STUDY MATERIAL OF PHYSICS

SESSION -2024-25

CHIEF PATRON
Mr.Sardar Singh Chauhan, Deputy Commissioner, Delhi Region

PATRON
Mr.Ghanshyam Pandey, Assistant Commissioner, Delhi Region

CONVENER
Dr. Charu Sharma, Principal, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Kendriya Vidyalaya

CONTENT DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MODERATION COMMITTEE

 Mrs. Anjana  Mr.Mahesh Srivastava
 Mr. Vikas Bindu Bhaskar  Mr. Ajab Singh
 Mr. D. S. Babu  Mr.Harender
 Mrs. Kusum  Mrs. Rakhi Gangwal
 Mrs. Pinki  Mr. Chishant
 Mrs. Meenu Arya  Mrs. Sweety Ujjawal
 Mr. Chishant  Mr. Pawan Kumar
 Mr. D.S. Meena  Mrs. Neha Tiwari
 Mr. RishiDutt Sharma  Mrs. Anjana

Coordinator-Mr. Vivek Tyagi (PGT Physics ,Dr. Rajendra Prasad KV)

 CLASS XII (2024-25)
PHYSICS (THEORY)

Time: 3 hrs. Max Marks: 70

No. of Marks
Periods
Unit–I Electrostatics
Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields
26
Chapter–2: Electrostatic Potential and 16
Capacitance
Unit-II Current Electricity
18
Chapter–3: Current Electricity
Unit-III Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism
25
Chapter–4: Moving Charges and Magnetism
Chapter–5: Magnetism and Matter 17
Unit-IV Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating
Currents 24
Chapter–6: Electromagnetic Induction
Chapter–7: Alternating Current
Unit–V Electromagnetic Waves
04
Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves
Unit–VI Optics 18
Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical 30
Instruments
Chapter–10: Wave Optics
Unit–VII Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and 8
Matter 12
Unit–VIII Atoms and Nuclei
15
Chapter–12: Atoms
Chapter–13: Nuclei
Unit–IX Electronic Devices
Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: 10
Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 7

Total 160 70
 Electrostatics
Mind Map
Coulomb’s Law Properties of Q Electric potential due
|𝑞 𝑞 | 1.Conservation to a point charge at
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟 2.Additivity the distance r
3.Quantisation

Dielectric constant or
Relative permittivity
𝐹 𝜖
𝐾=𝜖 = =
𝐹 𝜖 V due to an electric dipole
ELECTRIC
CHARGES
Electric field due to AND FIELDS
point charge  At axial point
⃗
𝐸⃗ = = 𝑘
Electric Dipole
Moment, 𝑝⃗ = 𝑞 2𝑎⃗ ELECTROSTATIC  At equatorial point
POTENTIAL AND
Direction: –q to q CAPACITANCE 𝑉=0
E due to dipole 𝑑𝑉
|𝑬| = −
⃗ 𝑑𝑙
At axial point, 𝐸⃗ =
⃗ Potential energy
At equatorial point, 𝐸⃗ = − Capacitance 𝑞 𝑞
𝑄 𝑈=
𝐶= 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑉
Torque on an electric U of a dipole in an external E
dipole in E , τ⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ∆𝑈 = 𝑈 − 𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
And 𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Parallel plate
Electric Flux, 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ capacitor
𝜀 𝐴
𝐶=𝐾 When dielectric slab of
Gauss’s law 𝑑
thickness t is inserted
𝑞 1 between plates
𝜙= 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝜀 𝑈 = 𝑄𝑉 𝜀 𝐴
2 𝐶=
1 1
= 𝑄 𝐶 𝑑−𝑡 1−
2 𝑘
1
Applications of Gauss’s law = 𝐶𝑉
2
\1. linear charge distribution 𝐸⃗ = In series
1 1 1
2. plane sheet of charge 𝐸⃗ = 𝑛 𝐶 𝐶
= + …
𝐶
3. uniformly charged sphere In parallel
𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶 …
𝐸 = ,𝐸 =0
0
 Chapter-1 Electric Charges and Fields
Quantization of charge: All free charges are integral multiples of fundamental charge which is
denoted by e. Thus charge ‘q’ on a body is always given by q=ne, where n is any integer, positive
or negative.
Coulomb’s Law :- It states that the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between
two stationary point charges kept apart in air or vacuum is
given by
𝐹=  , = 𝑘 = 9 × 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝐶 , 𝜀 = 8.85 × 10 𝐶 /𝑁𝑚

Properties of electric field lines

 Electric field lines start from a positive charge and end at a negative charge, in case of asingle
charge, electric field lines end at infinity.
 In a charge-free region, electric field lines are continuous and smooth.
 Two electric field lines never intersect or cross each other, as if they do, there will be two
vectors depicting two directions of the same electric field, which is not possible.
 Electric field lines never form a closed.

Electric Dipole- Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance make
an electric dipole.

Electric Dipole Moment-The product of magnitude of either of charges and their

separation.
P=q. 2a
It is a vector quantity and it is directed from negative to positive charge. SI Unit-Cm
Electric field due to dipole at axial position

Electric field at p due to -𝑞 , 𝐸 =

( )

Electric field at p due to , 𝐸 =

( )

The total field at 𝑃 𝑖𝑠, 𝐸 = 𝐸 − 𝐸 = −(

( ) )
𝐸 = ( )
For 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎
2𝒑⃗
𝑬𝒂𝒙⃗ =
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
Electric field due to dipole at equatorial position
Electric field at p due to , 𝐸 =
( )

Electric field at p due to -𝑞 , 𝐸 =

( )

𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
( )
𝒑⃗
for 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, 𝑬𝒆𝒒⃗ = −
Torque on a dipole in uniform external field
Torque = Either force × Perpendicular distance between the two forces
=qE × 2asin
τ =pEsin
In vector form τ⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗
Stable equilibrium ;  =00 , τ=0; unstable equilibrium;  =1800 , τ=0
7.Gauss’ Theorem: The total electric flux linked with a closed surface is
1/0 times the charge enclosed by closed Gaussian (imaginary)surface.
𝑸𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅
E =∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺= ∈𝟎

Applications of Gauss’s Law

Field due to plane sheet of

Field due to linear charge charge Field due to uniformly charged
distribution sphere
 Radial field 1. For 𝒓 > 𝑹
1 𝑄
 Flux through two ends of 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
the cylindrical gaussian 2. At surface
surface is zero
1 𝑄
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝐸=
𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 = 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
3. For 𝒓 < 𝑹
𝐸=0
 MCQ
1.Which of the following statement is true?
(a) Electrostatic force is a conservative force
(b) Potential at a point is the work done per unit charge in bringing a charge from
any point to infinity
(c) Electrostatic force is non-conservative
(d) Potential is the product of charge and work

2. Four charges +8Q, -3Q, +5Q and -10Q are kept inside a closed surface. What will be the
outgoing flux through the surface?
(a) 26 V-m (b) 0 V-m (c) 10 V-m (d) 8 V-m

3.Two-point charges +8q and -2q are located at x=0 and x=L respectively. The point on x-axis
at which net electric field is zero due to these charges is (CBSE 2021)
(a) 8L (b) 4L (c) 2L (d) L

4.If E1 be the electric field strength of a short dipole at a point on its axial line and E2 that on
the equatorial line at the same distance, then
(a) E2=2E1 (b) E1=2E2 (c) E 1 = E2 (d) None of the above

5. Assume a system inside which there are different types of charges, but the total charge is
practically zero. At points outside the given region
(a)the electric field must be zero.
(b)the electric field is caused solely by the dipole moment of the charge distribution.
(c)For large distances (r) from the origin, the dominant electric field is inversely proportional to r3.
(d)if a charged particle is moved along a closed path away from a region, the work done will not be
zero.
6. Which statement among the following is false regarding Gauss’s law?
(a) Gauss’s law holds for any closed surface.
(b) When a system exhibits symmetry, Gauss’s law may not be beneficial for calculating the
electrostatic field.
(c) In Gauss’s law, the term “q” on the right side of the equation represents the total charge
enclosed within the surface.
(d) Gauss’s law is derived from Coulomb’s law, which contains an inverse square dependence on
distance
7.The SI unit of electric flux is
(a) N C-1 m-2 (b) N C m-2
(c) N C m
-2 2 (d) N C-1 m2
8. Electric field at a point independent on distance r for
(a)An electric dipole (b) A point charge
(c) A plane infinite sheet of charge (d) A line charge of infinite length
9. The total flux through the faces of the cube with side of length a if a charge q is placed at
corner A of the cube is
10. Consider a region inside which, there are various types of charges but the total charge is
zero. At points outside the region
(a) the electric field is necessarily zero.
(b) the electric field is due to the dipole moment of the charge distribution only.
(c) the dominant electric field is inversely proportional to r3, for large r (distance from origin).
(d) the work done to move a charged particle along a closed path, away from the region will not be
zero
Answer of MCQ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a b c b c c D c a c

Assertion & Reasoning based Questions:

Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled
Reason (R). Select thecorrect answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b),
(c) and (d) as given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false and R is also false.
1- Assertion: The properties that the force with which two charges attract or repel each other
are not affected by the presence of a third charge.
Reason: Force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all the forces on
that charge due to other charges, taken one at a time.
2- Assertion: The positive charge particle is placed in front of a spherical uncharged
conductor. The number of lines of forces terminating on the sphere will be more than those emerging
from it.
Reason: The surface charge density at a point on the sphere nearest to the point charge will be
negative and maximum in magnitude compared to other points on the sphere.
3- Assertion (A): Electric field inside a metallic charged conductor is always zero whatever of
amount of charge.
Reason (R): Electric field lines are always perpendicular to surface of the metal.
4-Assertion (A): If an dipole is enclosed by a surface, then according to the gauss theorem,
electric flux linked with it is zero.
Reason (R): The net charge on an electric dipole can never be zero.
5- Assertion(A): A metallic shield in the form of a hollow shell, can be built to block an
electricfield.
Reason(R): In a hollow spherical metallic shell, electric field inside is zero at every point.

1 2 3 4 5
b d b C a
 Short Answer Questions(I)

1. A charge of 17.7 x 10-4 C is distributed over a large sheet of area 400 cm2. Calculate the electric
field intensity at a distance of 10 cm from it.
2. Three points A,B and C lie in a uniform magnetic field (E ) of 5 X 10 3 N/C as shown in the
figure. Find the Potential Difference between A and C.

3. Consider two identical point charges located at (0,0) and (a,0). Is there a point on line joining
them at which the electric field is zero? Explain.
4. Draw the electric field line pattern due to (i) an electric dipole (ii) two positive charges placed
at d distance apart.
5. A charge + Q fixed on the Y axis at a distance of 1m from the origin and another charge +2Q is
fixed on the X axis at a distance of √2 m from the origin. A third charge – Q is placed at the
origin. What is the angle at which it moves?
Hints: - 1. Use E=(σ/2Ɛ0), E=2.5X10-12N/C
2. The line joining B to C is perpendicular to electric field, so potential of B = potential of C ; Then
use V=ExAB; -∆V=200volt
3. Yes, at (a/2, 0) as the fields due to the two charges cancel each other.
5. Force due to both the charges are equal = KQ2/r2 & r  to each other so the resultant force will
make 45o with X-axis.
Long questions
1. Using Gauss theorem, obtain an expression for electric field intensity at a point due to infinitely
long line charge distribution. Sketch graphically variation of E with distance r.
2. S1 and S2 concentric spheres such that radius of S2 is greater than that of S1, The spheres
enclose charges of Q and 2Q respectively,
a. What is the ratio of electric flux through S1 and S2?
b. How will the electric flux through the sphere S1 change, if a medium of dielectric
constant K is introduced in the space inside S1 in place of air?
c. How will the electric flux through the sphere S1 change, if a medium of dielectric
constant K is introduced in the space inside S2 in place of air?

3. a. Find the Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium between the plates
b. Net capacitance of three identical capacitors in series is 1 pF. What will be their net
capacitance if connected in parallel?
 c. Find the ratio of energy stored in the two configurations if they are both connected to the
same source.
4. A thin conducting spherical shell of radius R has charge Q spread uniformly over its surface.
Using Gauss’s law, (i) derive an expression for an electric field at a point outside the shell (ii)
And at a point inside the shell.
𝑸
Hint (a) From Gauss’s theorem electric flux through S1 is 𝜱𝟏 = 𝝐𝒐 electric flux through S2 is 𝜱𝟐 =
𝟐𝑸
𝑸+ 𝝐𝟎
= 3Q/ϵ0 Φ1/ Φ2=1/3
(b) When a medium of dielectric constant K is introduced in the space inside S1, then Φ1 ‘ =Q/ Kϵ0
(c) On introducing dielectric medium inside S2, electric flux through S1 will not change.

Case Based MCQs

Direction: Answer the questions from Q1 to Q3 on the following case.
An electric field lines in general is a curve drawn in such way that the tangent to it at each point is in
the direction of the electric field at that point. A field lines is a space curve, i.e. a curve in three
dimensions. Electric field lines are then used to pictorially map the electric field around a charge or a
configuration of charges: The density of field lines in more near the charge. Away from the charge, the
field is weak, so the density of field lines is less.
(i) Direction of electric field on field lines is determined by
(a) Field lines moving from –ve to +ve charge.
(b) At the point of intersection of field lines.
(c) By the tangent at that point on the field lines.
(d) None of above.

(ii) The electric field lines of negatively charged particles are

(a) Radial and outwards. (b) Radial and inwards.
(c) Circular and anti-clockwise. (d)Circular and clockwise.

