PHYSICS PRACTICAL RECORD WRITING

FOR CLASS XI
@

Educate  Enrich  Enlighten

TOPIC
EXPERIMENTS 1 - 8

ACTIVITIES 1 - 6

1
RECORD WRITING INSTRUCTIONS

2
 PHYSICS
CLASS XI
RECORD WRITING AND LAB SESSION INSTRUCTIONS

* Records must be written in a blue ball point or dot pen. Ink pens or gel inks are not

allowed.

* All images & graphic illustrations should be done on left blank side of the record with

pencil

* Everybody should carry their observation manual with them in every lab class.

* Lab sessions will not be carried out for the students who are absent for a lab class with

out completing the session that they have missed.

* Lab records should be consequently complete along with the lab sessions each day.

* Without completing the record portions of previous lab, one will not be allowed to per

form the next lab.

* Aim, Apparatus , Principle , Formaula and Procedure Should be done on right side (Ruled

Page)

* Tabular Column, Diagrams, Model Graphs and Calculations should be done on left side

(Unruled Page).

* The record books should be covered & name labelled prior to all.

* The index should be completed along with the lab cycles.

* All the regular routine Experiments carried out during the lab cycles should be per

form daily on a regular basis in order to perform well in the final lab cycle.

3
 PHYSICS
CLASS XI
PRACTICAL EXAM MODEL PAPER

PHYSICS PRACTICAL EXAMINATION : 042 MAX MARKS : 30

TIME : 3Hrs

PART A
1. To measure diameter of a given wire and thickness of a given sheet using screw gauge. (7M)

2. Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the effective length of
second’s pendulum. (7M)
3. To measure the force of limiting friction for rolling of a roller on a horizontal plane. (3M)

PART B

Practical Record (5M)

Project (3M)
Viva (5M)

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RECORD WRITING WILL START HERE

5
 Zero error : -(i) no zero error (ii) positive zero error (iii) negative zero error

Observations
Value of 1 MSD =
Total number of VSD =

Value of 1 MSD = ______________ CM

LC =
Total no. of VSD

6
 01

VERNIER CALLIPERS

Aim :

a) To determine the volume of shpere

b) To determine the Diameter of Cylinder

Apparatus: Vernier callipers rectangular block of known mass and

cylindrical object like a beaker/glass/calorimeter.

Principle: The magnitude of ‘n’ vernier scale divisions is equal to the

magnitude of (n-1) number of main scale divisions.

Procedure

1. The least count of the callipers is found.

2. When the lower jaws A and B are in contact firmly, the position of
the vernier zero with respect to main scale zero is noted. If the

vernier zero coincides with the main scale zero,then there is

no the callipers is found.

3. When the lower jaws A and B are in contact firmly, the position of
the vernier zero with respect to main scale zero is noted. If the
vernier zero coincides with the main scale zero, then there is no

zero error. If not so, there is zero error. The zero error will be

positive or negative based on whether the vernier scale zero lies

either to right or to the left of main scale zero. The number (n)

of the vernier scale division coinciding with some division of the

main scale is noted. Then zero error,

7
To determine the volume of sphere

Sl NO M.S.R V.S.R T.R=C.S.R x L.C Total

A(cm) (A+B)cm
Observed Corrected B(CM)

Mean Diameter (D) = _____________cm

1. Average (d) = ___________________cm.

2. Radius (r) = D
2
______________________cm.

3. Volume = V = 34 πr = _______________________cm.
3

8
3. The spherical/cylindrical body whose diameter D to be measured

is held between the lower jaws of the vernier callipers firmly.

4. The position of the vernier scale zero against the main scale is

noted. Note down main scale reading (MSR) just to the left of

vernier scale zero.

5. The number of particular vernier scale division which coincides

with some division of the main scale is noted. This gives coinciding

vernier scale division (VSR).

6. The total reading is calculated using the formula TR = MSR +

(VSR x LC). This gives diameter.

7. The experiment is repeated for different positions of the object

and reading are tabulated.

8. The mean diameter of the object is found.

9. Zero error is subtracted from the mean diameter to get the
corrected diameter D.

9
To determine the diameter of the given
cylindrical object.

Object Trial No. MSR in cm(a) V.S.R Total(a+b)cm

Fraction
b=v.s.r x L.C

Cylinder 1
2
3

Calculations : Mean (D) = _____________ CM

10
Result

1) The diameter of given cylindrical object is =

2) The Volume of Sphere =

Precautions : -

1) If the vernier scale is not sliding smoothly over the main scale,

apply mahine pil / grease

2) Screw the bernier tightly without exerting undue pressure to

avoid any damage to the threass of the screw

3) Keep the eye direcly over the division mark to avoid any error

due to parallax

4) Note down each pbservation with correct significant figures

and units

Sources of Errors:

Any measurement made using vernier Callipers is likely to

be incorrect if-

(i) the Zero error in the instrument placed is not

accounted for; and

(ii) the vernier callipers is not in a proper position with
respect to the body.avoiding gaps or undue pressure
or both.

