hence every sentence, to whatever extent 401
the relations which it comprehends may have been
multiplied, is composed of only three kinds of com-
binations, the predicative, attributive, and objective."
(Becker.)
 110 COMPOUND SENTENCES . [402-404.

§ iv. On Compound Sentences (from Becker) .

402 Two sentences are connected either by way of
subordination, or by way of co- ordination .
403 A sentence is subordinate to another, when
it can be considered as standing in place of a sub-
stantive, adjective, or adverb, belonging to that sen-
tence.

(1) { He reported
He reported
that the king was dead.
the death of the king.
The trees, | which were planted are

(2) byme,
The trees | planted by me }
ing.
grow-

He was at work | before the sun rose.

(3) {He was at work | early.
In (1) the first sentence, ' that the king was
dead,' stands as a substantive, and may be
called a substantive accessory sentence ; in (2)
' which were planted by me,' stands as an ad-
jective to trees, and is an adjective accessory sen-
tence ; in (3), ' before the sun rose,' stands as an
adverb marking the time of his being at work,
and is an adverbial accessory sentence.
404 Two sentences are connected by way of co-ordi-
nation, when they are not dependent one upon
another in this manner.
(a) The conjunctions or conjunctional words that join a
sentence subordinately, are generally relative words referring
to a demonstrative in the other sentence, which, however, is
often omitted.

(1) I know | what you mean = I know that, what you mean.
(2) I found it | where I left it = I found it there, where I left
it.

(b) Such subordinate conjunctional words as are not

405-408.] SUBSTANTIVE SENTENCES . 111

relatives referring to a demonstrative pronoun or adjective

expressed or understood, are either demonstratives referring
to a relative understood, or mere prepositions, the demon-
strative and the relative being both understood.
Thus before you came ' = before the time when you came.
'since you came ' = since the time when you came.
Here before and since are prepositions that have acquired a
conjunctional power.

Substantive Accessory Sentences .

Substantive accessory sentences are either sen- 405
tences introduced by ' that,' or sentences introduced
by interrogatives .
(a) (Accessory sentences introduced by in-
terrogatives are treated of in 464, sqq.)
That ' connects three kinds of subordinate sen- 406
tences :

(1) Sentences that stand in apposition to a

nominative or accusative expressed or under-
stood in the principal sentence.
(2) Sentences that express a purpose.
(3) Sentences that express an effect or con-
sequence.

OBS. When that ' introduces a purpose, it is 407

followed by may or might : when it introduces an
effect or consequence, it refers to a so or such in the
principal sentence.
Examples. 408

(1) ' It is strange | that you think so.' Here the clause ' that
you think so' is in apposition to it ; i. e. this thing.
' I am glad | that you are come ' = I am glad of this ;
namely, that you are come.
(2) ' I am come, that I may see it with my own eyes' ( purpose).
 112 ADJECTIVE SENTENCES .
[409-412.
(3) ' The noise was such, that I could not hear a word' (conse-
quence).
409
Many verbs that express operations and feelings
of the mind, are followed by sentences introduced
by ' that.'
(a) Such verbs are to think, to say, to know,
to believe, to remember, to wish, to rejoice, to be
glad, to be sorry, to wonder, &c.
(b) After these verbs the clause with ' that '
may be considered as the accusative, in apposi-
tion to a demonstrative understood.
' I wonder that you say so ' = I wonder at this ; namely,
that you say so.
410 When that' is followed by should, the verb with
should is either the future in the form it takes
after a past tense ; or the conditional used for the
indicative, to avoid positiveness of expression (see
175).
' He said that he should come' ( future).
' It is strange that you should say so ' ( = that you say so, is
strange ; or, your saying so is strange).

ADJECTIVE SENTENCES (or, Accessory Sentences

that are equivalent to an Attributive Adjective) .
411 Adjective accessory sentences are introduced
by a relative pronoun, referring to a demonstrative
adjective pronoun, expressed or understood in the
principal sentence.
(a) The substantive to which the relative
refers is called the antecedent (from antecedere,
to go before) .
412 The relative agrees with its antecedent in number
and person ; but not in case.
413-418 .] ADJECTIVE SENTENCES . 113

' He, who says this, cannot be mistaken.'

' I , who say this, am sure that it is so.'
' Thou, who dwellest, &c.
The case of the relative depends on its position in 413
its own clause .

The pronoun to which whoever, whosoever, refers, 414

is generally omitted, even when it would be under
the government of a preposition.
'Elizabeth publicly threatened that she would have the
head of whoever had advised it.'

(a) What ( = that which) may also follow a preposition in

the preceding clause.
It is generally convenient to use ' that ' after 415
superlatives, after the interrogative who, and when
both persons and things are referred to.
' That ' is generally used as the relative to the 416
same, when the relative is not under the govern-
ment of a preposition.
(a) Middleton does not observe this rule.
' But ' is sometimes equivalent to a relative with 417
not after negative sentences.
" There is nothing born but has to die."
(a) The personal pronoun is sometimes expressed ( “ There
is scarce any matter of duty, but it concerns them both alike" ) :
and sometimes but = that - not, introducing a consequence,
after a negative sentence.
" No cliff so bare, but on its steep
Thy favours may be found."-Wordsworth.
' That ' is used after expressions of time instead 418
of a relative governed by a preposition.
" In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely
die."

(a) The that is sometimes omitted. " From the day the
king departed till," &c. "
7 2 Sam. x. 24.
 114 ADJECTIVE SENTENCES . [419-422.
419 ' As ' is the proper relative word after such.
" There are in these writings such inconsistencies and con-
tradictions, as are sufficient to blast their authority."
(a) We may suppose this use of ' as ' to have
arisen from an ellipse of the object of com-
parison.
' Such inconsistencies as (those inconsistencies
which) are sufficient, &c.
420 The relative pronoun is often omitted in English ;
never in Latin.
Æneas left Troy the very night it was taken.'
421 The relative pronoun is often under the govern-
ment of a preposition at the end ofa sentence.
(a) When a relative under the government
of a pronoun is omitted, the preposition which
would govern the relative is still used.
' The proposition you object to is not mine.'
(b) An absurd rule has been given, that the
preposition should not stand last in a proposi-
tion. In the relative clause this is very fre-
quently the best place for it ; so that it cannot
be prefixed to the relative without spoiling the
flow of the sentence.
"What is it, therefore, that I must now exhort you to ?"—
Middleton.

422 The Infinitive often stands as the sole verb in a

relative sentence, to express the purpose. " No-
thing else is given us, by which to ascertain or enter
into it" (= by which we may as certain it, &c.) .
Here the Infin. = an abridged accessory sentence
(367).
(a) The relative is often omitted : and here
too (see 421 , a) if the relative would have been
governed by a preposition, it is retained. Its
place is at the end of the sentence.
423-425.] ADVERBIAL SENTENCES . 115

" He sought a place to lie in' (= in which he might lie).

' For old men life has no new story to make them smile ' ( =
which might make them smile). 'He gave me a knife to cut
with.'

Relative adverbs are often used for relative pro- 423

nouns under the government of prepositions.
" We met a servant at the door with a small basket of
fruit, which he was carrying into a grove, where he said his
master was with the two strangers."

§ v. Adverbial Accessory Sentences.

Such accessorysentences as stand in the relation 424
of place, time, or manner, are termed adverbial
accessory sentences.
(a) An adverbial sentence is very often
abridged by the omission of its subject and
verb . Thus ' when ' often stands immediately
before a substantive or adjective, which is really
the predicate of an abridged accessory sentence.
'Newton, when intent upon working out a problem, used
sometimes to leave his dinner untasted for hours' ( = when he
wasintent).
Time.

Co-existence with another action or state is 425

marked by when, as, whilst ; and, for the whole
continuance of the action or state, by as long as, so
long as.
(a) The Participial Substantive under the
government of on, upon, after, in, is equivalent
to an adverbial accessory sentence of time.
Here, therefore, the Participial Substantive
(with its preposition) may be considered as
equivalent to an abridged accessory sentence
(367) .
" Upon examining his notes, I find that in the whole he gives
us but three various readings from Origen " ( = when I ex-
amine his notes). See 477.
 116 ADVERBIAL SENTENCES , [426-431 .
426 Relation to a preceding event is marked indefi-
nitely by after, since.
' I saw him after he had left you ' (postquam, Lat.).
427 The immediate subsequence of one event to
another is marked by no sooner than ; just-
when ; hardly before ; the moment, the instant, as
soon as, &c .
" He had no sooner reviewed the troops, than he received an
account from Antiochus, that the Parthians had passed the
Euphrates."
" We were just sitting down to supper, when a hasty rap
alarmed us." "All these pleas are overruled the moment a
"

lady adduces her irrefragable argument, you must." My

readers will hardly have begun to laugh, before they will be
called upon to correct that levity, and peruse me with a more
serious air." "As soon as our visitor was gone, I asked what
the company thought of him."
(a) The principal sentence is that which describes the sub-
sequent event.
428 The speedy, but not immediate subsequence of
one event to another, is marked by not long before ;
not long - when ; soon after ; not long after ; a short
time after, &c.
" She had not been long seated in her pew, before she was
attacked with the most excruciating pains."
429 Relation to a following event is marked indefi-
nitely by before.
' I told you so before you came.'
430 Relation to a following event, up to which the
action or state is to continue, is marked by till,
until.
It has been mentioned that the English idiom does not
require us to mark the futurity of the second event. In the
English Bible the conditional form (167, 6) of the present is
used. " Occupy till I come." Luke xix. 13.

431 The constant co-existence of two events is

marked by whenever, and sometimes by when.
432-438.] ADVERBIAL SENTENCES . 117

When has often a conditional force ; not in itself, 432

but because a promise (for instance) to do a thing
when an event takes place, comes to the same thing
as a promise to do it, if that event should take
place.
'When he begs my pardon, I will forgive him ;' = ' I will
forgive him, if he begs my pardon.'
Whilst has often an adversative force ; i. e. points 433
out the co-existence and co-duration of two things
that should not co-exist .

' He is living in luxury, whilst his poor tenants are

starving.'

Adverbial Sentences of Comparison.

The conjunctions of comparison are, ' than,' to 434

mark excess or defect ; as, to mark equality.
The pronoun ' that' is used as a substitute 435
for a noun which would otherwise occur in each
clause.
' The song of the nightingale is more various than that of
the thrush;' i. e. than the song of the thrush.
As-as, affirm equality in degree ; so -as, are 436
now generally used when the principal sentence is
negative.
This is as good as that.' ' This is not so good as that.'

Equality in manner is expressed by so-as ; but 437

the so is generally omitted, except when the sen-
tence with as is placed first.
' He speaks as he thinks .' ' As he thinks, so he speaks.'

When any thing is affirmed to be great or 438

small, not in itself, but with reference to some
other thing with which it is compared ; that thing
 118 ADVERBIAL SENTENCES . [439-441 .

is governed by 'for ;' or, if it be a sentence, is put

in the infinitive mood.
' This is a good exercise for a boy of nine years old.' ' This
is an unusually high office, to be held by a foreigner.'

(a) When the infinitive has a subject of its

own, 'for ' must be used. This is an unusually
high office for a foreigner to hold.'
439
When a quality is said to exist in too high a
degree, with reference to something with which it is
compared, the object of comparison, if a substantive,
is governed by 'for ;' if a preposition, is put in the
infinitive mood.
This exercise is too good to be the performance of so young
a boy.' ' That task is too laborious for me.'

(a) Like other predicates, phrases of this

construction may be used attributively. He
showed me an exercise too good to be the per-
formance of so young a boy.'
(b) If the infinitive has a subject of its own,
for must be inserted.
' It is too late for me to begin Greek.'
440 If the comparison be made by the comparative
' more,' instead of ' too,' ' than ' must be used.
' I had more prudence than to take her counsel.'

441 After do, the to of the infinitive will be omitted

in a sentence of this kind .
" He had done little more than cast a bridge across the
chaos over which he ruled."

(a) So when but follows do with a negative,

the to is omitted.
' He did nothing but laugh.'
442-447.] ADVERBIAL SENTENCES . 119

Proportionate equality is marked by the-the 442

with comparatives.
' The more you study, the more you will learn.'
The verb to do is used in the second clause of 443
a comparative sentence, as a substitute for the other
verb.
(a) Cobbett supposes this to be wrong, except where the
tense of the verb to do may be considered as the auxiliary
verb, and so might be completed by expressing the participle;
e.g. ' I don't work so hard as I formerly did,' i. e. did work.
But our best writers use it as the regular substitute for the
principal verb.
" He examined me closer than my judge had done"
(= had examined me). Landor.
Cause.

The conjunctions that express a cause are-as, 444

because, since, for.
There are two kinds of causes : a cause that 445 .
produces an effect ; and a cause (or more properly a
reason) from which we infer a conclusion.
(a) In other words, we may infer the cause
from the effect, or the effect from the cause ;
and in both cases we use the same particles.
" The brook will be very high, for a great deal of rain fell
last night." " A great deal of rain must have fallen last
nightfor the brook is very high." Whateley.
(b) Because is, however, principally used of a cause in the
strict sense ; since of a reason.

Under the causes that produce an effect, are 446

included moral causes ; that is, motives.
' I will do it, because you wish it.' ' Since you wish it, I
will.'

Condition.

A real condition is that which is necessary to 447

the happening of an event.
 120 ADVERBIAL SENTENCES . [448-452.

(a) Hence every cause is a condition ; but

every condition is not a cause.
(6) As distinguished, however, from a cause,
a condition is that which is necessary to the hap-
pening of an event, without being in any way the
cause ofit.
448 A logical condition is a limitation by which we
make our assertion of the truth of any proposition
depend upon something else.
(a) The conditional particle is if. The sen-
tence with if is called the conditional clause ;
the sentence without if, the consequent clause, or
simply the consequence.
449 ' If' is often omitted. The conditional clause
will then take the verb before its nominative
case, and thus assume the form of a direct ques-
tion.
' Had you told me this, I would have called upon him.'

450 ' Had' is often used for ' would have ' in the
consequence .

[So in Lat. the pluperfect indic. for the plu-

perfect subj. ]
" If Pompey had fallen by the chance of war on the plains
of Pharsalia, in the defence of his country's liberty, he had
died still glorious, though unfortunate."
451 The conditional clause is sometimes expressed as
a question.
" Is any man pinched with hard want? Charity, if it
cannot succour, it will condole."
452
The conditional clause is often put in the form of
a command (in the imperative mood).
' Prove that to me, and I will be satisfied.' [If you prove
that to me, I will be satisfied.]
453-458.] ACCESSORY SENTENCES . 121

Provided (that) and so (that) are also conditional 453

particles.
(a) To which may be added, the Imperative suppose (that),
and the forms ' in case,' and ' in the event of' (with a participial
substantive).
(b) Unless and except denote a condition without which the
consequence cannot (or could not) follow.
(c) But ( that) may also be used conditionally : e.g. A con-
vent would have been her choice, but (that) she feared its
idleness and ennui .'

' If' is omitted before were. A negative or pre- 454

ventive clause is introduced by ' were it not for,'
&c.; or, ' were it not that, &c.
Thus, were I to say this ' = ' if I should say this.'
' If' is often followed by the conditional forms (mentioned 167, b), 455
but it is not necessary to use these forms, except where the contin-
gency is to be strongly marked.

Adversative Accessory Sentences.

By adversative sentences are meant those that 456
seem to have a kind of opposition between them,
the assertion in the principal sentence being one
which the fact asserted in the subordinate sentence
would lead us not to expect.
(a) Adversative propositions are connected
by though (or although) -yet ; or by the single
adversative conjunctions, though, but, however,
&c .

(b) Yet is often omitted after though.

Whoever, whatever, however, &c. have often an 457
adversative force.
The first of two adversative propositions is often 458
thrown into an imperative form ; and sometimes
into the form of a comparative sentence of equality.
" Remove a devil where you will, he is still in hell " (=
though you were to remove a devil . he would still be in
hell).
G
 122 FURPOSE, &C. [459-462.
" As shallow as you think them (or, shallow as you think them ),
"

they may probably be full of deep, recondite senses (=

though you may think them very shallow).
(a) A participial substantive under the go-
vernment of ' without often stands in an adver-
sative relation.
"He sets up for a critic, without understanding a word of
the original language " ( = though he does not understand).
(b) So also substantives governed by with, without : ' A
book may be very amusing with numerous errours ( = though it
contain numerous errours) : or it may be very dull without a
single absurdity.'

Purpose : Consequence. The Conjunction ' that .'

(Compare 405-411 .)
459
A purposemay be expressed by that,' with ' may'
or ' might,' or by the infinitive mood.
(a) [It must be remembered that the infini-
tive mood never expresses the purpose in Latin
prose.]
460 If an infinitive mood expressing the purpose is
to have a subject which is not that of the principal
verb, the preposition ' for ' must be used.
' I have brought thisfor you to look at.'
(a) The infinitive expressing the purpose is
often said to be used absolutely, when it stands
at the head of a sentence, as in the following
examples :
' To confess the truth, I was grossly mistaken.' ' To speak
properly and strictly, nothing can begin to be.' ' But, to turn
to another matter, I had said,' &c.
461 Instead of the simple infinitive, we sometimes
find the infinitive after ' in order,' ' with intent,'
&c.; and a purpose may also be expressed by ' for
the purpose of,' ' with the intention of,' &c. with the
participial substantive.
462 A consequence is expressed by ' that ' after ' so,'
' such,' &c. or by the infinitive mood after ' as.'
463-465 .] INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES . 123

(a) The demonstrative pronoun ' that ' is

sometimes used for ' such.'
" Few or none of the proconsuls behaved themselves
with that exact justice, us to leave no room for complaint."
Middleton .

(a) Sometimes the consequence is placed first, and the

reason follows as (in form) an independent proposition.
" The other basket had very naughty figs, which
could not be eaten, they were so bad." Jer. xxiv. 2.

A consequence to be guarded against (i. e. a nega- 463

tive purpose) is expressed by ' lest,' or ' that not.'
" His greatest concern was, lest his brother and nephew
should hurt themselves, rather than him, by their perfidy."

Dependent Interrogative Sentences.

A question depending on another verb is intro- 464

duced by interrogative pronouns, or by the con-
junction whether (sometimes if) .
If a dependent question consists of two members, 465
of which if either is asserted, the other must be
denied, they are connected by whether - or.
(a) There is another use of whether - or, which must be
distinguished from this. The use referred to is, when the
speaker or writer leaves it undecided, which of two supposi-
tions or names is the correct one. Whether has then nearly
the force of if either.'
' Whether you are a friend or a foe, I shall disregard
your words ' (sive-sive).
(b) When the second question is only the
negative of the first, it may be expressed by
' or not ' or ' or no .'
" It is in the power of the will, whether it will suffer the
understanding thus to dwell upon such objects, or no."
G2
 124 PARTICIPLES . [466-471 .
466
Interrogative pronouns and particles are often
found with an infinitive mood .