(iii) The spacing between two electric field lines indicate it

(a) Charge (b) Position (c) Strength (d) None of the above

(iv) Electric field lines are curved

(a) in the field of a single positive or negative charge
(b) in the field of two equal and opposite charges
(c) in the field of two like charges
(d) both (b) and (c)
Answers:- i. c ii. b iii. c iv.d

Chapter-2, Electric Potential and Capacitance

Electric potential at a point in an electric field is equal to the work done in bringing a unit positive
charge (against electric field) from infinity to that point along any path.
𝑉 = ; Unit-J/C or volt
𝑸
Electric potential Due to a Point Charge− 𝑽 = 𝟒𝝅∈
𝒐𝒓
 𝒅𝑽
Relation Between Electric Field Intensity and Potential difference- E= 𝒅𝑹
Equipotential Surface: A surface which have same electrostatic potential at
every point on it, is known as equipotential surface.

Equipotential surface due to a uniform field

Equipotential surface due to point charge

Equipotential surface due to a dipole

Equipotential surface due to equal charges

Properties of Equipotential Surfaces

(i) Work done in moving a charge over an equipotential surface is zero.The work done
in moving a test charge +q0 from A to B is given by;
WAB = (VB – VA) q0
Since VB– VA = 0, WAB = 0
Hence, no work is done in taking a charge from one point to another over an
equipotential surface.
(ii) The electric field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface. we have,
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑅⃗
But 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 0
Therefore, −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑅⃗ = 0
It implies that, E perpendicular to r.
 (iii) Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect. If two equipotential surfaces could intersect, then
at the point of intersection there would be two values of electric potential which is not possible.
Important electrostatic properties of a conductor
1. Inside a conductor, the electrostatic field is zero.
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field
must be normal to the surface at every pointbecause
surface of the conductor is an equipotential surface.
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the
static situation because E=0 and therefore Q=0(from Gauss
theorem)
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the
volume of the conductor and has the same value (as
inside) on its surface because work done is zero from
surface to inside as at surface E is perpendicular and
inside E=0.
5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor 𝑬 = σ/𝝐𝟎.

ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING: The phenomenon of protecting a certain region of space from external
electric field is called electrostatic shielding. Since, Electric field inside a conductor is zero therefore if we
want to protect delicate instruments from external electric field, we enclose them in hollow conductors.
Dielectric Strength: The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand without its
electrical break-down. e.g. for air it is about 3 × 106 Vm–1.
Capacitor: - It consists of two metallic conductors electrically insulated from each other as well as their
surroundings.
It is used to store electrical energy in the form of electric field lines. The total charge of the capacitor is ze.

Principle of Capacitor: The charge storing capacity of a conductor can be increased considerably by
bringing an uncharged earthed conductor near it.
Capacitance(C):The ratio of charge of capacitor to the potential difference across its ends.

𝐶 = 𝑄/𝑉

SI unit of capacitance is 1 farad (=1 coulomb volt-1) or 1 F = 1 C V–1.

It does not depend on charge and potential. It depends only on the dimension of the
capacitor. Graph between Q and V is a straight line

Capacitance of Parallel plate capacitor

In outer region , 𝐸 = − =0
Between the plates, 𝐸 = + =

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 =

𝐶= =
 Capacitance of Parallel plate capacitor When dielectric slab of thickness t is inserted between plates
𝑉 = 𝐸 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐸𝑡= (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝑡
𝑉= [(𝑑 − 𝑡) + ]
𝐶= 𝐶=

In a charged capacitor, the space between the plates is entirely filled with a dielectric of dielectric constant K,
the effects are illustrated in the table below:

Original battery across the plates With battery connected across

is disconnected the plates is kept connected

Potential, 𝑉 𝑄 𝑉 𝑉=𝑉
𝑉= =
𝐶 𝐾
Capacitance, 𝐶 𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶 𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶
Charge, 𝑄 𝑄=𝑄 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝐾𝑄
Electric field, 𝐸 𝑉 𝑉 𝐸 𝐸=𝐸
𝐸= = =
𝑑 𝐾𝑑 𝐾
Energy, 𝑈 𝑄 𝑈 𝐶𝑉
𝑈= = 𝑈= = 𝐾𝑈
2𝐶 𝐾 2

MCQ
Q.1 Consider a uniform electric field in the z-direction. The potential is a constant
(a) for any x for a given z (b) for any y for a given z
(c) on the x-y plane for a given z (d) all of these

Q.2 In a parallel plate capacitor, the capacity increases if

(a) area of the plate is decreased. (b) distance between the plates increases.
(c) area of the plate is increased. (d) dielectric constant decreases
Q 3. Two charges + 3 µC and – 3 µC are placed at points A(0,0,4cm) and B( 0,0,-4cm.) respectively.
Workdone to move a charge of 2 µC from point P (0,1cm,0) to point Q ( 2cm,0,0) will be
(a) 2 mJ (b) Zero (c) 1 mJ (d) 4 mJ
Q.4 The potential at a point due to an electric dipole will be maximum and minimum when the
anglesbetween the axis of the dipole and the line joining the point to the dipole are
respectively
(a) 900 and1800 (b)00 and 900 (c)900 and00 (d)00 and 180o
Q.5 The electric potential V is given as a function of distance x (metre) by 𝑽 = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟗).
Value ofelectric field at x = 1 is
(a) 4 𝑉/𝑚 (b)6V/m (c)2V/m (d) 0
Q.6-The capacity of a parallel plate condenser is C. Its capacitance when the separation between the
plates ishalved and dielectric slab of dielectric constant K=5 in inserted between the plates, will be
(a) 10𝐶 (b) 2𝐶 (c) C/10 (d) C/2
Q.7-. Three equal charges are located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. At the centre of the
triangle
(a) The field is zero but potential is non-zero (b) The field is non-zero but potential is zero
(c) Both field and potential are zero (d) Both field and potential are non-zero
Q.8-Shape of equipotential surface in uniform electric field will be :
(A) Spherical normal to electric field (B) Random
(C) circular normal to electric field (D) Equidistant Planes normal to electric field.
Q9-Two conducting spheres A and B of radii a & b respectively are at the same potential. The ratio of
surfacecharge densities of A and B is
(a) b/a (b) a/b (c) b2/a2 (d) a2/ b2
Q.10-Electric field and electric potential inside a charged spherical shell :
(A) E = 0; V = 0 (B) E = 0 ; V ≠ 0 (C) E ≠ 0 ; V = 0 (D) E ≠ 0 ; V ≠ 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D C B D A A A D A B
 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)
1. The following data was obtained for the dependence of the magnitude of electric
field, with distance, from a reference point O, within the charge distribution in the
shaded region.

(i) Identify the charge distribution and justify your answer.

(ii) If the potential due to this charge distribution, has a value V at the point A,
what is its value at the point A’?
2. A dipole of dipole moment 10 𝐶𝑚 is placed in an 𝐸⃗ of 10 𝑉/𝑚 along its axis. 𝐸⃗ is
suddenly changed by 60° . Find the change in the potential
energy of the dipole.
3. Find 𝑥 if the potential energy of the system is zero.
4. Why the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases
on introducing (i) a dielectric medium and (ii) a
conducting slab between the plates.
5. Find the ratio of potential differences applied across the
parallel and series combination of two capacitors A and B with capacitances in the
ratio 1:2, so that the energy stored in the two cases becomes the same.
Anwers/hints
1 i)𝐸 ∝ (must be short dipole) 1. ii) A’ lies on equatorial line (V=0)

2 ∆𝑈 = 𝑈 − 𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) 3. 𝑥 = − 2 3 5. 3: √2
(Ans. -50 J)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

1. Derive an expression for the potential energy of an electric dipole of dipole moment 𝑝⃗
in an electric field 𝐸⃗ .
2. A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery. After sometime the battery is
disconnected and a dielectric slab(K) with its thickness equal to the plate separation
is inserted between the plates. How will (with justification)
(i) The capacitance of the capacitor be affected?
(ii) Potential difference between the plates be affected?
(iii) Energy stored in the capacitor be affected?

3. Charges (+q) and (–q) are placed at the points A

and B respectively which are a distance 2L apart.
C is the midpoint between A and B. What is the
work done in moving a charge +Q along the
semicircle CRD.
 4. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
with air present between the two plates. Obtain the equivalent
capacitance of the network.
5. A dielectric slab of thickness ‘t’ is kept between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor with plate separation ‘d’ (t<d). Derive the
expression for the capacitance of the capacitor.
Anwers/hints
2 i)𝐾 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 ii)1/𝐾 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 iii)1/𝐾 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
3 𝑞𝑄 4 8
− 𝜇𝐹
6𝜋𝜀 𝐿 3

Two statements are given. One labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled reasoning. Select
the correct answers to their questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) are given below.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is also false.

1. Assertion: Polar molecules have permanent dipole moment.

Reason: In polar molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges coincide even
when there is no external field.
2. Assertion: When a metal plate is partially inserted between the plates of a capacitor
its capacity increases.
Reason: If conductivity of conducting plate is more, increase in capacity will be more.
3. Assertion: No work is done in moving an electric dipole transnationally in uniform
electric field.
Reason : Net force on electric dipole in uniform electric field is zero.
4. Assertion: If a dielectric is placed in external field, then field inside dielectric will be
less than applied field.
Reason : Electric field will induce dipole moment opposite to field direction.
5. Assertion: Electric field is always normal to equipotential surfaces andalong
the direction of decreasing order of potential.
Reason : Negative gradient of electric potential is electric field.
ANSWERS

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. ( c ) 5. (a)

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS:-

1. Derive the expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor filled with a
dielectric material. What happens to the capacitance of a capacitor when a copper plate
of thickness one third of the separation between the plates is introduced in the
capacitor?
2. A potential difference of 1200 V is established between two parallel plates of a
capacitor. The plates of the capacitor are at a distance of 2cm apart. An electron is
released from the negative plate, at the same instant, a proton is released from the +ve
plate. (a)How do their (i) velocity (ii) Energy compare, when they strike the opposite
plates. (b) How far from the positive plate will they pass each other?
3. Two parallel plate capacitors X and Y have the same area of plates and the same
separation between them. X has air between the plates and Y contains a dielectric
medium of εr=4. (i)Calculate Capacitance of X and Y if equivalent capacitance of
 combination is 4 µF. (ii) Potential Difference between the plates of X and Y What is the
ration of electrostatic energy stored in X and Y
4. A parallel plate capacitor is charged to a potential difference V by d.c. source and then
disconnected. The distance between the plates is then halved. Explain with reason for
the change in electric field, capacitance and energy of the capacitor.
Hint:-2. a. (i)42.84 (ii)equal b. 2.7cm
3. 5 µF, 20 µF, 9.6 V, 2.4 V, 4:1
4. Use the formulae - Electric field remains same, Capacitance doubled, Energy halved
CASE BASED QUESTION
Conductors contain mobile charge carriers. In metallic conductors, these charge carriers are
electrons. In a metal, the outer (valence) electrons part away from their atoms and are free
to move. These electrons are free within the metal but not free to leave the metal. The free
electrons form a kind of ‘gas’; they collide with each other and with the ions, and move
randomly in different directions. In an external electric field, they drift against the direction
of the field. The positive ions made up of the nuclei and the bound electrons remain held in
their fixed positions.
1. What is the net electrostatic field in the interior of a conductor?
a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) Depends on the nature of the conductor
2. How is the electric field at the surface of a charged conductor related to the
surface charge density?
a) Proportional to each other b) Indirectly proportional
c) Independent d) Exponential
3. ‘X’ is the phenomenon of making a region free from any electric field. Identify X.
a) Faraday’s cage b) Electrostatic shielding
c) Gauss theorem d) Corona discharge
4. Two metallic spheres A and B of radii R and 2R respectively charged so that both
of these have same surface charge density 𝜎. If they are connected to each other
with a conducting wire, what will the potentials of A and B?
a) & b) & c) & d) &

ANSWERS
1. c 2. a 3. b 4.d Hint: 𝑉 = &𝜎 =
 Chapter 3. Current Electricity
Mind Map

Drift Velocity :- The average velocity of free electrons with which they get drifted towards
the +ve terminal under the influence of an external electric field is called drift velocity.

⇒⇒⇒
Average time taken between two successive collisions is called relaxation time (τ).
𝜏 + 𝜏 + ⋯+ 𝜏
𝜏=
𝑛
The drift velocity 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝜏 ⇒ 𝑣 = 0 + 𝑎𝜏 , (𝑢 = 0)
Acceleration = = , (𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑒𝐸)
Therefore 𝑣 = = , (𝑉 = 𝐸 × 𝑙)
⃗
In vector form, 𝑣⃗ =
Current in terms of drift velocity: - Consider a conductor of length ‘l’& area of cross section
‘A’ connected by a battery having electron density ‘n’ and drift velocity 𝑣 =
Distance travelled by electron in t sec is 𝑙 = 𝑣 × 𝜏
Volume occupied by the electrons which are entering into the given cross section in t time is
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙 = 𝐴(𝑣 × 𝜏)
Total no of electron occupied in t sec is N = n V = n A (𝑣 × 𝜏)
Total charge passing through the cross section in t sec is 𝑞 = 𝑁𝑒 = n A (𝑣 × 𝜏)𝑒
( × )
Electric current 𝐼 == 𝑛 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣
Current Density: - Current per unit area is defined as current density J, it is a vector
quantity.
Direction of J is along drift velocity i.e. perpendicular to the cross-section area. Its SI unit is A
/𝑚 .
⃗
𝐽= = = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 Here 𝚥⃗ =
Mobility:- Mobility is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field:
𝑣 𝑒𝜏
𝜇= =
𝐸 𝑚
The SI unit of mobility is 𝑚 /Vs.
Ohm’s Law:- If I current is flowing through the circuit & potential difference developed is V.
Then from Ohm’s law 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 Hence 𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
Where 𝑅 = 𝑉 / 𝐼 is a proportionality constant known as resistance of the conductor.
 If the metallic conductor obeys the ohm's law we call it an Ohmic-conductor ex:-
metals many devices do not obey ohm's law i.e. that is diode, transistor, thermistor,
discharge tube, filament in a light those substance for which graph between voltage
and current is not a straight line are called non-ohmic substance.