11
below

12
 02

SCREW GAUZE

Aim :

(i) To measure diameter of a given wire.

(ii) To measure thickness of a given glass slab.

Apparatus
Wire, Glass Slab, millimetre graph paper, pencil and screw gauge.

Principle :

The linear distance moved by the screw is directly proportional to

the amount of rotation given to the screw head.

(i) To measure diameter of a given wire :

Formula :

1) Pitch = Distance moved on the pitch scale

Number of complete roptations given to the screwhead.

2) Least Count, LC = Pitch

Total number of head scale divisions.

3) Total reading, TR = PSR + (CSR) LC

Where PSR - Pitch scale reading

C - Circular scale reading

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Observation :

Pitch = Distance moved on the pitch scale = 4mm = 1mm

Number of complete rotations given to the screwhead. 4

Pitch = 1/1 = 1 mm

Total number of divisions on the head scale = 100

Least Column = Ptich = 1mm = 0.01mm

Total Number of head scale 100

Tabular Column : 1 To determine the radius of wire.

(N)

mm

14
Procedure

1. For a known number of rotations given to the screw head,

distance moved on the pitch scale is noted and pitched is

calculated.
2. The total number of divisions on the head scale is noted.

3. Least count is found.

4. When the studs A and B are in contact firmly, the position of the

zero of the divisions which are below or above the reference line
of the pitch scale is counted. Then zero error.

ZE = n x LC

5. The given wire is firmly held between the two studs by rotating

the screw head.

6. The number of divisions uncovered completely on the pitch scale

is noted as pitch scale reading PSR.

7. The number of head scale divisions which coincides with the

reference line of the pitch scale is noted as head scale reading HSR.
8. The total reading is calculated using the formula, TR = PSR +
(CSR x LC), which gives diameter of the wire.
9. The experiment is repeated for different positions of the wire and

the readings are tabulated.

10. The mean diameter of the wire is found.

11. The zero error is subtracted from mean diameter to get
corrected value of diameter of the wire.

RESULT
The diameter of the given wire as measured by screw gauge

= __________________m.

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Tabular Column:
ZE = -3

Object Dimension Trial LSR CSR TR Mean TR

No. in mm in mm MM
1 1 22 1.25
Glass Thickness 2 1 23 1.26 1.24
Slab 3 1 20 1.33

Table 2 : To Determine the thicknesds of Given glass slab

Mean Thick ness : _________

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(ii) To measure thickness of a given glass slab

Procedure

1) After finding least count and zero error, the given sheet is

fixed between the studs of the screw gauge firmly.

2) The total reading is calculated using the formula,

TR = PSR + (CSR x Z) which gives thickness of the given sheet.

3) The experiment is repeated for different positions of the sheet

and the readings are tabulated.

4) The mean thickness of the sheet is found.

Result
The thickness of the given glass slab as measured by screw gauge

= _______________ m.

Precautions:

1. Rechet arrangement in screw gauge must be utilised to avoid

undue pressure on the wire as this may change the diameter.

2. Move the screw in one direction else the screw may develop’ Play’.

3. Screw should move freely without friction.

4. Reading should be taken atleast at four different points along

the length of the wire.

5. View all the reading keeping the eye perpendicular to the scale
to avoid error due to parallax.

Source of Error

1. The wire may not be of uniformed cross section.

2. Error due to backlash though can be minimised but cannot be

completely eliminated.

17
Observation :

Pitch = Distance moved on the pitch scale
Number of complete rotations given to the screw head

Pitch = 1mm = 1 mm
1
Total number of divisions on the head scale = 100

Least count = Pitch

Total number of head scale divisions

LC = 1 = 0.01 mm
100

or

0.001 cm.

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 03

SPHEROMETER
Aim : To determine the radius of curvature of a given spherical surface

by using a spherometer.

Apparatus : Spherometer, watchglass , plane glass plate.

Principle : The linear distance moved by the screw is directly

proprtional to the amount of rotation given to the screw head.

Formula :
1) Pitch = Distance moved on the pitch scale

Number of complete rotations given to the screw head.

2) Least count LC = Pitch

Total number of head scale divisions.

3) Total reading , TR = PSR + (CSR x LC)

Where PSR - Pitch - Pitch scale reading

HSR - Head scale reading

2 h
4) Radius of curvature ,
R
= +
6h 2

Where l - mean distance between any two legs of spherometer.

h value of sagitta = h - h
1 2

h1 - Reading of the spherometer corresponding to spherical
Surface

h2 - Reading of the spherometer corresponding to plane glass
Surface

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Tabular column :

Trial Spherometer Reading for Spherometer Reading for

No
Spherical surface , h1 in mm Plane surface , h2 in mm H = h1 – h2
PSR HSR TR PSR HSR TR
in mm
in mm in mm In mm in mm
1
2
3

Mean sagita , h = _____________________Cm = ___________________ M

Calculations :

Determination of length ‘l’ from equilateral triangle ABC :

AB = cm A

BC = cm

CA = cm B C

Mean l = AB + BC + CA =
3

Calculations : -

2 h
R
Radius of = +
6h 2
Curvature

R = ________________cm = ___________________ M

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Prodecure :

1) For a known number of rotations are given to the screw

head distance moved on the pitch scale is noted and

pitch is calculated

2) The total number of divisons on the circular scale is

noted
3) Least count is found.