(a) This is never done in Latin.

' I know not what to do.' ' Quid faciam nescio.'
' I am at a loss how to act.'

467 The preposition that governs the interrogative

pronoun often stands after the verb.
" What are you smiling at, Tate."
i

Participles.
468 Participles (and all attributives) assume an
assertion. Thus, when I say, ' Balbus, having a
sword, drew it ;' besides stating that he drew his
sword, I mention that he had one.
469 Whenever it is necessary or convenient to do so,
the assertion thus assumed may be formally stated ;
e. g. Balbus, who had a sword, drew it .'
470 Hence participles may often be resolved into
adjective or adverbial accessory sentences.
That is, into relative sentences ; or sentences introduced
by when, as, if, for, though, after, &c.
" This is not mine ; it is a plaything lent me for the present,
I must leave it soon (a plaything that is lent me) . " Return-
ing in a few minutes, I missed him " (when I returned).
" Already overwhelmed with despair, I was not yet sunk into
the bottom of the gulf" (though I was already overwhelmed,
&c.) . " Baptized children, dying in their infancy, are cer-
tainly saved " ( if they die, &c.).
471 A participle may often be turned into a verb
of the same tense, &c. as the principal verb of the
sentence .
"His ashes being conveyed to Rome, were deposited in a
vault of his Alban villa " (were conveyed to Rome, and depo-
sited).
472-475 .] PARTICIPLES . 125

(a) Conversely, a verb may often be turned

into a participle ; and by this change we may
get rid of too many verbs connected by ' and.'
It has been before mentioned, that the relative 472
time of two connected actions is not so precisely
marked in English as in Latin. We have an
instance of this in the use of our present participle,
even when the action expressed by the participle
must precede that expressed by the verb.
" And he, leaping up, stood and walked, and entered with
them into the temple " (i. e. having leapt up, he stood).

Particles of time, condition, &c. are often joined 473

to participles and adjectives .
(a) A participle so used may be considered an abridged
adverbial sentence .

" I shall enlarge upon the happiness of retirement, when

managed as it ought to be." " He will extend his care to the
outposts, as knowing that, when these are gone, it may be
difficult to preserve the rest."

A participle is sometimes equivalent to a sub- 474

stantive, though much less commonly so than in
Latin.

" The Roman soldier, after much valour shown, swam back
safe to his general" (after showing much valour ; after the
exhibition of much valour).

When a noun substantive or substantive-pro- 475

noun stands with a participle in a sentence, with
the general construction of which it is totally un-
connected, it is said to be put absolute'y.
" The two armies being thus employed, Cælius began to pub-
lish several violent and odious laws."

(a) A noun and participle put absolutely, are

an abridged sentence, and may be resolved into
G3
 126 PARTICIPLES . [476, 477.

a sentence introduced by the proper conjunc-

tion or adverb .
476 When a participle only is so resolved, the nomi-
native of the new sentence will be either a substan-
tive that already stands in the principal one, or a
pronoun representing such a substantive. But
when a substantive and participle put absolutely
are so resolved, the nominative of the new sentence
will not be a substantive that stands already in the
principal one.
(a) The particle ' being' is sometimes understood.
" The wisdom or the want of wisdom, that we observe, or
think we observe, in those that rule us, entirely out of the
question, I cannot look upon," &c. Cowper.

477 Abridgment of sentences by the participial sub-

stantive .

Participial substantives are, as we have seen,

often equivalent to abridged accessory sentences :
e. g.
(a) To abridged substantive sentences.] The true test of a
great man is his having been in advance of his age (= that he
has been, &c.).
(b) I cannot deny being the author of this work ( = that I
am the author, &c.) . In the former instance it is virtually the
nominative ; in the latter the accusative.
(c) To abridged accessory sentences of time. Here at, after,
on, upon, &c. are used. The silkworm after having spun her
task, lays her eggs and dies ( = when she has laid, &c.).
In buying goods it is best to pay ready money = (when one
buys goods, &c. ) See 425 (a).
(d) To an adverbial sentence of manner.] This occurs after
without. To bear one's hard fate without repining ( = in such
amanner as not to repine).
(e) To a causal accessory sentence.] Here by, for are used.
The boy was scolded for coming too late to school ( = because he
came). William the Conqueror caused a considerable change in
the speech of the nation by introducing his French.
 QUESTIONS ON THE ACCIDENCE .

How many letters has the English language ?-Name them.

Which are vowels ? What is the meaning of a vowel ? What
is a diphthong ?-Mention the proper diphthongs. Can a con-
sonant be sounded by itself? Explain what is meant by the
organs of speech. Point out in the following words where w and
y are consonants, and where vowels : beyond, ready, awake, awe,
blew.

What is a substantive ? What is an adjective ? What is an

article? Which is the definite, which the indefinite article ?
What is a verb ? What is a participle ? What is an adverb ?
What is a pronoun ? What is a preposition ? What is a con-
junction ? [Mention some substantives. Mention all the sub-
stantives you can see in the room. Add an adjective to .
Say something about What is the principal word you
have used to say this ? Add an adverb to great ; to shines ; to
fierce.]

What are common nouns ? By what other name are they

called ? What are proper names ? What is an abstract noun ?
What is a concrete noun ? What is a collective noun, or noun of
multitude ?

How is the plural generally formed ? Have abstract nouns,

when used as such, any plural ? Mention some nouns that have
no singular. Have the names of materials any plural ?

When is the plural formed in es ? What is often the plural of

nouns in f, fe ? When is y changed into ie before the s of the
plural ?
G4
128 QUESTIONS ON THE ACCIDENCE .

(Genitive Case.)

What is the only English case formed by inflexion ? How is

the genitive formed ? What is the genitive of a plural noun
ending in s ? Can King- of-England be put in the genitive ?
How ?

[Should the genitive plural properly have an apostrophe after

the final s ? Why not ? How old is the present fashion ? How
was the king's crown often written in the seventeenth century ? ]

(Degrees of Comparison.)
What is the comparative degree of an adjective ? What is the
superlative degree of an adjective ? What is the ending of the
comparative degree ? What ending marks the superlative de-
gree ? What adjective must not be changed in this way ? When
is an adjective said to be in the positive ? What adverbs are
used to give a comparative and a superlative meaning to adjec-
tives which do not take the ending er, est ? Give the compa-
rative and superlative of good, bad, little, much, many. Give the
superlatives of late, near. Mention some superlatives ending in
most.

[Should we write further, furthest, or farther, farthest ? What

words of quantity are used with comparatives and superlatives ?
Explain the superlative of eminence. Mention some adjectives
that are often found in company with superlatives.]

[What does Buttmann say of pronouns ? What does he con-

sider to be the peculiarity that entitles a word to be reckoned
amongst the pronouns ?]

GO THROUGH THE PRONOUNS.

What are the pronouns of the first, second, third persons ?

When do you use my ? when mine ?
 QUESTIONS ON THE ACCIDENCE . 129

When are pronouns called reflexive ? What are the reflexive

forms of the first, second, and third persons ? How is his made
reflexive ?

What pronouns are this and that called ? Which points out
the object nearest to the speaker ? Which is equivalent to the
latter ? In alluding to a coming statement would you use this or
that ? Is such a demonstrative ? May you say, ' such flimsy
excuses ? '

What are the relative pronouns ? Why called relatives ?

What is the relative what equivalent to ? Enumerate the com-
pound relative pronouns. Mention the interrogative pronouns.
What pronoun was formerly used to ask which of two things ?
What word stands before which in the Bible ? What forms are
used as reciprocal pronouns ?

When are numerals called definite ? When indefinite ? Men-

tion some of the indefinite numerals. May each be used to
denote each of more than two ? Are each and every singular or
plural ? What are the meanings of either ? To how many
objects do either and neither refer ? What peculiarity is there in
the use of many ? of few ?

[Point out where number is meant, and where quantity, in the

following examples : much beef; many eggs ; a few peas; all
the house; no chicken, I thank you ; I have no chickens left ;
have you any split peas ? any ham ? any mutton ? any lead ?
Will you take any ham ? Have you lead enough ?-What is the
meaning of some fifty years ago ? ' ]

What does Dr. Johnson say about enough ? what part of speech
is it ? with what words is it used substantively ? where is it gene-
rally placed ? is it ever used adverbially ? Give an instance.
Does other ever take a plural ? When ? Does one ever take
a plural ? When ? Where does only (generally) and alone
(always) stand ? Mention some other words that are allied to
indefinite numerals.
G5
130 QUESTIONS ON THE ACCIDENCE .

What do numerals denote ? Mention some numeral substan-

tives. What are the cardinal numbers ? What are the ordinal
numbers ? What are multiplicatives ? Mention some numeral
adverbs. Turn four thousand eight hundred and two into the cor-
responding ordinal number. Turn forty-five, two hundred and
seven, into the corresponding ordinals. Is it right to say, 'the
two first declensions ? '

Do the words ' Brutus stabbed,' convey a complete meaning ?

[Add : I have cut ; the horse has kicked; I will throw ; we have
caught.] What are those verbs called which convey an incom-
plete meaning ? Is there a complete meaning, in ' I shall go ? '
[Birds fly. Fishes swim. Dogs bark. The clock stands.]

' I go to- day ; ' for ' to-day ' put ' yesterday.' [Add yesterday
to the following verbs, with the necessary alteration : I laugh ; I
think ; I shall take (courage) ; my legs ache; my horse is in the
stable ; I shall dig my garden over ; I shall sow some mig-
nionette; I shall buy a pencil.] Have you been obliged to alter
the form of the verb ? What are such alterations of the form of
a verb called? ' I went to Coventry, yesterday.' For yesterday
put to-morrow. [I bought a new hat. He killed his prisoners.
He paid him a visit. He went a shooting.] Is the preterite
formed by inflexion, or not ? Is the future formed by inflexion, or
not ? How is the future formed ?

I think : for I put he. What change have you made in the
verb ? He comes : what person is comes ? They come ; you
come ; thou comest. For I put thou, in I refer (compel, com-
pelled, delay, moved, move, see, run, put, bid, lead, led, try, buy) .
Put he in the same examples .

Which person is seldom used ? What is used for it ? What

peculiarity of language do the Quakers observe ? In what did
the third person singular formerly end ?

What is a participle ? How does it differ from an adjective ?

How many participles do we form by inflexion ? What are they ?
 1

QUESTIONS ON THE ACCIDENCE . 131

In what does the present participle always end? In what does

the past participle generally end ? When has the past participle
a passive meaning ? When has it an active meaning ? Are the
past participles used to form any tenses of the active voice ?
With what verbs ? When is the final consonant of the verb to be
doubled, before ing is added to form the present participle ? Form
the present participle of lie, die, see, lay.

Give all the forms for present time. When is I do write used
instead of I write ? Which of the forms for present time express
habits, general truths, &c. ? In what case may we use the pre-
sent tense of assertions made in books ? For what tense is the
present sometimes used ? What is the name of the form, I have
written ? When is the perfect definite, or present-perfect, used ?
Does I have been writing, imply that I have now given over
writing ?

What are the forms for past time ? Why are I wrote, and I
did write, called indefinite ? Which of the past tenses are used
to express habits, &c. ?

Mention the forms for future time. Explain the difference

between shall and will. Are the following right or wrong?
Why ? ' I will be killed : nobody shall come to help me.' ' They
say they shall give me the place.'

What are the moods of a verb ? What does the indicative

mood express ? the subjunctive ? the imperative ? the infinitive ?
Is the infinitive properly a mood ?

Mention the compound participles of the active voice. What

infinitives are sometimes used as participles ? What is the force of
the infinitive passive when used participially ?

What does the imperative express besides commands ? Point

out its uses in the following : Kill him ; Don't hurt me ; Go, and
success attend you ; Come back as soon as you can ; Take it then
if you like.
G6
132 QUESTIONS ON THE ACCIDENCE .

What verbs have, and what have not, a passive voice ? Of

what are the forms that serve for the passive voice made up in
English ?

What may I am with the past participle be, besides the present
passive ? ' Patents are preparing :' is ' are preparing ' active or
passive ? Explain the origin of this form. When only can it be
used ? My friends are gone :' tell the voice and tense of ' are
gone.' What is the general meaning of the verbs that form a
perfect definite¹, or present perfect, with am and the past par-
ticiple?

With what do the participial substantives agree in form ? How

may they be distinguished from the participles ? Can they govern
a case ? Are they ever followed by of?

GO THROUGH THE VERB ' TO DEFEND.'

(Particles.)
What forms signify : in this place ? in that place ? in which
place ? from which place ? from that place ? to that place ? to what
place ? What do adverbs ending in ward, wards, signify ? Enu-
merate the prepositions; the conjunctions. Give an instance of
an adverbial phrase ; a prepositional phrase ; a conjunctional
phrase.

Which consonants are called mutes ? which liquids ? Repeat

the corresponding pairs of sharp and flat consonants. Go through
the p, k, and t sounds.

What are the two principal ways of forming the preterites and
past participles of verbs ? Which of these is the ancient (or
strong), and which the modern (or weak) form ?

1 When I was come near Piræus, Acidinus's boy met me.

All the rest, they said, were fled.'
 QUESTIONS ON THE ACCIDENCE . 133

Form the plural of phenomenon, seraph, radius, crisis, genus,

hypothesis, beau, arcanum , stratum, vortex, genius (man of genius ),
automaton, metamorphosis.

Express by single words : not-lovely, not-generous ; to take-

wrongly ; to stand-against (a person) ; to bid (him) not to do (a
thing) .

Form abstract nouns in th or t, from wide, deep, slow, warm,

dear, high, broad, young ; from grow, steal, bear (to bring forth),
weigh, fly. Form nouns in hood, dom, or ship, from free, king,
guardian, fellow, brother, steward, sister, man, child, likely, false,
worth, neighbour. Form substantives in ity from admissible, ami-
able, culpable, indivisible, eligible, feasible, possible. Form substan-
tives in ness, from white, bashful, poor, rich, yellow.

Form adjectives in ful from joy, fruit, youth, care, use, beauty,
delight, plenty ; in some, from trouble, burthen, toil, full ; in y, from
wealth, health, might, worth, earth, hand, heart ; in en, from earth,
wood, silk, brass, leather, gold ; in less, from wealth, comfort, help,
heart.

Form nouns to express the doer from hunt, visit, govern, rob.
Form verbs in en from light, quick, haste ; in ize, from human,
tranquil, Christian, harmony.

Form diminutives from man, goose, hill, dear.

 QUESTIONS ON THE SYNTAX .

The Predicative Combination .

1. WHAT is the subject of a proposition ? what the predicate ?

2. When the verb to be joins the subject to the predicate,
what is it called ? 3. To what is the infin. passive equivalent,
when it follows is, are, &c. ? (311.) 4. How many and what
meanings has the infin. pass. in this use of it ? 5. Explain
the idiom, ' he is to come.' (312.) 6. When the infin. mood
or a sentence stands as the nom., what is generally its place
in the sentence, and what stands as the apparent nominative
to the verb ? (319.) 7. When may a noun of multitude take
a plural verb ? (315.) 8. What number should the verb be
in after couple, dozen, score, pair ? [In the sing. after pair, in
the plur. with the others.] 9. When the verb to be is itself
the predicate, what adverb goes with it, and where does it
stand ? (318. ) 10. When an infinitive has a subject of its
own, by what is it preceded ? [By for. ] 11. Make you em-
phatic in ' you did it.' [It was you who did it. ) 12. Make
nobody emphatic in ' nobody thinks so.' [' There is nobody, who
thinks so.' ] 13. May it is ' be followed by a plural noun ?
[Yes (323).] 14. What verbs are followed by a nom. ?
[Verbs of becoming, being, seeming,
And passive verbs of making, calling, deeming.]
15. What may these verbs be called ? [ Copulative verbs.]
16. What verbs are sometimes used as strengthened copulas,
instead of to be ? [ Togo ; to lie ; to stand ; to grow, &c.]
17. When does the nominative follow the verb ? (327.) 18.
What is the meaning of the idiom, ' there is no bearing this ?'
[' This cannot be borne.' ] 18*. May other parts of speech
be used substantively ? [Yes (330) . ] 19. What are the
 QUESTIONS ON THE SYNTAX . 135

two kinds of questions ? (331.) 20. In a question of appeal,

if there is a not in it, is the expected answer ' yes ' or ' no ' ?
[Yes.]
Attributive Combination.

21. When is a notion said to be joined to a substantive attri-

butively ? 22. May a substantive be used adjectively ? [Yes,
when it stands immediately before a substantive.] 23.
Which case is nearly an adjective in use ? [The genitive is
nearly a possessive adjective in use (337).] 24. When is a
substantive said to be in apposition to another ? 25. With
what words do we use ' of,' though the second substantive is
in apposition to the first ? (After city, town, island ; but not
after river. ] 26. Explain ' a picture of the king's.' [' One
of the king's pictures ;' or ' a picture belonging to the king.']
27. ' I am going to St. Paul's '-what word is omitted in
this sentence ? [The word church.] 28. By what kind of
sentence may an apposition, or other attributive be resolved?
[By a relative sentence.] 29. Is every sing. or plural ? 30.
When does every go with a plural noun ? ( In such phrases
as ' every three years.'] 31. In what relation does a substan-
tive governed by ' of,' stand, when joined to another sub-
stantive ? [ In the relation of the genitive case.] 32. Explain
the objective genitive . (349.)

Objective Combination.
33. What is, in the strictest sense, the object in grammar ? [ The
accusative after the transitive verb.] 33*. What other no-
tions are considered as objective factors ? [Every notion
referred to a verb or adjective.] 34. Is the pass. verb fol-
lowed by an accusative ? [No.) 35. What exceptions are
there to this ? (The acc. after such forms as put an end,
which are equivalent to single verbs, may follow them in
the passive ; and ask, teach , offer, promise, pay, tell, allow ,
deny, vouchsafe, &c. are sometimes followed by an accusative.]
36. Is there any other exception ? (The infin. stands as an
accus. after some passive verbs (356,3).] 37. What change
of meaning do some verbs undergo when prepositions are
added to them objectively ? [From intransitive they become
transitive.] 38. To what parts of speech is the infinitive
joined objectively ? (361.) 39. What classes of verbs are
136 QUESTIONS ON THE SYΝΤΑΧ .

followed by the infinitive, or accus. with infinitive ? (362.)

40. Explain the idiom ' I would have you go.' [' I would
wish you to go ' (369). 41. Explain the idiom, ' I have to
do so and so.' [' It is my task or duty to do so :' or ' I must
do so.'] 42. What verbs are followed by two accusatives ?
[Copulative verbs ; i. e. those that in the passive are followed
by a nominative. ] 43. Do any other verbs take a second ac-
cusative ? [Yes ; such as, with their own notion, involve
the notion of making a thing what the second accus. denotes ;
e. g. ' to paint a door green.' ]

Cases, &c.

