GYANJYOTI PUBLIC SCHOOL

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS A PHYSICS PROJECT ON

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF ALL
INDIA SENIOR SECONDARY CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION

SUBMITTED BY: AAYUSKA CHATTERJEE

CLASS: 12

SESION: 2025-26
Certificate

This is to certify that AAYUSKA

CHATTERJEE of Class XII has
completed the investigatory project
on 'The Photoelectric Effect' during
the academic session 2025–2026
under my supervision.

Signature of External:

__________________________

Signature of Internal:

__________________________
Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere

gratitude to my Physics teacher for
guiding me through this investigatory
project on the Photoelectric Effect. I
also thank my parents and friends for
their constant support and
encouragement.

THANK YOU
Index
1. Introduction
2. History of the Photoelectric
Effect
3. Einstein’s Explanation
4. Experimental Study of the
Photoelectric Effect
5. Einstein’s Photoelectric
Equation
6. Applications
7. Conclusion
8. Bibliography
Introduction
The photoelectric effect is the
phenomenon in which electrons
are ejected from the surface of a
metal when light of a certain
frequency shines on it. It was
first observed by Heinrich Hertz
in 1887 and later explained by
Albert Einstein in 1905. This
effect provided crucial evidence
for the quantum nature of light.
History of the
Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect was first
observed by Heinrich Hertz in
1887. Later, Philipp Lenard
investigated it and found that
light could eject electrons from
metal surfaces. However,
classical physics failed to
explain why only certain
frequencies of light caused
electron emission. Albert
Einstein proposed a
revolutionary idea that light is
made up of packets of energy
called photons. His work on the
photoelectric effect earned him
the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1921.
Einstein’s
Explanation
Einstein proposed that light
consists of discrete packets of
energy called photons. When
a photon strikes an electron, it
transfers its energy to the
electron. If this energy is
greater than the work function
(Φ) of the metal, the electron
is ejected from the surface.
This explained why light below
a certain frequency,
regardless of its intensity,
could not eject electrons.
Today, we study the
photoelectric effect as a
phenomenon that involves a
material absorbing
electromagnetic radiation and
releasing electrically charged
particles. To be more precise,
light incident on the surface of
a metal in the photoelectric
effect causes electrons to be
ejected. The electron ejected
due to the photoelectric effect
is called a photoelectron and
is denoted by e-. The current
produced as a result of the
ejected electrons is called
photoelectric current.
Principle of the Photoelectric
Effect
The energy of a photon =
Energy needed to remove an
electron + Kinetic energy of
the emitted electron hν = W +
E
Where h is Planck’s constant
ν is the frequency of the
incident
Photon W is a work function
E is the maximum kinetic
energy of ejected electrons:
1/2 mv²
It is important to note that the
emission of photoelectrons
and the kinetic energy of the
ejected photoelectrons is
dependent on the frequency
of the light that is incident on
the metal’s surface. The
process through which
photoelectrons are ejected
from the surface of the metal
due to the action of light is
commonly referred to as
Photoemission.
The photoelectric effect
occurs because the electrons
at the surface of the metal
tend to absorb energy from
the incident light and use it to
overcome the attractive
forces that bind them to the
metallic nuclei.

