NRB 4 IT Shyam Gopal Timsina

Hardware Maintenance and

Troubleshooting
NRB 4 IT Shyam Gopal Timsina

Troubleshooting
• Troubleshooting is the process of identifying, planning and
resolving a problem, error or fault within a software or
computer system.
• In view of this, proper knowledge and understanding of the behavior of
each of the components that made up a computer system is necessary.
• It enables the repair and restoration of a computer or software when it
becomes faulty, unresponsive or acts in an abnormal way.
• To troubleshoot is solving a problem or determining a problem
to an issue.
NRB 4 IT Shyam Gopal Timsina

• Troubleshooting often involves the process of elimination, where a

technician follows a set of steps to determine the problem or to resolve the
problem.
NRB 4 IT Shyam Gopal Timsina

Troubleshooting And Computer Maintenance

• Troubleshooting in a computer is an intelligent and sophisticated process.
Products should be carefully analyzed before going to troubleshooting.
• There are simple rules that experienced troubleshooter follows:
a) Identify the exact nature of the problem
b) Isolate the cause of the problem
c) Resolve the problem
• IDENTIFY THE PROBLEMS
1. Observe outward symptoms
2. Form a hypothesis (likely causes)
• ISOLATE THE PROBLEMS
1. Test the hypothesis (swapping and eliminating)
2. Check if the hypothesis is correct
NRB 4 IT Shyam Gopal Timsina

• RESOLVE THE PROBLEMS

 COMPONENTS TO TROUBLESHOOT:
MONITOR
• This is a television-like device which displays the activities of a
computer per time.
• PROBLEM 1: Monitor not coming on
• SOLUTION: Check the power source and the power cable
• PROBLEM 2: Monitor is on, but not display
• SOLUTION:
i. Check the data cable if well connected
ii. Check the brightness and the contrast buttons if they are set zero.
 COMPONENTS TO TROUBLESHOOT:
• KEYBOARD
• This is a typewriter-like device which is used for sending signals
into the computer as input.
• PROBLEM 1: Keyboard not responding
• SOLUTION: Check the cable if properly connected
• PROBLEM 2: Keyboard beeping continuously
• SOLUTION: Check if no key is hooked
• PROBLEM 3: A key or keys hooking always
• SOLUTION: Replace the keyboard
 COMPONENTS TO TROUBLESHOOT:
• MOUSE
• Mouse: This is a hand-held pointing device used for executing
commands on the computer.
• PROBLEM 1: Mouse not responding
• SOLUTION:
i. Check the cable if properly connected
ii. The computer should be restarted
 COMPONENTS TO TROUBLESHOOT:
• HARD DISK DRIVE
• Hard Disk Drive: This is a permanent storage device found on a computer.
It is very weak.
• PROBLEM 1: Strange noise when being accessed
• SOLUTION: Back up data and replace the hard disk
• PROBLEM 2: Insufficient disk space
• SOLUTION: Delete some files or uninstall some programs
• PROBLEM 3: No fixed disk found
• SOLUTION: Check the data cable and the power connector
 COMPONENTS TO TROUBLESHOOT:
• MEMORY (RAM)
• The computer memory or RAM is the working storage of the
computer. The higher the capacity, the better the performance of a
computer.
• PROBLEM 1: Computer is working but no display
• SOLUTION: Check if the RAM is well-seated
• PROBLEM 2: Computer not recognizing the RAM
• SOLUTION: Check if the RAM is compatible. computer support
or not like DDR3, DDR4 RAM
 COMPONENTS TO TROUBLESHOOT:
• SOFTWARE
• Computer problems are not only that of hardware malfunctioning.
Software as well can make a computer to misbehave.
• This often arises from improper shut down or when a new software is
added.
• To correct software problems most times, a system restore should
be done or the newly installed software should be removed.
• If this does not solve the problem, the operating system could be
reinstalled as the last resort.
 Precautions
• Install the computer in a well-ventilated room to prevent overheating and ensure optimal
performance.
• Avoid bringing liquid substances into the computer room to prevent damage to the computer
components.
• Computer technicians should always take precautions against static electricity, which can damage
sensitive electronic components.
• Cover the computer when not in use to protect it from dust and other contaminants that can affect
performance.
• Pack cables neatly to prevent accidents and damage to the computer and to ensure ease of access and
maintenance.
• Treat all computer components with care to prevent.
• Limit access to the computer room to authorized personnel only to prevent unauthorized tampering
or damage.
• Regularly check and maintain all fans to ensure they are functioning correctly and effectively
cooling the system.
• Limit the use of removable storage devices to minimize the risk of virus attacks and data corruption.
 Computer Maintenance
• Computer maintenance speaks about the activities carried out in order to have
computer systems and subsystems in good working order.
• Types of Maintenance
1. Preventive Maintenance: This is performed even if the computer is still operating at its
efficient level. It is done to prevent degradation of performance.
2. Corrective Maintenance: This type of maintenance is required when a system or subsystem
finally collapse.
3. Routine maintenance: This involves a regular schedule or time table strictly adhered to by the
owner of the computers and the party offering the maintenance service to perform an maintain
of machinery.
NOTE:
• A computer system is a modular system-made up of several modular parts or components.
• These modular parts or discrete components work together to form a functional whole.
• Each component has one or more specific relationships to other components in the system and
each component has one or more expected behaviors.
• Notable among these components are: the monitor, keyboard, mouse, hard disk drive, memory
and CD- Rom drive.
• Therefore, the main challenge of computer maintenance is understanding the techniques of
troubleshooting.
 Configure Power Supply
• Configuring a power supply involves several considerations to ensure stable
and efficient power delivery to the computer components.
• Determine Power Needs: Calculate the power requirements based on components.
• Select Appropriate PSU: Choose a PSU with electric power exceeding calculated
requirements.
• Install PSU: Securely mount PSU in compatible area of the case.
• Connect Main Power: Attach motherboard and CPU power connectors.
• Peripheral Connections: Connect SATA (serial advanced technology attachment), PCIe
(Peripheral Component Interconnect Express), and peripheral power cables.
• Manage Cables: Route and secure cables to ensure airflow and prevent interference.
• Test and Verify: Power on system, check for abnormal behavior, overheating, or noises.
• Monitor and Maintain: Regularly check for dust buildup, monitor voltage rails and
temperatures.
• Upgrade and Replace: Ensure PSU can support upgrades, replace if signs of failure
occur.
 Motherboard
• What is a Motherboard?
• The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. It can be considered as the backbone of the computer.
• It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and
other parts. It also connects expansion cards directly or via cables.
• History of Motherboard
• The first-ever motherboard was used by the IBM in early 1980s. It was also called a
planar.
• It is the main component through which the communication takes place between the other
components and connects all the peripherals, therefore referred to as the motherboard.
• A computer is lifeless without a motherboard.
 How Does a Motherboard Work?
• Power Supply: Supplies electricity to the motherboard when the computer is turned on.
• Data Transfer: Data buses transfer information between the southbridge and northbridge
components of the motherboard.
• Northbridge:
• Handles data connections to the CPU, RAM, and PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express)
slots.
• RAM feeds data inputs to the CPU.
• Southbridge:
• Controls data connections to BIOS (Basic Input/Output System), USB ports, SATA (serial advanced
technology attachment) drives, and PCI slots.
• Sends signals to BIOS to initiate computer startup.
• Interactions:
• Components communicate via electrical signals and data buses.
• Northbridge and southbridge chips process data.
• Data is encoded into binary language (1s and 0s).
• Motherboard translates data into a format other components can understand.
 Components of Motherboard
• A motherboard is made of plastic and silicon as well.
• It is a hub of a computer system. A motherboard is a complex component with various kinds of ports, slots,
cables connected to it. Some of them are:
• CPU Slot: Connects the CPU to the motherboard.
• RAM Slot: Holds RAM modules for temporary data storage.
• Expansion Slot: Allows installation of expansion cards for additional functionality. Examples AGP
(Accelerated Graphics Port), PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect),
• PCI and AGP Slots: Connect expansion cards such as sound and graphics cards.
• Capacitors and Inductors: Electrical components for power regulation.
• Northbridge and Southbridge: Control data communication between CPU, RAM, and peripherals.
• USB Ports: Connect external devices like mice and keyboards.
• Heat Sink: Dissipates heat generated by the CPU.
• Power Connector: Supplies power to the motherboard.
• CMOS Battery: Provides backup power for BIOS settings.
• Integrated Circuits (ICs): Perform data processing and storage functions.
 Components of Motherboard
• CPU Socket:
• A CPU socket is a specific component on the motherboard where the CPU
(Central Processing Unit) is installed.
• It consists of an array of holes or pins that match those on the CPU, allowing for a
secure physical and electrical connection between the CPU and the motherboard.
• CPU sockets come in various designs and configurations, each compatible
with specific CPU types or families.
• Examples include LGA (Land Grid Array) sockets used by Intel processors and PGA
(Pin Grid Array) sockets used by AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) processors.
 Components of Motherboard
• Chipsets:
• A chipset is a set of integrated circuits (chips) on the motherboard that manage
communication between the CPU, memory, peripheral devices, and other
components.
• The chipset plays a crucial role in determining the motherboard's features,
capabilities, and compatibility with other hardware components.
• The two primary components of a chipset are the Northbridge and the
Southbridge:
• The Northbridge connects the CPU to high-speed components such as RAM and graphics
cards.
• The Southbridge connects slower peripheral devices such as SATA (Serial ATA) drives,
USB ports, and expansion slots.
• Chipsets are often named after their manufacturer and model number (e.g., Intel
Z490, AMD B550), indicating compatibility with specific CPU families and
features.
 Jumper
• In computer hardware, a jumper is a small device that can be
connected or disconnected to change the settings or
configuration of a particular component. It is often used to
configure settings on motherboards, hard drives, or optical
drives.
• Jumpers are small, removable connectors on the motherboard
used to configure hardware settings or select operational
modes.
• Jumpers consist of two or more pins with a plastic jumper cap
that can be placed over them to create an electricalconnection.
• By changing the position of the jumper cap, users can change
settings such as BIOS configuration, system clock speed, or
hardware options.
• Jumpers are typically labeled on the motherboard, and their
settings are often described in the motherboard's user manual
or documentation.
• While jumpers were more common in older motherboards,
modern motherboards often use software-based settings
accessed through the BIOS.
 Motherboard
• Features of Motherboard

• Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

• Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
• Video cards, Hard drives, Sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to
function properly.
• Motherboard, Cases, and Power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
• Advantages of Motherboard
• A motherboard is the main component without it a computer cannot function.
• Any peripheral can be connected and data transfer is faster.
 BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) settings
• BIOS settings refer to the configurable parameters stored in firmware that govern the
fundamental operation of a computer's hardware components.
• These settings are accessed and modified through the BIOS setup utility, which is typically
accessed during the early stages of the computer's startup process.
• BIOS settings allow users to customize various aspects of their computer's behavior, including:
• Boot Order: Specifies the sequence in which the computer searches for bootable
devices (such as hard drives, SSDs, CD/DVD drives, USB drives) during system
startup.
• System Date and Time: Allows users to set the current date and time, which is
crucial for accurate timekeeping and time-sensitive operations.
• CPU Settings: Provides options to adjust CPU-related parameters such as clock speed,
voltage, and power management settings.
• Memory Settings: Enables configuration of memory-related settings such as timings,
and voltage.
 BIOS settings
• Storage Configuration: Allows configuration of storage devices, including SATA
mode, drive detection, and SMART (Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting
Technology) monitoring.
• Peripheral Configuration: Provides settings for onboard devices such as USB
controllers, audio, LAN, and integrated graphics.
• Security Settings: Offers options for setting passwords to restrict access to the BIOS
setup utility, boot devices, and system settings. Secure boot options may also be
available.
• Power Management Settings: Allows customization of power-saving features, sleep
modes.
• Hardware Monitoring: Provides real-time monitoring of system temperatures,
voltages, and fan speeds. Users may set temperature thresholds for fan control and
receive alerts for critical conditions.
• Advanced Features: Includes advanced settings for features such as virtualization
support, CPU features, and chipset-specific options.
 Mouse
• The mouse is a fundamental input device for computers, allowing users to
interact with graphical user interfaces (GUIs) by moving a cursor on the screen
and clicking on icons, buttons, and menus.
• Functionality:
• The primary function of a mouse is to translate physical movement on a flat surface into
corresponding movements of a cursor on the computer screen.
• It typically has two buttons (left and right) and a scroll wheel.
• Types of Mouse:
• Optical Mouse: Uses an optical sensor to detect movement by tracking changes in the
surface texture.
• Laser Mouse: Similar to an optical mouse but uses a laser diode instead of an LED for
more precise tracking on a wider range of surfaces.
• Wireless Mouse: Connects to the computer via wireless technologies such as Bluetooth
or radio frequency (RF), eliminating the need for a physical cable.
 Mouse
• Gaming Mouse: Designed specifically for gaming, featuring additional buttons,
customizable settings, and higher sensitivity for faster response times.
• Trackball Mouse: Instead of moving the entire mouse, users manipulate a trackball
with their fingers or thumb to control the cursor.
• Components of Mouse
• Sensor: Detects motion and tracks movement on the surface.
• Buttons: Left button, right button, and scroll wheel are the standard buttons found on
most mouse.
• Scroll Wheel: Allows users to scroll through documents or web pages vertically.
• DPI (Dots Per Inch) Button: Allows users to adjust the sensitivity or speed of cursor
movement.
• Side Buttons: Found on some mouse, these buttons can be programmed for specific
functions such as navigating back and forward in web browsers.
 Mouse
• Usage:
• Mouse are used for various tasks such as navigating operating systems, selecting files
and folders, browsing the internet, gaming, and graphic design.
• They offer precise control and are especially useful for tasks that require fine motor
skills.
• Maintenance:
• Regular cleaning of the mouse's surface and sensor area helps maintain accurate
tracking.
• For wireless mouse, replacing or recharging batteries as needed ensures uninterrupted
usage.
• Driver Software updates may be available from the manufacturer to improve
performance.
 Keyboard
• Keyboards are essential input devices for computers, allowing users to input text,
commands, and shortcuts.
• Functionality:
• Keyboards consist of a set of keys arranged in a specific layout, typically based on the
QWERTY layout.
• Each key corresponds to a specific character, symbol, or function when pressed.
• Types of Keyboards:
• Standard Keyboards: Traditional keyboards with a full set of keys, including letters, numbers,
punctuation, and function keys (F1-F12).
• Compact Keyboards: Smaller keyboards with fewer keys, often omitting the numeric keypad
or function keys for space-saving purposes.
• Gaming Keyboards: Designed for gaming, featuring additional programmable keys,
customizable lighting, and specialized gaming modes.
• Wireless Keyboards: Connect to computers via wireless technologies such as Bluetooth or
radio frequency (RF), eliminating the need for a physical cable.
• Virtual Keyboards: Software-based keyboards displayed on a computer screen, often used in
touch-enabled devices or accessibility applications.
 Keyboard
• Components:
• Keys: Physical buttons that users press to input characters or commands.
• Function Keys: Special keys (F1-F12) typically used for shortcuts and system commands.
• Numeric Keypad: A separate set of keys on the right side of the keyboard for entering numbers
and mathematical functions.
• Modifiers: Keys such as Shift, Ctrl (Control), Alt (Alternate), and Win (Windows) used in
combination with other keys to perform specific functions or shortcuts.
• Usage:
• Keyboards are used for typing text, entering commands, navigating user interfaces, and
executing shortcuts.
• They are essential for tasks such as word processing, coding, data entry, gaming, and general
computer usage.
• Maintenance:
• Regular cleaning of the keyboard's keys and surfaces helps prevent dust buildup and maintain
performance.
• Keyboards with removable keycaps allow for easier cleaning and maintenance.
• Driver Software updates may be available from the manufacturer to address issues.
 Scanners
• Scanners are devices used to convert physical documents, images, or objects
into digital format, allowing them to be stored, manipulated, and transmitted
electronically.
• Functionality:
• Scanners capture images or text from physical documents, photographs, or objects and
convert them into digital format.
• They use various technologies such as CCD (Charge-Coupled Device), CIS (Contact
Image Sensor), or laser to capture images with high resolution and accuracy.
• A Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) is a type of image sensor used in digital cameras, scanners, and
other imaging devices to capture images
• A Contact Image Sensor (CIS) is a type of image sensor used in scanners and other imaging devices
to capture images.
• Scanned documents can be saved in different file formats such as JPEG, PDF, PNG etc..