44. What is a partitive ? [An adjective denoting a part of some

larger number considered as a whole.] 45. What case fol-
lows ordinal numerals and other partitives ? [A substantive
governed by ' of,' standing in the relative of the genitive case.]
46. Does of ' always mark the gen. relation ? [No. ] 47. Men-
tion the principal uses of ' of,' when it does not denote a
genitive relation ? [It often stands for about, concerning,
from; and often introduces a cause, as in ' to die ofhunger. ']
48. When does to not mark a dative relation ? [After verbs
of motion.] 49. What question should you ask yourself when
a verb seems to govern two accusatives ? (Whether one of
them is not governed by to omitted, and thus stands in the
relation of a dative.] 50. When does with not denote an
ablative relation ? (When it denotes merely companionship. ]
51. Explain " he is a great bear with all his learning."
[He is a great bear, though he possesses great learning: the
with has here an adversative force.) 52. Explain such a
construction as " to think himself into atheism.” [It is
equivalent to " to bring himself into atheism by thinking."
53. In what case does the measure of time and space stand ?
[In the accusative.] 55. Is the phrase ' so many years old,'
ever put under the government of a preposition ? (398.)

Compound Sentences.

56. When is a sentence considered as subordinate to another ?

[When it stands in the place of a substantive, adjective, or
adverb belonging to the sentence. ) 57. When are sentences
 QUESTIONS ON THE SYNTAX . 137

co-ordinate ? (When they do not depend one upon another

in this manner 1.]
Subordinate Sentences .

58. What sentences are substantive accessory sentences ? [Sen-

tences introduced by that, and dependent sentences introduced
by an interrogative.] 59. What are the three kinds of sen-
tences introduced by that ? [Apposition sentences : sentences
expressing a purpose ; and sentences expressing a consequence
-which follow so or such.] 60. Is ' that,' ever omitted ?
[Yes, frequently after verbs of feeling and declaring 2 ; such,
that is, as denote operations and feelings of the mind, and
the declaration of them 3.] 61. In what relations does should
follow that ? ' [ It either denotes duty ; or is the future
after a past tense ; or the conditional used for the indicative,
to avoid positiveness of expression.] 62. What are adjective
accessory sentences ? [Relative sentences.] 63. In what
respects does the relative agree with the antecedent ? [In
gender, number, and person, but not in case.] 64. To what
is ' but ' sometimes equivalent, and when ? [To a relative
with not after negatives.] 65. How is that used after
expressions of time ? [As a relative governed by a pre-
position.] 66. What word is used as a relative after such ?
[As.] 67. Is the relative pronoun ever omitted in English ?
68. Explain the use of of, to, in such sentences as the ' con-
duct you complain of; ' ' the man you spoke to.' [ Of and to
refer to the relative pronoun omitted 4.] 69. How does the
infinitive often stand in a relative clause ? (As the only
verb in it. ] 70. What are often used for relative pronouns
under the government of prepositions ? (Relative adverbs.]
71. What are adverbial accessory sentences ? [Such as stand
in the relation of place, time, or manner.] 72. Are adverbial
sentences ever abridged by the omission of the copula ?

1 Hence with respect to a given sentence subordination is

inherence ; but co- ordination merely co-herence, or external con-
nection.
2 Sentiendi et declarandi .
3 Such as think, say, know, believe, remember, promise, doubt,
fear, &c.
4 The conduct of which you complain.
138 QUESTIONS ON THE SYNTAX .

[Yes.] 73. Τo what is such a phrase as upon hearing this '

equivalent ? [To an adverbial sentence of time. ] 74. Tο
what is a sentence introduced by ' when ' often equivalent ?
[To a conditional sentence.] 75. To what is a sentence
introduced by ' whilst ' often equivalent ? [ To an adversative
sentence ; that is, a sentence introduced by though.] 76.
What pronoun is used in the second member of a compara-
tive sentence, to denote a substantive already expressed in
the first member ? [That, pl. those.] 77. Explain the
following idiomatic sentences :
(1) This is a hard task for a boy.
(2) This is a hard task to be undertaken without careful
preparation.
(3) This task is too hardfor a boy.
(4) This task is too hard to be undertaken without careful
preparation.
78. Parse make, laugh, in the following sentences :
(1) He has done little more than make a beginning.
(2) He did nothing but laugh.
79. What verb is used in the second member of comparative
sentences to denote a verb already expressed ? (The verb
to do.] 80. What conjunctions introduce a cause or reason ?
81. What word is often omitted in a conditional clause ?
[If, especially before ' were.' ) 82. What tense is often used
in the consequent clause, instead of would or should have- ?
[The pluperfect indicative.] 83. How is the condition
sometimes expressed ? (Sometimes as a question, and some-
times in the imperative mood.] 84. Mention some other
conditional particles and phrases. [Provided ; so ; in case ;
in the event of.]

Adversative Sentences.

85. What are the adversative conjunctions ? 86. What pronouns

and adverbs have often an adversative force ? [ Whoever,
whatever, however, &c.] 87. What formsdo adversative pro-
positions sometimes assume ? (Sometimes the first is in the
imperative mood ; sometimes in the form of a comparative
sentence of equality.] 88. Is the participial substantive ever
equivalent to an adversative clause ? (Yes, when governed
by the preposition without.]
 QUESTIONS ON THE SYNTAX. 139

Purpose : Consequence.
89. How is the purpose expressed ? (By the infinitive mood ; or
by a substantive accessory sentence introduced by that.] 90.
If the infin. of purpose has a subject which is not that of the
principal verb, what preposition must be used ? [For. ] 91.
What words are sometimes used with an infinitive, to ex-
press the purpose ? [' In order,' ' with intent,' &c.] 92. Does
the participial substantive ever express the purpose ? [Not
itself; but it is often used with ' for the purpose (of ) ; ' ' with the
intention (of ). ' ] 93. How is a consequence expressed ? [By
a substantive accessory sentence introduced by ' that referring
to a preceding ' so ' or ' such ; ' or by the infinitive with ' as.']
94. What is sometimes used for ' such ? ' [The demonstrative
pron. ' that.' ] 95. How is a consequence to be guarded
against (that is, a negative purpose) to be expressed ? [By
lest or that-not, with a substantive sentence.]

Dependent Interrogative Sentences.

96. What sort of sentences are introduced by whether ? [De-
pendent interrogative sentences.] 97. What are the con-
junctions for double interrogative sentences of this kind ?
[Whether-or. ] 98. What word is sometimes used for
whether in single dependent questions ? [If. ] 99. Has
whether or any other meaning ? [Yes : whether is sometimes
equivalent to ' if either ; ' and ' whether or 5,' then leaves
it undecided which of two statements or names is the correct
one. ] 100. Do interrogative pronouns and particles ever
go with the infinitive mood ? [Yes, in dependent clauses.]

Participles.

101. Into what sentences may participles often be resolved ?

[Into adjective (that is relative ) or adverbial accessory sen-
tences. ] 102. Give the principal adverbial relations in
which participles may stand.
[(1) In the relation of time (when, as, whilst ; after) .
(2
) a cause ( for, since, because, as ).
(3) a condition (if ).
(4) adversative relation (though, although].

5 In Latin, sive-sive.
140 QUESTIONS ON THE SYNTAX .

103. May a participle ever be translated by a principal

verb ? [Yes : it must then be joined to the verb already
in the sentence by and, or some other conjunction.) 104. In
what tense will it generally stand ? [In the same tense as
the verb to which it is to be joined ; but this is not always
the case.]
105. Does our present participle ever denote an action that must
have preceded that expressed by the principal verb ? ( Yes,
when the action of the verb immediately follows that expressed
by the participle.] 106. How are adverbial sentences some-
times abridged ? (By omitting the verb, and thus leaving the
participle (or other attributive) to stand alone with a con-
junctional adverb.] 107. When is a substantive said to be
put absolutely with a participle ? (When the substantive and
participle are totally unconnected with the general con-
struction of the sentence.) 108. May a noun and participle
put absolutely be resolved into a sentence ? (Yes, into an
adverbial accessory sentence.) 109. Will the nominative of
this sentence be a noun or pronoun that already stands in
the principal sentence ? [No.]
 EXAMPLES OF PARSING .

[This method of Parsing by groups of words will be found both

to lessen the dulness of the operation, and to lead to a far clearer
view of the construction of sentences.]

I.

' I left you with a heavy heart.'

1. Find the subject. (The personal pron. I.]
2. predicate. [ The verb left, in the indicative
mood, preterite tense, active voice.]
3. What notions are joined objectively¹ to the verb ? [The
pron. you in the accus. case; and a substantive heart
under the government of the preposition with : and
having an attributive adjective with it, ' heavy.']

II.

Soon after this last separation, my troubles gushed from my

eyes.'
Find the subject. (The plural substantive troubles.]
predicate. The intransitive verb gushed, in the
indicative mood, preterite tense. ]
What notions are joined objectively to the verb ? [ Notions to
describe when and whence.]
What words describe when ? [Soon after this last sepa-
ration.]

1 Or thus : ' I left you how ? ' ( With a heavy heart .]

To what word and how is this notion joined ? [It is joined
objectively to left.]
142 EXAMPLES OF PARSING .

Which notion describes whence ? [ From my eyes.]

What notion is joined attributively to the nominative case ?
[My ; the gen. of the personal pronoun I.]

III.

' We must now prepare for our visit to the General.'

Find the subject. [We. ]
predicate. [Must.]
Parse must.
[A verb of mood ; in the present tense, indicative mood,
first person plural.]
What notions are joined objectively to must ? [An adverb of
time now ; and an infinitive mood prepare with to omitted.]
What notions are joined objectively to prepare ? [A sub-
stantive visit governed by a preposition for.]
What notions are joined attributively to the substantive
visit ? [A gen. pronoun our, and a substantive General,
governed by the preposition to.]

IV.

'At our first arrival, after a long absence, we find a hundred

orders to servants necessary ; a thousand things to be restored
to their proper places; and an endless variety of minutiæ to be
adjusted.'
Find the subject. [We.]
predicate. [Find.]
To what peculiar class of verbs does find belong ? [Find, in
this use of it, is a copulative verb, requiring a substantive
or adjective to complete its predication.]
What word completes the predication of find ? The acc.
adjective necessary.]
What do we find necessary ? [A hundred orders.]
What notion is joined attributively to orders ? [The sub-
stantive servants, governed by the preposition to.]
What do we find besides ? (A thousand things.]
What completes the predication offind in this clause ? (' To
be restored : the form of the infinitive passive, used as the
passive participle, implying duty, necessity, &c.]
What notion is joined objectively to to be restored ? [A plural
 EXAMPLES OF PARSING . 143

substantive places governed by the preposition to, and

having a gen. pron. their, and an adj. proper joined to it
attributively. ]

V.

'All the opportunities I have of displaying heroism are of a

private nature.'
How many sentences have you here ? [Two.]
Which is the principal sentence ? [All the opportunities of
displaying heroism are of a private nature.]
What is the other sentence ? [ I have.]
Is that a complete sentence ? and, if not, what does it re-
quire ? [It requires an object in the accusative.]
Supply it. [ Which which I have.' ]
Find the subject. (Opportunities.]
predicate. [Of a private nature.]
copula. [The substantive verb are, in the third
person plural of the present tense.]
What notions are joined attributively to the subject oppor-
tunities ? [ An attributive adjective all; the definite article
the ; a participial substantive displaying of the present
active form ; and a relative sentence, ' which I have.']
To what class of sentences do relative sentences belong ?
[They are adjective accessory sentences.]
What notion is joined objectively to the participial substan-
tive displaying ? (The substantive heroism, in the accusa-
tive case.]
 PRACTICAL

ENGLISH EXERCISES .

PART I.— ACCIDENCE .

EXERCISE 1. (32, 33, p. 7.)

[The singular substantives are to be turned into the plural. The
indefinite article (a, an) must be changed into ' some,' ' any,' or
a numeral ( two, three, &c.) : ' this,' ' that,' make plural ' these,'
' those.' For the plur. of is, was, has, &c. , see p. 37.]

I HAVE travelled through a beautiful valley. Do

you hear the echo ? The boy was playing on a
fife. Give me a potato. I like my tall folio.
He has built a new church. She gave me a crum-
pled rose-leaf. The poor widow told me her¹ grief.
Set a thief to catch a thief. Tell me the proof of
your assertion. The old woman has a favorite
goose. Mind the child. My brother gave me
this. He is gone to have a tooth drawn. That
was a severe reproof. I will add a shert ac-
count of his crime. He attempted to screen the
criminal. This was the usual method of governing
a province.
1 Change her into their. 2 Change he into they.
H
146 EXERCISE 2 .

I have a good history of Rome. You have a

fine quarto. He has his emissary at work. That
is a good quality. This is a heavy penalty. He '
shall have it for his life. He reproached him
with his cruelty. This statue was an ornament
to Messana. I have written a whole canto. His
book is intended for the use of a tyro. I have seen
an attorney. The constable used his staff. I
have a pain in my foot. The cat has caught a
mouse. That is a fine ox. Does your goose lay
golden eggs ? Does the chimney smoke ? Has
Domitian killed a fly to-day ? Have you sold the
calf?

EXERCISE 2 .

[The singular substantives and pronouns , except those to which

an asterisk is prefixed, to be turned into the plural.]

He quoted a distich of old * Cato's. The poor

woman was very importunate. This is a die for
coining. Of this he pretended to have proof
enough, as well from the * testimony of a credible
witness, as from that of his own letter. His
* ardour excited a cry of * approbation from the
most stupid. He defeated a formidable conspiracy.
You have engaged an attorney. That chimney is
ill-built . The Duke has built and endowed a new
church. He was engaged in a traitorous practice.
Pleasure is not to be pursued at the * expense of
*health .
2 Change he into they.
3 Change him, his, into them, their.
4 Domitian ' is not to be altered .
5 For the plural of the pronouns, see 65 (page 17): for the
plural of the auxiliary verbs (am, is, do, was, have, &c.), see 129
(p. 37).
 EXERCISES 3, 4. 147

EXERCISE 3.

[Put an abstract substantive in the place of the words in Italics.

(See article 35, a. )]
He could not bear the acts- of-rudeness of an
uneducated mob. He put a stop to these hor-
rible acts-of-cruelty. This raised great feelings-
of-terrour in the city (m). It is long since I
had any experience of those acts-of-communication
from above. We have received from them nu-
merous acts- of-civility. I see how much I have
been indebted to yours and to Mrs. Hill's acts- of-
solicitation . The courteous- acts of life are not to
be neglected. I mean to give a short summary of
the Jewish story ; especially of the miraculous acts-
of- interposition in behalf of that people. The dif-
ference between dreams and real-occurrences long
since elapsed seems to consist chiefly in this, that
a dream passes like an arrow through the air,
leaving no trace of its flight behind it; but our
actual experienced-events make a lasting impression.
I suggest this to you as a plea against those acts-of-
self- accusation, which I am satisfied that you do
not deserve.

EXERCISE 4.

[The words in Italics to be turned into the plural. See 37-39.]

I have had no téte-à-tête with him, since I sent
you the last production. I have not seen Bos-
cawen ' since you left the country. A mount
Ætna is not found in every country. A Gentoo
or a Mahometan would be welcome here, if recom-
6 That is, an abstract substantive, that is also used to express a
concrete notion.
7 Add ' the ' before the plural.
H2
148 EXERCISE 5 .

mended by you. I tremble lest, my Esculapius

being departed, my infallible remedy should be lost
for ever. Elliot has sent me a fine cod with
oysters. This quidnunc of Olney makes no small
figure. The caveat you have entered, deters me
from proceeding. Finch' has graciously conde-
scended. Perry' will come. I have just seen Miss
Martin and her niece. I have just left Maurice.
Hayley adds his affectionate respects.

EXERCISE 5.

[The genitive formed by inflexion is to be used. The genitive

alone will imply the other words in Italics 8. See 47-49. ]

He is going to the shop kept by Howell and

James. He flies on the wings of an eagle. The
house belonging to Cicero was in flames. It was a
part of the commission given to Cato to restore
certain exiles of Byzantium. Cicero defeated the
conspiracy of Catiline. We should be prepared to
suffer death itself for the sake of righteousness.
I would suffer greater things than these for the
sake of conscience. The presence of Quintus at
home was necessary to their common interests .
The zeal and affection of the province would afford
him the safest retreat both on his own account and
(that) of his brother. He was actually besieged in
his own house by a freedman belonging to Clodius .
Metellus perceived which way the inclination of
Pompey was turning.
' Add ' the ' before the plural.
$ For instance, ' Charles's hat,' is ' the hat belonging to Charles. '
 EXERCISE 6 . 149

EXERCISE 6. (See § 7, p. 14.)

[Turn as-as into compar. with them; and the words in Italics
into the plural. Positive adjectives, without ' as,' are to be
changed into the comparative, if followed by (c) ; into the super-
lative, if followed by ( s) ; into the superlative of eminence, if
followed by (s, e) .
It will generally be necessary to prefix ' the ' to the super-
lative. ]
This plum is as red as that cherry. This ground
lies as high as any in the country. Henry is as
honest as his father. This is as glorious a victory
as that of Waterloo. He is my near (s) neighbour.
Yours is the easy (s) task. Set me an easy (s, e)
task. Yours is a good (s) exercise. Yours is as
good an exercise as his. John's is a good (s, e)
exercise. The senate is as eager as the people to
revenge his death. He is as unhappy as his poor
nephew. You have little (s) cause to complain.
You have as little cause to complain as any body.
Yours is as bad a hat as Henry's. This was
agreeable (s, e) to Pansa. This was as agreeable
to Pansa as to Hirtius. He exhorts them to act
with great¹ (s, e) vigour. They committed terri-
ble (s) excesses. They sent a pacific¹ (s, e) em-
bassy. This dress is of a new (s) fashion. Many (s)
men have something of dishonesty about them.
This is as eligible as that.
[In the following examples, use the strengthened
superlative forms, given in 61, e.] I have travelled
with the greatest rapidity. This is the wildest
notion ! You have behaved with the greatest
insolence ! He showed me his cabinet with the
greatest readiness.
1 A superlative in est, or with most, is often a superlative of
eminence when it has the before it. See 61 , e.
H3
150 EXERCISES 7, 8 .

EXERCISE 7.

[In the following examples, ' by' may be omitted: see 61, с
(compared with 94). For ' by nothing, substitute nothing, or
(which is the more common form now) no²: on the difference
of ' a little,' and ' little,' see 84, e. ]

This bonnet is prettier by far than your sister's.

Is not your brother's exercise easier by somewhat
than yours ? Is your sister better by nothing this
morning ? She is better by a little than she was
last night. This was not by any means agreeable
to the senate. His exercise is better by far than
yours. Your exercise is better by little than
George's. Her exercise is not better by much than
yours. Frederick's exercise is better by a consi-
derable quantity than Digby's.

