XI PHYSICS PRACTICALS 2021 AS PER REDUCED SYLLABUS(8 -EXPERIMENTS AND 6 ACTIVITIES)-

BY K.RATHINA KUMAR,TA.PHY.ZIET,BBSR

EXPERIMENT-01 11.02.2021

AIM:To measure internal diameter and depth of a beaker/calorimeter using vernier calipers and hence find its volume.

Materials Required:Vernier calipers A cylindrical object like a beaker.Magnifying glass

Procedure
1. Determine and record the least count of the vernier caliper which is also known as the vernier constant.
2. To find the zero error, bring the movable jaw BD in contact with the fixed jaw AC. Repeat and record this three times. If there is no zero
error, then record zero error as nil.
3. Now put the jaws C and D inside the beaker and open till they make contact with the inner wall of the beaker without any pressure.
Tighten the screw without putting too much of pressure.
4. On the main scale, record the zero mark of the vernier scale. Just before the zero mark of the vernier scale, record the main scale reading
which is known as main scale reading (M.S.R).
5. Let n be the number of the vernier scale division which coincides with the main scale division.
6. Rotate the vernier caliper 90° and repeat the steps 4 and 5 for measuring the internal diameter in perpendicular direction.
7. To measure the depth, find the total reading and zero correction.
8. The edge of the main scale of vernier caliper should be placed on the peripheral edge. Care should be taken to make the strip go freely
inside the beaker along with its depth.
9. Once the moving jaw of the vernier caliper touches the bottom of the beaker perpendicularly, the screw of the vernier caliper should be
tightened.
10. For four different positions along the circumference of the beaker, repeat steps 4 and 5.
11. Find the total reading and also zero correction.
12. For internal diameter, take two different mean values and for depth, take four different values.
13. Calculate the volume using the proper formula and record the same in the result with units.
Observations
1.
1. Determination of the least count of vernier caliper1 M.S.D = 1 mm 10 V.S.D = 9 M.S.D
∴ 1 V.S.D = 9/10 M.S.D = 0.9 mm
The least count of vernier caliper (V.C) = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D = (1-0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
2. Zero error = (i)…. cm (ii)…. cm (iii)…..cmMean zero error (e) = …..cm
Mean zero correction © = -(e) = …….cm
3. Table for internal diameter (D)

Calculations
Mean corrected internal diameter,
D=D1(a)+D1(b)2=…..cm
Mean corrected depth,
d=d1+d2+d3+d44=…..cm
Volume of the beaker,
Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
V=π(D/2)2 .d=….cm3
Result =3.14 X (4.95/2 X 4.95/2) X 7.54 X10 -6 m3
The volume of the beaker is …=145.02 x10-6 m33.

Precautions

1. Apply machine oil or grease to make the vernier scale slide smoothly over the main scale.
2. To avoid the damage to threads, do not exert more pressure on the vernier screw.
3. To avoid errors due to parallax, keep the eye directly over the division mark.
4. The significant figures and units used in observations must be correct

XI PHYSICS Experiment:-02.

Aim

To measure diameter of a given wire using screw gauge.

Materials Required

1. Screw gauge
2. Wire
3. Half-meter scale
4. Magnifying glass

Leastcount=pitchno.ofdivisionsoncircularscale
If a screw gauge has a pitch of 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale then the least count is given as:
Leastcount=1mm100=0.01mm
.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D).

2. Determine and record the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.
3. To find the zero error, bring the plane face B and A near. Repeat and record this for three times. Record zero error as nil
if there is no error.
4. Move face B away from face A. using a ratchet head R, move the face A towards face B lengthwise and stop when R
turns without moving the screw.
5. Linear scale reading (L.S.R) is recorded by noting down the no.of visible and uncovered divisions of linear scale.
6. Let n be the no.of divisions of the circular scale lying on the reference line.
7. To measure diameter in a perpendicular direction, repeat steps 5 and 6 by rotating the wire to 90°.
8. For the entire length of wire, repeat steps 4,5,6 and 7 for five different positions and record the observations.
9. Find the total reading and also zero correction.
10. Take the mean of different values of diameter.
11. Using a half-meter scale, measure the length of the wire. Repeat this step three times and record the readings.