Resistance – It is the opposition offered by a conductor to flow of charges through it. It

depends on the length I, area of cross-section A, nature of material of the conductor and
temperature.
𝑙 𝑚 𝑙
𝑅=⍴ ⇒
𝐴 𝑛𝑒 𝜏 𝐴
SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
Resistivity or specific resistance - It is the resistance offered by a unit cube of the material
of a conductor. It depends on the nature of the material of the conductor and the
temperature. Its unit is ohm-meter.
𝑚 1
⍴= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⍴ =
𝑛𝑒 𝜏 𝑒𝑛𝜇
Conductance -It is the reciprocal of resistance. SI unit - mho or siemen.
Conductivity - It is the reciprocal of resistivity. SI unit – mho/ m.
𝑛𝑒 𝜏
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇 =
𝑚
Temperature dependence of resistance: Resistance of a conductor increase with
temperature,
R2 = R1 [1 + α (t2 – t1)] , α= temperature co-efficient of resistance.
Effect of temperature on resistivity –
 For metals α is positive i.e., resistivity of metals increases with the increase in
temperature because with the increase in temperature, kinetic energy of
 vibrating ions increases and number of collisions increases.
 For semiconductors and insulators, α is negative i.e., their resistivity decreases
with the increase in temperature because the number of charge carriers
increases by very large amount.
 For alloys like constantan and manganin, α is very small. So they are used for making
standard resistors

Resistivity of Semiconductor
Resistivity of copper Resistivity of Nichrome

Heating effect of current - The phenomenon of the production of heat in a resistor by the
flow of an electric current through it is called heating effect of current or Joule heating.
𝑽𝟐
𝑯 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 = 𝒕
𝑹
Electric power: It is the rate at which an electric appliance converts electric energy into
other forms of energy. Or,
It is the rate at which work is done by a source of emf in maintaining an electric current
𝑽𝟐
through a circuit. 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑹
Electric energy - It is the total work done in maintaining an electric current in an electric
𝑽𝟐
circuit for a given time. 𝑾 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒕 Joule
Electromotive force (emf) - It is the energy supplied by the source in taking a unit positive
charge once round the complete circuit. It is equal to potential difference across the terminal
of a cell when no current passes through the cell or cell is in open circuit.
Terminal potential difference (V) - The potential drop across the terminals of a cell when
current passes through the cell is known as its terminal potential difference.
Terminal p.d. of a cell when current is drawn from the cell V = E - Ir Terminal p.d. of a cell
when it is being charged is V = E + Ir
Internal resistance - The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of current
between its electrodes is called internal resistance of the cell.
It depends on (i) nature of the electrolyte, (ii) concentration of the electrolyte (iii) distance
between the electrodes, (iv) common area of the electrodes dipped in the electrolyte and (v)
temperature of the electrolyte.
𝐸−𝑉 𝐸−𝑉 𝐸
𝑟= = 𝑅 = ( − 1)𝑅
𝐼 𝑉 𝑉
Here R=single external resistance in the circuit.
Cells in series - The equivalent emf and internal resistance for the series combination of
two cells with emf 𝐸 and 𝐸 and internal resistances 𝑟 and 𝑟 respectively,
𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 and 𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑟
If n cells of emf E and internal resistance r each are connected in series, then current flowing
through external resistance R is 𝐼 =
Cells in parallel - The equivalent emf and internal resistance for the parallel
combination of two cells with emf 𝐸 and 𝐸 and internal resistances resistances
𝑟 and 𝑟 respectively,
𝐸 = and 𝑟 = ,

If m cells are connected in parallel, then current drawn through external resistance R is
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅 + 𝑟⁄𝑚
Important Note: to draw maximum current from a circuit the cells should be connected in
mix grouping ie some cells in series and some in parallel.
Kirchhoff’s laws –
(1) Junction rule: In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of
all the currents meeting at any junction is zero. Or, at any
junction of electrical circuit the sum of currents entering
the junction must be equal to the sum of currents leaving
it. i.e. Σ I = 0. This law is based on the conservation of
charge
(2) Loop Rule: Algebraic sum of changes in the potential around any closed loop must be
zero i.e. Σ V = 0. This law is based on the conservation of energy.
Wheatstone bridge–
The resistances are so adjusted that no current flows through the galvanometer. The bridge
is then said to be balanced.
𝑷 𝑹
In the balanced condition. 𝑸
= 𝑺
A Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive when the resistances in its four
arms are of the same order. Applying Kirchhoff’s second laws to the loop
ABDA we get
𝐼 𝑃+𝐼 𝐺−𝐼 𝑅 =0 … (𝑖)
Applying Kirchhoff’s second laws to the loop BCDB, we get
𝐼 −𝐼 𝑄− 𝐼 +𝐼 𝑆−𝐼 𝐺 =0 … (𝑖𝑖)
In the balanced condition of the bridge, Ig = 0 The above equation become
𝐼 𝑃 − 𝐼 𝑅 = 0 ⇒ 𝐼 𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅 …(iii) and 𝐼 𝑄 − 𝐼 𝑆 = 0 ⇒ 𝐼 𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑆
From equation (iii) and (iv) we get =
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
Q.1 The resistivity of a wire
(a) Increases with the length of the wire
(b)Decreases with the area of cross-section
(c) Decreases with the length and increases with the cross-section of wire
(d) changes with only material and temperature of the material
Q.2 On increasing the temperature of a conductor, its resistance increases because
(a) Relaxation time decreases (b) Mass of the electrons increases
(c) Electron density decreases (d) mobility increases
Q.3 The magnitude and direction of the current in the circuit shown will be:

(a) A from a to b through e (b) A from b to a through e

(c) 1A from b to a through e (d) 1A from a to b through e
Q4 A battery supplies 0.9A current through 2Ω resistor and 0.3A through a 7Ω
resistor when connected one by one . the internal resistance of the battery is : (CBSE
2024)
(a)1.2 Ω (b) 1 Ω (c) 0.5 Ω (d) 2Ω
Q.5 In the circuit given below , the readings of the ideal ammeter voltmeter are:

(a) 6 A,60 V (b) 0.6 A,6 V (c) 6/11 A , 60/11 V (d) 11/6 A, 11/60 V
Q.6 In a Wheatstone’s bridge, all the four arms have equal resistance R. If resistance of
the galvanometer arm is also R, then equivalent resistance of the combination is
(a) R (b) 4R (c)/2 (d)/4
Q7 A heater coil rated as (P,V) is cut into two equal parts. One of the part is then
connected to a battery of V volt. The power consumed by it will be :
a) P b) P/2 c) P/4 d) 2P
Q.8 To draw a maximum current from a combination of cells, how should the cells be
grouped?
(a) Parallel (b) Series (c) Mixed grouping
(d) Depends upon the relative values of internal and external resistances.
Q.9 The voltage V and current I graphs for a conductor at two different temperatures
T1 and T2 are shown in the figure. The relation between T1 and T2 is?

(a) 𝑇 > 𝑇 (b) 𝑇 ≈ 𝑇 (c) 𝑇 = 𝑇 (d) 𝑇 < 𝑇

Q10 A cell having an emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a variable
external resistance R. As the resistance R is increased, the plot of potential difference
V across R is given by [CBSE 2020]
 Q no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Answer d a d c c a d c a b
ASSERTION REASONING BASED QUESTIONS
For question numbers 1 to 9 two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and
the other labelled Reason (R). Select the correct answer to these questions from the
codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false d) A is false and R is also false
Q.1 Assertion: The resistivity of a semiconductor increases with temperature.
Reason: The atoms of a semiconductor vibrate with larger amplitude at higher
temperatures thereby increasing its resistivity.
Q2 Assertion: In the following circuit emf is 2V and internal resistance of the
cell is 1 Ω and R =1 Ω, then reading of the voltmeter is 1V.
Reason: the terminal potential difference of a cell is given by V=E-Ir, where I
is the current flowing in the circuit and r is the internal resistance of the cell.
Q3. Assertion: The drift velocity of electrons in a metallic wire will decrease,
if the temperature of the wire is increased.
Reason: On increasing temperature, conductivity of metallic wire decreases.
Q4 Assertion: Bending a wire does not affect electrical resistance.
Reason: Resistance of wire is proportional to resistivity of material.
Q5 Assertion: The relaxation time is nearly independent of applied electric field whereas it
changes significantly with temperature.
Reason: The relaxation time depends on the velocities of electrons and ions. The applied
electric field brings a very insignificant change in the velocities of electrons whereas on
varying the temperature the velocities of electrons and ions are changed very significantly
Q6 Assertion: The I-V characteristics of a very good conductor is observed to deviate from a
straight line for higher value of current.
Reason: For higher value of current, the resistor gets heated and consequently its resistance
increases.
Q7 : Assertion: The internal resistance of a cell is constant.
Reason: Ionic concentration of the electrolyte remains the same during use of a cell.
(CBSE 2023)
Q8 : Assertion : when three electric bulbs of power 200W , 100W and 50W are connected in
series to a source, the power consumed by 50W bulb is maximum.
Reason: In a series circuit, current is the same through each bulb , but the potential difference
across each bulb is different.
Q9 Assertion: The given figure does not show a balanced Wheatstone bridge.
Reason: For a balanced Wheatstone bridge small current should flow through the
galvanometer. (CBSE 2023)
QNO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ANS D A A C A A D B D

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q 1 Two conductors made of same material have equal lengths. But different cross sectional
areas 𝐴 and 𝐴 (𝐴 > 𝐴 ) . They are connected in parallel across a cell. Show that drift
velocities of electrons in two conductors are equal. (CBSE 2023)
Q2 A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a variable load resistance R.
Draw plots showing the variation of terminal voltage V with:
i) Load resistance R {ii}The current I in the load resistance (CBSE
2023 )
Q3 Three cells each of emf E and internal resistances 2r, 3r and 6r are connected in parallel
across a resistor R . Obtain the expressions for :
{i}Current flowing in the circuit {ii}The terminal potential difference across the equivalent
cell .
Q4 A potential difference of 1.0 V is applied across a conductor of length 5 m and area of
cross section 1.0mm2 . When a current of 4.25A is passes through the conductor then
calculate the drift speed and relaxation time of the electrons. (Given number density of
electrons in the conductor n= 8.5×1028 m3) (CBSE 2024)
Q5 Show the variation of resistivity of copper with rise in temperature graphically.
The resistance of a wire is 10Ω at 27oC .Find its resistance at -73oC. The temperature
coefficient of the resistance of the material of the wire is 1.70×10-4 0C-1 . (CBSE 2024)
Q6 Using Kirchhoff’s laws calculate the current through the 40Ω and 20Ω resistors in the
following circuit

Q7 An electric bulb rated for 500W at 100V is used in a circuit having a supply of 200V.
Calculate the resistance R that must be put in series with the bulb so that the delivers 500W.
Q8 A steady current flows through a wire AB as shown in the figure. What happens to the
electric field and drift velocity along the wire. Justify your answer.

Q9 Write two difference between EMF and terminal potential difference of a cell. What is the
most important precaution one must take while drawing current from a cell?
Q10 High current is to be drawn safely from 1) a low voltage battery and 2) high voltage
battery. What can you say about internal resistance of the battery. (CBSE 2023)
.
HINTS AND SOLUTIONS
Ans 1: I=𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣 𝑣 = 𝑅 =𝜌 𝑅 =𝜌
Ans2- a) b)

(a)
Ans 3
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑬𝟑 = 𝑬 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟐𝒓 , 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟑𝒓, 𝒓𝟑 = 𝟔𝒓
𝑬𝒆𝒒 𝑬
𝑬𝒆𝒒 = 𝑬, 𝒓𝒆𝒒 = 𝒓 + 𝑹 𝑰 = 𝒓 = 𝒓 𝑹
𝒆𝒒

Terminal potential difference= V=E-Ir =

Ans 4 Hint - I=𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣 drift velocity = 3.125×10-4 m/s

𝑣 = 𝑣 = τ=8.8×10-15 s
Ans 5 a)

b) 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 (𝟏 + 𝜶𝚫(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎Ω 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑 + (−𝟕𝟑) = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑲

𝑻𝟐 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑 + 𝟐𝟕 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑲 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟖Ω
Ans 6 current through 40Ω = 0A , and current through 20Ω= 4A
Ans 7 resistance of bulb = = 20Ω same resistance of 20Ω should be connected in series as
it is also operating at 100V
Ans 8 Drift velocity is inversely proportional to the area of cross section.
Ans 9. precautions: 1) some external resistance must be connected to cell in series
2) short circuiting should be avoided
Ans 10 The internal resistance should be low.
CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown
component. The primary benefit of the circuit is its ability to provide extremely accurate
measurements.
The resistance is adjusted until the bridge is "balanced" and no
current flows through the galvanometer. At this point,
the voltage between the two midpoints (B and D) will be zero.
Q1 What happens to the current in the galvanometer when the
Wheatstone bridge is UNBALANCED?
a) The current in the galvanometer is zero
b) The current decreases to half of maximum value of
current
c) The oscillates between half and maximum value
d) The current changes according to the imbalance.
Q2 Which component of the Wheatstone bridge is adjusted to achieve the condition of
balancing?
a) The power supply
b) The resistance of galvanometer
c) Any one of the resistors
d) The voltmeter
Q3 Referring to the diagram above,if 𝑅 = 100Ω , 𝑅 = 200Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 = 300Ω ,then the value
of 𝑅 is:
a) 600 Ω b) 150 Ω c) 200/3 Ω d) 120 Ω
Q4 In a balanced Wheatstone bridge which of the following is true?
a) Current through the galvanometer is zero.
b) The voltage across each resistor is the same
c) The total current in the circuit is zero
d) The power consumed by each resistor is equal
Qno 1 2 3 4
answer d c a a
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
Q.1 Derive an expression for drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor in terms of
relaxation time of electrons.
Q.2 (i)On the basis of electron drift, derive an expression for resistivity of a conductor in
terms of number density of free electrons and relaxation time. On what factors does
resistivity of a conductor depend?
(ii)Why alloys like constantan and manganin are used for making standard resistors?
Q.3 Draw a circuit diagram showing balancing of Wheatstone bridge. Use Kirchhoff’s rules to
obtain the balance condition in terms of the resistances of four arms of Wheatstone Bridge
 Moving Charges and Magnetism
Mind Map

Ampere’s Circuital Law: Force on a moving charge Force on a current

carrying conductor

Force between two parallel current-carrying Moving coil Galvanometer

Magnetic field due to a bar magnet conductors
In equitorial position

i) At a point on the axial line of the magnet:

 Chapter 4 & 5 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

Magnetic Field:- Produced by magnet,

d moving charge,

Unit:- Tesla (weber/m2), gauss (maxwell/cm2) IT = 104 G

Bio Savart Law:- It gives Magnetic. Field. at a point around current carrying conductor.

MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR CURRENT CARRYING LOOP

μ0 I dl
μ0 I dl sin θ dB =
or
dB = 2
2 4π r
4π r

The angle θ between dl and r is 90° because the radius of the loop is very small and since sin 90° = 1

dB is resolved into components dB cosФ and dB sinФ .

Due to diametrically opposite current elements, cosФ components are always opposite to
each other and hence they cancel out each other.
SinФ components due to all current elements dl get added up along the same direction (in
the direction away from the loop).

μ0 I dl sinФ μ0 I (2πa) a
B = ∫dB sin Ф = ∫ or B =
2 2 2 2 ½
2 4π (a + x ) (a + x )
4π r
(μ0 , I, a, sinФ are constants, ∫dl = 2πa and r & sinФ are replaced with
2
μ0 I a measurable and constant values.)
B= 2 2 3/2
2(a + x )
Ampere’s Circuital Law: The line integral of the magnetic field B around any closed loop is equal to
µo times the total current I threading through the loop.

Magnetic field due to infinitely long straight wire using ampere's law

Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields

The total force on a charged particle moving in simultaneous electric field E and magnetic field B is
F=qE+qvB sinϴ

Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field: F=I( l x B)= IlB sinϴ
Direction of force is normal to l and ⃗B given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

Force between two parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere

Two parallel same direction current carrying conductors attract while antiparallel
conductors repel. The magnetic force acting on either current carrying conductor at
separation “a” is

Definition of ampere in SI system: - 1 ampere is the current which when flowing in each of the
Two parallel wires in vacuum at separation of 1 m from each other exert a force of 2 x10-7 N/m.
Torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field

𝜏 =NIBA sinϴ
Moving coil galvanometer A moving coil galvanometer is a device used to detect flow of current in a
circuit. A moving coil galvanometer consists of a rectangular coil placed in a uniform radial magnetic
field produced by cylindrical pole pieces. Torque on coil due to current τ = NIBA where N is the
number of turns, A is the area of coil. If k is torsional rigidity of material of suspension wire,
𝜏 =kϴ
For equilibrium NIAB = kθ

Use of radial magnetic ield :

The angle between the normal of the plane of loop and magnetic
ield θ = 90o, τ ∝ I, when radial
magnetic ield is used the de lection of coil is proportional to the
current lowing through it. Hence
a linear scale used to determine the de lection of coil.
Uses of galvanometer :
(i) Used to detect electric current is a circuit.
(ii) Used to convert the ammeter by putting a low resistor.
(iii) Used to convert voltmeter by putting a high resistor.
(iv) Used as ohmmeter by making special arrangement
Sensitivity of a galvanometer:-
(i) Current sensitivity: It is de ined as the de lection of coil per unit current lowing
in it.

(ii) Voltage sensitivity: It is de ined as the de lection of coil per unit potential difference
across its ends

Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter :-

Conversion of Galvanometer into

Voltmeter :-

Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole & Dipole Moment:

Comparison of Dia, Para and Ferro Magnetic materials:

S.NO DIA PARA FERRO

1 Diamagnetic substances Paramagnetic substances Ferromagnetic substances
are those substances which are those substances which are those substances which
are feebly repelled by a are feebly attracted by a are strongly attracted by a
magnet. magnet. magnet.
Eg. Antimony, Bismuth, Eg. Aluminium, Chromium, Eg. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,
Copper, Gold, Silver, Quartz, Alkali and Alkaline earth Gadolinium, Dysprosium,
Mercury, Alcohol, water, metals, Platinum, Oxygen, etc.
Hydrogen, Air, Argon, etc. etc.

2 2. When placed in magnetic The lines of force prefer to The lines of force tend to
field, the lines of force tend pass through the substance crowd into the specimen.
to avoid the substance. rather than air.

3 When a diamagnetic When a paramagnetic When a ferromagnetic

substance is placed in a substance is placed in a substance is placed in a
magnetic field, it is weakly magnetic field, it is weakly magnetic field, it is strongly
magnetised in the direction magnetised in the direction magnetised in the direction
opposite to the inducing of the inducing field. of the inducing field.
field.

4 . Induced Dipole Moment Induced Dipole Moment Induced Dipole Moment

(M) is a small – ve value. (M) is a small + ve value. (M) is a large + ve value.

5 Intensity of Magnetisation Intensity of Magnetisation Intensity of Magnetisation

(I) has a small – ve value. (I) has a small + ve value. (I) has a large + ve value.

6 Relative magnetic Relative magnetic Relative magnetic

permeability μr is always permeability μr is more permeability μr is large i.e.
less than unity. than unity. much more than unity.

7 Magnetic susceptibility χm Magnetic susceptibility χm Magnetic susceptibility χm

has a small – ve value. has a small + ve value. has a large + ve value.
 Multiple choice Questions

1)The susceptibility of a magnetic material is – 4.2 × 10-6. Name the type of magnetic
materials it represents.
(1) para (2) dia (3) Ferro (4) none
2) Three infinitely long parallel straight current carrying wires A, B and C are kept at equal
distance from each other as shown in the figure . The wire C experiences net force F .The net
force on wire C, when the current in wire A is reversed will be

(i) Zero ii) F/2 (iii) F (iv) 2F

3) Two α-particles have the ratio of their velocities as 3: 2 on entering the field. If they
move in different circular paths, then the ratio of the radii of their paths is
a) 2 : 3 b) 3 : 2 c) 9 : 4 d) 4 : 9

4) An electron is moving along positive x-axis in a magnetic field which is parallel to the
positive y-axis. In what direction will the magnetic force be acting on the electron?
(a) Along -x axis (b) Along -z axis (c ) Along +z axis (d) Along -y axis

5) Which of the following statements is true regarding the nature of parallel and anti-parallel
currents in two conductors placed nearer to each other
(a) parallel currents repel and antiparallel currents attract each other

(b) parallel currents attract and antiparallel currents repel each other
(c) both currents repel each other (d) both currents attract each other

6) What is the net force on the rectangular coil?

(a)25 × 10-7 N towards wire.

(b) 25 × 10-7 N away from wire.
(c) 35 × 10-7 N towards wire.
(d) 35 × 10-7 N away from wire.

7) A strong magnetic field is applied on a stationary electron. Then the electron

(a) moves in the direction of the field.
(b) remained stationary.
(c) Moves perpendicular to the direction of the field.
(d) Moves opposite to the direction of the field.
 8) A solenoid of is made up of 500 turns per unit length. It carries a current
of 5 A. If µ0 is the Permeability of free space, the magnitude of the magnetic
field inside the solenoid is:
(a) 25µ0 (b) 250µ0 (c) 2500µ0 (d) None of these

9) We can convert moving coil galvanometer into voltmeter by:

(a)Introducing resistance of large value in parallel. (b)Introducing resistance of small value
in series (c) Introducing resistance of large value in series. (d)Introducing resistance of
small value in parallel

10) An ammeter of resistance 0.81 ohm reads up to 1 A. The value of the required
shunt to increase the range to 10 A is

(a) 0.9 ohm (b ) 0.09 ohm (c) 0.03 ohm (d) 0.3 ohm

ANSWER KEY
1b 2d 3b 4b 5b
6a 7b 8c 9c 10b

Assertion and Reason questions:

Instructions: Two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other
labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as
given below.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false and R is also false
1. Assertion (A): If an electron and proton enter a magnetic field with
equal momentum, then the paths of both of them will be equally
curved.
Reason (R): The magnitude of charge on an electron is same as that on a
proton.
2. Assertion (A): An electron projected parallel to the direction of
magnetic field will experience a maximum force.

Reason (R): Magnetic force on a charge particle is given by F = I (L x B).

3. Assertion (A): Magnetic field due to an infinite straight conductor

varies inversely as the distance from it
Reason (R): The magnetic field due to a straight conductor is
in the form of concentric circles.
4. Assertion (A): The sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer is
increased by placing a suitable magnetic material as a core inside the
coil.
Reason(R): Soft iron has high magnetic permeability and cannot be
 easily magnetized or demagnetized.
5. Assertion (A): The deflection in the galvanometer is directly
proportional to the current passing through it.
Reason(R): The magnetic field in which the coil of galvanometer is
suspended is radial

Answers
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. a

Short Questions(2marks)

1) A galvanometer of resistance ‘G’ can be converted into a voltmeter of range (0-V)

volts by connecting a resistance ‘R’ in series with it. How much resistance will be
required to change its range from 0 to v/2?
2) A loop of wire having 50 turns carries a current of 10A in anticlockwise direction. If
diameter of loop is 10 cm, what is the magnitude and direction of magnetic moment
of current loop?

3) A circular coil of 30 turns and radius 8.0 cm carrying a current of 6.0 A is suspended
vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 1.0 T. The field lines
make an angle of 60° with the normal of the coil. Calculate the magnitude of the
counter torque that must be applied to prevent the coil from turning. (b) Would your
answer change, if the circular coil in (a) were replaced by a planar coil of some
irregular shape that encloses the same area? (All other particulars are also
unaltered.)

4) An electron of kinetic energy 25KeV moves perpendicular to the direction of a

uniform magnetic field of 0.2 millitesla calculate the time period of rotation of the
electron in the magnetic field?

5) Calculate the magnetic field inside a solenoid, when (a) the length of the solenoid
becomes twice and fixed number of turns (b) both the length of the solenoid and
number of turns are double (c) the number of turns becomes twice for the fixed
length of the solenoid

6) A long straight wire AB carries a current of 4A . A proton P travels at 4x106 m/s

parallel to the wire , 0.2m from it and in the direction opposite to the current as
shown in fig. Calculate the force which the magnetic field of current exerts on the
proton .

4A 0.2m

Ans. 4x106 m/s

7) A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is
suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B (Fig.). What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field?
 8) A wire of length l is just converted in to a circle of one turn and current I flows
through it. The magnetic field at the center of circle is B. now the same wire is
converted in to a circle of three turns and same current flow through it. If the
magnetic field at its center is b then find B/b?
9) An α particle and a proton having equal velocity are moving inside a uniform
magnetic field. The field is perpendicular to the direction of the velocity for both
particles. What will be the ratio of their radii rα and rp (assume mα = 4 mp)?
10) An arrangement of three parallel straight wires placed perpendicular to plane of
paper carrying same current 'I along the same direction is shown in fig. what will be
the Magnitude of force per unit length on the middle wire 'B'

Answer and hint

1) Given: resistance of galvanometer = G Ω; Range of voltmeter (RL)= (0-V) volts
Resistance to be connected in parallel= R R’=? where range is (0-V/2) volts In the
first case ig= V/ (R+G) ….(i) In the second case ig= V/2/ (R’+G) …. (ii) [ ig is the
maximum current which can flow through galvanometer] From equation (i) and (ii)
on solving we get R’= (R-G) / 2
2) Ans 3.925 Am2 formula used M= NIA
3) A) 3.133Nm formula used 𝜏 = 𝑛𝐵𝐼𝐴 sin ∅ b)Remains unchanged
4) T=1.787X10-7 seconds ( hint: T= )

5) Formula used B=µ0nI

6) Ans 2.56x 1018 N formula used F =qvBsinθ,
7) 𝑚𝑔 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 on solving B=0.65T
8) 1:9 (hint: 2πR=l, 3(2πr)=l )
9) R=mv/q B on solving we get 2:1

10)

Short Questions(3marks)
1) Figure shows a long straight wire of a circular cross-section (radius a) carrying
steady current I. The current I is uniformly distributed across this cross-section.
Calculate the magnetic field in the region r < a and r > a.
 2) Derive a formula for the force between two parallel straight conductor carrying
current in opposite directions and write the nature of force. Hence, define one
ampere.
3) Derive an express for the torque on a rectangular coil of area A, carrying a
current I and placed in a magnetic field B. The angle between the direction of B
and vector perpendicular to the plane of the coil ϴ. Indicate the direction of the
torque acting on the loop.
4) Define current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer. increasing
the current sensitivity may not necessarily increase the voltage sensitivity of a
galvanometer
5) How a moving coil galvanometer can be converted to an ammeter and a
voltmeter?