 Types of Scanners:
• Flatbed Scanners: Feature a flat, glass surface where documents or objects are placed
for scanning. Suitable for scanning documents, photos.
• Sheetfed Scanners: Feed documents through a set of rollers for automatic scanning.
Ideal for scanning multiple documents quickly.
• Handheld Scanners: Portable devices held by hand and moved over the surface of
the document. Suitable for scanning large or bulky items that cannot be fed through a
flatbed scanner.
• Drum Scanners: Use a rotating drum to capture images with high precision and detail.
Commonly used in professional graphic design and publishing environments.
• Slide and Film Scanners: Specialized scanners designed to digitize photographic
slides, negatives, or film strips.
• 3D Scanners: Capture three-dimensional objects to create digital models for purposes
such as prototyping, reverse engineering, and 3D printing.
 Scanners :
• Components
• Scan Head: Contains the sensor or scanning element that captures the image.
• Glass Surface: Found in flatbed scanners, provides a flat area where documents or
objects are placed for scanning.
• Automatic Document Feeder (ADF): Allows multiple documents to be scanned
automatically without manual intervention.
• Control Panel: Interface for selecting scanning settings, such as resolution, color depth,
and file format.
• Connection Ports: USB, Ethernet, or wireless connectivity options for connecting the
scanner to a computer or network.
• Usage:
• Scanners are used in various industries and applications, including document
management, archiving, graphic design, photography, and engineering.
• Common uses include scanning documents, photos, artwork, business cards, and 3D
objects.
• Scanners are essential tools for digitizing and preserving physical materials, reducing
paper document and enabling efficient information sharing and distribution.
 Scanners
• Software:
• Scanners often come with bundled software for image editing, document management,
OCR (Optical Character Recognition), and other advanced features.
• Third-party software applications are also available for more specialized scanning tasks
and enhanced functionality.
• Maintenance:
• Regular cleaning of the scanner's glass surface and scan head helps maintain image
quality and prevent dust from affecting scan results.
• Calibration may be necessary periodically to ensure accurate color reproduction and
image alignment.
• Software updates may be available from the manufacturer to address issues or add new
features.
 Speakers
• A speaker is a transducer that converts electrical signals into sound waves, allowing
us to hear audio from various electronic devices.
• Speakers are devices that convert electrical signals into sound waves, allowing us to hear audio
from electronic devices such as computers, televisions, stereos, and smartphones.
• Why Do We Need Speakers?
• Amplification: Speakers boost sound volume and clarity from devices like computers and
phones.
• Enhanced Bass: External speakers offer deeper and richer bass for a better audio experience.
• External Use: Needed for higher-quality sound and louder volume levels, suitable for home
entertainment and gatherings.
• Built-in Speakers: Devices like computers and smartphones have internal speakers, eliminating
the need for external ones in standard usage.
• Versatile Applications: Essential for entertainment, communication, presentations, and
notifications, providing clear sound reproduction for diverse purposes.
 Applications of Speakers
• Audio playback – Used in stereo systems, home theatres, and smart speakers
for any audio content.
• Public address systems – it is used in schools, colleges, and temple for
announcement, speeches and background music.
• Telecommunication – Here telephones and other audio gadgets were used in
both landline and mobile phones to transmit audio during calls.
• Entertainment and media – Here, television and home theatre systems which
provide audio output for TV shows, gaming etc.
• Emergency smart systems – Speakers used to deliver important instruction or
signals to the people when any trouble occur.
 Parts of Speaker
• Structure of Speaker consists of the following parts to be included to give a
best efficient sounds and a good experience.
• Sound Cone: Cone-shaped sound cone that vibrates to produce sound waves.
• Frame: Structural component that holds the speaker's parts together.
• Magnet: Generates a magnetic field that interacts with the voice coil to produce sound.
• Voice Coil: Coil of wire that moves back and forth within the magnetic field, driving the
sound cone.
• Spring Plate/Elastic Wave: Provides support and flexibility to the sound cone for
proper vibration.
• Folding Ring: Helps maintain the shape and stability of the sound cone.
• Dust Cap: Protects the inner components from dust and debris, ensuring optimal
performance.
 Working of Speakers
• Conversion Process: Speakers transform electrical energy into mechanical
energy, then into sound energy.
• Initial Compression: Electrical current generates a magnetic field, causing the
voice coil to move back and forth within the magnetic field.
• Motion to Sound: The movement of the voice coil creates vibrations in the
speaker's sound cone, compressing the surrounding air.
• Pressure Waves: These compressed air waves travel outward, producing
sound output perceived by listeners.
 Types of Speakers
• Bookshelf Speakers: Compact, desktop speakers offering good sound quality for
small to medium-sized rooms.
• Floor-standing Speakers: Tall, powerful speakers suitable for larger rooms and
home theater setups.
• Subwoofers: Dedicated speakers for deep bass sounds, enhancing music and movies.
• Portable Speakers: Compact, battery-powered speakers with Bluetooth for on-the-
go use.
• In-wall/In-ceiling Speakers: Speakers installed discreetly into walls or ceilings for
whole-home audio.
• Outdoor Speakers: Weather-resistant speakers for outdoor use in areas.
• Studio Speakers : Accurate speakers for professional audio production and mixing.
• Smart Speakers: Speakers with built-in voice assistants for smart home control and
music playback.
 Speakers
• Advantages:
• Sound reproduction and amplification
• Immersive experience
• Information delivery and communication
• Disadvantages:
• Size and space requirements
• Sound quality issues with low-quality speakers
• Maintenance and cost considerations
 Storage Devices
• Storage devices are hardware components used to store and retrieve digital
data in electronic devices such as computers, smartphones, cameras, and more.
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD):
• HDDs use magnetic storage to store data.
• They offer large storage capacities at relatively low costs.
• Commonly used in desktop computers, servers, and external storage solutions.
• Slower access times compared to SSDs.
• Solid State Drive (SSD):
• SSDs use flash memory to store data, resulting in faster read/write speeds and lower
latency compared to HDDs.
• They are more durable and energy-efficient since they have no moving parts.
• Commonly used in laptops, desktops, and high-performance computing environments.
• Generally more expensive per gigabyte than HDDs, but prices have been decreasing.
 Storage Devices
• USB Flash Drive:
• USB flash drives are portable storage devices that use flash memory.
• They connect to computers via USB ports and are commonly used for data transfer,
backup, and portable storage.
• Compact, lightweight, and durable, making them ideal for transporting files between