Observations

1. Determination of the least count of the screw gauge L.S.D = 1 mm

2. Number of full rotations given to screw = 4 Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm

Hence, pitch p = 4 mm/4 = 1 mm

No.of divisions on circular scale = 100
Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
 Hence, the least count = 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm

3. Zero error (i)… mm (ii)…. mm (iii)….. mm

4. Mean zero error (e) =… mmMean zero correction (c) = -e -0.06…. mm
5. Table for diameter (D)

Sl.no Linear scale Circular scale reading Total reading

reading (N
in mm) No.of circular Value Observed Corrected
scale division on [n×(L.C)] D0=N+n×(L.C)mm D=D0+c
reference line (n) mm

AӨB 1 59 59 x 0.01 =59 1.59 D1(a)=1.53

1 60 60 x 0.01 = 1.60 D1(b)=1.54

0.60

AӨB 1 58 58 1.58 D2(a)=1.52

x0.01=0.58

1 58 58 x0.01=.58 1.58 D2(b)=1.52

Calculations

Mean diameter of the wire, D= 1.53+1.54+1.52+1.52= 1.527mm

Result:-The Diameter of the given wire is =1.527 mm

Precautions

1. There shouldn’t be any friction while moving the screw.

2. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K to avoid undue pressure.
3. For zero correction proper sing should be noted.
4. To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same direction.
5. The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two perpendicular directions and mean should be taken.
6. Along the entire length of the wire, readings should be taken at five different places.
7. Avoid errors because of parallax.

Sources Of Error

1. There might be friction in the screw.

2. There might be a back-lash error in the screw gauge.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be equally divided.
4. There might not be uniformity in the wire.

Aim

To measure the thickness of the sheet using screw gauge.

Apparatus/ Materials Required

● Screw Gauge
● Sheet
● Magnifying Lens

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

Theory

Formula:

● PitchoftheScrew=DistancemovedbythescrewNooffullrotationsgiven
● LeastCount=PitchTotalNumberofDivisionsontheCircularScale

Procedure

● Insert the sheet between the studs of the screw gauge and determine the thickness at five different positions.
● Find the average thickness and determine the correct thickness by applying the zero error.

Observations

The least count of the screw gauge = …0.01 mm

Zero Error of screw gauge = NIL ….. mm

S.No Linear Scale Reading M (mm) Circular Scale Reading n Thickness

t = M + n × L.C (mm)

1 0 60 0+60 x 0.01
2 0 61 0+61 x 0.01
0 60 0+60 x 0.01
3

Mean thick0ness of the given sheet = 0.603….. mm.

Mean corrected thickness of the given sheet = Observed thickness – Zero error = …… mm.

Result

The thickness of the given sheet is =0.603 mm.

Experiment:-03 section-A
To Study Variation of Time Period of a Simple Pendulum of a Given Length by Taking Bobs of Same Size but Different Masses
and Interpret the Result

Aim
To study variation of time period of a simple pendulum of a given length by taking bobs of same size but different masses and
interpret the result.

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

Apparatus
A clamp with stand, a split cork, thread, vernier callipers, stop clock/stopwatch, metre scale and pendulum bobs of different
masses.
Theory
1. Simple Pendulum: See Experiment 7.
2. Length of Simple Pendulum: See Experiment 7
3. The time period is given by the formula,

For the given value of length of simple pendulum (as explained above) and gravitational acceleration at the place of experiment,
the time period of the simple pendulum can be calculated by the above formula.