4) watch glass is placed on a plane glass plate so that its

convex side faces upwords.

5) The spherometer is placed on the sphirical surface , so

that all three legs are on the sphirical surface and tip of
screw well above the pole of the surface.
6) The screw is moved gradually downword till the tip of

the screw just touches the spherical surface .

7) The pitch scale reading (PSR) and the number of the

corresponding circular scale division (CSR) in line with

the pitch scale is noted.

8) Total reading is calculated using the formula ,
TR = PSR + (CSR x LC). This gives h1

9) The spherometer is transfered into the plane glass plate ,

the screw is moved gradually down wards till the tip of

the screw just touches the surface of the lass plate.

10) The pitch scale reading (MSR) and the number of the

corresponding circular scale division (CSR) in line with

the pitch scale is noted.

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22
11) Total reading is calculated using the formula,
TR = PSR + (HSR x LC). This gives h 2 .
12) h1 - h2 = h is found. This gives the value of h is sagitta.

13) The experimetal is repeated for two more times by rotationg the

spherical suraface having its center udistributed. The mean

value of h is found.
To find the mean distance (l) between any two legs of the spherometer :
14) The spherometer is palced on a sheet of paper and pressed im
pression of the tips of the three legs are taken.
15) The impressions are joined to get an equilateral triangle ABC .
All ist sides are measured . The mean distance between any two
legs of the spherometer , l is found.

16) Then the radius of curvature of the given shperical surface

(watch glass) is calculated using the formula.

2 h
R
= +
6h 2

Result :
The radius of curvature of a gievn spherical surface ,

R= m

Precautions:

1. The screw may have friction.

2. Spherometer may have backlash error

Source of Error
1. Parallax error while reading the pitch scale corresponding

to the level of the circular scale.

2. Backlash error of the spherometer.
3. Non – uniformity of the division in the circular scale.
4. While setting the spherometer, screw may or may not be
touching the horizontal plane surface of the spherical surface.

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 Thread
Split cork
pieces

L = l + r+e

r, radius

Observation
Radius (r) of the pendulum bob (given) =

Period
LENGTH OF
TIME TAKEN FOR 20
PENDULUM
SL.NO T2 in S2
t L  cm 
L =+e+r OSCILLATIONS IN (S) T= in S  
(cm) 20 T2  S2 

mean t
Trail 1 Trail 2 T1 + T2
(T1)sec (T2)sec t=
2 sec

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 04

SIMPLE PENDULUM

Aim : Using a simple pendulum, plot L-T2 graph, hence find the effective

length of second’s pendulum using appropriate graph.

Apparatus : Clamp stand, a stop clock, spherical bob with a hook, a long

fine and strong cotton thread and meter scale.

Principle : The simple pendulum executes simple harmonic motion

(SHM) as the acceleration of the pendulum bob is directly

proportional to its displacement from the mean position and

is always directed towards mean position.and a

pendulum time period of 2 seconds is called second’s

pendulum.

Formula : 1) Period of a simple pendulum is given by,

  
g = 4 π2  2 
T 

Where L – length of the pendulum

g – acceleration due to gravity.

2) From L – T2 graph,

Effective length of the seconds pendulam , L = ST

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26
Procedure :

1) The distance from the point of suspension to the base of the hook
is measured as l.
2) The length of the simple pendulum L =  + e + γ is found.
3) Pendulum bob is drawn to one side from its equilibrium
position through a small angle not more than 150 and released
such that the pendulum oscillates in a vertical place.
Simultaneously stop cock is started.

4) Time taken for 20 oscillations, t is found.

5) The experiment is repeated for two more trials for the same

length.

6) The average time t is found. The period of oscillation, is found.

7) The experiment is repeated for different lengths of the pendulum

and readings are tabulated.
8) Another graph is plotted between L and T2 taking L along x-axis,

T2 along y-axis.
9) Effective length of the second’s pendulum is found from L-T2
graph.

Result :

1. The graph of L – T2 is a straight line.

2. The effective length of second’s pendulum from L – T2 graph

is __________________ cm.

27
Observations

Leat count of vertical scale = 0.1 cm

Serial no Load on hanger Reading of position of pointer tip extension

(W) = Applied
force (f) 
(cm)

Loading Unloading Mean

x+y
z=
= x(cm) = y(cm) 2 cm

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 05

SPRING CONSTANT
Aim
To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph
between load and extension.

