260 Fluid Mechanics

2. Velocity head or kinetic energy:

V2
This is due to velocity of flowing liquid and is measured as where, V is the velocity of
2g
flow and ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81)
3. Pressure head or pressure energy:
p
This is due to the pressure of liquid and reckoned as where, p is the pressure, and w is the
w
weight density of the liquid.
Total head/energy:
Total head of a liquid particle in motion is the sum of its potential head, kinetic head and
pressure head. Mathematically,
V2 p
Total head, H = z + m of liquid ...[6.1 (a)]
2g w
V2 p
Total energy, E = z + Nm/kg of liquid ...[6.1 (b)]
2g w

Example 6.1. In a pipe of 90 mm diameter water is flowing with a mean velocity of 2 m/s and
at a gauge pressure of 350 kN/m2. Determine the total head, if the pipe is 8 metres above the datum
line. Neglect friction.
Solution. Diameter of the pipe = 90 mm
Pressure, p = 350 kN/m2
Velocity of water, V = 2 m/s
Datum head, z = 8 m
Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3
Total head of water, H:
V2 p
H = z+
2g w
22 350
= 8 = 43.88 m
2 9.81 9.81
H = 43.88 m (Ans.)

Bernoulli’s equation states as follows:

“In an ideal incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and continuous, the sum of
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential (or datum) energy is constant along a stream line.”
Mathematically,
p V2
+ z = constant
w 2g
p
where, = Pressure energy,
w
V2
= Kinetic energy, and
2g
z = Datum (or elevation) energy.
 Chapter 6 : Fluid Dynamics 261
Proof:
Consider an ideal incompressible liquid through a non-uniform pipe as shown in Fig 6.1. Let us
consider two sections LL and MM and assume that the pipe is running full and there is continuity of
flow between the two sections;
Let, p1 = Pressure at LL,
V1 = Velocity of liquid at LL,
z1 = Height of LL above the datum,
A1 = Area of pipe at LL, and
p2, V2, z2, A2 = Corresponding values at MM.
Let the liquid between the two sections LL and MM move to L L and M M through very small
lengths dl1 and dl2 as shown in Fig. 6.1. This movement of liquid between LL and MM is equivalent
to the movement of the liquid between LL and L L and MM and M M , the remaining liquid
between L L and MM being unaffected.
Let, W = Weight of liquid between LL and L L .
As the flow is continuous,
W = wA1 . dl1 = wA2 . dl2
W
or, A1 . dl1 = ...(i)
w
W
Similarly, A2 . dl2 = ...(ii)
w
A1 . dl1 = A2.dl2
Work done by pressure at LL, in moving the liquid to L L
= Force × distance = p1 . A1 . dl1

Similarly, work done by the pressure at MM in moving the liquid to M M = – p2.A2 . dl2
(– ve sign indicates that direction of p2 is opposite to that of p1)
Total work done by the pressure
= p1 . A1 dl1 – p2 A2 dl2
= p1 . A1 dl1 – p2 A1 dl1 ( A1dl1 = A2dl2)
= A1 . dl1 (p1 – p2)
 262 Fluid Mechanics

W W
= (p p2) A1 . dl1
w 1 w
Loss of potential energy = W (z1 – z2)
V22 V12 W
Gain in kinetic energy = W – (V 2 – V12 )
2g 2g 2g 2
Also, Loss of potential energy + work done by pressure = Gain in kinetic energy
W W
W ( z1 – z 2 ) ( p – p2 ) = (V 2 – V12 )
w 1 2g 2
p1 p2 V22 V12
or, (z1 – z2) + – = –
w w 2g 2g
p1 V12 p2 V22
or, z1 = z2 ...(6.2)
w 2g w 2g
which proves Bernoulli’s equation.
Assumptions:
It may be mentioned that the following assumptions are made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s
equation:
1. The liquid is ideal and incompressible.
2. The flow is steady and continuous.
3. The flow is along the stream line, i.e., it is one-dimensional.
4. The velocity is uniform over the section and is equal to the mean velocity.
5. The only forces acting on the fluid are the gravity forces and the pressure forces.

Consider steady flow of an ideal fluid along the stream tube. Separate out a small element of
fluid of cross-sectional area dA and length ds from stream tube as a free body from the moving fluid.
Fig. 6.2 shows such a small element LM of fluid of cross-section area dA and length ds.
Let, p = Pressure on the element at L,
p + dp = Pressure on the element at M, and
V = Velocity of the fluid element.
 Chapter 6 : Fluid Dynamics 263
The external forces tending to accelerate the fluid element in the direction of stream line are as
follows:
1. Net pressure force in the direction of flow is,
p.dA – (p + dp) dA = – dp . dA ...(i)
2. Component of the weight of the fluid element in the direction of flow is
= – .g.dA.ds. cos
dz dz
= – g . dA . ds cos
ds ds
= – .g.dA.dz ...(ii)
Mass of the fluid element = .dA.ds ...(iii)
The acceleration of the fluid element
dV dV ds dV
a = V. ...(iv)
dt ds dt ds
Now, according to Newton’s second law of motion, Force = Mass × acceleration
dV
– dp.dA – .g.dA. dz = p.dA. ds × V.
ds
Dividing both sides by .dA, we get:
–dp
– g.dz = V. dV

dp
or, + V . dV + g . dz = 0 ...(6.3)