Procedure
To check the effect of bobs of different masses on time period
(i) Choose any three bobs of known masses and determine their radii as in Experiment 1A
(ii) Now, arrange the experiment set up for first bob (say mass m1) with any effective length of simple pendulum (say 100.00 cm)
as explained in Experiment 7
(iii) Obtain the average time taken for 20 oscillations by the simple pendulum by performing the steps 12 to 18 as explained in
Experiment 7
(iv) Repeat the steps (ii) and (iii) for second bob (say mass m2) with the same effective length 100.00 cm [Note: Here you should
adjust the length of the thread to set effective length 100.00 cm because of change in radius of the new bob as compared to the
first bob].
(v) Now, finally repeat the steps (ii) and (iii) for third bob (say mas m3) with the same effective length 100.00 cm.
(vi) Calculate the time periods for each bob and mention them in the table given below.
Observations
1. For vernier callipers: See Experiment 7
2. For stop clock/stop watch: See Experiment 7
3. Table to check the effect of bobs of different masses on time period

* The effective length of the simple pendulum will be kept same in each case.
Calculations
Average time for 20 vibrations may be calculated as:

Then calculate the time period T = t/20 second and finally write in the table.
Result
It is clear from the table, for the same effective length of simple pendulum, the time period is same for bobs of different masses
i.e., the time period is independent of mass of the bob.

Experiment:-04 section -A
Aim
To find the weight of a given body using parallelogram law of vectors.
Apparatus
Parallelogram law of forces apparatus (Gravesand’s apparatus), plumb line, two hangers with slotted weights, a body
(a wooden block) whose weight is to be determined, thin strong or thread, white drawing paper sheet, drawing pins,
mirror strip, sharp pencil, half metre scale, set squares, protractor.

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

Theory

Diagram

Procedure
1. Set up the Gravesand’s apparatus with its board vertical, tested with the help of a plumb line.
2. Test that pulleys P1 and P2 are frictionless. Oil them if necessary.
3. Fix the white drawing paper sheets on the board with the help of drawing pins.
4. Take three pieces of strong thread and tie their one end together to make knot O. This knot becomes
junction of the three threads.
5. From the other ends of two threads, tie a hanger with some slotted weights in each. These serve as
the weights P and Q. From the other end of third thread tie the given body S.
6. Pass threads with weights P and Q over the pulleys and let the third thread with given body S, stay
vertical in the middle of the board.
7. Adjust the weights P and Q (forces) such that the junction O stays in equilibrium slightly below the
middle of the paper.
8. The weights P, Q and wooden block S act as three forces

acting along the three threads at the junction O. The forces are in equilibrium.
9. See that all the weights hang freely and none of them touches the board or the table.
10. Mark the position of junction O on the white paper sheet by a sharp pencil.
11. Disturb weights P and Q and leave them.
12. Note position of junction O. It must be very close to earlier position. (If not, oil the pulleys to remove
friction.)
13. Keeping mirror strip lengthwise under each thread, mark the position of the ends of the image of
thread in the mirror, covering the image by the thread (this removes parallax error). The position are
P1 ,P2 for thread of weight P, Q1 and Q2 for thread of weight Q and S1 , S2 for thread of weight S as
shown in figure.

14. Remove paper from the board.

15. With the help of a half metre scale draw lines through points P 1 and P2 to represent P, through points
Q1 and Q2 to represent Q and through points S1 and S2 to represent S. These lines must meet at point
O.
16. Taking a scale, 1 cm = 50 g, take OA = 3 cm and OB = 3 cm to represent P = 150 g and Q = 150 g.
17. Complete parallelogram OACB using set squares and join OC. It represents R.

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

 18. Measure OC. It comes to be 3.9 cm.
19. For different sets of observation, change P and Q suitably.
20. Find weight of the wooden block by a spring balance.
Observation
Least count of spring balance =………. g
Zero error of spring balance =………..g
Weight of unknown body by spring balance = ………..g
Scale. Let 1 cm = 50 g.

Calculations

Result
The unknown weight of given body = 195 g
The error is within limits of experiment error.
Precautions
1. The board should be stable and vertical.
2. The pulleys should be friction less.
3. The hangers should not touch the board or table.
4. Junction O should be in the middle of the paper sheet.
5. Points should be marked only when weights are at rest.
6. Points should be marked with sharp pencil.
7. Arrows should be marked to show direction of forces.
8. A proper scale should be taken to make fairly big parallelogram.