Apparatus
Spring, a rigid support, a 50 g or 20 g hanger, six 50 g or 20 g
slotted weights, a vertical wooden scale, a fine pointer, a hook.

Theory
When a load F suspended from lower free end of a spring
hanging from a rigid support, increases its length by amount l,

It is called the force constant or the spring constant of the

spring,
From above if l = 1, F = K.
Hence, force constant (or spring constant) of a spring may be
defined as the force required to produce unit extension in the
spring.

PROCEDURE

1. Suspend the spring from a rigid support. Attach a pointer and

a hook from its lower free end.
2. Hang a 50 g hanger from the hook.

29
Graph
Plot a graph between F and l taking F along X-axis and l along
Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line as shown below.

30
3. Set the vertical wooden scale such that the tip of the pointer
comes over the divisions on the scale but does not touch the
scale.

4. Note the reading of the position of the tip of the pointer on the
scale. Record it in loading column against zero load.
5. Gently add suitable load of 50 g or 20 g slotted weight to the
hanger. The pointer tip moves down.
6. Wait for few minutes till the pointer tip comes to rest. Repeat
step 4.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 till six slotted weights have been added.
8. Now remove one slotted weight. The pointer tip moves up. Repeat
step 6. Record the reading in unloading column.
9. Repeat step 8 till only hanger is left.
10. Record your observations as given below.

Result :The force constant of the given spring is……….N/m

Precautions

1. Loading and unloading of weight must be done gently.

2. Reading should be noted only when tip of pointer comes to rest.
3. Pointer tip should not touch the scale surface.
4. Loading should not be beyond elastic limit.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The support may not be rigid.
2. The slotted weights may not have correct weight.

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32
 06

NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING

Aim : To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body

and time by plotting a cooling curve.

Apparatus : Calorimeter with lid, enclosure, water, thermometer and

stop clock.

Principle : The rate of cooling of a body is directly propotional to its

excess of temperature over that of its surroundings when

excess of temperature is not large

Formula : Log10(θ - θ0) = - Kt + c

(When excess of temperature is not large)

Where

θ = Temperature of water at a time “t”.

θ0 = Temperature of the sorroundings .

(θ - θ0) = Excess of temperature .

K and C – constants

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 OBSERVATION

Lab temperature θ0 = ___________0C

Tabular Column

Trial No. Temp θ in 0C Time t in S Excess of temperature (θ − θ0 ) in 0C log 10 (θ − θ0 )

CALCULATION :

34
Procedure :
1. Experimental arrangement is as shown in the figure.
Laboratory temperature θo is noted using thermometer.

2. Hot water at temperature about 700C is taken in a

colorimeter to 2/3rd of its volume.

3. Temperature of hot water is noted (say 600C) and
simultaneously stop clock is started.

4. Water is stirred slowly and continuously. Time t is noted for

every 20C fall of temperature.

5. Excess of temperature ( θ - θ0) is found in each case.
6. The procedure is repeated till the temperature fall s to
certain temperature (say 480C) and readings are
tabulated.

7. A graph is plotted between log10 ( θ - θ0) versus time “t” is

plotted

8. The graph of “( θ - θ0)“ versus time ”t” is plotted which is

called cooling curve.

Result :

1. The graph between ( θ - θ0) in oC and time ‘t’ in seconds is

an exponential cureve

2. The graph between log ( θ - θ0) and time ‘t’ in seconds is a

straight line
3. From the above graphs it is concluded that the rate of

cooling is directly proportional to the difference between the

temperature of the hot body and that of the surroundings.

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36
 07

SONOMETER

Aim : (i) To study the relation between frequency and length of a

given wire under constant tension using a sonometer.

Apparatus : Sonometer, tuning forks of known frequencies, metre

scale, rubber pad, paper rider, hanger with weights and

wooden bridges.
i. Variation of frequency with resonating length for a
constant tension.

Principle : Principle of resonance :

The wire between the movable bridges vibrates with

maximum amplitude when the frequency of the air

column is equal to the frequency of tuning fork.
Formula : f x l = constant

Where
F – frequency of vibrating wire,

l – resonating length in fundamental mode

37
Observation :

Tabular column

Trial No. ‘f’ in Hz Resonating length f x l in Hz.

l in n 1
in m-1


Calculation :

38
Procedure :

1. The experimental arrangement is as shown in the figure.

2. Sonometer wire is kept under a constant tension by keeping
a suitable load on the hanger.

3. The tuning fork of frequency f is excited gently and kept with

its stem pressed on the sonometer box.

4. The distance between the bridges A and B is adjusted so that

the wire between A and B vibrates in resonance, forming a

single loop. When this happens, the paper rider kept over
the wire in the middle of the bridges vibrate rapidly and

falls down.

5. The resonating length l is measured.

6. The experiment is repeated for other tuning forks and
values are tabulated.
7. The product f x l is calculated in each case.
1
8. A graph is plotted between f and taking f along x-axis

1
and along y-axis.

