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23 views17 pages

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angelthas88
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M304T: Linear Algebra

Canonical Form

Dr. R. Bhuvaneswari
BMS College for Women

October 2020

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 1 / 17


Canonical form

Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over a field F .


Definition
Two linear transformations S, T P ApV q are said to be similar if D an
invertible linear transformation C P ApV q such that

T “ CSC ´1 .
In this case, we write T „ S.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 2 / 17


Definition
Two matrices A, B P Fn are said to be similar matrices if there exists
an invertible matrix C P Fn such that

B “ CAC ´1 .

Similarity relation is an equivalence relation on ApV q.

For T P ApV q, T “ ITI ´1 .


6 T „ T.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 3 / 17


If T „ S then D an invertible element C P ApV q such that

T “ CSC ´1 .

Take D “ C ´1 . Then D P ApV q and D is invertible.


Further DTD ´1 “ C ´1 TC “ C ´1 CSC ´1 C “ S.
6 S “ DTD ´1 and D P ApV q is invertible. Thus S „ T .

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 4 / 17


If T „ S and S „ U then D invertible elements C and D in
ApV q such that

T “ CSC ´1 and S “ DUD ´1 .

Therefore, T “ CSC ´1 “ CDUD ´1 C ´1 .


Thus D an invertible element CD P ApV q such that
T “ CDUpCDq´1 .
ùñ T „ U.
Thus similarity is an equivalence relation on ApV q.
The equivalence class of an element is called its similarity class.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 5 / 17


Given two linear transformations, how can we determine whether
or not they are similar?

We shall prove the existence of linear transformations in each


similarity class whose matrix, in some basis, is of a particularly
nice form called canonical forms.

For similar linear transformations the canonical form are same.

So to determine if two linear transformations are similar, we


need to compute a particular canonical form for each and check
if these are the same.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 6 / 17


There are many possible canonical forms.
We consider three canonical forms
Triangular form
Nilpotent transformations
Jordan form
Rational canonical form

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 7 / 17


Definition
A square matrix D “ pdij q is said to be diagonal if dij “ 0 for i ‰ j.

(i.e) All the entries off the main diagonal are zeros.

Note
The characteristic roots of a diagonal matrix are precisely the
elements on its main diagonal.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 8 / 17


A square matrix is said to be diagonalizable if it is similar to a
diagonal matrix.

(i.e) A is diagonalizable if D a diagonal matrix D such that A „ D.


(i.e)D a diagonal matrix D and an inverible matrix P such that

A “ PDP ´1 .

Definition
A linear transformation T P ApV q is said to be diagonal if there
exists a basis of V in which matrix of T is diagonal.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 9 / 17


Definition
A square matrix A “ paij q is said to be lower triangular matrix if all
the entries above the main diagonal are zero.

Example
» fi
1 0 0
— ffi
— ffi
—2 1 0ffi
– fl
0 1 0

is a lower triangular matrix.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 10 / 17


Example
» fi
1 0 0 0
— ffi
— ffi
—2 1 1 0ffi
— ffi
— ffi
—0 1 0 1ffi
– fl
0 0 1 0

is not a lower triangular matrix.

Definition
A square matrix A “ paij q is said to be upper triangular matrix if all
the entries below the main diagonal are zero.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 11 / 17


Example
» fi
1 1 0
— ffi
— ffi
—0 1 4ffi
– fl
0 0 1

is an upper triangular matrix.

Example
» fi
1 0 0 0
— ffi
— ffi
—2 1 1 0ffi
— ffi
— ffi
—0 1 0 1ffi
– fl
0 0 1 0

is not an upper triangular matrix.


RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 12 / 17
Definition
A matrix is triangular if it is either lower triangular or upper
triangular matrix.

(i.e) A matrix is triangular if all the entries above (or below) the main
diagonal are 0.

If A is triangular and no entry on the main diagonal is 0 then A


is invertible.

If A is triangular and an entry on the main diagonal is 0 then A


is singular.

If A is triangular, then its characteristic roots are precisely the


elements on its main diagonal.
RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 13 / 17
Definition
A linear transformation T in ApV q is said to be triangular if there
exists a basis of V in matrix of T is triangular.

For T P ApV q, the matrix of T in the basis v1 , v2 , . . . , vn is triangular


if

v1 T “ α11 v1
v2 T “ α21 v1 ` α22 v2
..
.
vi T “ αi1 v1 ` αi2 v2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αii vi
..
.
vn T “ αn1 v1 ` αn2 v2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αnn vn

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 14 / 17


That is, vi T is a linear combination only of vi and its predecessors in
the basis.
Definition
The subspace W of V is invariant under a linear transformation
T P ApV q if
WT Ă W .
(ie) image of W under T is in W pT pW q Ă W q.

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 15 / 17


T

W W

V V

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 16 / 17


T
W
W
v w “ vT

V V

Not invariant because v P W but vT “ w P V not in W .

RB (BMSCW) M304T October 2020 17 / 17

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