EXPERIMENT NO1. SECTION-A

Aim
To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and extension.
Apparatus/ Materials Required

● A rigid support,Spring ,A 50 g or 20 g hanger,Six 20 g or 50 g slotted weight ..A fine pointer,A vertical wooden scale,A hook

Diagram

PROCEDURE
1. Suspend the spring from a rigid support and attach the pointer and the hook from its lower free end.
2. Hang a 50 g hanger from the hook
3. Arrange the vertical wooden scale such that the tip of the pointer comes over the divisions on the scale but does not touch the scale.

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

 4. Note the reading on the scale and record it in loading column against the zero loads.
5. Gently add a suitable load of 50 g or 20 g of slotted weight to the hanger. The tip of the pointer moves down.
6. Wait for some time till the pointer comes to rest. Repeat step 4.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 till six slots have been added.
8. Remove one slotted weight. The pointer moves up. Repeat step 6 and record the reading in unloading column.
9. Repeat step 8 till the only hanger is left.,Record your observation as given below in the table.

S. Load on Hanger (W) = Applied Force Reading of Position of the pointer tip Extension
No (l cm)

Loading Unloading Mean

(x cm) (y cm) z = (x+y)/2

1 0 .5 .5 .5 .5
2 50 1
1 1 1
3 100
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
4 150

5 200 2 2 2 2

6 250 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

7 300 3 3 3 3

From the graph, it is seen that a change of F from B to C, produces a change of l from B to D. In other words, 250 g of weight produces 2.5 cm
extension. From this given data, the spring constant can be calculated as follows:

K=Fl=BCAC K=2502.5=100gwtpercm

Result The spring constant of the given spring is 100 g wt per cm.

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
Experiment 07.section -B
Aim
To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting a cooling curve.
Apparatus
Newton’s law of cooling apparatus (a thin-walled copper calorimeter suspended in a double walled enclosure), two
thermometers, clamp and stand, stop clock/watch.
Theory
Newton’s law of cooling, states that the rate of cooling (or rate of loss of heat) of a body is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between the body and its surroundings, provided the temperature difference is small.

Diagram

Procedure
1. Fill the space between double wall of the enclosure with water and put the enclosure on a laboratory
table.
2. Fill the calorimeter two-third with water heated to about 80°C.
3. Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure along with a stirrer in it. Cover it with a wooden lid
having a hole in its middle.
4. Suspend from clamp and stand, one thermometer in enclosure water and the other in calorimeter
water.
5. Note least count of the thermometers.
6. Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note its least count.
7. Note temperature (T0) of water in enclosure.
8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make it cool uniformly.
9. Just when calorimeter water has some convenient temperature reading (say 70°C), note it and start
the stop clock/watch.
10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one minute. The temperature falls quickly in the
beginning.
11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature becomes slow note temperature at interval of two minutes for 10 minutes
and then at interval of 5 minutes.
13. Stop when fall of temperature becomes very slow.
14. Record your observations as given ahead.
Observations
Least count of enclosure water thermometer = ……01………….°C
Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
Least count of calorimeter water thermometer = ……01…..°C
Least count of stop clock/watch = ……1……….s.
Table for time and temperature

(Note. The ideal observations given above are as sample.)

Calculations
1. Temperature of water in enclosure will be found to remain same. If not then take its mean as T 0.
2. Find temperature difference (T – T0).
3. Plot a graph between time t and temperature T, taking t along X-axis and T along Y- axis. The graph comes to be as
shown in below. It is called Cooling curve O of the liquid.

Result
The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly as difference of temperature goes on decreasing.
This is an agreement with Newton’s law of cooling.
Precautions
1. Double-walled enclosure should be used to maintain surrounding at a constant temperature.
2. Stirring should remain continuous for uniform cooling.
Sources of error
1. Surrounding temperature may change.

Expt.08 section B

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
KV.NO.6.BBSR -XI PHYSICS ACTIVITIES BY,K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,PHY,ZIET,BBSR

Activity-01 To observe change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax.

