Consider the structure shown in Fig. 1.

1, which was
designed to support a 30-kN load. It consists of a boom AB
with a 30, 3, 50-mm rectangular cross section and a rod BC
with a 20-mm-diameter circular cross section. These are
connected by a pin at B and are supported by pins and
brackets at A and C, respectively.
1. First draw a free-body diagram of the structure Fig. 1.2.
The equilibrium equations are.
2. Considering the free-body diagram of the boom AB Fig. 1.3,
we write the following equilibrium equation:

Substituting for 𝐴𝑦 from Eq. (1.4) into Eq. (1.3), we obtain

𝐶𝑦 = 30𝐾𝑁 . Expressing the results obtained for the
reactions at A and C in vector form, we have
Notes
• The reaction at A is directed along the axis of the boom
AB and causes compression in that member
• The reaction at C is equal to 50 kN, is directed along the
axis of the rod BC, and causes tension in that member.
Normal Stress
• The stress produced by a force perpendicular to the section and is
denoted by the Greek letter 𝜎 (sigma).

𝑃 𝑁
𝜎= 2
= 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝑚

Note:
• A positive sign indicates a tensile stress
(member in tension)
• A negative sign indicates a compressive stress
(member in compression
• 𝜎 represents the average value of the stress over the cross section, rather
than the stress at a specific point of the cross section. To define the stress at a
given point
Concept Application 1
Considering the structure of Fig. 1.1, assume that rod BC is made of a steel with a maximum
allowable stress 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 165 MPa. Can rod BC safely support the load to which it will be
subjected?

• The magnitude of the force 𝐹𝐵𝐶 in the rod was 50 kN. Recalling that the diameter of the rod is
20 mm. Determine the stress created in the rod by the given loading.
𝑃 50 × 103 6
𝜎= = 2 = 159 × 10 𝑃𝑎 = 159𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 20
𝜋 × 10−3
2
• Since s is smaller than the allowable stress in the steel used, rod BC can safely support the load.
Concept Application 2
assume that aluminum with an allowable stress 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 100 MPa is to be used what should the diameter of
the rod be if it is to safely carry the given load.
• Since the force in rod BC is still 𝐹𝐵𝐶 =50KN under the given loading,
𝑃
𝜎 = < 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐴
𝑃 50 × 103
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 > =
𝐴 𝐴3
50 × 10
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 >
3 𝐴3
50 × 10 50 × 10 −3 𝑚
𝐴> = = 0.5 × 10
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 100 × 106
𝐴 > 0.5 𝑚𝑚
and since 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ,
𝜋𝑟 2 > 0.5 𝑚𝑚
0.5
𝑟> = 12.62𝑚𝑚
𝜋
Since 𝑑 = 2𝑟 = 2 ∗ 12.62 = 25.24𝑚𝑚
• Therefore, an aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter will be adequate.
• Shear Stress
• The stress produced by a force parallel to the
section
• Denoting the shearing stress by the Greek letter 𝜏
(tau),
• Bearing stress:
• The compressive normal stress that is developed on
the contact area of two separate bodies
𝑃 𝑁
𝜎= 2
= 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝑚
Note: bearing stress is not a separate stress category
but is a special case o normal stress: thus it is
calculated similarly

• where t is the plate thickness and d the d

• iameter of the bolt,
STRESS ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE UNDER AXIAL LOADING