Explaining the
Photoelectric
Effect:
The Concept of Photons
The photoelectric effect
cannot be explained by
considering light as a wave.
However, this phenomenon
can be explained by the
particle nature of light, in
which light can be visualised
as a stream of particles of
electromagnetic energy.
These ‘particles’ of light are
called photons. The energy
held by a photon is related to
the frequency of the light via
Planck’s equation.
E = h𝜈 = hc/λ
Where, E denotes the energy
of the photon h is Planck’s
constant
𝜈 denotes the frequency of
the light
c is the speed of light (in a
vacuum)
λ is the wavelength of the
light
Thus, it can be understood
that different frequencies of
light carry photons of varying
energies. For example, the
frequency of blue light is
greater than that of red light
(the wavelength of blue light
is much shorter than the
wavelength of red light).
Therefore, the energy held by
a photon of blue light will be
greater than the energy held
by a photon of red light. They
have zero mass and rest
energy. They do have
momentum and are moving
particles. They travel at the
speed of light. They obey the
law of conservation. They
change their velocity with the
change in their medium. It is a
stable particle and does not
decay on its own.
Properties of a
Photon
For a light of any given
frequency, (γ > γ Th), the
photoelectric current is
directly proportional to the
intensity of light. For any
given material, there is a
certain minimum (energy)
frequency, called the
threshold frequency, below
which the emission of
photoelectrons stops
completely, no matter how
high the intensity of incident
light is.
 The maximum kinetic energy
of the photoelectrons is found
to increase with the increase
in the frequency of incident
light, provided the frequency
(γ > γ Th) exceeds the
threshold limit. The maximum
kinetic energy is independent
of the intensity of light. The
photo-emission is an
instantaneous process. Laws
Governing the Photoelectric
Effect
Threshold Energy for the
Photoelectric Effect
For the photoelectric effect to
occur, the photons that are
incident on the surface of the
metal must carry sufficient
energy to overcome the
attractive forces that bind the
electrons to the nuclei of the
metal.
The minimum amount of
energy required to remove an
electron from the metal is
called the Threshold Energy
(denoted by the symbol Φ).
For a photon to possess
energy equal to the threshold
energy, its frequency must be
equal to the threshold
frequency (which is the
minimum frequency of light
required for the photoelectric
effect to occur). The threshold

by the symbol 𝜈th, and the

frequency is usually denoted

associated wavelength (called

the threshold wavelength) is
denoted by the symbol λth.
The relationship between the
threshold energy and the
threshold frequency can be
expressed as follows. Φ =
h𝜈th = hc/λth E photon
denotes the energy of the
incident photon, which is
equal to h𝜈 Φ denotes the
threshold energy of the metal
surface, which is equal to h𝜈th
E electron denotes the kinetic
energy of the photoelectron,
which is equal to ½mev^2
(me = Mass of electron =
9.1*10-31 kg)
Therefore, the relationship between the energy of
the photon and the kinetic energy of the emitted

Φ + E electron ⇒ h𝜈 = h𝜈th + ½mev^2. If the energy

photoelectron can be written as follows: E photon =

of the photon is less than the threshold energy,

there will be no emission of photoelectrons (since
the attractive forces between the nuclei and the