EXERCISE 8. (Pronouns.)
[ Words in Italics are to be changed into the plural.]

[In the following examples, when the pron. pre-

cedes the subst., place it after the verb, and vice versa.]
This is my hat. These gloves are mine. That is
your stick. This is her parasol. This cherry is mine.
[In the following examples substitute that or those
for the repeated substantives .] Our spelling is more
irregular than the spelling of any other European
nation. Our state-papers are more carefully drawn
up than the state-papers of most other nations. The
ears of the ass are longer than the ears of the horse.
[In the following change so into such, 72, c. ]
We seldom have weather so hot in April. Cen-
sures so unmeasured are believed by few.
2 For by any means,' ' in any degree,' substitute at all.
 EXERCISES 9, 10. 151

EXERCISE 9. (Pronouns.)
[Use pronouns wherever you can in the following passages : some
places that might otherwise have been overlooked, are printed
inItalics.]

In the uneasy state I have described both of

Cicero's private and public life, Cicero was op-
pressed by a new and most cruel affliction, the
death of Cicero's beloved daughter Tullia ; the
death of Tullia happened soon after Tullia's divorce
from Dolabella : Dolabella's manners and humours
were entirely disagreeable to Tullia. Cicero had
long been deliberating with Cicero and Cicero's
friends, whether Tullia should not first send the
divorce ; but a prudential regard to Dolabella's
interest with Cæsar (for Dolabella's interest with
Cæsar was of use to Cicero in the times I have
described) seems to have withheld Cicero. The
case was the same with Dolabella ; Dolabella was
willing enough to part with Tullia, but did not care
to break with Cicero : for Cicero's friendship was a
credit to Dolabella, and gratitude obliged Dolabella
to observe and reverence Cicero ; since Cicero had
twice preserved Dolabella in capital causes.

EXERCISE 10.

Many men are quite unable to support their

families. (Change men into man.) I was at Chester
about twenty years ago. (Use some, 86, b.) A man
might wish that they had given their reasons more
at length. ( Use an indefinite numeral for a man,
91.)
[Use indefinite numerals in the following exam-
ples .] You except to a few of my quotations, but
3 This' may be used for what has recently been described.
H4
152 EXERCISE 11 .

there is hardly a single quotation of yours, that I

could not charge with falsehood and misrepresenta-
tion. Kings and the mighty men of the earth .
It matters not what other people (omit people, 89)
do. You use many bad arguments, and a few
good arguments.
[Correct the errours in the following example,
see 95.] Every gentleman-cadet must come pro-
vided with the following articles : eight pairs of
short cotton stockings ; four pairs of stocking web
drawers, &c.
6

[Use the form by two's ' in the following sen-

tence.] They are so numerous that you may catch
fifty of them at a time.

EXERCISE 11 .

[Turn the verbs into the preterites 109 ( 1 ) , 110, and 118.]

My legs ache. I refer the cause to you. Не

confers a great benefit on the State. He is try-
ing his coat on. He is dying by inches. He is
moving my heart. He proves their fidelity. They
concur with me. One of them demurs. This
immense fissure will divide all Europe, and swallow
up its rivers. The whole affair pleased me much.
He is travelling through Switzerland. He deceives
himself. All credit the tidings. He will die very
suddenly. You shall dye this cloth green. He
is increasing his attentions. He will defer his
journey. He is journeying through the wilderness.
He furnishes me with books. They gut the house.
I shall courtesy to my uncle.
 EXERCISES 12, 13. 153

EXERCISE 12 .

[For the present tense use am, is, are, &c. with the present
participle, 125.]

He begins his exercise. He lies on the grass.

He dies. He dyes his face. He refers the cause.
This entitles us to a reward. He mortifies her
pride. They deify their leader. They allay our
fears. They move the table. They listen in ex-
pectation. They flay him alive. They flee. He
repines at his barrenness. They weary their
hearers. They comply with our wishes. They
play at cricket. The tree decays. He pays his
labourers. He suffers for his folly. He ever defers
his journey. He conquers all these difficulties .
He worships money. He travels through Italy.
He quarrels with his best friends. He rambles
through the wood.

EXERCISES ON THE (SO- CALLED) IRREGULAR

VERBS.- See the Lists.

EXERCISE 13 .
[In the following Exercises turn the verbs (1) into the preterite ;
(2) into the perfect definite.]
He will only take a flying leave of me. Thanks
for the pains you are taking to furnish me with a
dictionary. He will burst his bonds asunder. I
will cast up your account in a few minutes. He
will hit the mark. You will cut your finger. The
victory will cost them dear. I will put the book
on the shelf. Let us split the difference. The
marriage of these princes will knit both realms
into one. I will set down my sum. He will hurt
himself. You will shed bitter tears for this. He
will rid the State of its secret enemies. Nature
will spread us a verdant carpet. The cook will
shred the leeks.
H5
154 EXERCISES 14, 15.

EXERCISE 14 .

He will spend his youth in classical pursuits.

He will build a magnificent mansion. He will gild
the bitter pill. He will bend the hearts of the
people to his will by his impassioned eloquence.
He will gird himself with fine linen. I will dwell
alone. He will spell the word correctly. He will
mis-spell the word. She will spill the milk. He
will bleed profusely. Idleness breeds many evils.
He leads himby the hand. Being a forward man,
he meets with many rebuffs. He reads the news-
paper. He will feed his cattle on the hills. He
shoots well. She keeps guinea-fowls. They kneel,
as suppliants, at his feet. I feel cold. He creeps
on all fours. He sleeps soundly. He deals kindly
with him. He is leaning out of the window. He
learns to deceive his father. He means well. He
weeps for your apostasy. He lays a wager. The
smith shoes the horse. He pays dear for his
whistle. He says whatever he pleases. He leaves
behind him a worthy successor. The enemy flee
before us. He is bereaving me of my children.

EXERCISE 15.

He forsakes his early friends. He will only take

a flying leave of me. Thanks for the pains you are
taking to furnish me with a dictionary. He is
shaking off the acorns. He bears a heavy burden.
He will break faith with him. He speaks fairly.
He swears rashly. The dog will bite you. He
will drive a carriage-and-four through it. I ride
fast. The wind blows keen. He tears up the
odious document. He shears his sheep. He hides
nothing from me. The age grows suspicious. He
slides unconsciously into a repetition of his old
 1

EXERCISES 16, 17 . 155

arguments. The child thrives on spoon-meat.

Here arises a difficulty. I will strive to reconcile
the contending parties. He smites him to the
ground. He will throw him down. We know
each other. I shall tread a beaten path. He
chides the boy. I shall throw no impediments in
your way. He is stealing his neighbour's grapes.

EXERCISE 16.

He bids me hold my tongue. He will choose

the best . He will do the best he can. We are
drawing lots. He eats too heartily. The bird is
flying away. The boy will fall. The colossus be-
strides the world. I shall forget my own name.
I will draw you some water. The bird flies through
the air. The quicksilver freezes. He will get it
done. He gives them sixpence a day. The earth
lies heavy upon him. I hold sixteen shares. He
is seething a kid. I shall sit in parliament for
Exeter. The witch spits fire. He is slaying his
enemies .

EXERCISE 17.

I will begin to clear away the rubbish. I cling

to this hope. He flings off the traitor with indig-
nation. I am ringing the bell. He is drinking
Champagne. I shrink from the contest. She
sings correctly. We sink into despondency. I
am swimming with corks. The corn springs up.
The girl spins well. The bee is stinging me. We
are sticking in the mud. He is striking his father.
He binds him with an iron chain. He is grinding
him to powder. This errour winds itself about our
hearts. You are finding a mare's nest. He is
digging over his little brother's
н 6
garden.
156 EXERCISE 18 .

Christmas is coming. He clothes himself in

purple. He is hanging his hat on the peg. I am
lighting on a mysterious truth. She runs there in
less time than her brother. The maid-servant is
lighting the fire. He stands the trial. He is
winning the, wager. He is bringing in the tea.
4

He is buying a pair of stockings. She teaches

her little brother. I think worse of him. He is
working industriously. The tortoise is catching
the hare. He is fighting valiantly. Diogenes,
with his lighted lantern, is seeking for a man.

EXERCISE 18 .

He is graving an image. He is hewing the

stone. He is lading the ass. The farmer loads
the wagon. Richard is mowing the meadow. He
is sawing the trunk of the old oak. The sempstress
is shaping the body of the gown. He is shaving
himself with a blunt razor. They are sowing the
seeds of strife. He shows me much civility. They
strew flowers before his carriage. The hypocrite
writhes in agony. The little boy awakes. The
daughter cleaves to these old associations. He
dare not accept the challenge. The dunghill cock
crows loudest. The lightning rives the oak.
4 Alter this word to three.
 PART II .

EXERCISES ON THE SYNTAX .

EXERCISE 1.

[ Use prepositions or adverbs as predicates in the

following examples.] The fire is extinguished. I
shall depart to-morrow. Clodius was in that place.
She is in good health. It is ungenerous and cow-
ardly to attack a man when he is prostrate. I have
been a little mistaken in my definition.
[Use substantives under the government of pre-
positions as predicates in the following examples.]
Your life is exposed to danger. He is condemned
to die. He is too honest to deceive. This particular
humble way to greatness is now unfashionable.
Our friends are disheartened.

[Turn the verbs in the following examples into the

idiom explained in 311.] What offence, what con-
tradiction to reason, may be found in every single
article of the account ? Every false step a man
makes in discourse ought not to be insisted on . It
was necessary that he should enrich all these hungry
friends and dependents by the spoils of the
province. When a bird hath flown through the
air, no token of her way can be found. As they
were under no engagement to his cause but what
was voluntary, so it was necessary to humour them,
158 EXERCISES 2, 3 .

lest through disgust they should desert it. Cato

could not be moved from his purpose by com-
pliments.
[Substitute an adverb for the predicate in Italics,
310, a.] If the Pompeians are so insolent when
conquered, how much more insolent they will be
when conquerors, it will be your lot to feel.

EXERCISE 2.

[Turn the following examples into the construction

explained in 312.] It is settled that he should learn
Greek next year. The arrangement is that I should
pay for Mr. H. What I have to do is this, to cut
this cake into twelve pieces. There were seven
nations in the land, which was to be subdued by the
Israelites .

He has the finest army in the world, and his

enemies are prostrate. ( Use an adv. or prepos. as
predicate.) To be loud and vehement either against
a court, or for a court, is no sign of patriotism .
(Use a participial subst. for nom.case.) All knaves
are thorough knaves. (For all, use every.) I am not
of the number of those who can ascribe passages
so great and strange to chance. (Change so into
such.)

EXERCISE 3.

[In the following examples, turn the verb exist

into the verb to be, 318.] Hot springs exist in
Germany. Your book may serve to convince
others, that grace, truth, and efficacy may exist in
the ministry of our Apostolical Church. No oсса-
sion exists to exhort, but to congratulate with you.
 EXERCISE 4 . 159

Either no republic at all will exist, or it will be

saved by him and his accomplices. A poet or
orator never existed, who thought any one preferable
to himself. No way existed of doing it.
[In the following examples, place the nominatives
in Italics after the verb, with the necessary altera-
tion, 318, b .] As he was journeying to Rome, six
of Clodius's followers met him. When he came
the evening before to my neighbour Philip's, the
house was so crowded with soldiers that scarce a
room was left empty for Cæsar to sup in : about
two thousand were invited. Nothing was wanting
to his freedmen and his slaves, but the better sort
were elegantly treated. He used to say that two
things were necessary to acquire and support power,
-soldiers and money, which yet depended mutually
on each other. A new actor now appeared on the
stage.
Ought not the liberty of our country to be pre-
ferred to the life of any friend ? (Alter according to
311.) No occasion can exist for new measures,
when there is nothing new in the case itself.
(Change to exist into to be.)

EXERCISE 4 .

[Alter the following sentences according to rule

319.] To see a young consul, the scholar, as it
were, of my discipline, flourishing in the midst of
applause, will be glorious to me. To err is the
case ofevery man, but to persevere in errour is the
part only of a fool. To reflect that I have never
promised any thing rashly of myself to you, is a
pleasure to me. To send him to be secured on
ship-board from either doing or suffering any
farther mischief was necessary. That on the very
160 EXERCISE 5 .

day of the victory there was actually a conference

between the two first, is evident. If the robber,
upon hearing of my arrival, should run back again
into Italy, to meet him there will be Brutus's part .
An original medal is still remaining, that gives
no small confirmation to this notion: on the one
side is the head of a Silenus, or rather of Pan ; and
on the other, ALBINUS BRUTI F. (Place the nomina-
tives in Italics after their respective verbs, 318, b.)
That the Senate should decree that a province is
preserved to the empire by the mildness and inno-
cency of the general, rather than by the force of
arms and the favour of the gods, is much more
honorable than any triumph. ( Turn the verb in
Italics into the infinitive mood. Attend to 319 and
320.)

EXERCISE 5 .

[Alter the construction of the following sentences

so as to give emphasis to the words in Italics, 321 ,
323.] He had not taken this step for his own
sake. Remember that I am to be with you on
Wednesday. The farmers complained of oppres-
sive taxation not without reason. A vanquished
chief endeavours to throw the blame of his defeat
upon others. A bad workman complains of his
tools. The dishonest are always suspecting dis-
honesty in others. You have done all the mischief.
They employed the vile informer. They hired the
services of an unprincipled band.
[Alter the verbs to elapse, to pass, into the verb to
be, 324.] Ten weeks have now elapsed since you
entered these doors. Three months have now
elapsed since you have contributed one farthing to
the relief of his necessities. A whole year has past
since I received a letter from you.
 EXERCISE 6 . 161

That people long for what they have not, and

overlook the good in their possession, is an obser-
vation that naturally occurs upon the occasion, and
which many other occasions furnish an opportunity
to make. (Place the subject of the verb is, after its
verb, 319.)

EXERCISE 6.

[In the following sentence, use such verbs and pre-

dicates as are explained in 326. Obs. ' to be, to
have,' are to be changed into some other verb.] The
door was open at the time. He experiences the
sensation of warmth. This experience will be bought
at a high price. A Christian ought to be ever on
his guard against the danger ofbecoming proud of
his graces. My labour must be unrewarded.
[Turn and not, into nor, in the following sen-
tences.] That I shall not give him an opportunity
is certain : and he will not find it an easy matter to
steal one. The sound of the wind in the trees, and
the singing of birds, are much more agreeable to
our ears, than the incessant barking of dogs, and
screaming of children : and a sweet-smelling garden
is not a bad exchange for the putrid exhalations of
Silver End. The rich man would be miserable :
and the clown would not find the accession of so
much unwieldy treasure an unmixed blessing. I
know not yet whether he will add ' Conversation '
to those poems already in his hands, and I do not
much care.
[Place the predicative adjective first in the follow-
ing sentences, 327.] May the hour be cursed !
Babylon is fallen.
[Turn the following assertions into questions. ] It
is three weeks since you left us. He acts under
162 EXERCISE 7.

the controul of others. You were earnestly in-

vited. A new scene will soon open.
[Use adjectives for adverbs in the following sen-
tences, 326. ] The east wind blew rather sharply
over the top of the hill. He shuts his eyes as
closely as he does his hands, and resolves not to be
convinced,

EXERCISE 7.

[Use the idiom explained in 328.] An oppor-

tunity cannot be stolen. One cannot understand
what you mean. It is impossible to hear what you
say. One cannot learn without taking pains. As
to my books, it is impossible to save them from the
flames. You cannot safely trust to dictionaries
and definitions.

[Omit the verbs in Italics, 329.] It is no won-

der that they should uphold his authority. It were
better for a man never to have seen them, or to
see them with the eyes of a brute, stupid and
unconscious of what he beholds, than not to be
able to say, " The Maker of all these wonders is
my friend ! " A state of contempt is not a state
for a prince: it were better to get rid of him at
once !

Here is the difference between you and me. (Use

a stronger verb for is, 326, a .) Our time ought to
be employed to better purpose (311). Fresh
plumes will be added to the wings of time. (Turn
this sentence into a question )
Safely must be turned into safe.
 EXERCISES 8, 9. 163

EXERCISE 8 .

Turn assertions into ' questions of appeal, and

vice versa, 332, 333.] Is not happiness to be pur-
sued as the chief good of man ? Is every rich fool
to hold his head higher than his poor neighbour ?
Will any man venture to maintain this ? Time
steals from us days, months, and years, with such
unparalleled address, that even while we say they
are here , they are gone. From infancy to man-
hood is rather a tedious period. Do we not find
ourselves at the bottom of the vale of years, before
we have reflected upon the steepness of the de-
clivity that leads us into it ? This will at any rate
serve to speculate and converse upon. In two
years not only this project, but all the projects in
Europe may be disconcerted. Is not the situation
as favorable to your purpose as you could wish ?
When our animal spirits are depressed, dulness is
the consequence. It proves that he is capable of
great dispatch, when he is pleased to use it. Have
I not, in a state of dejection, such as they are
absolutely strangers to, sometimes put on an air of
cheerfulness and vivacity, to which I myself am in
reality a stranger, for the sake of winning their
attention to more useful matter ?

EXERCISE 9 .

[Turn the sentences in Italics into attributives,

335, &c. ] Books, which are the only remedy I can
think of, are a commodity we deal but little in at
Olney. If, therefore, it may consist with your
other concerns, which are multifarious, I shall
be obliged to you if you will be so good as to
6 See 330 (b).
164 EXERCISE 10.

subscribe for me to some circulating library, which

is well-furnished. This is a circumstance that
obtains always in a degree that is exactly in pro-
portion to the badness of the tenant. It was
the occasion of an agreeable surprise, which is a
sensation that deserves to be ranked among the
pleasantest that belong to us. I do not know that
a poet is bound to write always with a philosopher
at his elbow, who is prepared always to bind down
his imagination to mere matters of fact. In the
letters which are mislaid I took notice of certain
disagreeable doubts you had expressed in one
which was enclosed to us and unsealed concerning
your visit next spring to Olney. Dames who
reside in villages have various receipts for curing
cuts and burns. (Alter according to 336.)

EXERCISE 10.

[Correct the following example by 342.] Rollo,

the ancestor of William the Conqueror.
[Express the following sentences according to 342.]
He was one of Sir Josiah Child's creatures. He
was one of my friends. That was one of the poet's
pictures. I met one of your uncles in Italy last
year.
[In the following examples place the substantives
in Italics, in apposition to the sentence. See 341.]
Its arrival was unexpected, which is a circumstance
always sure to be the occasion of an agreeable
surprise. You wrote to say that you would visit
us in the summer : which promise you did not
fulfil. I ventured to prophesy an illustrious con-
summation of the war, which prediction proved
7 A particular ancestor is not meant, but merely an ancestor.
 EXERCISE 11 . 165

false, and exposed me to the ridicule of more pru-

dent speculators. He will dine with us next
Saturday, which is a fortunate circumstance, as I
shall have an opportunity to introduce him to
the liveliest and most entertaining woman in the
country.
[Turn the attributive factors in Italics, into
relative sentences.] Our acquaintance, so lately
begun, must be soon suspended. An old man thus
qualified cannot fail to charm the lady in question.
A thousand other far less profitable amusements
divert their attention .