devices.
• Available in various capacities, from a few gigabytes to several terabytes.
• Memory Card:
• Memory cards are small, removable flash storage devices used primarily in digital
cameras, smartphones, and other portable devices.
• They come in different formats such as SD (Secure Digital), microSD, CompactFlash
• Commonly used for storing photos, videos, music, and other multimedia files.
• Capacities range from a few megabytes to several gigabytes.
 Storage Devices
• Network Attached Storage (NAS):
• NAS devices are specialized storage appliances connected to a network that provide shared
storage to multiple users or devices.
• They offer centralized data storage, backup, and file sharing capabilities for home and business
networks.
• Often used for media streaming, data backup, and remote access to files.
• Can be configured with multiple hard drives in RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
arrays for data redundancy and increased performance.
• Cloud Storage:
• Cloud storage services store data on remote servers accessible via the internet.
• Users can upload, download, and access files from anywhere with an internet connection.
• Common cloud storage providers include Google Drive, Dropbox, Microsoft OneDrive, and
Amazon S3.
• Offers scalability, and data redundancy but may have subscription fees and privacy concerns.
 Monitors (CRT, LCD, LED),
• Monitors, also known as display screens
or screens, are output devices used to
visually display information generated by
a computer or other electronic devices.
They come in various types, sizes, and
resolutions, each suited for different
applications and preferences.
Types of Monitors:
• CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors:
• CRT is a technology used in traditional
computer monitors and televisions.
• The image on CRT display is created by firing • Utilize cathode ray tubes to display images.
electrons from the back of the tube of phosphorus
located towards the front of the screen. • Bulky and heavy, with curved screens and deep casing.
• Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they • Offered lower resolutions compared to modern
light up, and they are projected on a screen. monitors.
• The color you view on the screen is produced • Commonly found in older computer systems and
by a blend of red, blue and green light in color television sets.
monitor.
 Components of CRT:
• Main Components of CRT are:
1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a heating
filament (heater) and a cathode.
• The electron gun creates a source of electrons which are focused into a narrow beam directed at the
face of the CRT.
2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.
3. Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the electrons into a
narrow beam.
4. Deflection: It is used to control the direction of the electron beam.
• It creates an electric or magnetic field which will bend the electron beam as it passes through the area.
5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is coated with
phosphors.
• Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron beam hits them.
 Monitors (CRT, LCD, LED),
• Flat Panel Display:
• The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices
that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement compare to CRT.
1. Emissive Display: The emissive displays are devices
that convert electrical energy into light. Examples are
Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent display and
LED (Light Emitting Diodes).
2. Non-Emissive Display: The Non-Emissive displays
use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
some other source into graphics patterns. Examples are
LCD (Liquid Crystal Device).
• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors:
• Use liquid crystals to display images.
• Slimmer, lighter, and more energy-efficient than CRT
monitors.
• Offer higher resolutions, sharper images, and widescreen
formats.
• Widely used in modern computers, laptops, and TVs.
 Working of LCD:
• The working principle of an LCD (Liquid
Crystal Display) involves several key
components and processes:
• Liquid Crystal Layer: Contains liquid crystal
molecules aligned by an electric field.
• Polarizing Filters: Positioned on outer glass
surfaces, polarize light in specific directions.
• Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) Array: Grid of
transistors controls current to pixels.
• Backlight: Light source, often LEDs or CCFL
(cold cathode fluorescent lamp), positioned
behind the LCD panel.
 Operation of an LCD
• Polarization of Light: Light from backlight
passes through rear polarizing filter, becoming
linearly polarized.
• Liquid Crystals: Molecules aligned in twisted
configuration without voltage; align parallel to
electric field with voltage, altering light
polarization.
• Color Filtering: Color filters over pixels
produce specific colors (red, green, blue) when
light passes through.
• Displaying Images: LCD panel modulates
light transmission of pixels to create images and
graphics; rapid voltage changes update image
in real-time for smooth motion.
 LCD
• Key features of LCD (Liquid • Advantages of LCD:
Crystal Display): • Slim and lightweight
• Thin and lightweight design • Energy efficient
• Energy-efficient operation • High resolution
• High-resolution display • Reduced eye strain
• Reduced flicker for less eye strain • Better color accuracy
• Wide color reproduction range • Disadvantages of LCD:
• Various screen sizes available • Limited viewing angles
• Compatible with digital interfaces • Potential for dead pixels
• Supports multimedia content playback • Cost
• Built-in brightness and contrast
controls
• Environmentally friendly materials
and manufacturing processes
 LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
• LED monitors utilize Light Emitting Diode (LED) technology for backlighting, offering
several advantages over LCD monitors.
• Backlighting: LED monitors use Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) for illumination,
offering better brightness and contrast.
• Energy Efficiency: LEDs consume less power, leading to lower energy bills.
• Slim Design: LED monitors are thinner and lighter due to compact LED components.
• Durability: Longer lifespan and less maintenance make LED monitors cost-effective.
• Response Time: Faster response times reduce motion blur video playback or gaming.
• Variety: Available in various sizes, resolutions, and aspect ratios to suit different
preferences and needs.
• Cost: While initial investment may be higher, long-term savings and benefits justify the
cost.
 LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
• Key Features of LED Monitors: • Advantages of LED
• Energy Efficiency: LED monitors consume less power Monitors:
compared to LCD monitors. • Energy efficient
• Slim Design: LED technology allows for thinner and • Slim design
lighter monitor designs.
• Better brightness and
• Enhanced Brightness and Contrast: LEDs offer better contrast
brightness levels and contrast ratios for improved image • Longer lifespan
quality.
• Longer Lifespan: LED monitors typically have a longer • Eco-friendly
lifespan than other types of monitors. • Instant on
• Environmental Friendly: LED monitors are more • Reduced eye strain
environmentally friendly due to lower power • Disadvantages of LED
consumption and mercury-free construction.
• Instant On: LED monitors have instant-on capability, Monitors:
eliminating the need for warm-up time. • Higher cost