(Solution/hint)short questions

Q1

CASE STUDY
1. The galvanometer is a device used to detect the current flowing in a circuit or a
small potential difference applied to it. It consists of a coil with many turns, free to
rotate about a fixed axis, in a uniform radial magnetic field formed by using concave
pole pieces of a magnet. When a current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it.
 1. What is the principle of moving coil galvanometer?
(a) Torque acting on a current carrying coil placed in a uniform magnetic field.
(b) Torque acting on a current carrying coil placed in a non-uniform magnetic field.
(c) Potential difference developed in the current carrying coil.
(d) Mutual Induction.
2. If the field is radial, then the angle between magnetic moment of
galvanometer Coil and the magnetic field will be

(a) 0° (b) 30° (c) 60° (d) 90°

3. Why are the pole pieces made concave in the moving coil galvanometer?
(a) To make the magnetic field radial. (b) To make the magnetic field uniform.
(c) To make the magnetic field non-uniform. (d) To make torque = 0.
4. What is the function of radial field in the moving coil galvanometer?
(a) To make the torque acting on the coil maximum. (b) To make the magnetic field strong.
(c) To make the current scale linear. (d) all the above

OR
If the rectangular coil used in the moving coil galvanometer is made circular,
then what will be the effect on the maximum torque acting on the coil in
magnetic field for the same area of the coil?
(a) remains the same (b) becomes less in circular coil
(c) becomes greater in circular coil (d) depends on the orientation of the coil
2. A charge q moving with a velocity v in presence of both electric and magnetic
fields experience a force F = q [ E + v x B ]. If electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the velocity of the particle,
the electric and magnetic forces are in opposite directions. If we adjust the value of
electric and magnetic field such that magnitude of the two forces is equal. The total force
on the charge is zero and the charge will move in the fields undeflected.

1.What will be the value of velocity of the charge particle, when it moves undeflected in a
region where the electric field is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the charge particle
enters at right angles to the fields.

(a) v = E/B (b) v = B/E (c) v = EB (d) v = EB/q

2. Proton, neutron, alpha particle and electron enter a region of uniform magnetic field with
same velocities. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the velocity. Which particle will
experience maximum force?

(a) Proton (b) Electron (c) Alpha particle (d) Neutron

3. A charge particle moving with a constant velocity passing through a space without any
change in the velocity. Which can be true about the region?
(a) E = 0, B = 0 (b) E ≠ 0, B ≠ 0 (c) E = 0, B ≠ 0 (d) All of these

4. Proton, electron and deuteron enter a region of uniform magnetic field with same electric
potential-difference at right angles to the field. Which one has a more curved trajectory?

(a) Electron (b) Proton (c) Deuteron (d) All will have same radius of circular path

Or

A proton and a deuteron having equal momenta enter in a region of uniform magnetic field
at right angle to the direction of the field. The ratio of radii of curvature of the paths of the
particle.

(a) 1:2 (b) 2:1 (c) 1:1 (d) 1:4

1. i. a ii. d iii. a iv. d OR a

2. i.a ii. c iii. d Iv. a or C

Long Questions
1) State Biot -Savart law. Use it to obtain the magnetic field at an axial point, distant r
from the centre of a circular coil of radius a carrying a current I. Hence compare the
magnitudes of the magnetic field of this coil at the centre and at an axial point for
which r=3a.
2) Derive mathematical expression for the force acting on A current carrying straight
conductor kept in a magnetic field state the rule used to determine the direction of
this force. Under what condition is this force (i)zero and (ii)maximum?
3) a) with the help of a diagram explain the principle of and working of a moving coil
galvanometer. (b) what is the importance of a radial magnetic field and how is it
produced.(c) why is it necessary to introduce a cylindrical soft iron core inside the
coil of a galvanometer?
4) Distinguish between the magnetic properties of dia, para and ferromagnetic
substances in terms of (1)susceptibility (2) magnetic permeability (3) coercivity Give
one example of each of these materials. Draw the field lines due to an external
magnetic field near a (a) Diamagnetic (b) paramagnetic substances
 CHAPTER 6 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The phenomenon of generation of induced emf and induced current due to change in flux
associated with a closed circuit is called Electromagnetic Induction. (EMI)

MAIN TOPICS:
Area Vector(dA) : Magnetic Flux
An area vector is a vector whose magnitude is The total number of magnetic lines of
equal to the area of a plane and direction is force
normal to the plane of the area. passing normally through an area placed
in a
magnetic field, is equal to the magnetic
flux linked with that area.
Net flux through the surface
∅𝐵 = 𝑩.A= BAcosθ
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
S.I. unit: weber (Wb),
CGS unit : Maxwell or Gauss × cm2;
(1 Wb = 10 8 Maxwell).

Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction: -

1. First law :( Cause of emf) The 2. Second law: (magnitude of emf)
induced emf is due to changing The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is
magnetic flux linked with the closed directly proportional to the rate of change
loop/coil. of the magnetic flux.
Mathematically: Induced e.m.f.,
ε = -𝒅∅/𝒅𝒕 = −(∅𝟐− ∅𝟏)/𝒕
Negative sign indicates that induced emf (ε)
opposes the change of flux
 Lenz's Law: - This law gives the direction of induced emf/induced current. According to
this law, the direction of induced emf or current in a circuit is such as to oppose the cause
that produces it. This law is based upon law of conservation of energy

Dynamic (Motional) EMF Due to Translatory

Motion:-
If the length RQ = x (variable) and RS = l, the
magnetic flux Ф enclosed by the loop PQRS
will be Ф= B l x
Since x is changing with time, the rate of change
of flux will induce an emf given by:
( )
ε =- =- = Bl v
The induced emf Fleming’s Right hand Rule
ε = B l v is called motional emf

Motional EMF Due to Rotational Motion:-

Conducting rod: A conducting rod of length l Method -II
whose one end is fixed, is rotated about the The potential difference across the resistor is
axis passing through it’s fixed end and then equal to the induced emf and equals
perpendicular to it’s length with constant B × (rate of change of area of loop). If θ is the
angular velocity 𝜔. angle between the rod and the radius of the circle
Magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to the plane at P at time t, the area of the sector OPQ is given
of the paper. by

Method-I
Emf induces across the
ends of the rod
where 𝜈 = frequency
(revolution per sec)
And T = Time period.
𝑩𝝎𝑹𝟐 𝑩𝝎𝑹𝟐
ε= ε= 𝟐
𝟐
EMI DUE TO CHANGE IN THE ORIENTATION BETWEEN COIL AND MAGNETIC FIELD:-
AC generator
Suppose a rectangular coil having N turns placed
initially in a magnetic field such that magnetic
field is perpendicular to it’s plane as shown.
 – Angular speed
 – Frequency of rotation of coil
R – Resistance of coil or uniform rotational
motion with , the flux linked with coil at any
time t
  NBA cos  NBA cost
  0 cos ωt where 0 = NBA = maximum
flux
 ε = - d𝜙/dt= NBA  sint
ε = ε0 sint
where ε0 = NBA = peak value of emf

Self Induction:- Whenever the electric Mutual Induction:- Whenever the current
current passing through a coil changes, the passing through a coil changes, the
magnetic flux linked with it will also change. magnetic flux linked with a neighboring
As a result of this, an emf is induced in the coil will also change. Hence an emf will be
coil which opposes the change that causes it. induced in the neighboring coil or circuit.
This phenomenon is called ‘self induction’ This phenomenon is called ‘mutual
and the emf induced is called back emf, induction’.
current so produced in the coil is called
induced current.

Mutual Inductance: Mutual inductance

Self Inductance- Self-inductance (L) of a (M) of the two coils is numerically equal to
coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux the magnetic flux (∅) linked with one coil,
(∅) linked with the coil, when a unit current when a unit current flows through the
flow through it. ∅=L I neighboring coil.
ε =-L 𝒅𝑰/𝒅t , ∅ = MI
The S.I. unit of self-inductance is Henry (H). ε = -M𝒅𝑰/𝒅𝒕
It is the property of a coil. SI unit of mutual inductance is Henry (H).
One Henry: If rate of change of current of 1 One Henry -If rate of change of current of
ampere per second induces an e.m.f. of 1 volt 1 ampere per second in one coil induces an
in the coil, then the self inductance of coil is e.m.f. of 1 volt in the neighboring coil then
1 Henry. mutual inductance of coil is 1Henry

Self-Inductance (L) for a long Solenoid:- Mutual-Inductance between pairs of

long Solenoid:-

Magnetic flux per turn =B × area of each turn

using B=μ0NI/l
where, n=N/l (no. of turns per unit length
)
ϕ=μ0NI/l(A×N)
ϕ=μ0 N 2 IA/l ....(1) Magnetic flux linked with solenoid S1 is
also, ϕ=LI ....(2) 1 =M12I2, -- (1)
From equation (1) and (2), Magnetic field due to a current I2 in S2 is
LI= μ0 N 2 IA /l B2=μ0n2I2
L= μ0 N 2 A/l Magnetic flux through S1 is
If the core is filled with a magnetic material 1 = B2 A1 N1
of permeability μr, 1 =µ0 n1 n2 π r1 2L I2 --(2)
L=μ0 μrN2 A/l From eq 1 and eq 2,
M12= (μ0 n1 n2 L π r1 2)
Similarly M21=(μ0 n1 n2 L π r2 2)
Relation between M, L1 and L2: Factors affecting mutual inductance
For two magnetically coupled coils (i) Number of turns (N1, N2) of both coils
k= ; (ii) Coefficient of self inductances (L1, L2) of
where k – coefficient of coupling or coupling both the coils (iii) Area of cross-section of
 factor coils (iv) Magnetic permeability of medium
between the coils (µr) or nature of material
on which two coils are wound(v) Distance
between two coils (vi) Orientation between
primary and secondary coil (vii) Coupling
factor ‘K’ between primary and secondary
coil

MCQ
1. Two coils are placed closed to each other. The mutual inductance of the pair of coils
depends upon
(a) the rate at which currents is changing in the two coils.
(b) Relative position and orientation of two coils.
(c) The material of the wires of the coils.
(d) The currents in the two coils.
2. Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction is as per law of conservation of
(a) energy. (b) Momentum angular (c) Charge. (d) Electromotive force.
3. The north pole of a long bar magnet was pushed slowly into a short solenoid
connected to a short galvanometer. The magnet was held stationary for a few seconds
with the North Pole in the middle of the solenoid and then withdrawn rapidly. The
maximum deflection of the galvanometer was observed when the magnet was
(a) moving towards the solenoid (b) moving into the solenoid
(c) at rest inside the solenoid (d) moving out of the solenoid
4. Two spherical bobs, one metallic and the other of glass, of the same size are allowed
to fall freely from the same height above the ground. Which of the two would reach
earlier?
(a) Glass (b) metallic (c) both (d) nothing can be said
5. Two identical coaxial coils P and Q carrying equal amount of current in the same
direction are brought nearer. The current in
(a) P increases while in Q decreases (b) Q increases while in P decreases
(c) both P and Q increases (d) both P and Q decreases
6. Direction of current induced in a wire moving in a magnetic field is found using
(a) Fleming’s left-hand rule (b) Fleming’s right-hand rule
(c) Ampere’s rule (d) Maxwell rule
7. A solenoid is connected to a battery so that a steady current flows through it. If an
iron core is inserted into the solenoid, the current will
(a) increase (b) decrease (c) remain same (d) first increase then decrease
8. Which of the following statements is not correct?
(a) Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit change, an emf is induced in circuit.
(b) The induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
(c) The direction of induced emf is given by Lenz’s law.
(d) Lenz’s law is a consequence of the law of conservation of momentum.
9. There is a uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular and into the plane of the
paper. An irregular shaped conducting loop is slowly changing into a circular loop in
the plane of the paper.
(a) current is induced in the loop in the anti-clockwise direction.
(b) current is induced in the loop in the clockwise direction.
(c) ac is induced in the loop. (d) no current is induced in the loop.
10. A circular loop is moved through the region of uniform magnetic field. Find the
direction of induced current (clock wise or anticlock wise) when the loop moves (i)
into the field, and (ii) out of the field.
(a) (i) Anticlockwise, (ii) Clockwise
(b) (i) Anticlockwise, (ii) Anticlockwise
(c) (i) Clockwise, (ii) Clockwise
(d) (i) Clockwise, (ii) Anticlockwise
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ans- 1-b , 2-a, 3- d , 4-a, 5-d, 6-b , 7-b , 8-d , 9-a , 10-a
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ASSERTION REASONING BASED QUESTION
Directions: These questions consist of two statements, each printed as Assertion and Reason.
You are required to choose any one of the following four responses as correct ans.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct explanation
of Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation
of Assertion.
(c) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
1. Assertion: If current is flowing through a machine of iron, eddy currents are produced.
Reason: Change in magnetic flux through an area causes eddy current.
2. Assertion: The bar magnet falling vertically along the axis of the
horizontal coil will be having acceleration less than g.
Reason: Clockwise current is induced in the coil
3.Assertion: Lenz’s law obeys the principle of conservation of energy.
Reason: Induced emf always opposes the change in magnetic flux responsible for its
production.
4. Assertion: Two identical loops, one of copper and another of aluminum are rotated with
the same speed in the same magnetic field. The emf induced in both the loop will be same.
Reason: The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
5. Assertion: When two coils are wound on each other, the mutual induction between the
coils is maximum.
Reason: Mutual induction does not depend on the orientation of the coils.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ans: 1 (a) , 2 (c) , 3 (a), 4(a) , 5 (c)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q1. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the loop, what is
the induced current in the loop during 2 to 4 seconds.
Q2. Show that Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
Q3. Two concentric circular coils, one of small radius r1 and the other of large radius r2, such
that r1<<r2 are placed co-axially with centers coinciding. Obtain the mutual inductance of
the arrangement.
Q4. A 0.5 m long solenoid of 10 turns/cm has area of cross section 1 cm 2 . Calculate the emf
across its ends if the current in the solenoid is changed from 1A to 2 A in 0.1 sec?
Q5.