This is the required Euler’s equation for motion, and is in the form of differential equation.
Integrating the above eqn., we get:
1
dp V .dV g.dz = constant

p V2
gz = constant
2
Dividing by g, we get:
p V2
z = constant
g 2g
p V2
or, z = constant
w 2g
or, in other words,
p1 V12 p 2 V22
z1 = + + z2
w 2g w 2g
which proves Bernoulli’s equation.
Euler’s equation in Cartesian coordinates:
Consider an infinitely small mass of fluid enclosed in an elementary parallelopiped of sides
dx, dy and dz as shown in Fig. 6.3. The motion of the fluid element is influenced by the following
forces:
(i) Normal forces due to pressure:
The intensities of hydrostatic pressure acting normal to each face of the parallelepiped are
shown in Fig. 6.3.
 264 Fluid Mechanics
The net pressure force in the X-direction

p
= p . dy . dz – p dx dy dz
x
p
= – dx . dy . dz
x
(ii) Gravity or body force:
Let B be the body force per unit mass of fluid having components Bx , By and Bz in the X, Y and
Z directions respectively.
Then, the body force acting on the parallelopiped in the direction of X-coordinate is = Bx . .dx .dy.
dz.

(iii) Inertia forces:

The inertia force acting on the fluid mass, along the X-coordinate is given by,
du
Mass × acceleration = . dx . dy. dz.
dt
As per Newton’s second law of motion summation of forces acting in the fluid element in any
direction equals the resulting inertia forces in that direction. Thus, along X-direction:
p du
Bx . . dx.dy.dz – dx.dy.dz. = .dx.dy.dz.
x dt
Dividing both sides by .dx.dy.dz, we have:
1 p du
Bx – = ...(i)
x dt
In this equation each term has dimensions of force per unit mass or acceleration. Obviously
the total acceleration in a given direction is prescribed by the algebraic sum of the body force
and the pressure gradient in that direction since the velocity components are functions of
 Chapter 6 : Fluid Dynamics 265
position and time, i.e., u = f(x, y, z, t), therefore, the total derivative of velocity u in the X-direction
can be written as:
u u u u
du = dt dx dy dz
t x y z
du u u dx u dy u dz
or, = . . .
dt t x dt y dt z dt
dx dy dz
Substituting, = u, = v and = w; we have:
dt dt dt
du u u u u
= u v w ...(ii)
dt t x y z
Combining eqns. (i) and (ii), we get the force components as:
1 p u u u u
Bx – = u v w ...(iii)
x t x y z
1 p v v v v
Similarly, By – = u v w ...(iv)
y t x y z
1 p w w w w
and, Bz – = u v w ...(v)
z t x y z
u v w
For steady flow: = =0
t t t
Thus, the Euler’s equation for a steady three-dimensional flow can be written as:
1 p u u u
Bx – = u v w ...(vi)
x x y z
1 p v v v
By – = u v w ...(vii)
y x y z
1 p w w w
Bz – = u v w ...(viii)
z x y z
In Euler’s equation each term represents force per unit mass. Thus, if each equation is multiplied
by the respective projections of the elementary displacement, the resulting equation would represent
energy. Thus, in order to get total energy in the three-dimensional-steady-incompressible flow, the
energy terms can be combined as follows:
1 p u u u
B x dx – dx = u dx v dx w dx ...(ix)
x x y z
1 p v v v
B y dy – dy = u dy v dy w dy ...(x)
y x y z
1 p w w w
B z dz – dz = u dz v dz w dz ...(xi)
y x y z
From the equation of a stream line in a three-dimensional flow, we have:
dx dy dz
=
u v w
udy = vdx; vdz = wdy; udz = wdx
Substituting these values in eqns. (ix), (x) and (xi), we get:
1 p u u u
B xdx – dx = u dx u dy u dz ...(xii)
x x y z
 266 Fluid Mechanics

1 p v v v
B y dy – dy = v dx v dy v dz ...(xiii)
y x y z
1 p w w w
B z dz – dz = w dx w dy w dz ...(xiv)
z x y z
u 1 (u 2 )
Acceleration terms are of form u which can be replaced by . Thus,
x 2 x
1 p 1 1
B x dx – dx = (u 2 ) dx (u 2 ) dy ( z 2 )dz d (u 2 ) ...(xv)
x 2 x y z 2
1 p 1
Similarly, By dy – dy = d (v2) ...(xvi)
y 2
1 p 1
and, Bz dz – dz = d (w2) ...(xvii)
y 2
Adding eqns. (xv), (xvi) and (xvii), we get:
1 p p p
Bxdx + Bydy + Bzdz – dx dy dz
x y z
1
[d(u2) + d(v2) + d(w2)]
=
2
1 1
or, Bxdx + Bydy + Bzdz – dp = d (V2) ...(xviii)
2
where, V = Total velocity vector.
When gravity is the only body force acting on the third element, then:
Bx = 0, Bz = 0 and By = – g
By = – g since the gravitational force acts in the downward direction which is negative ‘with’
respect to Y, which is positive upward. Inserting these values in (xviii), we get:
1 1
– g – dp = d (V2)
2
1
or, –g– dp = VdV

dp
or, + VdV + g = 0 which is the same as Euler’s equation (6.3).