Aim
To observe change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax.

Apparatus
A uniform straight wooden metre rod (scale). Two G clamp, pointer pin, thread, slotted weights of 50 g each, wax,
vertical scale, clamp stand.

Theory
(а) For cooling

(b) For change of state

When molten wax cools down to its freezing point, it starts solidifying and the temperature becomes constant.
The curve becomes horizontal thereafter (parallel to time-axis) as shown in Graph.
Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
Graph

Procedure
Steps 1 to 8 of experiment 6 except step 2 in which calorimeter is filled two third by molten wax (in place of water)
9. When temperature of wax falls to about 80°C note it and start the stop clock.
10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one minute.
11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature stops, remove the lid and note that the wax in calorimeter starts solidifying. Temperature
remains same till all the wax in calorimeter solidifies.
13. Watch the constant temperature for some minutes.
14. Record your observations as given below.

Observations
Least count of enclosure thermometer = ……01….°C.
Constant temperature of enclosure, θ0 = ……30….°C
Least count of calorimeter-wax thermometer = …………°C.
Least count of stop clock/watch = …01……..s.
Table for time and temperature

Plot a graph between time t and temperature 0, taking t along X-axis and 0 along Y-axis. The decreasing slope curve is
called cooling curve of molten wax.
The horizontal straight line is called freezing curve of the wax.
Result The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly.
1. When wax starts freezing, the temperature does not fall further. The freezing point comes to be 50°C
as calculated from graph.
Precautions The metre scale should be straight and uniform and clamped firmly.
1. The tip of pointer should not touch the vertical scale.
Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
 2. The scale should not be loaded beyond the elastic limit.
3. Reading on metre scale should be taken carefully.
Sources of error
1. The metre scale may be non-uniform.

Activity :2

To Determine Mass of a Given Body Using a Metre Scale by Principle of Moments

Aim
To determine mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of moments.

Apparatus
A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge with sharp edge, a weight box, a body of unknown mass.

Theory
If m and M be the mass of the body and mass of the weight used and a 1 and a2 be the distances of their loops from
wedge. Then, power (mass) arm = a1, weight arm = a2
From principle of moments mg a1 = Mg a2
or m=Ma1/a1 which can be calculated.
Two Different Methods
(i) Arm lengths fixed and equal, weight adjustable.
The thread loops are suspended at positions forming both arm of equal length. Weights in the paper pan are adjusted
till the metre scale becomes horizontal. (Fig. 3).
In this case a1= a2 = a
Hence, mg a1= Mg a2
or m = M
A physical balance makes use of this method.
(ii) Masses and power arm fixed, weight arm adjustable.
Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1 .
Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight loop thread in and out till the metre scale become horizontal (Fig.
4).
In this case a1 = a, a2 = A
Hence mg a1 = Mg a2, becomes mg a = Mg A
or m= M A/a

Diagram

Procedure
(i) First method
1. Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it at the sharp edge of the broad heavy wedge at 50 cm mark.
2. Suspended the body of unknown mass by a loop thread at a fixed mark on the left of the wedge.
3. Suspended paper pan at same distance on the right of the wedge with some weights in it.
4. Adjust the weights in the paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the mass of the weights in the pan.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing the length of the arms in equal steps keeping the lengths equal.
7. Record the observations as given in the following table.

Observations and calculations

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

 S.NO Length of weight Length of weight Mass of weight in the Unknown mass
paper pan
Arm(or power)cm Arm(or weight)cm M2(g)
M1(g)
L2 L1

1 20.5 45 01 Kg 0.22 kg

Formula=M2=M1 x L1/L2

Result
The unknown mass of the body, m =0.22 Kg.

Precautions

1. The wedge should be broad and heavy with sharp edge.

2. Metre scale should have uniform mass distribution.
3. Threads used for loops should be thin, light and strong,

Sources of error

1. The wedge may not be sharp.

2. Metre scale may have faulty calibration.
3. The threads used for loops may be thick and heavy.

Activity 3

Aim To measure the force of limiting friction for rolling of a roller on a horizontal plane.

