Sensing

Dr. Sudip Misra

Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
IIT KHARAGPUR
Email: smisra@sit.iitkgp.ernet.in
Website: http://cse.iitkgp.ac.in/~smisra/

Introduction to Internet of Things 1

 Definition

 A sensor detects (senses) changes in the ambient conditions

or in the state of another device or a system, and forwards or
processes this information in a certain manner [1].

“A device which detects or measures a physical property and

records, indicates, or otherwise responds to it” [2].
References: ‐ Oxford Dictionary
1. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/sensor.html
2. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sensor

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Sensors

 They perform some input functions by sensing or feeling the

physical changes in characteristics of a system in response to a
stimuli.
 For example heat is converted to electrical signals in a
temperature sensor, or atmospheric pressure is converted to
electrical signals in a barometer.

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Transducers

 Transducers convert or transduce energy of one kind into

another.
 For example, in a sound system, a microphone (input device)
converts sound waves into electrical signals for an amplifier to
amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device)
converts these electrical signals back into sound waves.

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 Sensor vs. Transducer

 The word “Transducer” is the collective term used for both

Sensors which can be used to sense a wide range of different
energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant
energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc., and Actuators which
can be used to switch voltages or currents [1].

References:
1. http://www.electronics‐tutorials.ws/io/io_1.html

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Sensor Features
 It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A
temperature sensor senses the ambient temperature of a
room.)
 It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered
in its application (e.g., A temperature sensor does not bother
about light or pressure while sensing the temperature.)
 It does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring
the temperature does not reduce or increase the
temperature).

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Sensor Resolution
 The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect
in the quantity that it is measuring.
 The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the
smallest resolution the digital output it is capable of
processing.
 The more is the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is its
precision.
 A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution.

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Sensor Classes

Based on Based on
Output Data type

Analog Scalar

Vector/
Digital
Multimedia

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Analog Sensors
 Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage
which is generally proportional to the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc. are all analog quantities as they tend to be
continuous in nature.
 For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple (e.g. in geysers) which continuously
responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or
cooled down.

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Digital Sensors
 Digital Sensors produce discrete digital output signals or voltages
that are a digital representation of the quantity being measured.
 Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a logic
“1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or “OFF”).
 Digital signal only produces discrete (non‐continuous) values, which
may be output as a single “bit” (serial transmission), or by
combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output (parallel
transmission).

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Scalar Sensors
 Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc.
are all scalar quantities as only their magnitude is sufficient to
convey an information.
 For example, the temperature of a room can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple, which responds to temperature
changes irrespective of the orientation of the sensor or its
direction.

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Vector Sensors
 Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation
of the quantity being measured.
 Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration,
orientation, etc. are all vector quantities, as only their magnitude is
not sufficient to convey the complete information.
 For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an
accelerometer, which gives the components of acceleration of the
body with respect to the x,y,z coordinate axes.

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Sensor Types
• Light Dependent resistor
Light • Photo‐diode
• Thermocouple
Temperature • Thermistor
• Strain gauge
Force • Pressure switch
• Potentiometer, Encoders
Position • Opto‐coupler
• Reflective/ Opto‐coupler
Speed • Doppler effect sensor
• Carbon Microphone
Sound • Piezoelectric Crystal
• Liquid Chemical sensor
Chemical • Gaseous chemical sensor

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 Pressure Sensor Ultrasonic Distance Sensor Tilt Sensor Infrared Motion Sensor
Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons

Analog Temperature Sensor Camera Sensor

Source: Wikimedia Commons Source: Wikimedia Commons

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 Sensorial Deviations
 Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the
output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum,
when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale
range of a sensor defines the maximum and minimum values
of the measured property.
 The sensitivity of a sensor under real conditions may differ
from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error.
 If the output signal differs from the correct value by a
constant, the sensor has an offset error or bias.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

15
 Non-linearity

 Nonlinearity is deviation of a sensor's transfer function (TF)

from a straight line transfer function.
 This is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal TF
behavior over the full range of the sensor, which is denoted as
the percentage of the full range.
 Most sensors have linear behavior.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

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  If the output signal slowly changes independent of the
measured property, this is defined as drift. Long term drift
over months or years is caused by physical changes in the
sensor.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

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 Hysteresis Error
 A hysteresis error causes the sensor output value to vary
depending on the sensor’s previous input values.
 If a sensor's output is different depending on whether a
specific input value was reached by increasing or decreasing
the input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error.
 The present reading depends on the past input values.
 Typically in analog sensors, magnetic sensors, heating of
metal strips.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

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 Other Errors
 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an
approximation of the measured property. This error is also called
quantization error.
 If the signal is monitored digitally, the sampling frequency can cause
a dynamic error, or if the input variable or added noise changes
periodically at a frequency proportional to the multiple of the
sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other
than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are
influenced by the temperature of their environment.
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor

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