Result : (i) The product f x l is as found to be constant.
1
(ii) The graph between f and is a straight line passing

through the origin.

(iii) This concludes the frequency of vibrating wire is inversely

proportional to its resonating length under constant

tension.

39
40
 08

SPECIFIC HEAT

Aim : To determine the specific heat capacity of a given solid and a

liquid by the method of mixtures.

Apparatus : Copper calorimeter with lid, stirrer and insulating

box,thermometer, metal piece, beakers, physical

balance, weight box, water, tripod stand and wire gauge.

Principle : Principle of colorimetery :

When two bodies of different temperatures are brought in

thermal contact, at thermal equilibrium the amount of

heat lost by the body at higher temperature is equal to the

amount of heat gained by the body at lower temperature

provided that no heat is lost to the surroundings.

I. Specific heat capacity of a given solid by the method of

mixtures :

Formula :
Specific heat of the solid

[(m 2 - m1 )Sw + m1Sc ] (t 3 -t1 )

Ss = JKg -1 K -1
m3 (t2 − t3 )

41
Observation

Laboratory temperature, t = 230C

Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer, m1 =

Mass of the colorimeter with water, m2 =

Mass of solid, m3 =

Initial temperature of the water, t1 =

Temperature of the solid in boiling water t2 =

Temperature of mixture, t3 =

Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter SC =

Specific heat capacity of water, Sw =

Calculation

1. Mass of the water in calorimeter, (m2 – m1) =

2. Change in temperature of water and calorimeter, (t3 – t1) =

3. Change in temperature of solid, (t2 – t3) =

Specific heat of the solid

[(m 2 - m1 )Sw + m1Sc ] (t 3 -t1 )

Ss = JKg -1 K -1
m3 (t2 − t3 )

42
Where m1 – Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer
m2 – Mass of the empty calorimeter with water
m3 – Mass of solid

t1 –Initial temperature of the water

t2 –Temperature of the solid in boiling water

t3 –Temperature of Mixture

Sc – Specific heat capacity of material of calorimeter.

Sw – Specific heat capacity of Water

Procedure:

1) The Physical balance is set and made sure there is no zero error
2) The mass m1 of the calorimeter with stirrer is measured using
Physical balance.
rd
3) The calorimeter is filled with water to 2 3 of its volume and

mass m2 is found.

4) Initial temperature t1 of water is noted using thermometer.

5) The solid is dipped in the beaker filled with water and taken
out and shaken it well. Then mass m3 of the solid is measured.

6) The solid is tied tightly by a thread at its midpoint and put in

the water in a beaker.

7) The water is heated for about 10 min and the temperature t2

of hot water noted.

8) The solid from hot water is taken out shaken well and put in
the water in calorimeter covered with insulted box immediately.

The water is stirred and the temperature t3 of the mixture is

noted when equilibrium is attained.

43
44
9) The Specific heat capacity of the solid is calculated using the
given formula,

Result :

The specific heat capacity of the given solid

SS= __________________ with experimental error.

45
46
 ACTIVITY 1
AIM:
To make a paper scale of given least count, e.g., 0.2 cm, 0.5 cm.

APPARATUS 
A thick white paper sheet, pencil, scale with sharp edge marked
in cm and mm, fevicol, a pair of scissors, a paper cutter,
thick ivory sheet used by engineering students.
THEORY:
LEAST COUNT. The minimum observation that can be
measured by the instrument accurately is called the least
count of instrument.
RANGE OF AN INSTRUMENT. The maximum observation that
can be measured by instrument is called its range.

PROCEDURE
(A) Paper scale of least count 0.2 cm
Fold a white paper sheet in the middle along lengthwise.
Mark in the upper half along the length a line PQ 15 cm long
by a sharp pencil (Fig. A).
Take P as zero mark points on PQ at a distance of 1.0 cm and
write as 0,1, 2,……up to 15.
Mark the vertical lines to line PQ at the position of each mark
0, 1, 2,……up to 15.
Draw another sharp line RS which is parallel to PQ at a
distance of 8 mm.
Draw another line XY parallel to PQ at a distance of about 25
mm. And complete the rectangle ABXY.

47
48
 Now divide each 1.0 cm interval into five equal divisions on
PQ by marking points at every interval of 2 mm. Mark these
points up to 15 cm mark.
Now draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular
to PQ on each of the point which is separated by 2 mm.
Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm.

Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen, and
write 1,2,……15 at each cm mark.
Cut the rectangular scale by a sharp paper cutter and paste it
on a thick ivory sheet and cut the sheet along the boundary of
the rectangle with the help of scissors.
Paper scale of least count 0.2 mm and of the range of 15 cm is
ready.
(B) Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm
Repeat steps 1 to 6 as in part A of the above activity.
Divide each 1.0 cm interval into two equal divisions on PQ
by marking points at every interval of 5 mm and mark these
points up to 15 cm mark (Fig. B).
Draw sharp small lines about 3 mm long perpendicular to PQ
on each of the point which is separated by 5 mm.
Draw another line AB parallel to PQ at a gap of 3 mm.
Darken each line and division by the sharp black pen and
write 1,2,…….15 at each cm mark.
Repeat the step 11 as in part A of the Activity 1.
Paper scale of least count 0.5 cm and of the range of 15 cm is
ready.