Are not the designs of Providence inscrutable ?

(Turn the question into an assertion .)

EXERCISE 11 .

[Leave out the unnecessary words in the following

sentences, 344.] I have sent up the three first
books to Johnson's house. Have you seen St.
Peter's church ? St. Peter's church at Northamp-
ton is a fine old church .

[Alter the following sentence of Cowper's into an-

other admissible form, 344, a.] A little cousin of
mine suggested to me that it might not be amiss to
advertise the work at Merril's, the bookseller.
[Change the attributive words and phrases in
Italics, into others of the same meaning.] The dis-
tress of the agriculturist is now very great. The
subject of our policy towards our colonies must be
fully discussed. A man ofgreat respectability. A
very important question. He regarded him with
paternal affection. This was one of the most
bloody battles that are recorded.
166 EXERCISE 12 .

[Introduce the idiom explained in 346, c, into the

following sentence.] I am glad that you have seen
the last Northampton dirge, for the roguish clerk
sent me only half the number of printed copies, for
which I stipulated at first.
[Express the following sentence according to the
idiom given in 328, a.] It is impossible to wander
out of the reach of this : it is impossible to slip
through the hands of Omnipotence.

EXERCISE 12. (Objective Relation.)

[In the following examples, turn the active into
the passive, and vice versa, 353.] Cæsar enter-
tained the city with the most splendid triumph that
Rome had ever seen : but the people considered it
a triumph over themselves, purchased by the loss
of their liberty. He had before given the same
proof of his discontent. The people were at last
put into good humour by Cicero's exertions. This
wanton profanation of the sovereign dignity raised
a general indignation in the city. You are desired
by me to come home. It is thought that the
Queen will not go to Brighton before Christmas.
Be received into the bosom of mother-church !
Hope may visit even me ! You could see the fires
from your windows. Never sure did men manifest
religious zeal more terribly, or more to the pre-
judice of its own cause. Red, brown, and yellow,
have supplanted the universal verdure. I received
an anonymous eulogium about a week ago. My
good state of health is accompanied by frequent
fits of dejection. We now expect Lady Hesketh,
but not immediately. One of the best qualified
judges of that university compared the sixth book
of the Iliad with Pope and with the original.
 EXERCISES 13, 14. 167

EXERCISE 13.

[Turn the verbs in Italics into the passive voice,

356.] The Gospel, wherever it is planted, will
have its genuine effect upon some few ; upon more,
perhaps, than men take notice of in the hurry of
the world. Did I ever deny you access to me ?
They allow me sixpence a day. Cornwall elects as
many members as Scotland : but does Parliament
take better care of Cornwall than of Scotland ?
Death soon put an end to the enterprises of Francis
the First and Henry the Eighth.
[In the following examples, instead of the verbs in
Italics, most ofwhich are from the Latin, use simple
Saxon verbs with adverbs or prepositions used objec-
tively, 357. ] The wicked will be excluded from
heaven. The publication is postponed till Christ-
mas. He acceded to my proposal. You must ex-
punge that passage. Some mention of this should
be inserted here. People will deride you. He
cheated his employer. You must dismiss these pre-
judices. Can impure sacrifices avert the wrath of
God? Which of the three candidates was re-
jected ? Can you discover the sense of these words ?
He is said to have destroyed himself. Will these
tardy civilities compensate such an unprovoked at-
tack?

EXERCISE 14.

[In the following examples, turn the participial

substantives into the infinitive mood, 361. ] This left
them a liberty of choosing, after a free inquiry,
whatever was found most agreeable to reason and
nature. Trusting in God must needs imply belief
inhim.
168 EXERCISE 15 .

[Express the following sentences by the idiom given

in 368, a.] His sole occupation is to laugh at the
mistakes of others. The perverse little child is
crying all the day long.
[In the following, use the idiom given in 369.]
Is this the idol to which you would wish the whole
world to bow ? Would you wish me to write to my
uncle ? Is this the incorruptible integrity, to the
majesty of which you would wish all men to do
homage ? Would you wish me to refuse to relieve
his necessities ?
[Use the idiom explained in 371, 372.] I am
obliged to pay eight pounds for my folly. You are
the person whom I must thank for your seasonable
interposition.
I shall be obliged to him, if, when he has finished
the revisal of the eighth book, he will send it to
General Cowper's house in Charles Street. (Alter
by 344.) In my situation I can contribute very
little to it myself. (Make very little emphatic, 321.)

EXERCISE 15.

[Omit the unnecessary words, 382.] We have

returned thanks to him for a turbot and a lobster.
Have you sent the book to Henry ? Can you spare
a few sheets of it for me ?

[Express the following sentences according to 384

(2). ] His writing is like his brother's, so exactly
that the t's are crossed in the very same manner.
She is so exactly like her sister, that every single
tone of her voice is the same.
[Alter to the form of 384 (3).] He is nothing
compared with Wordsworth. Your exertions are
 EXERCISE 16. 169

nothing compared with the sacrifices which he has

been making for many years.
[ Use the idiom in 384 (4).] It must be con-
fessed, though the confession should fill us with shame,
that we have not valued our glorious privileges at
any thing like their real worth. He told me, and
the statement filled me with astonishment, that he had
never been in the possession of more than sixty
pounds a year. He asserted, and the assertion filled
us with horrour, that a rebellion was on the point of
breaking out.
[Introduce the preventive clause by for, 386.] I
could not see the beacon in consequence of the fog.
The crowd prevented me from getting near him.

EXERCISE 16.

[Express the attributive factors in Italics by rela-

tive sentences .] A viper was darting his forked
tongue at the nose of a kitten almost in contact
with his lips. To avoid the evils of inconstancy
and versatility, ten thousand times worse than those
of obstinacy and the blindest prejudice, we have con-
secrated the state, that no man should approach
to look into its defects but with due caution.
(Burke.)
This is an admirable performance, when we con-
sider that the author of it is an uninstructed day-
labourer. (Express the restrictive clause by for, 386. )
He was of opinion that they should be executed at
once. ( Use the idiom ' to be for ' doing so and so,
386.) The evils of versatility and inconstancy are
worse by ten thousand times than those of ob-
stinacy and the blindest prejudice. ( Turn this asser-
I
170 EXERCISE 17.

tion into a question, 333, and omit the unnecess

word, 392, a.) The defects of the state ought
not to be approached without due caution. ( Use
the idiom in 311.) It is impossible to exaggerate
the evils of versatility and inconsistency. (Use idiom
in 328. ) Would that I were a Hottentot, or even
a dissenter, so that my views of a future state "
were more comfortable ! (For future state, use an
adverb substantively, 330.)

EXERCISE 17.

[Alter the following sentences according to the

idioms explained in 398, a.] Take a kid of the age
ofthree months. Children of the age of seven years
are capable of considerable application. Have you
completed the age ofseven years ? There are manu-
scripts above a thousand years ofage.
The roguish undertaker has clothed all the
maid-servants in black silk. (Change roguish into the
idiom given in 346, c.) We speak of our money-
getting, worldly spirit, under the smooth phrase of
prosperity caused by commerce. ( Use one adjective
derived from commerce, to express the words in
Italics.)
[Turn the following assertions into questions of
appeal, and vice versa, 332, 333.] The struggle
lay between Lentulus and Pompey. By his own
conduct and professions he seems to have Len-
tulus's interest at heart. He can restore me
without an army. Can even Pompey restore me
without an army ? Cannot that consummate states-
man restore me without an army ? It seems dan-
7 Cowper, vol. vii. 45, Southey's edition .
 EXERCISE 18 . 171

gerous to the republic, that the king should be

restored without an army. This was not what he
had most at heart .

EXERCISE 18.

[Insert in the following sentences the parts of

speech, or factors, named in the parentheses. See
399. ] Q. Metellus Celer (relat. sentence) wrote
a (attributive word) letter to his friend Cicero.
The (attributivefactor) general (relat. clause) could
not be prevailed upon (objective factor, by what ?)
to countenance the (attributive factor) proceeding.
If any (attributive) saying of mine provokes you,
why do not you urge me with that, rather than
with the contumely of a groundless calumny ? He
protested that he (relat. clause) had never met
with a (attributive) hint or suspicion of Sylla's
name in it. Q. Fufius Calenus¹ ( attributive factor),
supported by all the faction of Clodius , would not
permit the law to be offered to the suffrage of the
citizens. Hortensius was persuaded that no judge
(attributive, with however) could (adv.) absolve
him, and that a leaden sword, as he said, would
destroy him. Hortensius proposed an expedient *
(attributive relat. clause), that (attributive word, in
apposition) Fufius¹ should publish a law (objective
factor) for the trial of Clodius.
8 He then commanded in Gaul .
1 He was one of the tribunes.
2 For of Clodius, use an adjective. See 337.
3 Use a subst. governed by ' of.'
4 It was accepted by both parties.
5 The law was to be for his trial by the prætor, with a select
bench ofjudges.

12
172 EXERCISES 19, 20.

EXERCISE 19.

(Substantive accessory sentences.)

[Clauses to form substantive
accessory sentences with that.]
He produced men to swear he was at Interamna, about
two or three days' journey from
Rome.
He was persuaded the growing disorders of the
city would soon force all parties
to create him Dictator.
I had observed before he had conceived some secret
disgust..
He was shameless and aban-
doned he used to value himself for
doing what his very adversaries
could not object to him with
modesty (consequence ) .
He shows Dolabella was still the more un-
happy of the two.
I shall let them see I have no dislike to the man,
but to the cause.
He proposed an expedient [This expedient was] to have
the cause tried by the prætor
and twelve select judges. (Use
the passive voice.)
He is drunk he cannot stand (consequence).

EXERCISE 20.

[Omit the words that are not absolutely necessary

in the following sentences.] I am glad that you
have changed your mind. I am sorry that you
are not well. I am convinced that your exertions
are to no purpose .
[Turn the following assertions into questions of
appeal, and vice versa, 332, 333.] Ought not pub-
lic thanks to be given to all the people of Italy
who came to Rome for this great man's defence ?
This was the general voice of the Senate ; of the
Knights ; of all Italy. We proceeded to several
new and vigorous votes. One cannot help pausing
 EXERCISES 21 , 22 . 173

for a while, to reflect on the great idea which

these facts imprint, of the character and dignity
of Cicero. These clauses fell, of course, when the
laws themselves were repealed. Was not this an
ugly precedent for succeeding Tribunes ? I am
entirely devoted to Cicero. He took the trouble
of a journey into Gaul, to solicit Cæsar's consent
to his restoration.

EXERCISE 21 .
[Clauses to be added as relative
clauses to the sentences on
the other side. ]
He was a man ( rel. clause). His prudence was not easily
imposed upon.
I am a man (rel. clause) . I approve no peace but on An-
tony's submission .
There was some secret wound The public was not acquainted
(rel. clause) in Antony's af- with this wound.
fairs.
Thou (rel. clause) must be pun- ( The person addressed) is perpe-
ished. tually sending and receiving
letters from him.
You (rel. clause) produce no You assert that we have made a
proofs of your assertion. false step.
I ( rel. clause) shall not be caught I have been grossly deceived
a second time. once.

You are one (rel. clause) . Your greatness of mind prefers

death to slavery.
He is so far happy as to have He brags to have caught Cæsar
caught you with this bait with this bait.
(rel. clause) .

EXERCISE 22 .

He has caught you with the same bait, that he

brags to have caught Cicero with. (Change that into
which.)
[Use but in the following sentence, 417.] There's
not one commentator of note who would not have
set him right. Scarce any one has disowned the
receiving of his being from God, who has not also,
13
174 EXERCISE 23 .

in a manner, disavowed his own being what he is.

There's no man who does not disapprove of the
peace. There's no honest man who will not sup-
port me in so good a cause. There is no one who
does not shrink from so fearful a risk. (Attend to
417, α.)
[Alter the following examples into the idiom given
in 418.] We have not had so rainy a day since
the day on which you left us. I have not seen so
fine a crop since the day on which I left Hartle-
pool.
[In the following attend to 418, a. ] We have
had no company since the day on which you left
us. I have seen nobody since the day on which I
returned.

Is there no way of reconciling Antony and his

friends ? (Change the participial substantive into the
infin.) Antony and his friends are to be recon-
ciled. ( Turn this into a question.)

EXERCISE 23.

[Omit the relatives, 421 , a.] The man on whom

you so grossly imposed, threatens to bring an
action against you. The remedies with which you
relieved me were very dangerous. The men with
whom you acted were of very indifferent character.
The crime with which you charge me is of a very
heinous nature. What is the crime of which you
are accused ? A friend with whom I met in Italy
will take care of this .

[For ' the things which,' or ' that which, sub-

stitute ' what,' 414, a.] I thought it of service to
the public, that you should be informed of the
things which have since happened. As soon as I
 EXERCISE 24 . 175

was informed of that which had been done, I

resolved, without delay, to support Lepidus in the
execution of his good intentions.
[Alter the following sentences by the omission of
one of the relatives. See 421, b.] The man on
whom you imposed, and whom you betrayed, is
loud in his execrations against you. You owe
some reparation to one at whom you have so often
laughed, and whom you have so often exposed.
This is he on whom you smiled, and whom you
ruined.

If we have any tolerable fortune for the republic,

we shall here put an end to the audaciousness of
the desperate. ( Turn the verb of the principal sen-
tence into the passive.)

EXERCISE 24.

[Turn the relative clauses into the infinitive mood,

422 ; 422, α.] This is the only rule we have by
which we may go. Would that I had a friend
with whom I might consult ! I have nobody with
whom I may converse. If, in a case so important
and so necessary, there could be any occasion for
words, with which one might excite and confirm you,
there is no hope that you will do what I wish, and
what is proper .
It were otherwise impossible, that aman natu-
rally shrewd and sensible could have satisfied him-
self with palpable sophistry, which has not even the
grace of fallacy to recommend it. (Insert such before
palpable, 419.) Wherefore Lepidus is cruel to his
children, not he who adjudges Lepidus an enemy.
(Make Lepidus emphatic, 321. ) Is not our greatest
hope in you and in your army ? ( Turn the question
into an assertion, 333.)
14
176 EXERCISE 25.

[Substitute what for ' that which,' ' the thing

which, ' & c . ] That, against which your mother and
sister are now soliciting, in favour of the children,
the very same, and much worse, Antony, Lepidus,
and our other enemies, are, at this very moment,
threatening to us all. But the thing which gave the
greatest shock to the whole republican party, was
a law contrived by Cæsar, and published by his
colleague Pedius. He began to think it his best
scheme to concur in that which seemed to be more
peculiarly his own part, the design of revenging the
death of his uncle .

EXERCISE 25.

[For every thing that, &c., substitute whatever.]

If I obtain this of you, you will not scruple, I am
sure, to do every thing that you can for them.
[Use a relative adv. for in which, 423.] He was
engaged in an inexpiable war, in which he must
either conquer or perish with the republic itself.
His legions must be not only supported, but re-
warded. ( Use the idiom given in 311.) Is he the
less to be pitied for not keeping a better guard
against so detestable a villain ? ( Turn into an asser-
tion.) He was present at a conference of Cn. Pom-
pey, the Consul, and P. Vettius, the general of the
Marsi, held between the two camps . (Turn the attri-
butive clause in Italics into a relative sentence.) Since
the republic, that I may speak the most moderately,
has no occasion for this embassy, yet, if I can
undertake it with safety, I will go. (Turn the sen-
tence in Italics into an infinitive clause.) If I do
not deceive myself, they, by their watchings, cares,
and votes, have managed matters so, that all the
attempts of my enemies have not yet been able
to do me any harm. (Make they emphatic, 323.)
 EXERCISES 26, 27 . 177

EXERCISE 26.

[The event described in the second of each pair of

sentences is to be expressed as immediately following
the first, 427.] (1.) I saw the surmise. I began
to write. (2.) This principle is admitted. It is
subverted. (3.) We were sitting down to supper.
A hasty rap alarmed us. (4.) I had reached the
yard-door, and opened it. Lady Austen appeared,
leaning on Mr. Scott. (5.) He was invested with
this office. He marched to Brundisium. (6.) The
peace was made. It was broken (use hardly-
before). (7.) My remarks were published. I
began, one may imagine, to be in no small pain for
myself.
[Express the speedy, but not immediate subsequence
of the second event in the sentences just given, 429.]
This, one would think, might have induced you
to suffer a man to be quiet, who suffers every body
else to be quiet. (Get rid of the second quiet, 310, a. )
It is now in a manner become necessary for him to
publish some apology for himself, and not to suffer
his person and character to be exposed to the world,
under such false and detestable colours as those in
which our editor has painted them. (Omit the un-
necessary words, 419.) I subjoin here a specimen
of it, in which I have taken no other liberty with
his words than the liberty of collecting and ranging
them into some kind of order. ( Get rid of the second
' liberty, and use a rel. adv. for in which.)

EXERCISE 27 .
[Express the speedy, but not immediate subsequence
of the second event, 428.] (1.) My remarks were
6 This is an instance of Middleton's use of ' such ' with another
attributive.
15
178 EXERCISE 28 .

published. I found that I was threatened with an

answer. (2.) He had entered into the engage-
ment. He found that he had been entrapped by
the artful representations of able but unprincipled
men .

Though his title promised us a full answer to

my remarks, yet I observed that he had passed
over many material remarks without any answer
at all. (Get rid of the second remarks.) He would
wish them to be looked upon as trifling and con-
temptible ; yet will needs have them written by a
person eminent and distinguished in the university
for his learning. (Alter wish according to the idiom
given in 369.) He constantly disclaimed the im-
putation in a public and open manner, which must
of necessity come to the knowledge of our editor .
(Insert such before a public.) For the senseless
unpointed ribaldry, with which every paragraph of
his is filled, 'tis enough for me to leave it to that
merited contempt, with which I am sensible it has
met. (In each of the relative clauses, place which
before the preposition, and make the necessary altera-
tions ' , 421.)
[Express the immediate subsequence of the second
proposition.] His answer appeared. All my fears
were at an end.

EXERCISE 28 .