• Uniform Backlighting: LEDs provide more uniform in brightness.

backlighting across the screen, reducing inconsistencies • Reduced Eye Strain: LED
 LED (Light-Emitting
monitors often incorporate features to reduce eye strain,
Diode)
• Color accuracy concerns
such as flicker-freetechnology and blue light filters. • Potential for image
retention
 Difference between CRT and LCD
S.NO CRT LCD
1. CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. While LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display.
2. CRT consumes more power. While it consumes less power.
3. The cost of CRT is less than LCD. While it is expensive than CRT.
4. CRT is larger than LCD in terms of size. While it is small in terms of size.
5. CRT’s resolution is lower than LCD. While LCD’s resolution is more than CRT.
While it is used in personal computers as well as in
6. It is used only in personal computers.
laptops and cellular phones.
7. Image Flickering is there in CRT. Image Flickering is not there in LCD.
8. Electron Gun is used to form images. Liquid crystals are used to form images.
 Difference between LCD and LED
LCD LED
It stands for Liquid Crystal Display. Short for Light-Emitting Diodes.
LCD monitors are not a subset of LED monitors. LED monitors are subset of LCD monitors.

It primarily uses fluorescent lights. It mainly uses light-emitting diodes.

In LCDs, usually fluorescent lights are located at the Usually, light-emitting diodes are located around the
backside of the screen. edges or backside of the screen.

LCDs are less energy efficient than LEDs and are LEDs are more energy-efficient and are much
thicker in size. thinner in size as compared to LCDs.

Its resolution is low. Its resolution is high.

The switching time of LCD is slow. The switching time of LED is fast.
 Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)
• Definition and Use: PDPs are emissive displays,
meaning the panel itself emits light, providing bright and
light-tolerant flat panel display technology.
• Features: Plasma displays typically range from 42" to
63" and excel in dimly lit rooms, offering high contrast
ratios, saturated colors, and wide viewing angles.
• They're ideal for action-packed sports and gaming due totheir
ability to track fast-moving images without motion blur.
Working Principle:
• PDP consists of two glass sheets enclosing a mixture of discharge gases (helium, neon, xenon).
• Electrodes between the glass sheets form compartments (cells), each containing phosphors emitting red, green,
or blue light.
• Selectively applying voltages to the electrodes causes them to generate a discharge, exciting the phosphors to
emit light.
• Picture definition is stored in a Refresh Buffer, and voltages are applied to refresh pixel positions 60 times per
second.
 Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)
• Types of Plasma Display Devices:
• Consumer Televisions: Plasma TVs were widely used in homes
for entertainment purposes, offering large screen sizes and vibrant
colors.
• Professional Displays: Plasma screens were also utilized in
commercial settings like digital signage, control rooms, and
conference rooms.
• High-End Monitors: Plasma technology was incorporated into
high-end computer monitors and graphics displays, providing
superior color accuracy and image quality for professional users.
 Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)
• Features of Plasma Display Devices:
• High Contrast Ratio: Plasma displays offer deep blacks and high contrast ratios,
resulting in vibrant and lifelike images.
• Wide Viewing Angles: Plasma screens maintain consistent image quality even at wide
viewing angles, making them suitable for large audiences.
• Fast Response Time/ high refresh rate: Plasma panels have fast response times and
high refresh rate, reducing motion blur fast-moving scenes.
• Uniform Brightness: Plasma technology provides uniform brightness across the screen
without any backlight bleed or uneven lighting.
• Color Accuracy: Plasma displays offer accurate color reproduction, making them ideal
for applications where color fidelity is critical.
• Size Options: Plasma displays were available in a wide range of screen sizes, from
smaller monitors to large-format televisions exceeding 60 inches diagonally.
 Plasma Display Panels (PDPs)
• Advantages:
• Thin, lightweight, and space-saving.
• Uniform brightness without distortion.
• Viewable from wide angles.
• Capable of producing deeper blacks, offering superior contrast ratio.
• Suitable for multimedia usage, displaying computer images and full-color, full-motion
pictures.
• Disadvantages:
• Phosphors may lose luminosity over time, resulting in a gradual decline in absolute
quality.
 Printers (Laser, Inkjet and Bubble jet),
• What is a Printer?
• A printer is a device that accepts text and graphics output from a computer, and it transfers this
information to paper, sheets.
• Printers can print any information that has been passed to it, whether it be Text, Numbers or
Images.
• It depends on the type of printer that what quality or color the printed matter would be.
• Qualities of Printers
• Color: Colored printers can print in both i.e, colored and black-and-white. Hence, colored
printers are more expensive than normal printers.
• Resolution: Printer’s resolution is usually measured in dpi(dots per inch). Expensive printers
have resolutions of about 550 to 600 dpi.
• Speed: For printing a good amount of stuff you need to have a fast printer. Hence, speed is an
important factor while considering printers.
• Memory: It is also an important factor for printers as having enough memory will result in good
speed and better performance.
 Inkjet Printers
• It is widely used by home and business computer
users that prints characters by spraying the ink using
magnetic plates on the paper.
• It contains a paper feed assembly, ink cartridge, print
head, stabilizer bar, and belt.
• It stores the ink in cartridges, and uses separate
cartridge to print several types of color documents.
• These colors are a combination of cyan (blue-green
color), magenta (reddish-purple color), yellow,
and black color.
• These types of printers have the ability to createhigh-
quality pictures with the help of vivid colors.
Furthermore, the inkjet printers are more affordable
and easier to use as compared to other printers.
 Inkjet Printers
• Advantages of Inkjet Printers:
• The Inkjet printers have the ability to produce high-quality output.
• These printers are reasonably fast and easy to use.
• Additionally, these types of printers do not take warm up time.
• Disadvantages of Inkjet Printer:
• It may take more time to print.
• Its running cost is high.
• It does not allow the highlighter marker.
• Sometimes, it can produce a wrong warning of an empty
cartridge.
 Laser printers
• Laser printers use laser or non-impact
photocopier technology to print text and
images.
• A laser beam draws the document on a
selenium-coated drum with electric charges.
• The drum is rolled in toner (dry ink powder),
which follows the charged image.
• The ink is transferred onto paper with heat and
pressure.
• Laser printers are mainly monochrome but
more cost-effective than color printers.
• Differences from inkjet printers include the use
of dry ink, lower cost, and suitability for
printing large volumes.
 Laser printer
• Advantages of a Laser printer:
• These types of printers have a higher paper capacity.
• It is less expensive than the inkjet printer.
• It has the ability to print documents speedily.
• Furthermore, it is able to increase productivity.
• Disadvantages of a Laser printer:
• Laser printers may need warm up time.
• Laser printers are bulky as they required the laser technology and imaging
drum.
• It requires high voltage leads to small carbon emissions.
 Bubble Jet Printers
• Printing Technology: Bubble jet printers use inkjet
technology to deposit ink droplets onto paper.
• Ink Delivery: Liquid ink from cartridges is fed to a
print head containing tiny nozzles.
• Bubble Formation: Heating elements in the print head
create bubbles to propel ink droplets onto paper.
• Color Printing: Combines cyan, magenta, yellow, and
black inks for color prints.
• Resolution and Quality: Resolution measured in dots
per inch (dpi), with higher dpi yielding sharper prints.
• Print Speed: Varies; capable of printing monochrome
and color documents at different speeds.
• Versatility: Can print on various paper types and
handle different printing tasks.
• Cost and Maintenance: Generally affordable, but ink
cartridge costs can accumulate over time. Regular
maintenance may be needed for optimal performance.
 Bubble Jet Printers
• Advantages of Bubble Jet Printers:
• Cost-effective: Bubble jet printers are generally cheaper to purchase compared to other types of printers.
• Color printing: Capable of producing high-quality color prints suitable for both text and images.
• Versatility: Can print on various types of paper, including glossy photo paper, labels, and transparencies.
• Quiet operation: Bubble jet printers operate relatively quietly, making them suitable for home and office
environments.
• Compact size: Many bubble jet printers are compact and space-saving, making them suitable for small
spaces.
• Disadvantages of Bubble Jet Printers:
• Print speed: Generally slower than laser printers, especially for color prints.
• Print quality: While capable of producing good quality prints, bubble jet printers may not offer the same
level of sharpness and clarity as laser printers.
• Ink costs: Over time, the cost of ink cartridges can add up, making bubble jet printers more expensive to
maintain.
• Printhead clogging: Printheads can become clogged with dried ink, resulting in poor print quality or the
need for frequent cleaning.
• Smudging and bleeding: Prints from bubble jet printers may be prone to smudging and bleeding,
especially on plain paper.
 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)
• It is a device that provides backup power to electrical systems when the main power
source fails or experiences voltage fluctuations.
• Backup Power: UPS units have internal batteries that store electrical energy.
• When there is a power outage or the voltage drops below a certain threshold, the UPS
automatically switches to battery power to keep connected devices running.
• Protection Against Power Surges: UPS units also protect connected devices from
power surges and spikes that can occur due to lightning strikes, power grid issues, or
electrical faults.
• Types of UPS:
• Standby UPS: These units switch to battery power only when the main power source fails.
• They provide basic protection against power outages but may have a short switchover time.
• Line-Interactive UPS: These UPS units continuously regulate the voltage of the input power.
• They provide better protection against voltage fluctuations and offer smoother transitions to battery power.
 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)
• Online UPS: Online UPS systems constantly power connected devices from the battery, with
the battery being recharged from the main power source.
• They provide the highest level of protection and eliminate any switchover time during power failures.
• Capacity and Runtime: UPS units come in various capacities (measured in volt-
amperes (VA)) and can provide backup power for a specific runtime, depending on
the load and battery capacity.
• Users can choose UPS units based on their power requirements and the duration of backup needed.
• Applications:
• UPS units are commonly used in data centers, server rooms, and critical IT infrastructure to ensure
continuous operation and prevent data loss during power interruptions.
• They are also used for protecting home computers, networking equipment, telecommunication
systems, medical devices, and other sensitive electronics.
• Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR): Many UPS units feature AVR technology,
which stabilizes the voltage supplied to connected devices, even during fluctuations,
ensuring optimal performance and protection.
 Installing and configuring expansion cards
1. Choose the right expansion card that is compatible with your motherboard and
computer case.
2. Power off the computer and disconnect it from the power source.
3. Identify the appropriate expansion slot and remove the slot cover on the case.
4. Align the card's connectors with the slot and gently push it until it clicks into
place.
5. Secure the card with screws or clips on the back of the case.
6. Connect any required cables to the expansion card, such as power cables or video
cables.
7. Close the case, plug in the power cord, and restart the computer.
8. Install necessary drivers or software for the expansion card from the
manufacturer's website.
9. Configure the expansion card settings according to your preferences, such as
resolution for a graphics card or volume for a sound card.
Installing and configuring expansion cards (Sound Cards, network card)