photoelectric effect will not occur if 𝜈 < 𝜈th. If the

electrons cannot be overcome). Thus, the

threshold frequency (𝜈 = 𝜈th), there will be an

frequency of the photon is exactly equal to the

emission of photoelectrons, but their kinetic energy

will be equal to zero.
An illustration detailing the effect of the frequency
of the incident light on the kinetic energy of the
photoelectron is provided below. From the image, it
can be observed that The photoelectric effect does
not occur when the red light strikes the metallic
surface because the frequency of red light is lower
than the threshold frequency of the metal. The
photoelectric effect occurs when green light strikes
the metallic surface, and photoelectrons are
emitted.
The photoelectric effect also occurs when blue light
strikes the metallic surface. However, the kinetic
energies of the emitted photoelectrons are much
higher for blue light than for green light. This is
because blue light has a greater frequency than
green light.
It is important to note that the threshold energy
varies from metal to metal. This is because the
attractive forces that bind the electrons to the
metal are different for different metals. It can also
be noted that the photoelectric effect can also take
place in non-metals, but the threshold frequencies
of non-metallic substances are usually very high.
Einstein’s Contributions
towards the
Photoelectric Effect
Einstein said that, is a beam of
particles whose energies are related
to their frequencies according to
Planck's formula. When that beam is
directed at a metal, the photons
collide with the atoms. If a photon's
frequency is sufficient to knock off an
electron, the collision produces the
photoelectric effect.
After continuous research in this
field, the explanation for the
photoelectric effect was successfully
explained by Albert Einstein. He
concluded that this effect occurred as
a result of light energy being carried
in discrete quantised packets. For
this excellent work, he was honoured
with the Nobel Prize in 1921.
According to Einstein, each photon of
energy
E is E = hν
Where E = Energy of the photon in joule
h = Plank’s constant (6.626 × 10-34 J.s)
ν = Frequency of photon in Hz
 If γ = Frequency of the incident photon
and γth= Threshold frequency, then if γ
< γTh, there will be no ejection of
photoelectron and, therefore, no
photoelectric effect. If γ = γTh,
photoelectrons are just ejected from the
metal surface; in this case, the kinetic
energy of the electron is zero.
 If γ > γTh, then photoelectrons will come
out of the surface, along with kinetic
energy.
 If λ < λTh, then the photoelectric effect
will take place, and ejected electron will
possess kinetic energy.
 If λ = λTh, then just the photoelectric
effect will take place, and the kinetic
 energy of the ejected photoelectron will
be zero.
 If λ > λTh, there will be no photoelectric
effect.
 If E < Φ, no photoelectric effect will take
place.
 If E = Φ, just a photoelectric effect will
take place, but the kinetic energy of the
ejected photoelectron will be zero
 If E > photoelectron will be zero
 If E > Φ, the photoelectric effect will take
place along with the possession of the
kinetic energy by the ejected electron.
Minimum Condition for
Photoelectric Effect Threshold
Frequency (γth).
 It is the minimum frequency of the
incident light or radiation that will
produce a photoelectric effect, i.e.,
the ejection of photoelectrons from a
metal surface, which is known as the
threshold frequency for the metal. It
 is constant for a specific metal but
may be different for different metals.
Threshold Wavelength (λth)
 During the emission of electrons, a
metal surface corresponding to the
greatest wavelength of incident light
is known as the threshold
wavelength. λth = c/γth. For
wavelengths above this threshold,
there will be no photoelectron
emission. For λ = wavelength of the
incident photon,
then the Work Function or Threshold
Energy (Φ),
 The minimal energy of
thermodynamic work that is needed
to remove an electron from a
conductor to a point in the vacuum
immediately outside the surface of
the conductor is known as the work
 function/threshold energy. Φ = hγth
= hc/λth.
 The work function is the
characteristic of a given metal. If E =
energy of an incident photon, then
1. If E < Φ, no photoelectric
effect will take place.
2. If E = Φ, just a photoelectric
effect will take place, but the
kinetic energy of ejected
photoelectron will be zero
3. If E > photoelectron will be
zero If E > Φ, the photoelectric
effect will take place along with
the possession of the kinetic
energy by the ejected electron.
Experimental Study of the
Photoelectric Effect
The given experiment is used to
study the photoelectric effect
experimentally.
In an evacuated glass tube, two
zinc plates, C and D, are enclosed.
Plate C acts as an anode, and Plate
D acts as a photosensitive plate.
Two plates are connected to
battery B and ammeter A.
If the radiation is incident on plate
D through a quartz window, W
electrons are ejected out of the
plate, and current flows in the
circuit.
This is known as photocurrent.
Plate C can be maintained at
desired potential (+ve or – ve) with
respect to plate D.

Characteristics of the
Photoelectric Effect
 The threshold frequency
varies with the material; it is
different for different
materials.
 The photoelectric current is
directly proportional to the
light intensity.
 The kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the light
frequency.
 The stopping potential is
directly proportional to the
 frequency, and the process is
instantaneous

Factors Affecting the

Photoelectric Effect.
With the help of this apparatus, we will
now study the dependence of the
photoelectric
 The intensity of incident radiation.
 A potential difference between the
metal plate and the collector.
 Frequency of incident radiation.
Effects of Intensity of
Incident Radiation on
Photoelectric Effect
 The potential difference between
the metal plate, the collector, and
the frequency of incident light is kept
constant, and the intensity of light is
varied.
 The electrode C, i.e., the collecting
electrode, is made positive with
respect to D (metal plate).
Effects of Potential Difference between
the Metal Plate and the Collector on
the Photoelectric Effect
 For a fixed value of frequency and
the potential between the metal
plate and collector, the photoelectric
current is noted following the
intensity of incident radiation. It
shows that the photoelectric current
and intensity of incident radiation
are both proportional to each other.
 The photoelectric current gives an
account of the number of
photoelectrons ejected per second.
The frequency of incident light and
intensity is kept constant, and the
potential difference between the
plates is varied. Keeping the
intensity and frequency of light
constant, the positive potential of C
is increased gradually.
 Photoelectric current increases
when there is a positive increase in
the potential between the metal
plate and the collector up to a
characteristic value. There is no
change in photoelectric current when
the potential is increased higher
than the characteristic value for any
increase in the accelerating voltage.
 This maximum value of the current
is called the saturation current.