49
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of the scale (A) = ……..0.2 cm.
Table for length of the pencil using scale (A)

Reading at one end A of the Reading at other end B Length of the pencil
SL.NO
pencil a1 (cm) a2 (cm) = a2 – a1 (cm)

1. 1.0

2. 2.0

Mean length of the pencil =………..cm.

Table for length of the pencil using scale (B)

Reading at one end A of the Reading at other end B Length of the pencil
SL.NO
pencil a1 (cm) a2 (cm) = a2 – a1 (cm)

1. 1.0

2. 2.0

Mean length of the pencil =………cm.

50
(C) Measure the length of pencil with the paper scale
Place one end A of the pencil along the scale (A) in such a
way so that A lies at full mark say 1 cm and read the position
of the other end. Repeat the observation by placing the one
end A of the pencil at 2 cm mark and take the reading of the
other end.
Use the second scale (B) of least count 0.5 cm in the similar
manner as explained in step 1 and record the observations.

RESULT:

The scales of the least count 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm have been
made.
The length of the pencil, using scale (A) = …….cm.
The length of the pencil, using scale (B) = ……….cm.

PRECAUTIONS:
The cm markings should be longer than 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm
markings.
Final lines and marking should be drawn by using fine tipped
black ink pen.
Paper scale should be pasted on the thick ivory paper.
Use very sharp pencil for the graduation marks.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
Graduation marks may not be equally separated.
The lines showing graduations may not be sharp as required

51
52
 ACTIVITY 2

AIM :

To determine mass of a given body using a metre scale by

principle of moments.

APPARATUS: 
A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge with sharp edge, a
weight box, a body of unknown mass.

THEORY :
If m and M be the mass of the body and mass of the weight
used and a1 and a2 be the distances of their loops from
wedge. Then, power (mass) arm = a1, weight arm = a2
From principle of moments mg a1 = Mg a2
or m=Ma1/a1 which can be calculated.

Two Different Methods

(i) Arm lengths fixed and equal, weight adjustable.

The thread loops are suspended at positions forming both
arm of equal length. Weights in the paper pan are
adjusted till the metre scale becomes horizontal. (Fig. 3).
In this case a1= a2 = a
Hence, mg a1= Mg a2
or m = M
A physical balance makes use of this method.

53
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS 

Mass of weight in the

SL. Length of weight (or power) paper pan Unknown mass
NO arm a(cm) m(g)
M (g)

1.

2.

3.

(Observation are as Sample)

m1 + m2 + m3
=
Mean mass, m = g ...g
3
It will be found that M1 = M2 = M3 = m in all cases

54
(ii) Masses and power arm fixed, weight arm adjustable.
Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1 .
Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight loop
thread in and out till the metre scale become horizontal.
In this case a1 = a, a2 = A
Hence mg a1 = Mg a2, becomes mg a = Mg A
or m= M A/a

PROCEDURE :
(I) FIRST METHOD
1. Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it at
the sharp edge of the broad heavy wedge at 50 cm mark.
2. Suspended the body of unknown mass by a loop thread at
a fixed mark on the left of the wedge.
3. Suspended paper pan at same distance on the right of the
wedge with some weights in it.

4. Adjust the weights in the paper pan till the metre scale
becomes horizontal.
5. Note the mass of the weights in the pan.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing the length of
the arms in equal steps keeping the lengths equal.
7. Record the observations as given in the following table.

RESULT :
The unknown mass of the body, m =…………g.

55
OBSERVATION :

Range of spring balance = ________________t θ ______________g

Least count of spring balance =______________g

Mass of the scale pan, M1 = ______________g =______________kg

Mass of the roller, M=______________g= ______________Kg

Acceleration due to gravity at the place of experiment, g______________m/s2

56
 ACTIVITY 3
AIM
To measure the force of limiting friction for rolling of a
roller on a horizontal plane.

APPARATUS:
Inclined plane with protractor and pulley,roller,weight
box, spring balance, spirit level, pan and thread..

THEORY:
ROLLING FRICTION. It is the friction acting on a body in
rolling motion.
FORCE OF ROLLING FRICTION. It is the least force required to
make a body start rolling over a surface.

PROCEDURE:

1. The range and least count of the spring balance are

noted.

2. The inclined plane is set as shown in the figure. Here a

thread of suitable length which is tied to a scale pan
at one end and to a roller at the other end passes over
the frictionless pulley.
3. The value of W is adjusted so that the roller stays at
the (other end passes over the) top of inclined plane
at rest.
4. The mass is decreased in small steps in the pan until
the roller just starts moving down the plane with a
constant velocity.