Fig . shows, a rectangular loop PQRS, where PQ is free to move with velocity v. A uniform
magnetic field acts ⟘ to loop. Assume PQ has resistance r, obtain expression for
(i) I (ii) force (iii) power to move PQ.
Q6. A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2 cm with a small cut is moving out of a region
of uniform magnetic field of 0.3 T directed normal to the loop.
(i)What is the emf developed across the cut if the velocity of the loop is 1 cms-1 in a
direction normal to the (a) Longer side (b) Shorter side of the loop?
(ii)For how long does the induced voltage last in each case.
Q7.

Figures shows an arrangement by which alternatively current flows through coil A and B is
placed near A and connected to a bulb X. Now explain the observations with reason
(i) When the switch S is closed the bulb lights up. Why?
(ii) What happens to the brightness if an iron rod is in coil A.
(iii) What happens to the brightness if a copper plate is inserted in the gap between the
coils?
8. Derive an expression for the induced emf produced by changing the area of a rectangular
coil placed perpendicular to a magnetic field.
9. A horizontal straight wire 10 m long extending from east to west is falling with a speed of
5.0 m s–1, at right angles to the horizontal component of the magnetic field, 0.3x10–4 Wb m–2.
(a) What is the instantaneous value of the emf induced in the wire?
(b) What is the direction of the emf?
(c) Which end of the wire is at the higher electrical potential?
10. A square loop MNOP of side 20 cm is placed horizontally in a uniform
magnetic field acting vertically downwards as shown in the figure.
The loop is pulled with a constant velocity of 20 cm/s till it goes out of the field.
(i) Depict the direction of the induced current in the loop as it
goes out of the field. For how long would the current in the loop persist?
(ii) Plot a graph showing the variation of magnetic flux and induced emf as a function of
time.
Answers
Ans 1.- As there is NO change in magnetic field during 2 Sec to 4 Sec , so ε = 0 , I ind = 0
Ans 2 - Whenever there is a relative motion between a coil and the magnet, a force begins to
act which opposes the relative motion. Therefore to maintain the relative motion, a
mechanical work must be done. This work appears in the form of electric energy of coil. Thus
Lenz’s law is based on principle of conservation of energy.
µ
Ans 3 : Φ = B.A Φ1 = πr12 B2 = 𝜋 r12 I2 = M12 I2
M12 = µ0 πr12 . Also M21 = M 12 ( assuming B2 uniform over πr12 as r1 << r2)
Ans 4 : ε =-L 𝒅𝑰/𝒅t , ε = 20𝜋 X 10-5 = 0.628 mV
Ans 5: (i) I = (ii) F = B2 l2 (iii) P =B2 𝑙
Ans 6 - (a) longer side : ε = Blv = 2.4 X 10 -4 V , T=b/v= 2seconds
(b) shorter side: ε = 0.6X 10 -4 V , T= l/v = 8seconds
Ans 7-(i) Due to mutual induction (ii) Brightness decreases as the induced current decreases
(iii) Brightness decreases due to production of induced current set up in the copper
plate which opposes passage of magnetic flux.
Ans 9 (a) Instantaneous emf, e= B vl = =1.5 mV
(b) By Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of induced current in wire is from west
to east, therefore, direction of emf is from west to east.
(c) The direction of electron flow according to relation F=q(Vx B) = - e(-V𝑘)x (Bj)= -
eVBi, i.e., along negative x-axis, i.e., from east to west. The induced emf will oppose the flow
of electrons from east to west, so eastern end will be at higher potential.
Ans 10 : –(i) Clockwise MNOP. t=d/v= 1s
(ii)
 LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q1. (a) Define mutual inductance and write its SI units.
(b) Derive an expression for the mutual inductance of two long co-axial solenoids of same
length wound one over the other.
Q2. (a) Draw a labelled diagram to explain the principle and working of an A.C. generator.
Deduce the expression for emf generated. (b)Why cannot the current produced by an A.C.
generator be measured with a moving coil ammeter?
CASE BASED QUESTIONS
I. EMI is defined as the production of an electromotive force across an electric conductor in
the changing magnetic field. The discovery of Induction was done by Michael Faraday in the
year 1831. Electromagnetic induction finds many applications such as in electrical
components which includes transformers, inductors, and other devices such as electric
motors and generators.
Alternating current is defined as an electric current which reverses in direction periodically.
In most of the electric power circuits, the waveform of alternating current is the sine wave.
1. How to increase the energy stored in an inductor by four times?
(a) By doubling the current (b) This is not possible
(c) By doubling the inductance (d) By making current 2 times
2. Consider an inductor whose linear dimensions are tripled and the total number of turns
per unit length is kept constant, what happens to the self-inductance?
(a) 9 times (b) 3 times (c) 27 times (d) 13 times
3. Lenz law is based on which of the following conservation
(a) Charge (b) Mass (c) Momentum (d) Energy
4. What will be the acceleration of the falling bar magnet which passes through the ring
such that the ring is held horizontally and the bar magnet is dropped along the axis of the
ring?
(a) It depends on the diameter of the ring and the length of the magnet (b) equal due to
gravity
(c) It is less than due to gravity (d) It is more than due to
gravity
II. The emf induced across the ends of a conductor due to its motion in a magnetic field is
called motional emf. It is produced due to the magnetic Lorentz force acting on the free
electrons of the conductor. For a circuit shown in figure, if a conductor of length I moves
with velocity v in a magnetic field B perpendicular to both its length and the direction of the
magnetic field, then all the induced parameters are possible in the circuit

1. Direction of current induced in a wire moving in a magnetic field is found using

(A) Fleming's L Hand rule (B) Fleming's Right hand (C) Ampere's rule (D) Maxewell’s Thumb
rule
2 . A bicycle generator creates 1.5 V at 15 km/hr. The EMF generated at 10 km/hr is
(A) 1.5 volts (B) 2volts (C) 0.5volts (D) 1 volt
Q.3 A 0.1 m long conductor carrying a current of 50 A is held perpendicular to magnetic field
of 1.25 mT. The mechanical power required to move the conductor with a speed of 1 m s-1 is
(A) 62.5 mW (B) 625 mW (C) 6.25 mW (D) 12.5 Mw
Q.4 A conducting rod of length is moving in a transverse magnetic field of strength B
with velocity V. The resistance of the rod is R. The current in the rod is.
(A) BV𝒍 (B) Zero (C) (D)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answers – Case Based – I, 1(a) , 2(b) , 3(d) , 4 (c), II -1( b) , 2(d), 3(c) , 4( c)
 Chapter 7 ALTERNATING CURRENT
MIND MAP

For a series RLC circuit driven by voltage V = Vm sinωt,

(1) I = Im sin (ωt + Ф) , where Im = Vm / Z, and impedence Z = 𝑅 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 )
(2) tan Ф= (XL- XC) / R
(3) The average power loss over a complete cycle is given by P = Vm Im cos Ф
where, the term cos Ф is called the power factor
(4) cos Ф= R/ 𝑅 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 ) )
(5) If net reactance is inductive: Circuit behaves as LR circuit
(6) If net reactance is capacitive: Circuit behave as CR circuit
(7) If net reactance is zero: Means XL - XC = 0
XL = XC . This is the condition of resonance
(8) At resonance (series resonant circuit)
(i) XL = XC Z min = R i.e. circuit behaves as resistive circuit
(ii) VL = VC  V = VR i.e. whole applied voltage appeared across the resistance
(iii) Phase difference :  = 0o power factor = cos  = 1
(iv) Power consumption P = Vrms Irms
(v) These circuits are used for current amplification and as tuning circuits in wireless
telegraphy.
𝟏
(9) Resonant frequency (Natural frequency) : At resonance XL  XC  𝛚0L= 𝑪 𝝎
𝟎

 𝛚0 = OR, 𝜈0 = (Resonant frequency doesn't depend upon the resistance of

the circuit)
(10) Watt less Current
The component of current which does not contribute to the average power dissipation is
called watt less current.
(i) The average of watt less component over one cycle is zero
(ii) Amplitude of watt less current = I0 sin and r.m.s. value 𝜑of
watt less current= Irms sin𝜙= I0 sin𝜙/√2
(11) Transformer:-
It is a device which Increase or decreases the voltage
or current in ac circuits through mutual induction.
Principle :It is based on the principle of mutual induction.
Working :When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary,
magnetic flux linked with it changes which links to the
secondary and induces an emf in it due to mutual induction.

Types of transformer:
1. Step-up Transformer: Ns> Np. It increases voltage
and decreases current. Transformation Ratio must be greater than 1

2. Step-Down Transformer: – Ns< Np; It increases current

and decreases voltage. Transformation Ratio must be less than 1.

THEORY: Faraday’s laws the emf induced in the primary coil

∆ ∆
𝜀 p = - NP ∆ ----(i) also for secondary coil 𝜀 s = - Ns ∆ ---------(ii)
= = k (transformation ratio) -----------(iii)
For ideal transformer input power = output power ⇒ 𝜀 P IP = 𝜀 s Is ------(iv)
By equation (iii) and (iv)
= =
Energy losses in a transformer:
(i) Copper loss (ii) Hysteresis loss (iii) Flux leakage (iv) Humming losses (v) Eddy current
loss
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
MCQ
1. Average value of A.C voltage for positive half cycle is [If V0 is its peak voltage]
(a) zero (b) V0/√2 (c) 2V0/ 𝜋 (d) V0
2. An alternating current in a circuit is given by I = 20sin (100𝜋 t 10.05𝜋 )A . The r.m.s value
and frequency of current respectively are
(A) 10A & 100 Hz (B) 10 A & 50 Hz (C) 10 √2A & 50Hz (D) 20 √2A & 100Hz
3. At resonance frequency in an A.C circuit containing L, C and R in series
(A) The voltage and current will be in same phase. (B) The voltage will lead the current
(C) The voltage will lag behind the current. (D) Phase difference depends on peak voltage
of source
4. An ideal resistance R, ideal inductance L, ideal capacitance C and A.C volt meters, V1, V2, V3
and V4 are connected to an A. C source as shown. At resonance
(A) Reading in V3 = Reading in V1
(B) Reading in V1 = Reading in V2
(C) Reading in V2 = Reading in V4
(D) Reading in V2 = Reading in V3
5. In an AC circuit the voltage applied is E = E0 sin t . The resulting current in the circuit is
I = I0 sin(t - ). The power consumption in the circuit given by
(A) P=√2 I 0 E0 (B) P= zero (C) E0 I 0 √2 (D) E0 I 0 / √2
6. The variation of the instantaneous current (I) and the instantaneous emf (E) in a circuit is
as shown in fig. Which of the following statements is correct?
(A) The voltage lags behind the current by  / 2
(B)The voltage leads the current by  / 2
(C) The voltage and the current are in phase
(D)The voltage leads the current by 
7. A bulb is connected first with dc and then ac of same voltage then it will shine brightly
with
(A) AC (B) DC (C) Brightness will be in ratio 1/1.4 (D) Equally with both
8. The power factor of LCR circuit at resonance is
(A) 0.707 (B) 1 (C) Zero (D) 0.5
9. The r.m.s. voltage of the wave form shown is
(A) 10 V (B) 7 V
(C) 6.37 V (D) None of these
10. In a transformer, the no. of turns of primary and secondary coil are 500 and 400
respectively. If 220 V is supplied to the primary coil, then ratio of currents in primary and
secondary coils is
(A) 4 : 5 (B) 5 : 4 (C) 5 : 9 (D) 9 : 5
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ANSWERS -1 (c), 2(C), 3 (A), 4(C), 5(B), 6(B), 7 (D), 8(B), 9 (A), 10 (A)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ASSERTION – REASON
Two statement are given – one labelled Assertion (A) and other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of
Assertion
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation of
Assertion
(c) Assertion is true, but Reason is false
(d) Assertion is false and Reason is also false
1. Assertion : For an electric lamp connected in series with a variable capacitor and ac
source, its brightness increases with increase in capacitance.
Reason : Capacitive reactance decreases with increase in capacitance of capacitor.
2. Assertion : When capacitance reactance is smaller than the inductive reactance in
LCR circuit, e.m.f leads the current.
Reason : The phase angle is the angle between the alternating e.m.f and alternating current
of the circuit.
3. Assertion : A.C is more dangerous than D. C
Reason :frequency of A.C is dangerous for human body.
4. Assertion : Average power in an A.C circuit having L only is Zero.
Reason : Power factor of A.C circuit having L only is zero.
5. Assertion : Winding the Primary coil and secondary coils one over the other reduces
flux leakage.
Reason : Magnetic flux is directly proportional to number of turns of coil.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Ans -1(A), 2(B) , 3(A) , 4(A), : 5(B)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1. Find the average power consumed in the circuit

2. Sketch a graph to show how the reactance of a capacitor and inductor varies as a function
of 𝜔
3. In an ideal transformer, the number of turns of primary and secondary are 100 and 2000
respectively. If maximum voltage in primary is 120V, what is the maximum voltage in
secondary?
4. The graph showing the variation of current with frequency of ac source in a series LCR
circuit
(i) Write down the name of frequency ‘f’ in graph
(ii) Write down an expression for finding out ‘f’
5. A transformer has 50 tunes in the primary and 100 in the secondary. If primary is
connected to 220 V DC supply, what will he the voltage across the secondary?
6. In a series LCR circuit, VL = VC ≠ VR . What is the value of power factor for this circuit?
7. What is the average value of ac voltage V = V0 sin ωt over the time interval t = 0 to t = 𝜋/𝜔
8. Define power factor. State the conditions under which it is (i) maximum and (ii) minimum.
9. Prove that an ideal capacitor in an ac circuit does not dissipate power.
10. A 60 W load is connected to the secondary of a transformer whose primary draws line
voltage. If a current of 0.54 A flows in the load, what is the current in the primary coil?
Comment on the type of transformer being used.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ANSWERS
Ans 1: Here VL = 200 VC = 200. The circuit is at resonance. P= = 484W
Ans 2:

Ans 3 : = = = 20 , Vs = 20 x VP = 20 x 120V= 2400V

Ans 4 (i) Threshold frequency (ii) f0 =

Ans 5 : V = O . Transforms will work only on a AC
Ans6 : cos Ф= VR/ 𝑉 + (𝑉 − 𝑉 ) ) , Since VL = VC ; cos Ф= VR/ VR= 1 , power factor =
1.
Ans 7:

Ans 8 : The power factor (cos 𝜙) is the ratio of resistance and impedance of an ac circuit, cos
𝜙 = R/ Z (i) Maximum power factor = 1 , Z = R (when circuit is purely resistive)
(ii)Minimum power factor = 0 ,when R = 0 (circuit is purely inductive or capacitive)
Ans 9 : Pav= Irms Vrms cos𝜙 as = 𝜋/2 so, Pav = 0
Ans 10: PL = 60 W, IL = 0.54 A ⇒ VL = 111.1 V,
The transformer is step-down and have ½ input voltage. IP = 1/2 IL = 0.27 A.