[Omit the unnecessary auxiliary verbs in the fol-

lowing sentences, 430.] I will offer you no apology,
till you shall have retracted your offensive expres-
sions. I shall remain incredulous till you shall
have assured me that it was strictly and entirely
7 The sentence will then stand as Middleton wrote it.
 EXERCISE 29 . 179

of your own composing. When you shall have

completed your important work, no man will con-
gratulate you more heartily than your old colleague.
[Abridge the adverbial sentences in Italics, 424, a.]
This will pass with him for mere begging the ques-
tion, or, what's worse, will, when it is examined,
be found to be false. I shall look upon you as
sincere, till I am forced to think otherwise. This,
till it is supported by facts and proofs, will pass
with men of sense for crude and senseless cant.
The secrets of our hearts, though they are studiously
disguised, have all been discovered by your pene-
tration. Marcus, when he was yet a mere boy, had
given proofs of an unusually powerful understand-
ing. I shall proceed to consider what he has to
say in justification of himself, in this answer of his
which I am now examining : all which, when it is
laid together, is, in substance and effect, just what
follows.

This must needs have been a fitter engine by

which you might insinuate your poison. (Put the
relative clause in the infinitive mood, (1 ) retaining
the relative, (2) omitting it.) I shall at present
only enquire into the true state of the manuscripts,
about which he makes such a noise. (Put which
before its governing proposition.)

EXERCISE 29.

[Turn the sentences in Italics into the form of

adverbial sentences of time, 433.] We are making
great exertions to publish the Gospel to the
heathen ; though our own land is filled with dense
masses, to whom the Gospel tidings are never pro-
claimed. Mr. A. is an ardent supporter of foreign
16
180 EXERCISE 30 .

missions, though his own mills are crowded from

morning to night with the miserable victims of his
insatiable avarice.

These are the only crimes of which I have been

guilty against religion. (Change which into that.)
Strange character of friends ! whom neither old
acquaintance, nor esteem, nor a long intercourse of
friendly offices, could restrain from discarding me,
when I was discovered to think differently from
them. (Abridge the last clause, 424, a.) I suffer for
that which is merely speculative. ( Use what.) It is
strange, that a man can be so silly as to imagine,
that, were I disposed to recant, I should not do it
in my own words, rather than his ! (Abridge the
principal sentence. See 329.) All at which this
good man aims, is to make me odious and de-
testable to every body. (Change which into that.)
This, after all, does the greatest hurt to our cause.
(Make this emphatic.)

EXERCISE 30.

[Invert the order of the following sentences, 437.]

You will reap as you sow. Your reward will be
as your labour. He acts as he believes.
This is a high honour for a man of humble rank
to receive. ( Turn receive into the passive, 438.)
[Turn the following sentences into the form given
in 439. ] The quantity of salt is so small, that it
cannot season the whole mass. Pompey might
reasonably contemn the thought of it, as of an
attempt so rash, that no prudent man will venture
upon . This argument is so precarious, that it
8 Turn this clause (1) into an active, (2) into a passive form .
See 439, a.
 EXERCISE 31 . 181

cannot satisfy a man ofjudgment. The legislators,

who formed the ancient republics, knew well that
their business was an arduous one, that could not
be accomplished with no better apparatus than the
metaphysics of an undergraduate, and the mathe-
matics and arithmetic of an exciseman .

All of them, except a few favorite ones, must

now be discarded. (Express this according to the idiom
given in 311.) This is a piece of grimace which
will hardly pass upon the world. (Insert such before
a piece.) All other writers, who have ever noticed
the passage, take it in the same sense that I take
it in. (Get rid ofthe second take.)

EXERCISE 31 .

[Turn the following sentences into the idioms given

in 440, 441.] He is cunning enough not to fall
into that snare . He has done little beyond pre-
paring the way for others. I have done little
beyond clearing away some popular objections.
Mocking at sin was the only thing he did .
(Express this according to 441 , α.)
[Turn the following sentences into the form the-
the with comparatives, 442.] The rich are endan-
gered in proportion as the objects of ambition are
multiplied and made democratic. Truth attracts
the most strongly, when it is the most exposed.
When there are many methods in a state for ac-
quiring riches without industry or merit, there will
be but very little of either in that state. In pro-
portion as they are more numerous, so they better
clear and ascertain the genuine text.
The amusements of the country, and the neces-
sity of reforming a rude farm into a tolerable
182 EXERCISE 32 .

habitation, have engrossed my time and thoughts

so entirely, as to leave me neither leisure nor in-
clination to take a pen in hand. (Substitute too for
so, and make the necessary alteration, 489.) This
is even less than what we find performed in the
single edition of Dr. Mills. (Express this as a question
ofappeal.)

EXERCISE 32.

[Turn the following sentences into the form given

in 439.] The world happens to know him so well,
as not to be easily imposed upon. This business
is so deep, that the line of their understanding
cannot fathom it.

Your progress will be in proportion to your

diligence. (Express this in the form the more-the
more, 442.)
[Cause, reason, motive, or ground,
[Consequence or effect.] from which an inference is
drawn.]
He maydo his business full as He does not understand a tittle
well with any four as with of any one of the versions
them all. here mentioned. (As.)
It may very well take its title The Alexandrian manuscript
too. is, we find, to be extin-
guished. (Since.)
I have had neither time nor The amusements of the coun-
inclination to take a pen in try, and the necessity of
hand. reforming a rude farm into
a tolerable habitation, have
engrossed all my time and
my thoughts.
Our editor, it seems, hates Though they had no hand in it,
them. they were capable of doing
it.
This he reckons conclusive. It is the only answer he has
given to the charge of im-
propriety and false Latin
which I had made to his
title-page.
 EXERCISE 33 . 183

EXERCISE 33.

[Omit if in the following conditional clauses, 449.]

If men felt this adequately, they would have little
heart to indulge in random speculations. If Cicero's
advice had been followed, Cæsar must inevitably
have been ruined. He could easily make excuses
more plausible than any adduced by the old man
you mention, if he were disposed to trespass against
his duty and his conscience.
[Express the following consequent clauses by the
pluperfect indicative, 450. ] If Pompey had fallen
by the chance of war on the plains of Pharsalia, he
would have died still glorious, though unfortunate.
Had any of these counsels been followed, Pompey
would have preserved his life and honour, and the
republic its liberty.
[Turn the following conditional clauses into the
imperative mood, 452.] If you take away the
waters from your river, it is no river, but a den or
dry ditch: if you take away the banks, it is a pool,
or lake, or flood. If you tell amiser of bounty to
a friend, or mercy to the poor, and point out his
dutywith an evidence as bright and piercing as the
light, yet he will not understand it. All other
circumstances remaining the same, if you change
but the situation of some objects, they shall present
different colours totheeye. If you do but discover
awish to please her, she will never forget it.
Awant of exactness in the speaking,or reasoning,
may be overlooked, if only the doctrine be whole-
some or edifying. ( Use so or provided.)
184 EXERCISE 34 .

EXERCISE 34. (Adversative relation, 456.)

[Arrange thefollowing sentences, so as to introduce
an adverbial adversative clause, that is, a clause
introduced by though.] He was willing enough to
make the best penny he could of them ; but all he
could do was to publish again Dr. Mills's Testament
in Holland. He has but one, but he will soon
make it as valuable as the rest. One furnishes
tools, but the other must find the use of them .
He flies to the law himself as an injured libelled
person, but he makes no scruple we see to libel
me, and others too, as much as he pleases.
[In the following sentences, turn the adverbial
sentence into the imperative form.] Though a mere
verbal critic should have all the learning in the
world, he will still be nothing more than a critic of
words.

Though the discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton

were great and admirable, they were, according to
him, but useless empty speculations. (Turn the
adverbial sentence into the form of a comparative
sentence of equality, 458.) Though such readings
might appear to him very probable, they were not
however demonstrable. (Change though into however,
with the necessary alteration. ) One would imagine,
when one reads this passage, that he had at this
time in his hand all the copies he speaks of. (Get
rid of the adverbial sentence, 425, a.) If you leave
him but one to set his foot upon, like another
Archimedes, he will shake the world. (Put the con-
ditional clause in the imperative, 452.) Though our
editor has no more than four copies, he will be
content with nothing less than a new original
edition of his own. (Get rid of the adverbial clause
by the use ofwith, 389.)
 EXERCISES 35, 36 . 185

EXERCISE 35.

[Use the infinitive mood to express the purpose,

459, 460. ] He, good man, was all on fire and
impatient that he might do this public service to
his country. I have brought a passage, that you
may explain it. Something great and popular
must, in appearance at least, be undertaken, that
he may recover esteem and applause to himself.
The reader will think it high time that I should
come to the point in question. I have been the
more particular in this, that I may show the truth
of the short abstract I had given of it in my
remarks .

[Express the consequence by the infinitive mood,

462.] Is any one so stupid that he believes this ?
He was so foolish, that he built a house without
consulting an experienced architect. I am so can-
did that I allow him the sole and entire credit ofit.
Errours of judgment have no more relation to
candle-light than errours of the memory. ( Get rid of
the second errours.) The world happens to know
him so well that it will not be easily imposed upon.
(Change so into too, &c.) Though I pretend but
little to criticism, I would undertake to throw out
a great part of them myself. ( Turn the adverbial
clause into the form of a comparative sentence of
equality, 458. )

EXERCISE 36.

[In the following sentences let order be followed

by the accusative and infinitive .] He has wisely
ordered that all the rest should be burnt. He
ordered that the house should be stormed, and
Clodius dragged out and murdered.
9 E.g. ' ordered him to be burnt.'
186 1 EXERCISE 37 .

Is any one so mad that he courts his own

destruction ? (Express the consequence by the infin .,
462.) If he had ordered the house to be stormed,
Clodius would have been dragged out and mur-
dered. (Omit the ' if.') These pursuits are so frivo-
lous, that they are not fit to engross all my time
and thoughts . (Use too frivolous, &c.)
[Use in order to, to express the purpose.] That
Imay set this matter in a clear light, let us take
a review of the whole passage. That I may get at
the truth, I shall first ask a few seemingly irrelevant
questions.
These pursuits must not engross my time and
thoughts so entirely as to leave me no leisure to
take apen in hand. (Turn into a question of appeal.)
There is not one of these who has not made the
experiment in many more manuscripts, and as old
manuscripts as he himself. (Use but for who-not,
and get rid of the second manuscripts.)

EXERCISE 37. (469 , &c.)

[Turn the participles in Italics into adjective
or adverbial sentences.] If it were not so, these
balances, never to be settled, of individual rights,
population and contribution, would be useless.
The new settlers, being all habitually adventurers,
will purchase, tojob again. Neglecting this, I should
have betrayed my subject. Being weary of one
plaything, I take up another. I remember a line
in the Odyssey, which, literally translated, imports
that there is nothing in the world more impudent
than the belly. I delight in baubles and know
them to be so, for, rested in and viewed without
reference to their author, what is the earth-what
are the planets-what is the sun itself but a
 EXERCISE 38 . 187

bauble ? Aquila was a translator of this kind,

rendering word for word. We must now consider
him as an ambitious courtier, applying all his
thoughts and pains to his own advancement.
Having laid this foundation for the laudable dis-
charge of his consulship, he took possession of it,
as usual, on the first of January. The publication
of a law conferring powers so excessive, gave a just
alarm to all who wished well to the public tran-
quillity.

EXERCISE 38. (471.)

[Make the participles in Italics principal verbs.]
Your government will have none even of those
false splendours, which, playing about other tyran-
nies, prevent men from feeling dishonoured, even
whilst they are oppressed. Acting as conquerors,
they have imitated the policy of the harshest of
that harsh race. Pursuing the tribune into his
own dominion, the forum, he gave such a turn to
the inclination of the people, that they rejected
this agrarian law, with as much eagerness as they
had ever before received one. Accused by Titus
Labienus, he went into voluntary exile. Enrolling
a considerable body in Etruria, he formed them
into a regular army. Representing the whole as
the fiction of his enemy Cicero, he offered to give
security for his behaviour. Still keeping on the
mask, he had the confidence to come to this very
meeting in the capital. Cicero, provoked by his
impudence, instead of entering upon any business,
addressed himself directly to Catiline. Breaking
out into a most severe invective against him, he
laid open the whole course of his villanies, and the
notoriety of his treasons.
188 EXERCISES 39, 40.

EXERCISE 39 .

[Change the adverbial accessory sentences into

participial clauses, 476.] As all thoughts of peace
were now laid aside, he made active preparations
for war. There can be no need of Mr. Haweis, as
the point in dispute has been already tried. As
my neckcloths are all worn out, I intend to wear
stocks. Since that day was a festival, Quintus
was obliged to spend it at Arcanum. When the
fowls were taken out of the coop, one of them
appeared distempered. As some weeks have passed
without any proposal of accommodation, I am per-
suaded that none are intended. If these laws are
repealed, the fences of our civilpeace and quiet are
gone. As Cæsar has refused his consent, there
remains no hope of my speedy restoration. As
eight of the tribunes were Cicero's friends, one
effort more was made to obtain a law in his favour.
As it was penal by the Clodian law, to move any
thing for him, no one could be induced to propose
such an act. As Pompey was disgusted, every
thing went wrong.

EXERCISE 40.

[Substitute the participial substantive for the words

in Italics.] It is to plunge and sink year after
year into still greater depths of calamity. Their
native land is an indulgent parent, to whose
arms even they who have been imprudent and
undeserving may, like the prodigal son, betake
themselves without any fear of rejection. I will
not suppose my judges to be so unfaithful to their
oath as, when they give judgment, to be guided
by their feelings instead of their reason, and their
sense of justice. When Cæsar went to Spain, he
had engaged Crassus to stand bound for him to his
 EXERCISE 41 . 189

creditors . Clodius began, without loss of time, to

sue for the tribunate. After he had shown by what
scandalous methods this accusation was procured,
he declared that the true Grecians were on his side .
He gave a remarkable proof at this time that he
was no temporiser. I have no fear that he will
fancy himself neglected. He cured him of all
his jealousy by a free offer of his assistance and
patronage in pleading his cause. Your two rejec-
tions are the subject of considerable mirth at your
expense. He assigned the task of Sextius's prose-
cution to one of his confidants .

EXERCISE 41 .

However bad they may have been before, they

were certainly good consuls. (Turn however into
whatever¹.) He always thought them sincere :
they did not, however, in all cases, act up to his
wishes. (Arrange the latter clause as an adverbial
accessory clause.) If they had lived to reap the
fruits of your victory, their power and authority
would have been sufficient to restrain Octavius
within the bounds of his duty. (Omit the ' if.')
Sustain the tottering republic till the arrival of
Brutus to our assistance. (Mark the time by an
adverbial accessory sentence, i. e. change arrival into
a verb.) The death of the two consuls placed
Octavius at once above controul, because it left him
the master of both armies. (Get rid of the accessory
sentence by using the participial substantive. ) They
could not be induced to follow D. Brutus, because
they were disaffected to him. (Express the cause by
a participle.) The death of the consuls fell out so
lucky and apposite to all Octavius's views, that it
1 This will make it necessary to omit the adj. bad.
190 EXERCISE 42 .

gave rise to a general persuasion that they had

received foul play. (Turn gave into the infin. ) The
chief ground of that notion seems to have been the
fortunate coincidence of the facts with the interests
of Octavius. (For been, use a strengthened copula.
See 326, a .)

EXERCISE 42.

M. Brutus, in the most pressing manner, begged

of Cicero to procure Glyco's enlargement, because
he was a most worthy man, incapable of such a
villany, and who of all others suffered the greatest
loss by Pansa's death. (Express the ground of his
application by a participle, using ' as' with it.) I
have occasionally expressed opinions upon the
course of public events, and given vent to feelings
as national interest excited them. ( Turn the two
first verbs into the pass. voice. See 356 (1).) If
the author were conscious of being able to do
justice to those important topics, he might avail
himself of the periodical press for offering anony-
mously his thoughts, such as they are, to the
world. ( Omit ' if.') Is there not reason for appre-
hension, that some of the regulations of the new
act have a tendency to render the principle nuga-
tory by difficulties thrown in the way of applying
it ? (Turn the question into an assertion. ) His
studies were chiefly philosophical, ofwhich he had
been fond from his youth, and which he now re-
sumed with great ardour. (Get rid of the second
' which' by altering the place of of.') Calling to
mind the doctrines of political economy which are
now prevalent, the author cannot forbear to enforce
the justice of the principle, and to insist upon its
salutary operation. (Change the participle into a
verb.)
 EXERCISES 43, 44 . 191

EXERCISE 43.

If the value of life be regarded in a right point

of view, may it not be questioned, whether this
right of preserving life at any expense short of
endangering the life of another, does not survive
man's entering into the social state ? ( Turn the con-
ditional clause into the imperative form, 452.) Το
waive this, is it not indisputable, that the claim of
the state to the allegiance involves the protection
of the subject ? ( Turn the infin. into a participle.)
As all rights in one party impose a correlative
duty upon another, it follows that the right of
the state to require the services of its members,
even to the jeoparding their lives in the common
defence, establishes a right in the people (which is
not to be gainsaid by utilitarians and economists)
to public support, when, from any cause, they may
be unable to support themselves. (Turn the prin-
cipal sentence into a question of appeal, and abridge
the relative sentence.) As long as any due weight
shall be given to this principle, no man will be
forced to bewail the gift of life in hopeless want of
the necessaries of life. (Omit the unnecessary aux-
iliary verb . See 430.)

EXERCISE 44.

He wrote¹ to Damasippus, who was then prætor

of the city, to call a meeting of the senators.
(Abridge the relative sentence.) It is not strange
that Pompey, who was young and ambitious,
should pay more regard to the power of Sylla, than
to a scruple of honour or gratitude. (Turn this into
Obs. that ' to write,' is followed by an infinitive mood of an
order given. ' I wrote to you to pay the bill ' = ' I ordered you by
letter to pay the bill.'
192 EXERCISE 45 .

a question of appeal, and abridge the relative clause

into a simple apposition.) Sylla, since he had now
subdued all who were in arms against him, was at
leisure to take his full revenge on their friends
and adherents. (Express the cause by a participial
clause.) The proscription was not confined to
Rome, but carried through all the towns of Italy,
in which, besides the crime of party which was
pardoned to none, it was fatal to be possessed of
money, lands, or a pleasant seat ; for all manner of
licence was indulged to an insolent army, of carving
for themselves what fortunes they pleased. (Use
relat. adv. for in which, and express the cause by the
' nominative absolute.') Cæsar, who apprehended
something worse, thought it prudent to retire, and
conceal himself in the country. ( Turn the rel. sen-
tence into a participial clause.) Sylla saw many a
Marius in one Cæsar. (Use the plural of Marius.)

EXERCISE 45 .