𝐹𝑛 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Where

𝐹𝑛 represents the resultant of normal forces distributed over the

section, and force 𝐹𝑡 is the resultant of shearing forces

𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑡
𝜎= 𝜏=
𝐴𝜃 𝐴𝜃

𝐴 = 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴 = 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐴 𝐴
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐹𝑛 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑃 𝐹𝑡 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑃
𝜎= = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜏= = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴 𝐴𝜃 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴𝜃 𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 𝑃
• Note from this 𝜎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 the normal stress s is maximum when 𝜃 = 0 (i.e., the plane of
𝐴
the section is perpendicular to the axis of the member). It approaches zero as 𝜃 approaches 90.
𝑃
• The second of equation 𝜏 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 shows that the shearing stress 𝜏 is zero for 𝜃 = 0 and
𝐴
𝜃 = 90 For 𝜃 = 45, it reaches its maximum value
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝜏𝑚 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑐𝑜𝑠45 =
𝐴 𝐴 2𝐴
• We check that the value of 𝜎 when 𝜃 = 45is
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝑐𝑜𝑠45 =
𝐴 2𝐴
STRESS UNDER GENERAL LOADING CONDITIONS; COMPONENTS OF STRESS
Normal Strain Under Axial Loading
• If you apply a load P to end C, the rod elongates (Fig. 2.1b).
Plotting the magnitude P of the load against the deformation
𝛿(Greek letter delta), you obtain a load-deformation diagram
(Fig. 2.2). While this diagram contains information useful to
the analysis of the rod under consideration, it cannot be used
to predict the deformation of a rod of the same material but
with different dimensions
• The normal strain, 𝜀 (Greek letter epsilon), is

• the normal strain at point is defined as

Load Elongation Diagrams
Consider the three bars shown in figure. Assume that these bars are
made of the same material. Each of these bars can be subjected to
series of uniaxial tension tests by gradually increasing the applied force
and measuring corresponding increases in their lengths
• This figure representing the mechanical behavior of
materials A and B in simple tension. It is clear that
material B can be deformed more easily than material A,
or material A is stiffer than material B.
Stress-Strain Diagram
Tensile Test
• One type of specimen is shown in Photo 2.1.
• The distance 𝐿𝑜 is known as the gage length of the
specimen.
• The test specimen is then placed in a testing machine
(Photo 2.2), which is used to apply a centric load P. As
load P increases, the distance L between the two gage
marks also increases
• The distance L is measured with a dial gage, and the
elongation 𝛿 = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑜 is recorded for each value of P.
• A second dial gage is often used simultaneously to
measure and record the change in diameter of the
specimen. From each pair of readings P and 𝛿,
• the engineering stress is

• and the engineering strain is

• Stress-strain diagrams of materials vary widely, and different tensile tests

conducted on the same material may yield different results, depending upon the
temperature of the specimen and the speed of loading.
• However, some common characteristics can be distinguished from stress-strain
diagrams to divide materials into two broad categories: ductile and brittle
materials.
Consider the stress strain diagram shown in next figure.
There are six distinct points on the curve (O,P,E,Y,H,U,R).

• Point O is the origin of the 𝜎 − 𝜖 diagram which

corresponds to the initial no load, no deformation stage.
• Between O, and P stress and strain are linearly
proportional, and the 𝜎 − 𝜖 curve is a straight line. Elastic
region
• Point E represents the elastic limit.
➢The stress corresponding to the elastic limit is the greatest
stress that can be applied to the material without causing
any permanent deformation within the material.
➢The material will not resume its original size and shape
upon unloading if it is subjected to stress levels beyond the
elastic limit.
• Point Y is the yield point, and the stress 𝜎𝑦 corresponding
to the yield point is called the yield strength of the
material. At this stress level, considerable elongation
(yielding) can occur without a corresponding increase of
load.

• Point U is the highest stress point on the 𝜎 − 𝜖 curve. The

stress 𝜎𝑢 is the ultimate strength of the material.

• Point R is presented the rupture or failure point. The

stress at which the rupture occurs is called the rupture
strength of the material.
• For some materials, it may not be easy to determine
or distinguish the elastic limit and the yield point.
The yield strength of such materials is determined
by the offset method, illustrated in next figure.
• The offset method is applied by drawing a line
parallel to the linear section of the stress strain
diagram and passing through a strain level of 0.2
percent (0.002). The intersection of this line with
the 𝜎 − 𝜖 curve is taken to be the yield point, and
the stress corresponding to this point is called the
apparent yield strength of the material.
• A ductile material is one that exhibits a large plastic deformation prior to failure.