Materials Required

● Wooden block , 50 or 20 g slotted weights

● Horizontal plane (table top) fitted with a frictionless pulley at one end
● Weight box, Spring balance
● Thread

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

Real Lab Procedure

● Find the mass of the wooden block by using a spring balance and place it on the table fitted with a frictionless
pulley at one end.
● Tie one end of a thread with the hook of the wooden block and pass it over the pulley.
● Tie the other free end of the thread to the weight hanger and let it hang vertically.
● Increase the mass, till the block just starts sliding when tapping the table.
● Note the total mass added to the weight hanger and multiply it with acceleration due to gravity, g to get the
total weights added and record them in the observation table.This gives the force of limiting friction, F.
● The normal reaction, R is given by the mass, M of the wooden block multiplied by acceleration due to gravity,
g.
● Repeat the experiment with different masses on the block and in each case is calculated and it is found to be
a constant for the given pair of surfaces.
● Plot a graph taking normal reaction, R along X axis and limiting friction, F along Y axis. The graph will be a
straight line sloping upwards.
● The coefficient of friction is also calculated by measuring the slope of the graph.

=AB/AC

Procedure

1. Check that the pulley is free of friction and also clean the tabletop.
2. Before putting the block on the tabletop, weigh the block.
3. Pass over the block on to the pulley by tieing one end of the thread on the hook of the wooden block.
4. Find the weight of the pan.
5. The pan should be tied to the free end of the thread and left hanging vertically.
6. Put some weights on the pan to pull the block easily.
7. To make the block slide, start tapping the tabletop.
8. Continue tapping by adding the weights little by little.
9. Record the total weights in the pan in the observation table.
10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 by adding one 50g or 20g weight on the wooden block.
11. Every time the weight is increased by 50g or 20, repeat steps 8, 9, and 10 six times.
12. Record the observations as given below.

Observations

Weight of wooden block, W = …50…g wt

Weight of pan, P = 5……g wt
Table for additional weights:

Sl.no Weights on a The total weight Weight on Total weight pulling the
wooden block being pulled the pan (p) block and weights
(w) in g wt (W+w)= Normal in g wt (P+p)=limiting friction
reaction in g wt (F) in g wt

1. 50 100 45 50

2. 100 150 70 75

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

 3. 150 200 95 100

4. 200 250 120 125

5 250 300 145 150

6 300 350 170 175

7 350 400 195 200

Calculations

Total weight pulling the block and weights gives the value of the force of sliding friction.
On a horizontal surface, total weights being pulled give normal reaction R. Total weight pulling these weights gives dynamic
friction F.
Plot a graph between normal reaction R and limiting friction F, taking R along x-axis and F along the y-axis.
The graph comes to be a straight line as shown below:

Result

It is found that as the total weight pulled increases, the force of limiting friction also increases. The increase is in direct proportion.
The graph shows that limiting friction F is directly proportional to the normal reaction R. it is an agreement with the law of
limiting friction.
The constant ratio of F/R is called the coefficient of friction (p). It can be calculated by finding the slope of the graph.
In ΔABC,
Slope of straight line AB = tan Ө = BC/AC=F/R= (150−50)/(300−100)
tan Ө = F/R=100/200=1/2=0.5………..(1)
But, F=μR………………(2)
FR=μ
From equation (1) and (2),
μ=tanθ=0.5 μ=0.5

Precautions

1. The table-top should be horizontal.

2. The thread between block and pulley should be horizontal.
3. The pan should not oscillate or rotate and the weight should be added in small quantities.
4. The tapping of the tabletop should be done gently.
5. The frictionless pulley should be used.

Sources Of Error

1. The tabletop is not horizontal.

The thread between block and pulley may not be horizonta

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

Activity 04

To Observe Change of State and Plot a Cooling Curve for Molten Wax

Aim
To observe change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax.