Hydrostatic equation from Euler’s equation:

If the fluid is at rest then the velocity terms in Euler’s eqns, (vi), (vii) and (viii), vanish and we
have:
1 p 1 p 1 p
Bx – = 0; B y – = 0; B z – =0
x y z
Further, if gravity is the only body force, then:
Bx = 0; By = – g; Bz = 0
1 p 1 p
= 0; =0 ...(xix)
x z
1 p
and, –g– =0 ...(xx)
y
 Chapter 6 : Fluid Dynamics 267

p dp
Eqn. (xix) signifies that fluid pressure p is independent of x and z. In that case and
y dy
1 dp
–g– = 0
dy
or, dp = – gdy or dp = – wdy
Integrating both sides, we get:
2 2
dp = – w dy
1 1

or, (p2 – p1) = – w (y2 – y1)

or, dp = wdy
which represents the hydrostatic equation. Thus, hydrostatic equation is merely a corollary of
Euler’s equation.
Example 6.2. A discharge through a 24 cm diameter horizontal pipe increases linearly from 30
to 120 litres/sec. of water in 4 seconds.
(i) What pressure gradient must exist to produce this acceleration?
(ii) What is the difference in pressure intensity that exists between two sections that lie 9 m apart?
Solution. The Euler’s equation for one-dimensional flow along the pipe axis may be written as:
1 p u u
Bx – = u ...(i)
x t x
As the pipe is of uniform cross-sectional area, the velocity remains constant along the flow
direction and therefore,
u
= 0
x
Further, since the pipe has been laid horizontally, therefore, the body forces per unit volume in
the direction X = 0
Thus, the eqn. (i) reduces to:
1 p u
=
x t
The change in velocity when the flow changes from 30 to 120 litres/sec
120 10 –3 30 10 –3
u = (u2 – u1) = – = 1.989 m/s
(0.24) 2 (0.24) 2
4 4
This change takes place in 4 sec,
u 1.989
= = 0.497 m/s2
t 4
(i) Pressure gradient, p :
x
p u
= – = – 1000 × 0.497 = – 497 N/m2/m (Ans.)
x t
(ii) Difference in pressure intensity between the sections:
Difference in pressure intensity between two sections that lie 9 m apart
 276 Fluid Mechanics
reservoir. For design reasons, it is desirable that pressure at inlet to the pump shall fall to more than
75 kPa below atmospheric pressure. Neglecting friction, determine the maximum discharge that the
pump may deliver. Take atmospheric pressure as 101.32 kPa. (Bangalore University)
Solution. Refer to Fig. 6.13. Given: d = 12 cm = 0.12 m; l = 7.2 m; patm. = 101. 32 kPa = 101.32
kN/m2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at point 1 (F.W.S.) and
point 2 (suction point to pump), we get:
p1 V12 p2 V22
z1 = z2 ...(i)
w 2g w 2g
Velocity V1 on the free water surface (F.W.S.) = 0
(sump being very large)
p1 = patm. = 101.32 kN/m2,
p2 = 101·32 – 75 = 26.32 kN/m2
Taking point 1 as the datum head, we have:
3
z1 = 0; z2 = 7.2 = 5.4 m
4
Inserting the various values in eqn (i), we have:
101.32 26.32 V22
0 0 = 5.4
9.81 9.81 2g
or, V2 = 6.64 m/s
Discharge that the pump may deliver,
Q = A2 × V2 = (0.12) 2 6.64 = 0.075 m3/s (Ans.)
4

Bernoulli’s equation earlier derived was based on the assumption that fluid is non-viscous and
therefore frictionless. Practically, all fluids are real (and not ideal) and therefore are viscous as
such there are always some losses in fluid flows. These losses have, therefore, to be taken into
consideration in the application of Bernoulli’s equation which gets modified (between sections 1
and 2) for real fluids as follows:
p1 V12 p2 V22
z1 = z2 hL ...(6.4)
w 2g w 2g
where, hL = Loss of energy between
sections 1and 2.
Example 6.13. The following data relate to a conical
tube of length 3.0 m fixed vertically with its smaller end
upwards and carrying fluid in the downward direction.
The velocity of flow at the smaller end = 10 m/s.
The velocity of flow at the larger end = 4 m/s.
0.4 (V1 – V2 ) 2
The loss of head in the tube
2g
where, V1 and V2 are velocities at the smaller and larger
ends respectively.