• Steps:
• Power off the computer and unplug it.
• Open the CPU and locate an empty PCI or PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect
Express) slot) slot.
• Insert the sound card into the slot and secure it with a screw.
• Close the CPU case, plug in, and restart the computer.
• Install the necessary drivers from the CD or let Windows search for them.
• Steps:
• Power off the PC and unplug it.
• Find a suitable PCI or PCIe slot for the network card.
• Insert the network card into the slot and secure it.
• Connect any required cables to the card.
• Power on the PC, install the drivers provided by the manufacturer or let Windows install
generic drivers and let it configure the network card.
Installing and configuring expansion cards (Graphics Cards)
• Steps:
• Uninstall old graphics drivers using Device Manager.
• Power off the PC and unplug it.
• Open the CPU and identify the PCIe slot for the graphics card.
• Insert the graphics card into the PCIe slot and secure it.
• Connect any required power cables to the graphics card.
• Close the CPU case, plug in, and restart the computer.
• Install the latest graphics drivers downloaded from the manufacturer's website.
 Installing and configuring storage devices
1. Choose the right storage device based on type (HDD (Hard Disk Drive), SSD (Solid State Drive)) and
compatibility (SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment), NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express)).
2. Power off computer, disconnect from power, and open the case.
3. Install the device in an available slot securely.
4. Connect SATA data and power cables for HDDs, or M.2/ SATA cables for SSDs.
5. Close the case, reconnect power, peripherals, and start the computer.
6. Configure device in BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)/UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)
settings, enable AHCI (Advanced Host Controller Interface) for SSDs, format the drive.
7. Install necessary drivers, especially for NVMe SSDs.
8. Optimize storage settings like TRIM (Time-Based Remapping Information Management), caching, RAID,
or encryption.
9. Test and verify device functionality and performance.
Note: M.2 is a form factor specification for internal computer expansion cards, supporting devices like SSDs and
wireless cards in a compact manner.
Management of Hard Disk (Partition and Formatting, Shrinking)
• Partitioning:
• Open Disk Management by searching for "Disk Management" in the Start menu and selecting the Disk Management app.
• In Disk Management, you'll see a list of all disks connected to your computer. Right-click on the unallocated space on the disk
where you want to create a new partition.
• Choose "New Simple Volume" from the context menu.
• Follow the New Simple Volume Wizard to specify the partition size, assign a drive letter (like E: or F:), and choose the file system
(NTFS (New Technology File System) is commonly used for Windows).
• Complete the wizard to create the new partition.
• Formatting:
• After creating the partition, right-click on the new partition in Disk Management.
• Choose "Format" from the context menu.
• Select the desired file system (e.g., NTFS) and allocation unit size.
• Optionally, give the volume a label and enable quick format if desired.
• Click "OK" to start the formatting process.
• Shrinking Partitions:
• In Disk Management, right-click on the partition you want to shrink.
• Choose "Shrink Volume" from the context menu.
• Enter the amount you want to shrink the partition by, in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB).
• Click "Shrink" to initiate the shrinking process.
 Connector types (BNC, RJ45, HDMI)
• BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman) Connector:
• Cable Type: Coaxial Cable
• Use: Typically used for analog and digital video signals, such as in CCTV systems and
networking equipment.
• RJ45 (Registered Jack 45) Connector:
• Cable Type: Ethernet Cable (Cat5e, Cat6, Cat7, etc.)
• Use: Used for Ethernet networking, connecting devices like computers, routers,
switches, and IP cameras to networks.
• HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) Connector:
• Cable Type: HDMI Cable
• Use: Primarily used for transmitting high-definition audio and video signals between
devices like TVs, monitors, gaming consoles, and Blu-ray players.
 Troubleshooting of computer and its peripherals
(keyboard, Mouse, Printer, Scanner, Speaker)
Troubleshooting computer and peripheral issues involves several common steps:
1. Identify the Problem: Determine which component is malfunctioning,
whether it's the computer itself or one of its peripherals like the keyboard,
mouse, printer, scanner, or speaker.
2. Check Connections: Ensure all cables and connections are secure and
properly plugged in. For wireless devices, check the batteries or recharge
them.
3. Restart Devices: Restart the computer and the problematic peripheral.
Sometimes, a simple reboot can resolve many issues.
4. Update Drivers: Ensure that drivers for the peripherals are up to date. You
can download the latest drivers from the manufacturer's website.
5. Check for Software Issues: Verify that the necessary software or drivers are
installed correctly for the peripherals to function properly.
 Troubleshooting of computer and its peripherals
(keyboard, mouse, printer, scanner, speaker)
6. Run Diagnostics: Use built-in diagnostic tools or software to identify
hardware issues with the computer or peripherals. E.g. Task Manager
7. Test with Another Device: If possible, test the malfunctioning peripheral
with another computer or device to determine if the issue is with the peripheral
or the computer itself.
8. Check for Physical Damage: Inspect the peripherals for any physical damage
that may be causing the problem.
9. Reset or Reconfigure Settings: Resetting settings to default or reconfiguring
settings for peripherals can sometimes resolve issues.
10. Seek Professional Help: If the troubleshooting steps don't resolve the issue,
consider contacting technical support or a professional technician for further
assistance.
 Troubleshooting of connectivity (cables, network)
1. Check physical cable connections for damage and ensure they are securely
plugged in.
2. Restart devices such as computers, modems, and routers.
3. Verify and adjust network settings like IP address and DNS configurations.
4. Reset network devices by unplugging and then plugging them back in.
5. Update network adapter drivers from the manufacturer's website.
6. Utilize built-in network troubleshooting tools in the operating system.
7. Test connectivity by pinging websites or using speed test tools.
8. Temporarily disable firewall and security software to check for interference.
9. Contact your internet service provider (ISP) for assistance with outages or
account issues.
What is Network connectivity?
• Network connectivity refers to the ability of devices, systems, or networks to
establish connections and communicate with each other.
• Technologies and Protocols:
• Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) facilitate connectivity over
limited and larger geographic areas, respectively.
• Cellular networks (3G, 4G, 5G), satellite networks, Bluetooth, etc.
• Cloud connectivity and VPNs ensure secure access to cloud services and remote networks.
• P2P networks, Ethernet, fiber optics, and wireless mesh networks offer various connectivity
options.
• Setup and Management:
• Involves configuring devices, networking hardware (routers, switches, access points), and
managing protocols and security measures.
• Ensures reliable connectivity for data transfer, communication, and accessing online resources.
 Network Connectivity Issues
• Network connectivity issues are disruptions in establishing, maintaining, or
accessing network connections between devices.
• Symptom:
• Slow internet speeds.
• Inability to connect to specific websites or servers.
• Dropped connections or complete loss of connectivity.
• Causes:
• Hardware failures (e.g., faulty cables, network cards).
• Software conflicts or misconfigurations.
• Network configuration problems.
• Router or modem issues.
• Signal interference from other devices or environmental factors.
 5 Most Common Network Connectivity Issues & Their Causes
• Slow network speed can be caused by outdated hardware, network congestion,
distance from the router, bandwidth limitations, and malware consuming resources.
• Dropped connections often result from interference, network congestion, weak
signals, outdated router firmware, and overly restrictive security settings.
• DNS (Domain Name System) resolution issues stem from server problems, outdated
DNS cache, misconfigured router settings, malware affecting DNS, and other network
problems.
• IP address conflicts occur due to DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
issues (IP address conflicts, DHCP server failures, misconfigured DHCP settings),
manual static IP assignments, device additions/removals.
• Firewall and security issues arise from misconfigured rules, software conflicts,
outdated firmware, overly restrictive policies, and the need to balance security with
network accessibility.
 Techniques for Troubleshooting Network Connectivity Issues
• Verify Physical Connectivity:
• Check cables, power, network interface, and physical damage.
• Check Network Configurations:
• Verify IP addresses, DNS settings, routing tables, firewall settings, and network
services.
• Ping the Device:
• Use the ping command to test device reachability, latency, packet loss and response to
network requests.
• Check Network Adapter Settings:
• Ensure network adapter settings are correct, including IP configuration, and wireless
settings.
• Check Network Services:
• Verify running network services, restart if necessary, check for conflicts, and update
software.
 Techniques for Troubleshooting Network Connectivity Issues
• Check Firewall and Security Settings:
• Ensure firewall rules are not blocking traffic, disable firewalls temporarily if needed, check
security settings, and update software.
• Check for Firmware Updates:
• Verify firmware is up to date for network devices, download/install updates, and restart devices.
• Traceroute:
• Use Traceroute to identify routing issues by tracing the path of packets to the destination device
or website. For window OS the command is tracert.