Apparatus
A uniform straight wooden metre rod (scale). Two G clamp, pointer pin, thread, slotted weights of 50 g each, wax,
vertical scale, clamp stand.

Theory
(а) For cooling

(b) For change of state

When molten wax cools down to its freezing point, it starts solidifying and the temperature becomes constant.
The curve becomes horizontal thereafter (parallel to time-axis) as shown in Graph.

Graph

Procedure
Steps 1 to 8 of experiment 6 except step 2 in which calorimeter is filled two third by molten wax (in place of water)
Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
9. When temperature of wax falls to about 80°C note it and start the stop clock.
10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one minute.
11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature stops, remove the lid and note that the wax in calorimeter starts solidifying. Temperature
remains same till all the wax in calorimeter solidifies.
13. Watch the constant temperature for some minutes.
14. Record your observations as given below.

Observations
Least count of enclosure thermometer = ……….°C.
Constant temperature of enclosure, θ0 = ……….°C
Least count of calorimeter-wax thermometer = …………°C.
Least count of stop clock/watch = ………..s.
Table for time and temperature

Plot a graph between time t and temperature 0, taking t along X-axis and 0 along Y-axis. The decreasing slope curve is
called cooling curve of molten wax.
The horizontal straight line is called freezing curve of the wax.

Result

1. The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly.

2. When wax starts freezing, the temperature does not fall further. The freezing point comes to be 50°C
as calculated from graph.

Precautions

1. The metre scale should be straight and uniform and clamped firmly.
2. The tip of pointer should not touch the vertical scale.
3. The scale should not be loaded beyond the elastic limit.
4. Reading on metre scale should be taken carefully.

Sources of error

1. The metre scale may be non-uniform.

2. The tip of pointer may not be very sharp.

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

Activity:-05

To Study the Factors Affecting the Rate of Loss of Heat of a Liquid

Aim
To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid.

Apparatus
Two calorimeters A and B of different areas, two thermometers, two stands, stopwatch, wooden lids, burner and liquid
(water).

Theory
According to Newton’s Law of cooling, rate of cooling (i.e., heat lost per sec) of a body is directly proportional to the
difference of temperature of the body and the surrounding.

(i) Nature of surface.

(ii) Area of surface.
(iii) Nature of material of body.
Then, for same difference of temperature, rate of cooling also depends upon :
(i) Area of the surface of the body.
(ii) Nature of the surface of the body.
(iii) Material of the surface of the body (material effects conductivity through walls of the body).

Diagram

Procedure
1.Fill the space between double wall of the enclosure with water and put the enclosure on a laboratory table.
2.Fill the calorimeter two-third with water heated to about 80°C.
3.Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure along with a stirrer in it. Cover it with a wooden lid having a hole in its
middle.
4.Suspend from clamp and stand, one thermometer in enclosure water and the other in calorimeter water.
5.Note least count of the thermometers.
6. Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note its least count.
7. Note temperature (T0) of water in enclosure.
8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make it cool uniformly.
9. Just when calorimeter water has some convenient temperature reading (say 70°C), note it and start the stop
clock/watch.
10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one minute. The temperature falls quickly in the beginning.
11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature becomes slow note temperature at interval of two minutes for 10 minutes and then at
interval of 5 minutes.
13. Stop when fall of temperature becomes very slow.
14. Record your observations as given ahead.
Case I. Take same volume of same liquid in calorimeters of small and large cross¬section (nature and material of
surface same).
Case II. Take same volume of same liquid in similar calorimeters having black painted and polished outer surface
(area and material of surface same).
Case III. Take same volume of same liquid in similar calorimeters of different materials (area and nature of surface
same).

Observations
Least count of enclosure water thermometer =……………..°C.
Least count of calorimeter water thermometer = …………..°C.
Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
Least count of stop clock/watch = ………….s.
Table for time and temperature

Graph

Comparison of graphs
Case I. Cooling is fast from more surface area.
Cooling is slow from less surface area.
Case II. Cooling is fast from black painted surface and slow from polished surface of the calorimeter.
Case III. Cooling is fast from calorimeter having more conducting material and slow from calorimeter having less
conducting material.