• A standard measure of the ductility of a material is its percent elongation:

Where 𝐿𝑜 and 𝐿𝐵 are the initial length of the tensile test specimen and its final length at rupture,
respectively.
• Another measure of ductility that is sometimes used is the percent reduction in area:

• where 𝐴𝑜 and 𝐴𝐵 are the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen and its minimum cross-
sectional area at rupture
• A brittle material shows a sudden failure without undergoing a considerable plastic
deformation.
• for specimen to elongate further, until it finally ruptures (Photo
2.4b). Note that rupture occurs along a cone-shaped surface that
forms an angle of approximately 45 with the original surface of
the specimen. This indicates that shear is primarily responsible
for the failure of ductile materials,
• Note the absence of any necking of the specimen in the brittle
material of Photo 2.5 and observe that rupture occurs along a
surface perpendicular to the load. Thus, normal stresses are
primarily responsible for the failure of brittle materials.
• a material that is ductile at normal temperatures may display the
characteristics of a brittle material at very low temperatures,
while a normally brittle material may behave in a ductile fashion
at very high temperatures. therefore, one should refer to a
material in a ductile state or to a material in a brittle state, rather
than to a ductile or brittle material.
Compression Test.
• If a specimen made of a ductile material is loaded in compression instead of
tension, the stress-strain curve is essentially the same through its initial straight-
line portion and through the beginning of the portion corresponding to yield and
strain hardening
• The necking does not occur in compression.
• For most brittle materials, the ultimate strength in compression is much larger than
in tension. This is due to the presence of flaws, such as microscopic cracks or
cavities that tend to weaken the material in tension, while not appreciably
affecting its resistance to compressive failure.
Hooke’s Law; Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity. Most engineering
structures are designed to undergo relatively small
deformations, involving only the straight-line
portion of the corresponding stress-strain diagram.
For that initial portion of the diagram (Fig. 2.6),
the stress is directly proportional to the strain:
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
This is known as Hooke’s law,
• The coefficient E of the material is the modulus
of elasticity or Young’s modulus
• E is expressed in the same units as stress s
• Some physical properties of structural metals,
such as strength, ductility, and corrosion
resistance, can be greatly affected by alloying,
heat treatment, and the manufacturing process
used
(Fig. 2.11) show that large variations in the yield strength, ultimate strength, and
final strain (ductility) exist. All of these metals possess the same modulus of
elasticity and their stiffness
(Stiffness ability to resist a deformation within the linear range
➢The higher the elastic modulus, the stiffer the material and the
higher the resistance to deformation. In the next figure
material 1 is stiffer than material 2.

• For the materials considered so far, the relationship between normal stress and
normal strain is independent of the direction of loading. This is because the
mechanical properties of each material, including its modulus of elasticity E, are
independent of the direction considered. Such materials are said to be isotropic.
isotropic materials exhibit the same properties in all directions, while
anisotropic materials have varying properties depending on the direction of
measurement.
• An important class of anisotropic materials consists of fiber- reinforced composite
materials. These are obtained by embedding fibers of a strong, stiff material into a
weaker, softer material, called a matrix. Typical materials used as fibers are
graphite, glass, and polymers, while various types of resins are used as a matrix
Plastic Deformations
• In general, material undergo plastic deformations following elastic
deformations when they are loaded beyond their elastic limits or
yield points.
• Consider the stress strain diagram of a material
shown in figure.
• Upon removal of the applied load, the material
will recover the elastic deformation that taken
place by following an unloading path parallel to
the initial linearly elastic region (straight line
between O and P)
• The point where this path cuts the strain axis is
called the plastic strain 𝜖𝑝 , that signifies the
extent of permanent (unrecoverable) shape
change that has taken place in the specimen.
• The difference in strains between when the
specimen is loaded 𝜖 and unloaded (ϵ − 𝜖𝑝 ) is
equal to the amount of elastic strain 𝜖𝑒 .
• For a material loaded to a stress level beyond its
elastic limit, the total strain is equal to the sum of
the elastic and plastic strains
ϵ = 𝜖𝑒 + 𝜖𝑝
• The elastic strain 𝜖𝑒 , is completely recoverable
upon unloading whereas the plastic strain 𝜖𝑝 , is a
permanent residue of the deformations.