Effect of Frequency on
Photoelectric Effect
 The intensity of light is kept
constant, and the frequency of light
is varied.
 For a fixed intensity of incident
light, variation in the frequency of
incident light produces a linear
variation of the cut-off
potential/stopping potential of the
metal. It is shown that the cut-off
potential (Vc) is linearly proportional
to the frequency of incident light.
 The kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons increases directly
proportionally to the frequency of
incident light to completely stop the
photoelectrons. We should reverse
and increase the potential between
the metal plate and collector in
(negative value) so the emitted
photoelectron can’t reach the
collector. Effects of Intensity of
Incident Radiation on Photoelectric
Effect Effects of Potential Difference
between the Metal Plate and the
Collector on the Photoelectric Effect
Effect of Frequency on Photoelectric
Effect.
Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
According to Einstein’s theory of the
photoelectric effect, when a photon
collides inelastically with electrons,
the photon is absorbed completely or
partially by the electrons. So if an
electron in a metal absorbs a photon
of energy, it uses the energy in the
following ways. Some energy Φ0 is
used in making the surface electron
free from the metal. It is known as the
work function of the material. Rest
energy will appear as kinetic energy
(K) of the emitted photoelectrons
Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
Explains the Following Concepts
 The frequency of the incident light
is directly proportional to the
kinetic energy of the electrons, and
the wavelengths of incident light
are inversely proportional to the
kinetic energy of the electrons.
 If γ = γth or λ =λth then vmax = 0
γ < γth or λ > λth: There will be no
emission of photoelectrons.
 The intensity of the radiation or
incident light refers to the number
of photons in the light beam. More
intensity means more photons and
vice versa
 . Intensity has nothing to do with
the energy of the photon.
Therefore, the intensity of the
radiation is increased, and the rate
of emission increases, but there will
be no change in the kinetic energy
of electrons. With an increasing
number of emitted electrons, the
value of the photoelectric current
increases. Einstein’s Photoelectric
Equation According to Einstein’s
theory of the photoelectric effect,
when a photon collides inelastically
with electrons, the photon is
absorbed completely or partially by
the electrons. So if an electron in a
metal absorbs a photon of energy,
it uses the energy in the following
ways. Some energy Φ0 is used in
making the surface electron free
from the metal. It is known as the
work function of the material. Rest
energy will appear as kinetic energy
(K) of the emitted photoelectrons.
 Applications of the Photoelectric
Effect
 Used to generate electricity in
solar panels.
 These panels contain metal
combinations that allow
electricity generation from a
wide range of wavelengths.
 Motion and Position Sensors: In
this case, a photoelectric
material is placed in front of a
UV or IR LED. When an object is
placed between the Light-
emitting diode (LED) and sensor,
 light is cut off, and the
electronic circuit registers a
change in potential difference.
Lighting sensors, such as the
ones used in smartphones
enable automatic adjustment of
screen brightness according to
the lighting. This is because the
amount of current generated via
the photoelectric effect is
dependent on the intensity of
light hitting the sensor. Digital
cameras can detect and record
light because they have
photoelectric sensors that
respond to different colours of
light.
 X-Ray Photoelectron
Spectroscopy (XPS): This
technique uses X-rays to
irradiate a surface and measure
the kinetic energies of the
emitted electrons. Important
aspects of the chemistry of a
surface can be obtained, such as
elemental composition, chemical
composition, the empirical
formula of compounds and
chemical state. Photoelectric
cells are used in burglar alarms.
Used in photomultipliers to
detect low levels of light. Used
in video camera tubes in the
early days of television. Night
vision devices are based on this
effect. The photoelectric effect
also contributes to the study of
certain nuclear processes. It
takes part in the chemical
analysis of materials since
emitted electrons tend to carry
specific energy that is
characteristic of the atomic
source.

Conclusion
The most important conclusion of
photoelectric effect is that it shows that
light radiation has particle nature. That is
light radiation is not continuous but
discrete and photons are the carriers of
light.
The photoelectric effect is a key concept
in quantum physics. It challenged classical
ideas and supported the photon theory of
light. Einstein’s explanation not only
deepened our understanding of light but
also revolutionized modern physics.
Bibliography
- NCERT Class XII Physics
Textbook
- Concepts of Physics by H.C.
Verma