By the experience of these times Cæsar was

instructed how he might both form and execute that
scheme which was the grand purpose of his whole
life, of oppressing the liberty of his country. ( In the
dependent interrogative clause, use the infin. mood.)
As soon as the proscriptions were terminated, and
the scene become a little calm, L. Flaccus, being
chosen inter-rex, declared Sylla dictator, for
settling the state of the republic, without any
limitation of time. (For terminated use an adverb ;
for become, substitute a stronger word.) The law
of Flaccus, though it was pretended to be made by
the people, was utterly detested by them. ( Use the
gen. formed by inflection ; abridge the accessory
sentence.) The law of Flaccus, though it was
pretended to be made by the people, was utterly
 EXERCISE 46 . 193

detested by them. (Make the same changes as before,

and turn the principal sentence into the active voice.)
Sylla advanced the prerogative of the Senate, and
depressed the prerogative of the people. (Get rid
of the second prerogative.) These practices have
grown so general that they cannot be controuled.
(Substitute too for so.) The greatest part were
guilty, in some degree, of every kind of oppression
with which Verres himself was charged. (Turn this
into a question of appeal.

EXERCISE 46.

Before I dismiss the case of Verres, it may not

be improper to add a short account of some of his
principal crimes, that Imay give the reader a clearer
notion of the usual method of governing provinces.
(Express the purpose by ' in order,' &c. ) The
greatest part of the governors were guilty, in some
degree, of every kind of oppression with which
Verres himself was charged ; but few of them ever
came up to the full measure of Verres's iniquity.
(Combine these propositions periodically', by changing
the proposition beginning with, but, into an adversa-
tive accessory sentence² .) On his return he found
what he suspected, a strong cabal formed to pro-
long the affair by all the arts of delay which inter-
est or money could procure, that he might throw it
off at least to the next year, when Hortensius and
Metellus were to be consuls. (Express the purpose
by ' with design.') The statues were erected ac-
1 A period is a sentence enlarged by one or more sub-
ordinate accessory sentences. To combine propositions periodically
is, therefore, to change co- ordinate propositions into subordinate
ones.

2 This will make a change in the order of the propositions

necessary ; of course, governors should be expressed in the first
clause, and represented by a pronoun in the second.
K
194 EXERCISE 46 .

cording to the will : yet Verres, who had found

some little pretence for cavilling, suborned an ob-
scure Sicilian to sue for the estate in the name of
Venus. (Turn the rel. sentence into a participial
clause.) To this Sopater readily submitted, with-
out any apprehension of danger, because he trusted
to his innocence. (Turn the sentence that expresses
the reason into a participial clause.) Sopater, who
was surprised at this intimation, did not know what
answer he should make. (Turn the rel. sentence into
a participial clause, and the verb ofthe dependent
interrogative sentence into the infin. mood.) I except
the duck, he used to say : That bird, which Nature
hath made free of earth, air, and water, loses, by
servitude, the use of one element, the enjoyment of
two, and the freedom of all three. (Express ' he
used to say,' differently ; and for ' by servitude,'
substitute a participial substantive with its comple-
ment.) To make bears and elephants dance, to
teach dogs to enact ballets, and horses to exhibit
tricks at a fair, he considered as the freaks of man's
capricious cruelty. (Turn the infinitives ' to make,'
&c. into participial substantives.)
 PART III .

EXERCISES ON MIDDLETON'S STYLE .

EXERCISE 1 .

WRITERS entertain different opinions about

the precise time § when the puerile was changed
for the manly gown : what seems the most probable
is, that in the old republic it was never done till
the end of the seventeenth year ; but on the
gradual relaxation of the ancient discipline, parents,
out of indulgence to their children, advanced this
era of joy one year earlier, and * gave them the
gown at the age of sixteen, which was the custom
in Cicero's time. Under the emperors, it was 0

granted § whenever they pleased, and to boys

of any age, to the great, or their own relations ;
for Nero received it from Claudius + on his first
entering into his fourteenth year, which, as Tacitus
says, was given before the regular season.

EXERCISE 2 .

But this was not the point at which¹ Cicero

aimed, to guard the estates only of the citizens ;
his views were much larger ; and the knowledge of
the law was but one ingredient of many, in the
character to which he aspired , of a universal
patron, not only of the fortunes, but of the lives
and liberties of his countrymen : for that was the
a For the meaning of this type, and of the marks used, see the
beginning of the volume.
к2
196 EXERCISE 3 .

proper notion of an orator, or pleader of causes ;

whose profession it was to speak aptly, elegantly,
and copiously, on every subject which could be
offered to him, and whose art therefore included
in it all other arts of the liberal kind, and * could 0

not be acquired to any degree of perfection, by

any one § who did not possess a competent know-
ledge of § all that was great and laudable in the
universe. This was his own idea of what he had
undertaken ; and his present business therefore
was, to acquire the preparatory knowledge fit to
sustain the weight of this great character : so that
while he was studying the law under the Scævolas,
he spent a large share of his time in attending the
pleadings at the bar, and the public speeches of the
magistrates, and never passed one day § that he
did not write and read something at home ; § and
he constantly took notes, and made comments on
‡ the subjects ofhis reading.
1 Use that. 2 Begin with which (as Middleton does) .
3 Use whatever .
4 Use a figure borrowed from the art of building.

EXERCISE 3.

§ When this war broke out, the Romans gave

the freedom of the city to all the towns which
remained faithful to them ; and § when it was
ended, after § three hundred thousand lives had
been destroyed, thought fit, for the sake of their
future quiet, to grant it to all the rest : but this
step, ‡ considered by them as the foundation of a
perpetual peace, was, according to the observa-
tion of an ingenious writer, one of the causes that
hastened their ruin : for the enormous bulk to
which the city was swelled by it, produced many
new disorders, that gradually corrupted, and at last
 EXERCISE 4 . 197

destroyed it ; and the discipline of the laws,

§ which were calculated for a people whom the
same walls would contain, was too weak to keep in
order the vast body of Italy ; so that, from this
time chiefly, all affairs were decided by faction and
violence, and the influence of the great ; for these¹
could bring whole towns into the Forum, from the
remote towns of Italy ; or * could pour in a num-
ber of slaves and foreigners, under the form of
citizens ; for when the names and persons of real
citizens could no longer be distinguished, it was not
possible to know whether any act had passed regu-
larly, by the genuine suffrage of the people.
1 For ' these,' use relat. pronoun.

EXERCISE 4.

But the greatest encouragement to his industry

was the fame and splendour of Hortensius, who
was the first man at the bar, and whose praises
filled him with such an ambition of acquiring the
same glory, that he scarce allowed himself any rest
from his studies, either * by day or by night : he
had in his house with him Diodotus the stoic, as
his preceptor in various parts of learning, but more
particularly in logic ; which Zeno, as he tell us,
used to call a close and contracted eloquence ; as
he called eloquence an enlarged and dilated logic :
§he compared the one to the fist, or hand doubled ;
the other, to the palm opened. Yet, § though he
paid great attention to logic, he never suffered a
day to pass without some exercise in oratory ;
chiefly that of declaiming, which he generally per-
formed with his fellow-students, M. Piso and Q.
Pompeius, twoyoung noblemen, § who were a little
older than himself, with whom he had contracted
K3
198 EXERCISE 5 .

an intimate friendship. They declaimed sometimes

in Latin, but much oftener in Greek ; because the
Greek furnished a greater variety of elegant ex-
pressions, and an opportunity of imitating and
introducing them into the Latin ; and because the
Greek masters, * being by far the best, could not
correct and improve them, unless they declaimed in
that language.
1 Use ' with."

EXERCISE 5.

In this general destruction of the faction of

Marius¹, J. Cæsar, § who was then about seven-
teen years old, had much difficulty to escape with
life : he was nearly allied to old Marius, and had
married Cinna's daughter ; but he could not be
induced to divorce her , by all the threats of
Sylla ; who § considered him for that reason as
irreconcileable to his interests, and deprived him
of his wife's fortune and the priesthood, which he
had obtained. Cæsar, therefore, § who apprehended
still somewhat worse, thought it prudent to retire,
and conceal himself in the country, where § he
was discovered accidentally by Sylla's soldiers,
and was forced to redeem his head by a very
large sum : but the intercession of the Vestal
virgins, and the authority of his powerful relations,
extorted agrant of his life very unwillingly from
Sylla ; who bade them take notice, that he, for
whose safety they were so solicitous, would one
day be the ruin of that aristocracy, which he was
then establishing with so much pains, for that he
saw many a Marius in one Cæsar.
1 Express ' of Marius' by an adjective. 2 Use the rel. pron.
3 Use the plural.
 EXERCISE 6 . 199

EXERCISE 6.

Having occasion, in the course of his pleading,

to mention that remarkable punishment † contrived
by their ancestors for the murder of a parent, of
sewing the criminal alive in a sack, and throwing
him into a river, he says, " That the meaning of it
was, to strike him at once, as it were, out of the
system of nature, by taking from him the air, the
sun, the water, and the earth ; * in order that he,
who had destroyed the author of his being, should
lose the benefit of those elements, from which¹ all
things derive their being. They would not throw
him to the beasts, lest the beasts themselves
should be made more furious by the contagion of
so great wickedness : they would not commit him
naked to the stream, lest the very sea, † the purifier
of all other pollutions, should be polluted by him * :
they left him no share of any thing natural, * how
vile or common soever it might be*: for what is so
common as breath to the living, earth to the dead,
the sea to those who float, the shore to those who
are cast up ? Yet these wretches live so, as long
as they can, as not to draw breath from the air ;
die so, as not to touch the ground ; are so tossed
by the waves, as not to be washed by them ; so
cast out upon the shore, as to find no rest even on
the rocks." Though this passage was received
with acclamations of applause ; yet, § when he
spoke of it afterwards himself, he calls it, " the
redundancy of a juvenile fancy, which wanted the
correction of his sounder judgment ; and, like all
the compositions of young men, was not applauded
so much for its own sake, as for the hopes * which
it gave of his more improved and ripened talents."
1 Use a relat. adverb. 2 Use such.
3 Turn this sentence into the active. 4 Abridge this sentence.
5 Make this a principal sentence (i. e. omit though).
к4
200 EXERCISES 7, 8 .

EXERCISE 7.

§ When Cicero returned from Greece, there

reigned in the forum two orators of noble birth and
great authority, Cotta and Hortensius, whose glory
excited him with an emulation of their virtues.
Cotta's way of speaking was calm and easy, § and
flowed with great elegance and propriety of diction :
Hortensius's was sprightly, elevated, and warming,
both by his words and action ; §and as that
'orator¹ was nearer to him in age, about eight
years older, and excelled in his own taste and
manner, he was considered by him more particu-
larly as his pattern, or competitor rather, in glory.
The business of pleading, * though it was a profes-
sion of all others the most laborious , yet was not
mercenary, or undertaken for any pay ; ‡ it being
illegal to take money, or to accept even a present
for it : but the richest, the greatest, and the noblest
of Rome freely offered their talents to the service
of their citizens, as the common guardians and
protectors of those who were innocent and dis-
tressed.

1 Use the relat. pronoun. 2 Abridge this sentence.

EXERCISE 8.

The quæstors were the general receivers or trea-

surers of the republic : their number had been
gradually enlarged with the bounds and revenues
of the empire from two to twenty, as it now stood
from the last regulation of Sylla. They were sent
annually into the several provinces, one with every
proconsul or governor, to whom they were next
in authority, and had the proper equipage of
magistrates, the lictors carrying the fasces before
 EXERCISE 9. 201

them ; which was not, however, allowed to them at

Rome. Besides the care of the revenues, it was
their business also to provide corn and all sorts of
grain to be used by the armies abroad, and con-
sumed by the public at home.
This was the first step in the legal ascent and
gradation of public honours, which gave an imme-
diate right to the senate, and §when the period
of office was over, an actual admission into it
during life: and though, strictly speaking, none
were held to be complete senators, before their
✓enrolment at the next lustrum in the list of the
censors, yet that was only a matter of form, and
what could not be denied to them, unless § they
were accused or notoriously guilty, for which every
other senator was equally liable to be degraded.
1 Use relat. pronoun.
2 Use the substantives ' use ' and ' consumption.'

EXERCISE 9 .

The consuls of this year were Cn. Octavius and

C. Scribonius Curio ; + the first being Cicero's par-
ticular friend ; a person of singular humanity and
benevolence, but cruelly afflicted with the gout ;
whom Cicero therefore urges as an example against
the Epicureans, for the purpose of showing', that
a life § which was supported by innocence could
not be made miserable by pain. The second was
a professed orator, or pleader at the bar, and sus-
tained some credit there , though he possessed
no other accomplishment of art or nature, than a
certain purity and splendour of language, § which
he had derived from the institution of a father
#esteemed for his eloquence : his action was vehe-
ment, with so absurd a manner ofwaving his body
from one side to the other, as to give occasion to
к5
202 EXERCISE 10.

ajest upon him, that he had learned to speak in a

boat. They were both of them, however, good
magistrates ; such as the present state of the re-
public required, firm to the interests of the senate,
and the late establishment § which had been made
by Sylla, * but which the tribunes were labouring
by all their arts to overthrow.
1 Use the infinitive. 2 Use the relat. adverb.
3 Use without.

EXERCISE 10.

+ Before leaving Sicily, he made the tour of the

island, to see every thing + curious, and especially
the city of Syracuse, which had always been the
most distinguished in its history. Here his first
request to the magistrates when they showed
him the curiosities of the place, was, that they
would let him see the tomb of Archimedes, whose
name had done so much honour to it ; but he was
much surprised to perceive that they knew no-
thing at all of the matter, and even denied that
there was any such tomb remaining : yet, as he
was assured of it beyond all doubt, by the con-
current testimony of writers, and remembered the
verses § which were inscribed, and that there was
a sphere with a cylinder engraved on some part of
it, he would not be dissuaded from the pains of
searching it out. When they had carried him
therefore to the gate, where the greatest number
of their old sepulchres stood, he observed in a spot
§ which was overgrown with shrubs and briars, a
small column, the head of which just appeared
above the bushes, with the figure of a sphere and
cylinder upon it ; this, he presently told the com-
pany, was the thing that they were looking for ;
and § sent in some men to clear the ground of the
 EXERCISE 11 . 203

brambles and rubbish, and found the inscription

0
also * which he expected to find, though the
latter part of all the verses was effaced. "Thus,"
says he, " one of the noblest cities of Greece, and
once likewise the most learned, would have known
nothing of the monument of its most deserving and
ingenious citizen, if it had not been discovered to
them by a native of Arpinum."
1 Use the relat. pronoun . 2 Use the infinitive.
3 Make perceive the principal verb, getting in the notion of
surprise in another form.
4 Use relat. pronoun. 5 Use pluperf. indicative.
-

EXERCISE 11 .

He came away extremely pleased with the suc-

cess of his administration ; and § flattered himself
that all Rome was celebrating his praises, and that
the people would readily grant him whatever¹ he
desired: in this imagination he landed at Puteoli,
a considerable port § which adjoined to Baiæ, the
chief seat of pleasure in Italy, to which there was
a perpetual resort of all the rich and the great, as
well for the delights of its situation, as the use of
its baths and hot waters. But here, as he himself
pleasantly tells the story, he was not a little morti-
fied by the first friend whom he met ; who asked
him, " How long he had left Rome, and what news
there ?" on his answering, " That he came from
the provinces "-" From Africa, I suppose," says
another : and § when he replied with some indigna-
tion, " No ; I come from Sicily : " a third, who
stood by, and wished to be thought wiser, said
presently, " How ! did you not know that Cicero
was quæstor of Syracuse ? " Upon which § he
perceived it in vain to be angry, and fell into the
humour of the place, and made himself one of the
к6
204 EXERCISE 12.

companywho came to the waters. This mortifica-

tion gave some little check to his ambition, or
taught him rather how she might apply it more
successfully ; " and did him more good," he says,
" than if he had received all the compliments that
he expected."
1 Use every thing. 2 Use relative.
3 Use relat. adverb . * Use the infinitive.

EXERCISE 12.

But the city of Messana continued obstinate to

the last, and firm to its engagements with Verres ;
so that , on Cicero's coming thither, he received
no compliments from the magistrates, no offer of
refreshments or quarters ; but was left to shift for
himself, and to be taken care of by private friends.
This, he says, § was an indignity never offered
before to a senator of Rome ; whom there was not
a king or city upon earth, but¹ was proud to invite
and accommodate with a lodging. But he mortified
them for it severely at the trial, and threatened to
call them to an account before the senate, as for an
affront of the whole order. After his business in
Sicily was finished , § as he had reason to appre-
hend some danger in returning home by land, not
only from the robbers, who infested all those roads,
but from the malice and contrivance of Verres, he
chose to come back by sea, and surprised his adver-
saries, by arriving at Rome much sooner than he
was expected, and full charged with most manifest
proofs of Verres's guilt .
1 Use relat. (that) with not. 2 Use the active voice.
3 Make arrived principal verb.
 EXERCISE 13 . 205

EXERCISE 13.

He was now in the thirty-seventh year, § which

was the proper age for holding the ædileship, the
first public preferment that was properly called a
magistracy ; § for the quæstorship was an office
onlyor place of trust, § and had no jurisdiction in
the city, as the ædiles had. These ædiles, as well
as all the inferior officers, were chosen by the
people voting in their tribes ; a manner of electing
of all the most free and popular ; in which
Cicero was declared ædile, as he was before elected
quæstor, by the unanimous suffrage of all the
tribes, and preferably to all his competitors.
There were originally but two ædiles, § who
were chosen from the body of the people, on pre-
tence § that the tribunes would thus be eased of
a share of their trouble : their chief duty, from
which the name itself was derived, was the care
of the edifices of the city ; and the inspection of
the markets, weights, and measures ; and the regu-
lation of the shows and games, which were pub-
licly exhibited on the festivals of their gods. The
senate afterward § took an opportunity when the
people were in good humour, and prevailed to have
two more created from their order, and of superior
rank, § who were called curule ædiles, from the
arm-chair of ivory in which they sat. But the
tribunes presently repenting of their concession,
forced the senate to consent to the choice of
these new ædiles indifferently from the patrician or
plebeian families. But though there might be a
great difference at first between the curule and
plebeian ædiles, their province and authority seem,
in later times, to be the same, without any dis-
tinction but what was nominal ; and the two ‡ first
206 EXERCISE 14 .

chosen were probably called the curule ædiles, as

we find Cicero to be now styled.
1 Use without. 2 Use relative.
3 Use infin. mood. 4 Use whatever .

EXERCISE 14 .

§After he had impeached Verres, Cicero entered

upon the ædileship, and, in one of his speeches,
gives us a short account of the duties of it : " I am
now chosen ædile," says he, " and am sensible of
what is committed to me by the Roman people: it
0
is my business¹ to exhibit, with the greatest
solemnity, the most sacred sports to Ceres, Liber,
and Libera ; to appease and conciliate the mother
Flora to the people and city of Rome, by the cele-
bration of the public games ; to furnish out those
ancient shows, the first which were called Roman,
with all possible dignity and religion, in honour of
Jupiter, Juno, Minerva ; to take care, also, of all
the sacred edifices, and indeed, of the whole city,"
&c. The people were passionately fond of all these
games and diversions ; and §as the public allow-
ance for them was but small, according to the
frugality of the old republic, the ædiles supplied
the rest at their own cost, and were often ruined
by it. For every part of the empire was ransacked
for rarities and curiosities, to adorn the splendour
of their shows : the forum in which they were
exhibited, was usually beautified with porticos,
built for the purpose, and filled with the choicest
statues and pictures which Rome and Italy af-
forded .