SHORT ANSWER (3 MARKS)

1. A circuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60 µF capacitor in series is connected to a 230
V, 50 Hz supply. The resistance of the circuit is negligible. (a) Obtain the current amplitude
and rms values. (b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across each element. (c) What is
the average power transferred to the inductor? (d) What is the average power transferred to
the capacitor? (e) What is the total average power (over 1 cycle) absorbed by the circuit?
2. A device ‘X’ is connected to an ac source V = V0 sin t. The variation of voltage, current and
power in one cycle is shown in the following graph:
(a) Identify the device ‘X’.
(b) Which of the curves A, B and C represent the
the power consumed in the circuit?
(c) How does its impedance vary with frequency of the
ac source? Show graphically.
3. A device X is connected across an ac source of voltage V = V0 sin 𝜔t. The current through X
is given as I = I0 sin (𝜔t + π/2).
(a) Identify the device X and write the expression for its reactance.
(b) Draw graphs showing variation of voltage and current with time over one cycle of ac, for
X.
(c) How does the reactance of the device X vary with frequency of the ac? Show this variation
graphically.
(d) Draw the phasor diagram for the device X.
4. A 2 µF capacitor, 100 W resistor and 8 H inductor are connected in series with an ac
source.
(i) What should be the frequency of the source such that current drawn in the circuit is
maximum? What is this frequency called?
(ii) If the peak value of emf of the source is 200 V, find the maximum current.
(iii) Draw a graph showing variation of amplitude of circuit current with changing
frequency of applied voltage in a series LRC circuit for two different values of resistance R1
and R2(R1 > R2).
5. A series LCR circuit with R = 20 Ω, L = 1.5 H and C = 35 mF is connected to a variable-
frequency 200 V ac supply. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural frequency of
the circuit, what is the average power transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle?
6. An alternating voltage E = E0 sin ωt is applied to a circuit
containing a resistor R connected in series with a black box.
The current in the circuit is found to be I = Io sin (ωt+ π/4).
(i) State whether the element in the black box is a capacitor or inductor.
(ii) Draw the corresponding phasor diagram and find the impedance in terms of R.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ANSWERS
Ans 1 (a) Inductive reactance XL = ωL =2πνL=25.1 Ω , Capacitive reactance= Xc = =
= 53.1 Ω
Impedance, Z= Xc - XL = 28 Ω , Current amplitude I0 = 11.6 A , Irms = I 0 / √2 = 8.23A
(b) RMS value of potential drops across L and C are : VL =XL Irms = 25.1 × 8.23 = 207 V
VC = XC Irms = 53.1 × 8.23 = 437 V , Net voltage = VC – VL = 230 V
(c) The voltage across L leads the current by angle 𝜋/2, therefore, average power
Pav = Vrms Irms cos 𝜋/2 = 0
(d) The voltage across C lags behind the current by angle 𝜋/2, therefore, average power
Pav = Vrms Irms cos 𝜋/2 = 0.
(e) As circuit contains pure L and pure C, average power consumed by LC circuit = 0
Ans 2 - (a) capacitor or inductor (b) A
(c )

Ans 3 : (a) capacitor , Xc =

𝟏
Ans 4: i) For maximum current XL  XC  𝛚0L= 𝑪 𝝎  𝛚0 = OR, 𝜈0 = =
𝟎
39.80 s–1
This frequency is called resonance frequency
(ii) Maximum current, I0 = 2A
(iii)

Ans 5 :- When frequency of supply is equal to natural frequency of circuit, then resonance is
obtained. At resonance XC = XL ⇒ Z = 𝑅 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 ) = R= 20Ω , Irms= Vrms/R = 10 A,
Power factor cos𝜙=1, Average power P= Irms Vrms cos𝜙 = 2000W= 2 kW
Ans 6 –(i) As the current leads the voltage by π/4, the element used in black box is a
‘capacitor’.
(ii) Here, tan 𝜋/ 4 = VC/VR ⇒ 1 = VC/VR ⇒ VC = VR
⇒ XC = R ⇒ Z = 𝑅 +𝑋 = √𝑅 + 𝑅 = R√2

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
LONG QUESTIONS (5 marks)
1.(a) Draw a schematic arrangement for winding of primary and secondary coil in a
transformer when the two coils are wound on top of each other.
(b) State the underlying principle of a transformer and obtain the expression for the ratio of
secondary to primary voltage in terms of the(i) number of secondary and primary windings
and (ii) primary and secondary currents.
(c) Write any two reasons due to which energy losses may occur in actual transformers
2. A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac source having voltage V = V0 sin ωt . Derive
expression for the impedance, instantaneous current and its phase relationship to the
applied voltage. Find the expression for resonant frequency.
3 . Explain with the help of a labelled diagram, the principle and working of an AC generator.
Write the expression for the emf generated in the coil in terms of speed of rotation. Can the
current produced by an AC generator be measured by moving coil galvanometer?
4 . Explain the term inductive reactance. Show graphically the variation of inductive
reactance with frequency of the applied alternating voltage. An AC voltage V = V0 sin ωt is
applied across a pure inductor of inductance L. Find the expression for I, flowing in circuit
and show mathematically that the current lags behind the applied voltage by phase angle .
Also draw (i) phasor diagram (ii) graph of V and i versus ωt for the circuit.
5. A 2 µF capacitor, 100W resistor and 8 H inductor are connected in series with an AC
source.
(i) if the peak value of emf of source is 200V, find max. current (ii)Define -Sharpness of
resonance
(iii)under what condition is the circuit more selective? (iv) Draw a graph of amplitude of
current Vs ω for 2 different values of R(R2 < R1 )
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
CASE BASED PROBLEM
Tuning a radio set
Capacitor used in old radio sets is gang capacitor. It consists of two sets of parallel circular
plates one of which can rotate manually by means of a knob. The rotation causes overlapping
areas of plates to change, thus changing its capacitance. Air gap between plates acts as
dielectric. The capacitor has to be tuned in to the corresponding frequency of a station so
that the LC combination of the radio set resonates at the frequency of the desired station.
When capacitive reactance (XC) is equal to the inductive reactance (XL) , then the resonance
occurs and the resonant frequency is given by 𝛚0 = . Current amplitude becomes
maximum at the resonant frequency. It is important to note that resonance phenomena is
exhibited by a circuit only if, both L and C are present in the circuit. Only then , the voltage
across L and C cancel each other ( both being out of phase) and the current amplitude is max.
, where Im = Vm / R. This means that we cannot have resonance in a RL or RC circuit.
Q1. Name the phenomena involved in tuning a radio set to a particular station
(A) Stabilization (B) Resonance (C) Rectification (D) Reflection
Q2. Capacitor used in radio set for tuning is a
(A) parallel plate capacitor (B) Spherical capacitor (C) gang capacitor (D) electrolytic
capacitor.
Q3. Resonance occurs only when: (A) XC = R (B) XL = R (C) XC > XL (D) XL = XC
Q4. Resonance may occur in
(A) LC circuit B) RC circuit (C) LR circuit (D) circuit having resistor only.
Ans 1-b, 2- c , 3-d , 4-a
 Chapter – 8
Electromagnetic Waves
Mind Map

𝐵 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝜑𝐸
=𝜇 𝑖 +𝜇 𝜀
𝑑𝑡
Ampere-Maxwell Law
𝑑𝜑 Combination of Mutually
𝜀 =𝑖 Perpendicular electric &
𝑑𝑡
Displacement Current magnetic field is referred
to as an electromagnetic
Waves
–

Electromagnetic
Waves

Electromagnetic Spectrum
1. Radio Waves
2. Micro Waves
3. Infrared
4. Visible
5. Ultraviolet
6. X-rays
Characteristics of Electromagnetic
7. Gamma Rays
Waves
1.Do not need any material medium for
propagation
2.Travels with speed(v) =
3.Produced by acceleration charge
4.Transverse in Nature
5.Oscillating electric & magnetic fields
are in phase and their ratio is constant
(c)= 𝐸 ∕ 𝐵

Displacement Current: -If there exists an electric current as well as changing electric field,
results magnetic field & cause displacement current
𝑑𝜑
𝜀 =𝑖
𝑑𝑡
So, Ampere-Circuital Law was modified called as Ampere-Maxwell Law.
 𝑑𝜑𝐸
𝐵𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇 𝑖 + 𝜇 𝜀
𝑑𝑡
Electromagnetic Waves: - The electromagnetic waves are those waves in which there are
sinusoidal variations of electric and magnetic field vectors to right angles to each other as
well as at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. (i.e., electric current and
magnetic fields vary with space and time.)
Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves: - Electric and magnetic fields oscillate
sinusoidally in space and time in an electromagnetic wave. The oscillating electric and
magnetic fields, E and B are perpendicular to each other, and to the direction of propagation
of the electromagnetic wave.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Type Frequency Wavelength Production Detection Uses
Range (Hz) Range
Radio 5×105 Hz to >0.1m Rapid Receiver’s In radio and television
waves 10 Hz
8 acceleration and aerials communication system.
de-accelerations In radio astronomy.
of electrons in
aerials/antenna.
Microwaves 10 Hz to
9 0.1m to Klystron value Point contact In radar Systems.
1012 Hz 1mm or magnetron diodes. In long distance
value. communication systems.
In microwave ovens.
Infrared 10 Hz to
11 1mm to Vibration of Thermopiles In remote control of TV or
5×10 Hz
14 700nm atoms and Bolometer, VCR.
molecules. Infrared In Green House.
photographic In haze Photography.
film. Treatment of muscular
complaints.
Visible 4×1014 Hz to 7000nm to Electron in Human eye It Provides us the
Light 7×10 Hz
14 400nm atoms emit light photocells, information of the world
when they move photographic around us.
from one energy film. It can cause Chemical
level to a lower Reactions.
energy level.
Ultraviolet 10 Hz to
16 400nm to Inner shell Photocells, In food Preservation.
1017 1nm electrons in photographic In the study of invisible
atoms moving film. writings, forged documents
from one energy and finger prints.
level to a lower In the study of molecular
level. structure.
X-rays 10 Hz to
16 1nm to 10 -3 X-ray tubes or Photographic In medical diagnosis.
1019 nm inner shell film, Geiger In the study of crystals
electrons. tubes, structure.
Ionization In engineering.
chamber. In detective departments.
In radio therapies.
Gamma 10 Hz to
18 <10 nm
-3 Radioactive Photographic In radio Therapy.
rays 10 Hz
22 decay of the film, Geiger In manufacture of
nucleus. tubes, polyethylene from
Ionization ethylene.
Chamber To initiate some nuclear
reactions.
To preserve food stuff.
 MCQs(1MARK)
1. In electromagnetic waves the phase difference between electric and magnetic field
vectors are
(a) zero (b) 𝜋/4 (c) 𝜋/2 (d) π
2. The quantity 𝜇 𝜀 represents
(a) speed of sound (b) speed of light in vacuum
(c) speed of e.m. waves (d) inverse of speed of light in vacuum
3. Which of the following statement is false for the properties of electromagnetic waves?
(a) Both electric and magnetic vectors attain the maxima and minima at the same
place and same time.
(b) The energy in electromagnetic waves is divided equally between electric and
magnetic field vectors.
(c) Both electric and magnetic fields vectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave.
(d) These waves do not require any material medium for propagation.
4. Select the correct statement(s) from the following.
I. Wavelength of microwaves is greater than that of ultraviolent rays.
II. The wavelength of infrared rays is lesser than that of ultraviolent rays.
III. The wavelength of microwaves is lesser than that of infrared rays.
IV. Gamma ray has shortest wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum.
(a) I and II (b) II and III (c) III and IV (d) I and IV
5. When electromagnetic waves enter the ionised layer of ionosphere, then the relative
permittivity i.e., dielectric constant of the ionised layer.
(a) Does not change
(b) Appears to increase
(c) Appears to decrease
(d) Sometimes appears to increase and sometimes to decrease
6. Waves in decreasing order of their wavelength are
(a) X-rays, infrared rays, visible rays, radio waves
(b) Radio waves, visible rays, infrared rays, X-rays
(c) Radio waves, infrared rays, visible rays. X-rays
(d) Radio waves, ultraviolet rays, visible rays, X-rays
7. Which of the following has/have zero average value in a plane electromagnetic wave?
(a) Both magnetic and electric waves (b) Electric field only
(c) Magnetic fields only (d) None of these
8. In the process of charging of a capacitor, the current produced between the plates of
the capacitor is [CBSE OD 23]
(a) 𝜇 (b) (c) 𝜀 (d)
9. 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵⃗ represent the electric and the magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave
respectively. The direction of propagation of the wave is along [CBSE OD 23]
(a) 𝐵⃗ (b) 𝐸⃗ (c) 𝐸⃗ X 𝐵⃗ (d) 𝐵⃗ × 𝐸⃗
10. The electromagnetic radiations used to kill germs in water purifiers are called [CBSE
D 23]
(a) Infrared waves (b) X-rays (c) Gamma rays (d) Ultraviolent rays
ANSWERS(MCQ)
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS - I(2MARKS)