Result
Case I. Rate of cooling depends upon the area of the surface through which heat is lost. More area of surface causes
higher rate of cooling.
Case II. Rate of cooling depends upon the nature of the surface through which heat is lost. Black painted surface
causes higher rate of cooling.
Case III. Rate of cooling depends upon the material of the surface. More conducting surface causes higher rate of
cooling.

Precautions

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

 1. Double-walled enclosure should be used to maintain surrounding at a constant temperature.
2. Stirring should remain continuous for uniform cooling.
3. Same volume of same liquid should be taken in all cases.
4. Graphs of one case should be plotted on same graph paper on same scale.

Activity -06

To Study the Effect of Load on Depression of a Suitably Clamped Metre Scale Loaded at (i) its end (ii) in the Middle

Aim
To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped metre scale loaded at (i) its end (ii) in the middle.

Apparatus
A uniform straight wooden metre rod (scale). Two G clamp, pointer pin, thread, slotted weights of 50 g each, wax, vertical scale,
clamp stand.

Theory

Diagram

Procedure
(i) When metre scale is loaded at its end :
1. Clamp the metre scale firmly with G clamp at its one edge on the corner of table such that metre scale remains straight in
horizontal plane.
2. The pointer pin or needle should be attached at free end of metre scale with wax.
3. Fix the scale on a stand vertically to take the reading.
4. Note the initial reading on vertical scale corresponding to the tip of the pointer when no weights is suspended.
5. Suspend the weights in steps at free end of metre scale with the help of a strong thread and note the corresponding readings on
the vertical scale.
6. After taking 5-6 reading, start unloading the weights one by one and again note the reading on scale.
(ii) When metre scale is loaded in the middle :
7. Locate the C.G. of metre scale by suspending it with a thread.
8. Now, place the metre scale symmetrically on two knife edges them about 85 cm apart and check that metre scale is perfectly
horizontal.
9. A pointer is attached at the mid point of the scale with the help of wax or adhesive tape to take the reading.
10. Repeat the steps 3 to 6 and record the observation in the table.

Observations
1. Initial reading of pointer on vertical scale without loading at free end = x 0 =…88…..cm
Table for load and depression when metre rod is loaded at its one end.

2. Initial reading of pointer on vertical scale without loading in the middle =x 0 =…89.5………cm
Table for load and depression when metre rod is loaded at its one end.
(i) When metre scale is loaded at its end :

mass LOAD Vertical Vertical Mean Depression

scale scale
SUSPENDED(g reading(cm) reading(cm) X1+x2)/2
wt)

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR

 loading unloadingX2

X1

0 0 88 88 88 0

50 490 84 84 84 4

100 980 80 80 80 8

150 1470 76 76 76 12

200 1960 72.3 72.3 72.3 15.7

(ii) When metre scale is loaded in the middle

mass LOAD Vertical Vertical Mean Depression
scale scale
SUSPENDED(g reading(cm reading(cm) X1+x2)/2
wt) )

loading
unloadingX2
X1

0 0 89.5 89.2 89.5 0

50 490 89.2 89.2 89.2 0.3

100 980 88.8 88.8 88.8 0.7

150 1470 88.5 88.5 88.5 1

200 1960 88.1 88.1 88.1 1.4

Graph
Plot a graph between load and depression by taking load on X-axis and depression on Y- axis for both of cases. In both the cases,
graphs come to be a straight line as shown below.

Result
The graph between load and depression are straight lines, which gives that depression is directly proportion to the load.

Precautions

1. The metre scale should be straight and uniform and clamped firmly.
2. The tip of pointer should not touch the vertical scale.
Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR
 3. The scale should not be loaded beyond the elastic limit.
4. Reading on metre scale should be taken carefully.

Sources of error

1. The metre scale may be non-uniform.

2. The tip of pointer may not be very sharp

======================end==================

Prepared by K.RATHINA KUMAR.TA,(PHY),ZIET,BBSR