• Configure Router Settings:
• Update firmware, reset router if needed, check and adjust network settings, check wireless
settings.
• Troubleshoot Wi-Fi Connectivity Issues:
• Address signal strength, interference, channel congestion, security settings, driver issues, and
router reset.
 Troubleshooting of memory, processor, storage, display
• Troubleshooting issues with memory, processor, storage, and display can vary
depending on the specific problem you're facing. Here are some general steps
you can take for each component:
• Memory (RAM):
• If your computer is showing memory-related errors or crashes, try reseating the RAM
modules first. Turn off the computer, disconnect the power, and then carefully remove
and reinsert the RAM sticks.
• Check if the RAM is compatible with your motherboard and CPU. Misaligned or
incompatible RAM can cause issues.
• Test the RAM using a diagnostic tool like MemTest86. This can help identify if there are
any faulty RAM modules.
• Update your BIOS to the latest version, as sometimes BIOS updates include fixes for
memory compatibility issues.
 Troubleshooting of memory, processor, storage, display
• Processor (CPU):
• Check the CPU temperature using monitoring software. Overheating can
cause performance issues or system crashes. Ensure that the CPU cooler is
properly installed and functioning.
• Reseat the CPU if you suspect poor contact with the socket. This should be
done carefully, following the manufacturer's instructions.
• Check for bent pins on the CPU socket. If you find any, you may need
professional assistance to fix them.
• Update the BIOS to the latest version, as newer BIOS versions often include
microcode updates that can improve CPU stability and performance.
 Troubleshooting of memory, processor, storage, display
• Storage (Hard Drive/SSD):
• Run disk diagnostic tools such as chkdsk (Windows) or Disk Utility
(macOS) to check for disk errors.
• Check the SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) or NVMe
(Non-Volatile Memory Express) connections if you're using a traditional
hard drive or SSD. Loose connections can lead to data corruption or drive
not detected issues.
• Ensure that the storage device has sufficient free space. Running out of space
can cause performance degradation.
• Update the firmware of your SSD if available, as firmware updates can
improve compatibility and performance.
 Troubleshooting of memory, processor, storage, display
• Display (Monitor/Graphics Card):
• Check the display cables (HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface),
DisplayPort, VGA (Video Graphics Array), etc.) for loose connections or
damage.
• Test the monitor on another computer or test another monitor on your
computer to determine if the issue is with the monitor or the graphics card.
• Update the graphics card drivers to the latest version. Outdated drivers can
cause display issues, including flickering, artifacts, or no display at all.
• Ensure graphics card that is properly seated in the PCIe slot and that power
connectors are connected if required.
 Installation of operating system (Windows, Linux etc.)
Operating System Installation Steps:
1. Prepare Bootable Media:
• Obtain the OS installation files
• Use boot media creation tools like Windows Media Creation Tool, or Disk Utility (for
macOS) to create bootable media on a USB drive or DVD.
2. Configure BIOS/UEFI Settings:
• Access BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)/UEFI (Unified Extensible FirmwareInterface)
settings by pressing a specific key during system startup (usually F2, Del, Esc, or F12).
• Set the boot order to prioritize booting from the USB drive or DVD where the OS
installation media is inserted.
3. Start Installation:
• Insert the bootable media (storage devices which contain OS) into the PC or laptop.
• Follow the on-screen instructions to start the OS installation process.
 Installation of operating system (Windows, Linux etc.)
4. Partitioning (if required):
• Choose a partition or drive where you want to install the OS.
• Format the partition and allocate space for the OS installation.
5. Install OS:
• Select the OS version and edition you want to install.
• Agree to the license terms and proceed with the installation.
• Wait for the installation process to complete, which may involve several restarts.
6. Set Up User Account and Settings:
• Create a user account and set up login credentials.
• Configure system settings such as time zone, language, and network settings.
 Installation of operating system (Windows, Linux etc.)
7. Install Drivers and Updates:
• Install necessary drivers for hardware components such as graphics cards, network
adapters, and peripherals.
• Download and install OS updates and security patches.
8. Finalize Installation:
• Restart the system after completing the installation and configuration.
• Remove the bootable media from the system.
9. Post-Installation Checks:
• Ensure all hardware components are functioning correctly.
• Test network connectivity, audio, video, and other system functionalities.
Troubleshooting of operating system (Windows, Linux etc.)
Common issues that can arise with operating systems like Windows and Linux
include:
• Slow Performance: Address resource-intensive processes and optimize startup
programs.
• BSOD or Kernel Panic: Update drivers, check for hardware issues, and run system
file checker.
• Application Crashes: Update applications, check for compatibility issues, and
reinstall problematic apps.
• Networking Problems: Troubleshoot network adapter settings, and update network
drivers.
• File System Errors: Run CHKDSK utility to check and repair file system errors.
• Boot Issues: Use startup repair tool and check boot settings in BIOS/UEFI.
• Security Vulnerabilities: Install security updates regularly and use antivirus
software.
 Common Troubleshooting Commands for Windows
• ipconfig /all - Displays detailed information about all network interfaces, including IP
addresses, DNS servers, and more.
• ping [hostname/IP] - Tests connectivity to a specific host or IP address for request packets.
• nslookup [hostname/IP] - Queries DNS servers to resolve domain names or IP addresses.
• netstat - Displays active network connections, listening ports, and network statistics.
• tracert [hostname/IP] - Traces the route packets take to reach a destination, showing each
hop along the way.
• sfc /scannow - Scans system files for integrity violations and repairs corrupted files.
• chkdsk /f /r - Checks and repairs disk errors on a specified drive, fixing file system issues
and bad sectors.
• tasklist /taskkill - Lists running processes
• systeminfo - Provides detailed information about the system, including hardware, software,
and configuration.
• eventvwr - Opens the Event Viewer, allowing you to view logs and troubleshoot system
events.
Common Troubleshooting Commands for Linux
• ifconfig - Displays network interface information, including IP addresses, MAC addresses,
and more.
• ping [hostname/IP] - Tests network connectivity to a specific host or IP address by sending
request packets.
• dig [hostname] - Performs DNS queries to retrieve information about domain names.
• netstat - Shows network connections, routing tables, interface statistics, and more.
• traceroute [hostname/IP] - Traces the route packets take to reach a destination, displaying
each hop and latency.
• fsck - Checks and repairs the integrity of file systems, fixing errors and inconsistencies.
• top - Displays real-time system resource usage, including CPU, memory, and processes.
• ps - Lists running processes, their IDs, and resource usage.
• dmesg - Displays kernel ring buffer messages, useful for diagnosing hardware and system
issues.
• journalctl - Views system logs and journal entries, providing information about system
events and errors.
 Installation of Device Drivers
• Device drivers are software programs that facilitate communication between the operating system (OS) and
hardware devices like printers, graphics cards, network adapters, etc.
• Proper installation of device drivers is essential for the hardware to function correctly. Without drivers, the OS may not
recognize or utilize the hardware's full capabilities.
• Methods of Installation:
• Automatic Installation: Many operating systems have built-in mechanisms to automatically install basic drivers for common
hardware components when the device is connected.
• Manual Installation: For specialized or advanced hardware, users may need to manually install drivers provided by the
hardware manufacturer. This often involves downloading the driver package from the manufacturer's website and running the
installer.
• Ensure that the driver comes from a trusted source. Operating systems often require signed drivers for security
reasons.
• Compatibility: Drivers need to be compatible with the specific OS version and architecture (32-bit or 64-bit)
to work correctly. Installing incompatible drivers can lead to system instability or malfunctioning hardware.
• Verification: After installation, it's essential to verify that the drivers are working properly. This can be done
by checking device manager or using diagnostic tools provided by the OS or hardware manufacturer.
• Updates: Drivers may need to be updated periodically to fix bugs, improve performance, or add new features.
Users should regularly check for driver updates from the hardware manufacturer's website.
• Troubleshooting: If hardware is not functioning correctly, troubleshooting often involves checking driver
status, updating or reinstalling drivers, and ensuring compatibility with the OS and other software components.
Configuration and Installation of Application Programs
and System Restore.
Installation of Application Programs:
• Installation is the process of placing application programs onto a computer
system to make them accessible and functional.
• Methods:
• Standard Installation: Use installation wizards or setup programs provided by software
vendors for guided installation.
• Custom Installation: Choose specific components or features to install, customize
installation directories, and configure advanced options.
• Verification: After installation, verify that the application runs smoothly,
check for updates, and configure additional settings as needed.
 Configuration and Installation of Application Programs and System Restore.