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TABULAR COLUMN

Angle of in- Mass M2 added to Force W = (M1 +

Trial No. Sin θ
clination the scale pan in Kg. M2) g in N

CALCULATION :

58
 1. The angle θ is measured and W = (M1 + M2)
g is calculated.
2. The experiment is repeated for different values of θ and
the observations are recorded in the tabular column.
3. A graph is plotted between sin θ and W taking sin θ along
x-axis and W along y-axis.

RESULT :
Force of limiting friction for roaling of a roaln F = ...........

59
60
Handle
Metal A

(a)
Metal B

Metal B
Handle

Metal B
(b)

61
 ACTIVITY 4

AIM
To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic
strip.

APPARATUS
To observe and explain the heating on a bi-metallic strip.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DEVICE

A bi-metallic strip is made of two bars/strips of different metals
(materials), but of same
dimensions. These metallic bars/strips (A and B) are put to-
gether lengthwise and firmly rivetted. An insulating (wood-
en) handle is also fixed at one end of the bi-metallic strip. A
bi-metallic strip can be made by selecting metals (materials)
with widely different values of coefficients of linear thermal
expansion.
The bi-metallic strip is straight at room temperature, as shown
in position (a) of Fig. A 9.1. When the bi-metallic strip is heated,
both metallic pieces expand to different extents because of their
different linear thermal expansivities, as shown in position
(b) of Fig. A 9.1. As a result, the bimetallic strip appears to bend.

PRINCIPLE
The linear thermal expansion is the change in length of a bar
on heating. If L1 and L are the lengths of rod/bar of a metal
at temperatures t12 °C and t2 °C (such that t2 > t1), the change
in length (L2 – L1) is directly proportional to the original
length L and the rise in temperature (L2 – L1).

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63
Then (L2 – L1) = α (t2 - t1).
Or L2 – L1) = [1+ α (t2 - t1)]
And α (t2 - t1)/ (t2 - t1)
Where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the
material 0of the bar/rod.
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion ( α ) is the increase
in length per unit length for unit degree rise in temperature
of the bar. It is expressed in SI units as K-1.

PROCEDURE :
1. Light a burner or switch on the electric heater.
2. Keep the bi-metallic strip in the horizontal position by
holding it with the insulated handle and heat it with the
help of burner/ heater. Note which side of the bi-metallic
strip is in direct contact of heat source.
3. Observe the effect of heating the strip. Note carefully the
direction of the bending of the free end of the bi-metallic
strip, whether it is upwards or downwards?
4. Identify the metal (A or B) which is on the convex side of
the bi-metallic strip and also the one which is on its
concave side. Which one of the two metals/materials strips
have a larger thermal expansion? (The one on the
convex side of the bimetallic strip will expand more and
hence have larger linear thermal expansion).
5. Note down the known values of coefficient of linear thermal
expansion of two metals (A and B) of the bi-metallic strip.
Verify whether the direction of bending (upward or down-
ward) is on the side of the metal/material having lower
coefficient of linear thermal expansion.

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65
6. Take the bi-metallic strip away from the heat source. Allow
the strip to cool to room temperature.
7. Repeat the Steps 1 to 6 to heat the other side of the bi-metal-
lic strip. Observe the direction of bending of the bi-metallic
strip. What change, if any, do you observe in the direction
of bending of the strip in this case relative to that observed
earlier in Step 3?

RESULT :
The bending of a bi-metallic strip on heating is due to
difference in coefficient of linear expansion of the two metals of
the strip.

PRECAUTION :
The two bars (strips) should be firmly rivetted near their ends.

66
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 ACTIVITY 5

To Study the Effect of Load on Depression of a Suitably Clamped

Metre Scale Loaded at (i) its end (ii) in the Middle

Aim : To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably

clamped metre scale loaded at (i) its end (ii) in the middle.

Apparatus : A uniform straight wooden metre rod (scale). Two G

clamp, pointer pin, thread, slotted weights of 50 g each, wax, verti-
cal scale, clamp stand. Theory Diagram

Theory :
The Depression (Buckling) δ produced in thewodden rod of length l
mgl 3
δ=
4Y bd 3

m = Total mass of slotted weights

Y = Young modulus
b = breadth
d = depth

For a given rod δ ∝ mg

i.,e the depression produced is directly proportional to the load
(weight) suspended from one end.

Load and depression relation, when metre rod is loaded at its

end.

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69
Procedure
(i) When metre scale is loaded at its end :
1. Clamp the metre scale firmly with G clamp at its one edge on
the corner of table such that metre scale remains straight in
horizontal plane.

2. The pointer pin or needle should be attached at free end of

metre scale with wax.
3. Fix the scale on a stand vertically to take the reading.
4. Note the initial reading on vertical scale corresponding to
the tip of the pointer when no weights is suspended.