1 Use the idiom I am to, &c.; repeat the am before the other
infinitives.
 EXERCISE 15. 207

EXERCISE 15.

The prætor was a magistrate next in dignity

to the consuls ; She was created originally as a
colleague or assistant to them in the administration
of justice, and to supply their place also § when
they were absent. At first there was but one ;
but on the increase of the dominion and affairs
of the republic, so the number of the prætors was
gradually enlarged from one to eight. They were
chosen, not as the inferior magistrates, by the
people voting in their tribes, but in their centuries
* as the consuls and censors also were chosen . In
the first method, the majority of votes in each
tribe determined the general vote of the tribe, and
a majority of tribes determined the election, in
which the meanest citizen had as good a vote as
the best : but in the second, the balance of power
was thrown into the hands of the better sort, by
a wise contrivance of one of their kings, Servius
Tullius : this prince divided the whole body of
the citizens into a hundred and ninety-three cen-
turies, according to a census or valuation of their
estates ; and then reduced these centuries into
six classes, according to the same rule ; §º and
assigned to the first or richest class ninety-seven of
these centuries, or a majority of the whole number :
so that the centuries of the first class agreeing,
the affair was finished , and the votes of all the
rest insignificant.
The business of the prætors was to preside and
judge in all causes, especially of a public or criminal
kind, in which their several jurisdictions were
assigned to them by lot ; * and it fell to Cicero's
lot to sit upon actions of extortion and rapine,
brought against magistrates and governors of pro
208 EXERCISE 16.

vinces, in which, as he tells us himself, he had

acted as an accuser, sat as ajudge, and presided as
prætor.
1 Relative. 2 Use an adverb for the predicate.
3 Use adverb.

EXERCISE 16.

Cicero, § when the time of his prætorship was

expired, would not accept any foreign province,
the usual reward of that magistracy, and the chief
fruit which the generality proposed from it. He
had no particular love for money, nor genius for
arms, so that those governments were not looked
upon as desirable by him : the glory which he
pursued was to shine in the eyes of the city as the
guardian of its laws, and to teach the magistrates
how § they should execute, the citizens how
§ they should obey them. But he was now pre-
paring to sue for the consulship, § which was the
great object of all his hopes ; and his whole atten-
tion was employed how § he might obtain it in his
proper year, and without a repulse. There were
two years necessarily to intervene between the præ-
torship and consulship ; the first of which was
usually spent in forming a general interest, and
soliciting for it, as it were, in a private manner ;
the second in suing for it openly, in the proper
form and habit of a candidate. The affection of
the city, § which had been so signally declared for
him in all the inferior steps of honour, gave him
a strong presumption of success, § when he now
pretended to the highest : but having reason to
apprehend a great opposition from the nobility,
who looked upon the public dignities as a kind of
birthright, and could not brook § that they should
 EXERCISE 17. 209

be intercepted and snatched from them by new

men ; so he resolved to put it out of their power
to hurt him, by omitting no pains which could be
required of a candidate, of visiting and soliciting all
the citizens in person.
1 Use the infinitive.

EXERCISE 17.

On the approach of the election of consuls,

Cicero's interest appeared to be superior to the
interest¹ of all the candidates : for the nobles
themselves, though they were always envious, and
desirous to depress him, yet out of regard to the
dangers which threatened the city from many
quarters, and seemed ready to burst out into a
flame, began to think him the only man § who was
qualified to preserve the republic and break the
cabals of the desperate, by the vigour and prudence
of his administration ; for, in cases of danger, as
Sallust observes, pride and envy naturally subside,
and yield the first and most honorable place to
virtue. The method of choosing consuls was not
by an open vote, but by a kind of ballot, or little
tickets of wood, § which were distributed to the
citizens, with the names of the candidates severally
inscribed upon each : but in Cicero's case, the
people were not content with this secret and silent
way of testifying their inclinations ; but, before
coming to any scrutiny, loudly and universally pro-
claimed Cicero the first consul.
1 Use a pronoun for ' interest.' 2 Abridge this sentence.
210 EXERCISES 18, 19.

EXERCISE 18.

Cicero was now arrived through the usual grada-

tion of honours, at the highest which the people
could regularly give, or * an honest citizen could
desire. The offices which he had already borne
had but a partial jurisdiction, § which was confined
to particular branches of the government ; but the
consuls guided and directed the whole machine
with an authority § which was as extensive as
the empire itself. § Since the subordinate magi-
stracies, therefore, were the steps only to this
sovereign dignity, they were not valued so much
for their own sake, as § because they brought the
candidates still nearer to the principal objects
of their hopes, who, through this course of their
ambition, were forced to the practice of all the
arts of popularity: to court the little as well as
the great, to espouse the principles and politics
§which were in vogue, and to apply their talents
for the conciliation of friends, rather than the
service¹ of the public. But the consulship put an
end to this subjection, and with the command of
the state gave them the command of themselves :
so that the only care left was, how § they might
execute this high office with credit and dignity,
and employ the power § which was intrusted to
them for the benefit and service of their country.
1 Use infinitive.

EXERCISE 19 .

He had another project¹ likewise, which he

eagerly desired to accomplish, and made it one of
the capital points of his administration, to unite
the equestrian order with the senate, into one
 EXERCISE 20 . 211

common party and interest. This body of men,

next to the senators, consisted of the richest and
most splendid families of Rome ; and these 2,
§ since they possessed easy and affluent for-
tunes³, were naturally well-affected to the prosperity
of the republic ; and since they were also the
constant farmers of all the revenues of the empire,
had a great part of the inferior people dependent
upon them. Cicero imagined, that the united
weight of these two orders would always be an
overbalance to any other power in the state, and a
secure barrier against any attempts of the popular
and ambitious upon the common liberty. He was
the only man in the city capable of effecting such
a coalition, §as he was now at the head of the
senate yet the darling of the knights ; who con-
sidered him as the pride and ornament of their
order, whilst he, * in order to ingratiate himself
the more with them, affected always in public to
boast of that extraction, and to call himself an
equestrian ; and made it his special care to protect
them in all their affairs, and to advance their credit
and interest : so that, as some writers tell us, the
authority of his consulship first distinguished and
established them into a third order of the state.
1 Make ' another project ' emphatic. 2 Use relative.
3 Use substantives governed byfrom.
4 Make ' the authority ' emphatic.

EXERCISE 20 .

(Catiline.)
" He had in him," says he, “ many, though
not express images, yet sketches of the greatest
virtues ; was acquainted with a great number of
wicked men, * yet was a pretended admirer of
212 EXERCISE 20 .

virtuous men'. His house was furnished with

various temptations to lust and lewdness, yet with
several incitements also to industry and labour :
3

though it was a scene of vicious pleasures, yet

it was a school of martial exercises. Such a
monster never existed on earth, compounded of
passions so contrary and opposite. Who was ever
more agreeable at one time to the best citizens ?
* who was more intimate at another with the worst ?
* who was a man of better principles ? * who was a
fouler enemy to this city ? * who was more intem-
perate in pleasure ? * who was more patient in
labour ? who more rapacious in plundering ? who
more profuse in squandering ? He had a wonderful
faculty of engaging men to his friendship, and
obliging them byhis observance, sharing with them
in common all that he possessed ; serving them
with his money, his interest, his pains, and, when
there was occasion, by the most daring acts of
villany ; moulding his nature to his With
purposes, and
bending it every way to his will. With morose
men , he could live severely ; with the free, gaily ;
with the old, gravely ; with the young, cheerfully ;
with the enterprising, audaciously ; with the vicious,
luxuriously. By this variety ', and pliability oftem-
per', he gathered about him the profligate and the
rash from all countries, yet held attached to him
at the same time many brave and worthy men, by
the specious show of a pretended virtue."
1 Get rid of the second men .
2 For various, use a substantive derived from it.
3 Make this a principal sentence (i. e. get rid of the conjunc
tion) . 4 Substitute was for existed.
5 Use whatever. 6 Get rid of men .
7 Use the corresponding adjectives.
 EXERCISE 21 . 213

EXERCISE 21 .

(Effect of Cicero's first Oration against Catiline.)

Catiline, § who was astonished by the thunder
of this speech, had little to say for himself in
answer to it ; yet, with downcast looks and sup-
pliant voice, he begged of the fathers not to
believe too hastily what was said against him by an
enemy; that his birth and past life offered every
thing to him that was hopeful ; and it was not to
be imagined, that a man of patrician family, whose
ancestors as well as himself had given many proofs
of their affection to the Roman people, should want
to overturn the government : while Cicero, * being
a stranger and late inhabitant of Rome, was so
zealous to preserve it. But, as he was going on
to give foul language, the senate interrupted him
by a general outcry, § ° and called him traitor
and parricide : § when this occurred, being
furious and desperate, he declared again, aloud,
what he had said before to Cato, that being
⚫now circumvented and driven headlong by his
enemies, he would quench the flame + raised about
him by the common ruin, and so rushed out of the
assembly. Being come to his house and begin-
ning to reflect on what had passed, She perceived
it vain to dissemble any longer, and resolved to
enter into action immediately, before any aug-
mentation of the troops of the republic, or the
making of any new levies ; so that Safter he had
had a short conference with Lentulus, Cethegus,
and the rest, about what had been concerted in the
last meeting, § he gave fresh orders and assurances
ofhis speedy return at the head of a strong army,
* and left Rome that very night, and enclosed him-
self within the mountains .
214 EXERCISE 22 .

EXERCISE 22 .

(Death of Catiline. )
Antonius himself had no inclination to fight, or
at least, with Catiline ; but would willingly have
given him an opportunity to escape, if¹ his
quæstor Sextius, who was Cicero's creature, and
his lieutenant Petreius, had not urged him on
against his will, to force Catiline to the necessity of
a battle ; who § when he saw all things desperate,
and nothing left but either to die or conquer,
resolved to try his fortune against Antonius,
though he was much the stronger, rather than
Metellus ; § for he was in hopes still, that out of
regard to their former engagements, he might
possibly contrive some way, at last, to throw the
victory into his hands. But Antonius happened
to be seized at that very time with a fit of the
gout, or pretended, at least, to be seized with
such a fit , that he might have no share in
destroying an old friend ; so that the command
fell, of course, to a much better soldier and
honester man, Petreius ; who after a sharp and
bloody action, in which he lost a considerable part
ofhis best troops, destroyed Catiline and his whole
army, § though they fought desperately to the last
man. They all fell in the very ranks in which
they stood, and, as if they were inspired with the
genuine spirit of their leader , fought, not so much
for victory , as to sell their lives as dear as they
could ; and, as Catiline had threatened in the
senate, to mingle the public calamity with their
own ruin.
1 Omit if. 2 Abridge this sentence.
3 Use partic. substantive. 4 Express ' to be seized with such
a fit,' by one adverb. 5 Use a substantive.
• Use infinitive.
 EXERCISES 23, 24 . 215

EXERCISE 23.

Though Cicero was restored to his former

0

dignity yet he was not restored to his former

fortunes ; nor was any satisfaction yet made to
him for the ruin of his houses and estates : a full
restitution indeed had been decreed, but was
reserved § till he should have returned : which
came now before the senate, to be considered and
settled by public authority, where it met still with
great obstruction. The chief difficulty was about
his Palatine house, which he valued above all the
rest, and which Clodius, for that reason, had con-
trived to alienate as he hoped irretrievably, by
demolishing the fabric, and dedicating a temple
upon the area to the goddess Liberty ; where, * in
order to make his work more complete, he pulled
down also the adjoining portico of Catulus, that
he might build it up anew, of the same order with
his temple ; and byblending the public with private
property, and consecrating the whole to religion,
might make it impossible to separate or restore
any part to Cicero ; since the legal performance of
a consecration made the thing § that was conse-
crated unapplicable ever after to any private use.
1 Make this a principal sentence.
2 Make ' consecration ' the nominative.

EXERCISE 24 .

At this solemn¹ dedication, Pompey entertained

the people with more magnificent shows than
had ever been exhibited in Rome : in the theatre
were stage-plays, prizes of music, wrestling, and
all kinds of bodily exercises : in the circus,
horse-races, and huntings of wild beasts, for five
216 EXERCISE 25 .

successive days, in which five hundred lions were

killed, and on the last day twenty elephants ;
whose lamentable howling, when they were mor-
tally wounded , raised such a commiseration in the
multitude, from a vulgar notion of their great sense
and love to man, that it destroyed the whole
diversion of the show, and drew curses on Pompey
himself, for being the author of so much cruelty :
so true it is, what Cicero observes of this kind of
prodigality, that there is no real dignity or lasting
honour in it : that it satiates while it pleases, and
is forgotten as soon as it is finished . It gives us,
however, a genuine idea of the wealth and grandeur
of these principal subjects of Rome ; inasmuch as ,
from their private revenues, they could raise such
noble buildings, and provide such shows, from the
several quarters of the world, which no monarch on
earth is now able to exhibit .
1 Use the subst. solemnity. 2 Use superlative.
3 Use adverb . 4 Abridge this sentence.
* Use adverb for predicate. 6 Use relative.

EXERCISE 25.

Cæsar was now upon his second expedition into

Britain, which raised much talk and expectation at
Rome, and gave Cicero much¹ concern for the
safety of his brother, who, as one of Cæsar's
lieutenants, was to bear a considerable part in it.
But the accounts which he received from the place
soon eased him of his apprehensions ; § for they
informed him, that there was nothing either to
fear or to hope from the attempt ; no danger from
the people, no spoils from the country. In a
letter § which he wrote to Atticus, " We are in
suspense," says he, " about the war against the
Britons : it is certain that the access of the island
 EXERCISE 26 . 217

is strongly fortified ; and it is known also already

that there is not a grain of silver in it, nor any
thing else but slaves : ' and of these you will
scarce expect any, I dare say, skilled in music or
letters. " In another to Trebatius ; " I hear that
there is not either any gold or silver in the island ;
if so, you have nothing to do but to take one of
their chariots, and fly back to us."
1 Use no with another adjective.
2 Express this by an adjective. 3 Use relative.

EXERCISE 26.

(Cicero chosen an Augur. )

By the death of young Crassus a place became
vacant in the college of Augurs, and Cicero declared
2
himself a candidate for it ' ; and no one was so
hardy as to appear against him, except Hirrus, the
tribune, who, from confidence in the popularity
of his office, and Pompey's favour, had the vanity
to pretend to it: but a competition so unequal
furnished matter of raillery only to Cicero, who was
chosen without any difficulty or struggle, with the
unanimous approbation of the whole body. This
college, from the time § that it was last regulated
by Sylla, consisted of fifteen, † all persons of the
first distinction in Rome : it was a priesthood for
life, of a character indelible, which no crime or
forfeiture could efface : the priests of all kinds
were originally chosen by their colleges, till the
choice of them, about fifty years ago, was trans-
ferred by Domitius, a tribune, to the people,
whose authority was held to be supreme in sacred
as well as civil affairs. This act being reversed by
Sylla the ancient right was restored to the colleges ;
but Labienus, when he was tribune in Cicero's
L
218 EXERCISE 27 .

consulship, recalled the law of Domitius, for the

purpose of facilitating Cæsar's advancement to
the high priesthood : it was necessary, however,
that every candidate should be nominated to the
people by two augurs, who gave a solemn testimony,
upon oath, that he was a. worthy person and fit
for the office ' : this was done in Cicero's case by
Pompey and Hortensius, § who were the two most
eminent members of the college ; and after § he
was elected he was installed with all the usual
formalities, by Hortensius .
1 Use relative. 2 Use nor. 3 Use a participle.
4 Use the active. 5 Abridge this sentence.
Use the infinitive. 7 Use worth-fitness.

EXERCISE 27.

(Death of Clodius.)
Their meeting was wholly accidental, on the
Appian road, not far from the city ; Clodius § was
coming home from the country towards Rome ;
Milo §was going out about three in the afternoon ;
the first on horseback, with three companions, and
thirty servants, well armed : the latter in a chariot,
with his wife and one friend, but with a much
greater retinue, and, among them, some gladiators.
The servants on both sides began presently to
insult each other, when Clodius § turned briskly to
some of Milo's men, who were nearest to him, and
having threatened them with his usual fierceness,
received a wound in the shoulder from one of the
gladiators ; and, after receiving several more in the
general fray which instantly ensued, § found his
life in danger, and was forced to fly for shelter
into a neighbouring tavern. Milo, § who was
heated by this success, and the thoughts of
 EXERCISE 28 . 219

revenge, and § reflected that he had already done

enough to give his enemy a great advantage
against him, if he was left alive to pursue it,
resolved, however serious the consequence might
be², to have the pleasure of destroying him, and so
ordered the house to be stormed, and Clodius to
be dragged out and murdered. The master of the
tavern was likewise killed, with eleven of Clodius's
servants, while the rest saved themselves by flight ;
so that Clodius's body was left in the road, where
it fell, till S. Tedius, a senator, § who happened to
come by, took it up into his chaise, and brought it
with him to Rome, where it was exposed in that
condition, all covered with blood and wounds, to
the view of the populace, who flocked about it in
crowds to lament the miserable fate of their
leader.

1 Turn this into the pres. participle. 2 Use whatever .

EXERCISE 28.

§ Soon after Clodius was murdered Cicero seems

to have written his Treatise on Laws, after the
example of Plato, whom, of all writers, he most
loved to imitate ; for, as Plato, ‡ after writing on
government in general, drew up a body of laws,
adapted to that particular form of it, which he had
been delineating ; so Cicero chose to deliver his
political sentiments in the same method ; not by
translating Plato, but imitating his manner in the
explication of them. § Since then this work was
designed as a supplement, or second volume, to
0

his other upon the republic, it was distributed,

probably, as that other was, into six books ; for
we meet with some quotations among the ancients,
from the fourth and fifth ; though there are but
220 EXERCISE 28 .

three now remaining, * and those are in some

places imperfect. In the first of these, he lays
open the origin of law, and the source of obliga-
tion, deriving them from the universal nature of
things, or, as he explains it, from the consummate
reason or will of the supreme God : in the other
two books, he gives a body of laws, conformable to
his own plan and idea of a well-ordered city : first,
those relating to religion and the worship of the
gods ; secondly, those which prescribe the duties
and powers of the several magistrates, from which
the peculiar form of each government is denomi-
nated. These laws are generally taken from the
old constitution or custom of Rome, with some
little variation and temperament, contrived to
obviate the disorders to which that republic was
liable, and to give it a stronger turn towards the
aristocratical side.

THE END .

GILBERT & RIVINGTON, Printers, St. John's Square, London.

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