• Configuration and installation of application programs, along with system

restore, are essential aspects of managing software on a computer system.
• Configuration of Application Programs:
• Configuration involves setting up application programs according to user
preferences and system requirements.
• Steps:
• Customize settings during installation, such as language, installation directory, and
optional features.
• Configure application preferences post-installation, including user profiles, default
settings, and integration with other software.
• Adjust security settings, permissions, and access controls based on user roles and
requirements.
 Configuration and Installation of Application Programs and System Restore.

System Restore:
• System Restore is a feature that allows users to revert their computer's state to a
previous point in time, known as a restore point.
• Purpose:
• Recover from system errors, software conflicts, or unintended changes that cause system
instability.
• Undo problematic installations, updates, or configurations that impact system performance or
functionality.
• Steps:
• Create Restore Point: Before making significant changes, create a restore point to capture the
current system state.
• Restore System: If issues arise, use System Restore to roll back the system to a previous restore
point.
• Configure System Restore Settings: Adjust settings related to disk space allocation for restore
points and schedule automatic restore point creation.
• Usage: System Restore is typically accessed through the Control Panel or system
settings, where users can initiate restore operations and manage restore points.
 Backup and Disaster Recovery
• Backup and disaster recovery are crucial aspects of data management to mitigate the
risk of data loss:
• Finding Risk of Data Loss:
• Identify potential risks such as hardware failure, software errors, human error, natural disasters,
cyberattacks, and theft.
• Conduct risk assessments to evaluate vulnerabilities, prioritize critical data, and determine the
impact of data loss scenarios.
• Backup Methods:
• Full Backup: Copies all data and files to a backup storage device, providing complete restoration
but requiring significant storage space and time.
• Incremental Backup: Only backs up data that has changed since the last backup, conserving
storage space and reducing backup duration but requiring multiple backup sets for complete
restoration.
• Differential Backup: Backs up data that has changed since the last full backup, offering faster
recovery than incremental backups but requiring more storage space than incremental backups.
• Continuous Data Protection (CDP): Constantly monitors and captures changes to data in real-
time, allowing for near-instantaneous recovery to specific points in time.
 Backup and Disaster Recovery
• Backup Devices and Media:
• External Hard Drives: Provide portable storage with large capacities for backups.
• Network-Attached Storage (NAS): Enables centralized storage accessible over a
network for multiple devices.
• Cloud Storage: Offers scalable and off-site backup solutions with accessibility from
anywhere.
• Backup Scheduling:
• Establish backup schedules based on data criticality, frequency of changes, and
operational requirements.
• Automated backups at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly) ensure consistent data
protection without manual intervention.
• Consideration of peak usage times and system performance during backup operations to
minimize disruption.
 Backup and Disaster Recovery
• Recovery of Data:
• Data Restoration: Retrieve backed-up data from storage devices or cloud services to
restore lost or corrupted files, folders, or entire systems.
• Disaster Recovery Plans: Implement predefined procedures for restoring data and
systems in the event of a disaster, including hardware failures, cyberattacks, or natural
disasters.
• Testing: Regularly test backup and recovery processes to validate data integrity, system
functionality, and recovery time objectives (RTOs) and recovery point objectives (RPOs).
• Effective backup and disaster recovery strategies encompass proactive risk
assessment, diversified backup methods and storage solutions, optimized
backup scheduling, and robust data recovery procedures to safeguard against
data loss and ensure business continuity.