5. Suspend the weights in steps at free end of metre scale with the
help of a strong thread and note the corresponding readings
on the vertical scale.
6. After taking 56 reading, start unloading the weights one by
one and again note the reading on scale.

(ii) When metre scale is loaded in the middle :

7. Locate the C.G. of metre scale by suspending it with a thread.
8. Now, place the metre scal e symmetrically on two knife edges
them about 85 cm apart and check that metre scale is perfect-
ly horizontal.
2. A pointer is attached at the mid point of the scale with the
help of wax or adhesive tape to take the reading.
3. Repeat the steps 3 to 6 and Observations record the

70
71
OBSERVATION
1. Initial reading of pointer on vertical scale without loading
at free end = x Table for load and depression when metre rod
is loaded at its one end.
2. Initial reading of pointer on vertical scale without loading
in the middle =X0 =…………cm
3. Table for load and depression when metre rod is loaded at its
one end

Graph
Plot a graph between load and depression by taking load on
X Yaxis for both of cases. In both the casesaxis and depression
on , graphs come to be a straight line as shown below. Result
The graph between load and depression are straight lines,
which gives that depression is directly proportion to the load.

Result
The graph between load and depression are straight lines,
which gives that depression is directly proportion to the load.
δ ∝ mg

Precautions
1. The metre scale should be straight and uniform and
clamped firmly
2. The tip of pointer should not touch the vertical scale.
3. The scale should not be loaded beyond the elastic limit.
4. Reading on metre scale should be taken carefully.

72
73
Sources of error
1. he metre scale may be non- uniform
2. The tip of pointer may not be very sharp

74
75
 ACTIVITY 6
To Study the Factors Affecting the Rate of Loss of Heat of a Liquid

Aim To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a

liquid.
Apparatus
Two calorimeters A and B of different areas, two thermometers,
two stands, stopwatch, wooden lids, burner and liquid (water).

Theory
According to Newton’s Law of cooling, rate of cooling (i.e.,
heat lost per sec) of a body is directly proportional to the differ-
ence of temperature of the body and the surrounding.
dQ
= K(T − T0 )
dt

Where T = Temperature of hot liquid.

T0 = temperature of surrounding (air)
K = constant, it value depends upon.
(i) Nature of surface.
(ii) Area of su rface
(iii) Nature of material of body.

Then, for same difference of temperature, rate of cooling also

depends upon :
(i) Area of the surface of the body.
(ii) Nature of the surface of the body.
(iii) Material of the surface of the body (material effects body).
conductivity through walls of the body

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77
Procedure 
1. Fill the space between double wall of the enclosure with water
and put the enclosure on a laboratory table.
2. Fill the calorimeter two-third with water heated to about
80°C.
3. Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure along with a
stirrer in it. Cover it with a wooden lid having a hole in its
middle.

4. Suspend from clamp and stand, one thermometer in enclosure

water and the other in calorimeter water.
5. Note least count of the thermometers.
6. Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note its least count.
7. Note temperature (T0) of water in enclosure.
8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make it cool uniformly.
9. Just when calorimeter water has some convenient temperature
reading (say 70°C), note it and start the stop clock/watch.
10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every one
minute. The temperature falls quickly in the beginning.

11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.

12. When fall of temperature becomes slow note temperature at
interval of two minutes for 10 minutes and then at interval of
5 minutes.

13. Stop when fall of temperature becomes very slow.

14. Record your observations as given ahead.

78
Table for time and temperature

Serial No of Obs Time of Cooling Temperature of Temperature of Difference of tem-

water in calorime- water enclosure perature T – T0(0C)
t(mt) ter T(*C) T0 (oC)

79
Case I. Take same volume of same liquid in calorimeters of
small and large cross¬section (nature and material of surface
same).
Case II. Take same volume of same liquid in similar calorimeters
having black painted and polished outer surface (area and
material of surface same).
Case III. Take same volume of same liquid in similar calorimeters
of different materials (area and nature of surface same).

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of enclosure water thermometer =……………..°C.
Least count of calorimeter water thermometer = …………..°C.
Least count of stop clock/watch = ………….s.

Comparison of graphs
Case I. Cooling is fast from more surface area. Cooling is slow
from less surface
Case II. area. Cooling is fast from black painted surface and
slow from polished surface of the calorimeter.
Case III. Cooling is fast from calorimeter having more conducting
material and slow from calorimeter having less conducting
material.

RESULT
Case I. Rate of cooling depends upon the area of the surface
through which heat is lost. More area of surface causes higher
rate of cooling.

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81
Case II. Rate of cooling depends upon the nature of the surface

through which heat is lost. Black painted surface causes higher

rate of cooling.
Case III. Rate of cooling depends upon the material of the surface.
More conducting surface causes higher rate of cooling.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Double. walled enclosure should be used to maintain
surrounding at a constant temperature
2. Stirring should remain continuous for uniform cooling.
3. Same volume of same liquid should be taken in all cases.
4. Graphs of one case should be plotted on same graph paper
on same scale

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