 1. How are Infrared waves produced? Why are these waves referred to as heat
waves? Give any two uses of infrared waves. [CBSE OD 23]
2. An E.M. wave, Y1, has a wavelength of 1cm while another e.m. wave, Y2, has a
frequency of 1015 Hz. Name these two types of waves and write one useful
application for each. [CBSE OD 16C,22]
3. Identify the electromagnetic wave whose wavelength range is from about
(a) 10-12 m to about 10-18 m
(b) 10-3m to about 10-1m
Write one use of each [CBSE D 23](HINT: a) X-rays; b) microwaves
4. Identify the electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths lie in the range:
(a) 10-11m<λ<10-14m
(b) 10-4m <λ<10-6m
Write one use of each [CBSE OD 17]
(HINT: a) X-rays / Gamma rays; b) Infrared/visible / microwaves)
5. (i) Which of the following electromagnetic waves has (a) minimum wavelength
(b)minimum frequency?
(ii) Write one use of each of these two ways:
Infrared waves, Microwaves, γ-rays, and X-rays [CBSE OD 20]
(HINT: a) Gamma rays; (b) Micro waves)
6. Explain briefly how electromagnetic waves are produced by an oscillating charge.
How is the frequency of EM waves produced related to that of the oscillating
charge? [CBSE(F) 2012, 2019(55/2/3)]
7. Identify the electromagnetic waves whose wavelength lie in the range
(a) 10-11m<γ<10-8m (b) 10-4m < γ< 10-1m
Write one use of each. [CBSE (AI) 2017]
(HINT: a) X-rays; b) Microwaves)
8. (i) Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum is used in operating a RADAR?
[CBSE Delhi 2010; 2019(55/2/1)]
(HINT: Microwave)
(ii) Why are microwaves considered suitable for radar systems used in aircraft
navigation? [CBSE Delhi 2016]
(HINT: Due to short wavelength or high frequency)
9. (i) How are infrared waves produced? Write their one important use.
(ii) The thin ozone layer on top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival. Why?
[CBSE East 2016; 2019(55/4/1)]
10. (i) Do electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum?
[CBSE (AI) 2017;2019,(55/4/1)] (HINT: yes)
(ii) How is the speed of EM-waves in vacuum determined by the electric and
magnetic fields? [CBSE Delhi 2017]
(HINT: c= )

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS -II(3MARKS)

1. Electromagnetic waves of wavelengths γ1, γ2 and γ3 are used in radar systems, in
water purifiers and in remote switches of TV, respectively.
(i) Identify the electromagnetic waves, and
(ii) Write one source of each of them. [CBSE OD 22]
2. Identify electromagnetic waves which
 (i) Are used in radar systems. ii) Affect a photographic plate.
(ii) Are used in surgery.
Write their frequency range. [CBSE OD 22]
3. Identify the following electromagnetic radiations as per the frequencies given below.
Write one application of each.
(a) 1020 Hz (b) 109Hz (c) 1011Hz [CBSE OD 08]
4. Identify the part of the electromagnetic spectrum which:
(a) Produces heating effect
(b) Is absorbed by the ozone layer in the atmosphere,
(c) Is used for studying crystal structure [CBSE SP 24]
5. Arrange the following electromagnetic waves in the order of their increasing
wavelength:
(a) γ-rays (b) Microwaves (c) X-rays (d) radio waves
How are infrared waves produced? What role does infrared radiation play in (i)
maintaining the earth’s warmth and (ii) physical therapy?
[CBSE Panchkula 2015]
(HINT: γ- rays< X-rays<Microwaves<Radio waves; (i) radiation by the earth trapped by
greenhouse gases;(ii) infrared are absorbed by water molecules)
6. Name the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum which is
(a) Suitable for radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
(b) Used to treat muscular strain.
(c) Used as a diagnostic tool in medicine.
Write in brief, how these waves can be produced. [CBSE Delhi 2015]
(HINT: a) microwaves; b) infrared; c) X-rays)
7. (a) Which one of the following electromagnetic radiations has least frequency:
UV radiations, X-rays, Microwaves
(b) How do you show that electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum?
[CBSE 2015]
(HINT: a) microwaves; b) p = U/E)
8. (a) How are electromagnetic waves produced by oscillating charges?
(b) State clearly how a microwave oven works to heat up a food item containing
water molecules.
(c) Why are microwaves found useful for the radar systems in aircraft navigation?
(HINT: a) oscillating electric field generates oscillating magnetic field which in turn is a
source of electric field.; b) the frequency of microwaves is selected; c) microwaves
have short wavelength with frequency of few GHz.)
9. Electromagnetic wave with wavelength
(i) λ1 is used in satellite communication.
(ii) λ2 is used to kill germs in water purifier.
(iii) λ3 is used to detect leakage of oil in underground pipelines.
(iv) λ4 is used to improve visibility in runways during fog and mist conditions.
(a) Identify and name the part of electromagnetic spectrum to which these
radiations belong.
(b) Arrange these wavelengths in ascending order of their magnitude.
(c) Write one more application of each. [NCERT Exemplar]
(HINT: a) i) microwave; ii) UV iii) x-rays iv) Infrared; b) λ3 < λ2 < λ4 < λ1)
10. Electromagnetic waves of wavelengths λ1, λ2 and λ3 are used in radar systems, in
water purifiers and in remote switches of TV, respectively.
(i) Identify the electromagnetic waves, and
 (ii) Write one source of each of them. [CBSE 2022 (55/3/1), Term-2]
(HINT: i) a) Microwave, b) UV, c) Infrared)
Assertion-Reason Questions
1. ASSERTION(A): - UV radiations cause photo dissociation of ozone into O2 and O, thus
causing damage to the stratospheric ozone layer.
Reason(R): - Ozone hole is resulting in lobal warming and climate change.
2. ASSERTION(A): - When a charged particle moves in a circular path, it produces
electromagnetic wave.
REASON(R): - Charged particle has acceleration.
3. ASSERTION(A): - The electromagnetic waves are produced by varying electric field
vector and magnetic fields.
REASON(R): - Electromagnetic Waves are transverse.
4. ASSERTION(A): - Electromagnetic wave is produced by accelerated charge.
REASON(R): - An accelerated charge produces both electric and magnetic fields and also
radiates them.
5. ASSERTION(A): - Short wave band is used for transmission of radio waves to large
distances.
REASON(R): - Short waves are reflected by earth’s ionosphere.

ANSWERS (ASSERTION AND REASON)

1. b) 2. a) 3. b) 4. a) 5. a)

Case-Based / Passage-Based Questions

Electromagnetic Waves
1. Maxwell, in 1865, pointed out that when either an electric or a magnetic field is
changing with time, a field of the other kind is induced in adjacent regions of space.
From this Maxwell concluded that variation of electric and magnetic field vectors
perpendicular to each other leads to the production of electromagnetic disturbances
which show properties of waves and can travel in space even without any material
medium. These waves are called electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves with macroscopic wavelengths were first produced in the
laboratory in 1887 by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz. Seven years after Hertz,
Jagdish Chandra Bose, working at Calcutta (now Kolkata) succeeded in producing and
observing electromagnetic waves of much slower wavelength (25mm to 5mm). At
around the same time, Guglielmo Marconi in Italy followed Hertz’s work and
succeeded in transmitting electromagnetic waves over distances of many kilometres.
Electromagnetic waves have a broad frequency range 103Hz to 1022Hz. They can
travel with speed of light(c) in vacuum. They obey the relation c=νλ, where ν is
frequency and λ is wavelength.
(i) Which of the following electromagnetic wave in order of increasing frequency.
(a) Microwaves<Infrared <Ultraviolet < γ-rays
(b) γ-rays < Ultraviolet < Infrared < Microwaves
(c) Ultraviolet < Infrared < Microwave < γ-rays
(d) γ-rays < Microwave < Infrared < Ultraviolet
(ii) Light wave contains
 (a) Electromagnetic waves (c) Longitudinal waves
(b) Mechanical Waves (d) magnetic waves
(iii) If we want to produce electromagnetic waves of wavelength 500 km by an
oscillating charge the frequency must be
(a) 600 Hz (b) 500Hz (c) 167Hz (d) 15Hz
(iv) The angle between 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵⃗ in an electromagnetic wave is
(a) 180o (b) 120o (c) 90o (d) 45o
ANSWER (CASE-BASED QUESTION)
1. a) 2. a) 3. a) 4. c)
 Chapter 9 Ray Optics
Mind Map

OPTICS
RAYMIND
OPTICS
MAPS

Reflection
Mirror formula + = Reflection Optical Instruments

Magnification m = =−
Focal length; 𝑓 =

Microscope
Snell's Law, Refractive Index
Angular Magnification(M) :
refractive index= M = Me × Mo
Snell’s law, n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 −𝐿 𝐷
𝑀= 1+
𝑓 𝑓
at infinity 𝑀 =

Total Internal Reflection

𝑛
sin 𝐶 =
𝑛

Telescope (Astronomical)
Angular magnification
Spherical surfaces and lenses
Normal adjustment)
− =
𝑀= =
Lens maker, = −
−𝑓 𝑓
𝐴𝑇 𝐿𝐷𝐷𝑉, 𝑚 = 1+
lens formula, − = 𝑓 𝐷
Power P = P1 + P2

Refraction through Prism

𝑛=
δm = (n – 1)A
 Chapter 10 Wave Optics
Mind Map

WAVE OPTICS

Interference Diffraction
Huygen's Principle

INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
WAVES
Δ= Single Slit
Experiment
Resultant intensity
𝐼 = 𝑅 (𝑎 + 𝑎 + 2𝑎 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
Imax = 𝐼 + 𝐼 If I1 = I2 =
I0, Imax = 4I0
Imin = 𝐼 − 𝐼
If I1 = I2 = I0, Imax = 0
3. = YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
( )
Constructive interference
4. = Phase difference, Φ = 2nπ , Path difference, Δ = nλ
( )
Destructive interference
5. = = Phase difference Φ = (2n + 1) π ,
Path difference
RAY OPTICS Δ = (2𝑛 + 1)
Fringe width, 𝛽 =

REFLECTION BY CONVEX AND CONCAVE MIRRORS

1) Mirror formula + = , where u is the object distance, v is the image distance and f are the focal length.

2) Magnification m = =− , where m is +ve for virtual images and m is –ve for real images
3) Focal length of a mirror depends up only on the curvature of the mirror 𝑓 = .
4) It does not depend on the material of the mirror or on wave length of light.

REFRACTION
1) Ray of light bends when it enters from one medium to the other, having different optical densities.
 2) When light wave travels from one medium to another, the wave length and velocity changes but frequency of
light wave remains the same.
3) An object under water (any medium) appears to be raised due to refraction when observed obliquely.
𝑛= ; n = refractive index

and normal shift in the position (apparent) of object is

𝑥 =𝑡 1−
where t is the actual depth of the medium.
4) Snell’s law states that for a given color of light, the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to sine of angle of
refraction is a constant, when light travels from one medium to another.
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
5) Absolute refractive index is the ratio between the velocities of light in vacuum to velocity of light in medium.
For air refractive index is 1.003, however for practical uses, it can be taken as 1
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

a) When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium and if the angle of incidence is greater than critical
angle, the ray of light is reflected back to the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection. (T.I.R.)
𝑛
sin 𝐶 =
𝑛

b) Essential conditions for T.I.R.

 Light should travel from denser to rarer medium.
 Angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle ( i > C)
c) Diamond has a high refractive index, resulting with a low critical angle (C = 24.40). This promotes a multiple
total internal reflection causing its brilliance and lustre.
d) Working of an optical fibre and formation of mirage are the examples of T.I.R.
 When light falls (rarer to denser) on a convex refracting surface, the relation among, u, v and R is given by
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
 Lens maker formula for thin lens formula is given by:
1 𝑛 −𝑛 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑛 𝑅 𝑅
For Convex Lens R1 + ve; R2 – ve and for concave lens R1 –ve; R2 + ve. The way in which a lens behaves as converging or
diverging depends upon the values of n2 and n1.
For surface ABC,
− = ; ….Eq. 1
for surface ADC;
− = ….Eq. 2
Adding the above equations
𝑛 𝑛 1 1
− = (𝑛 − 𝑛 ) −
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅 𝑅
− = −
….Eq. 3
If 𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓 ;
∴ = − ….Eq. 4 (Lens Makers’s Formula)
From equations 3 & 4 − = (Thin lens formula)

 Combination of Lenses:

Using Thin Lens formula, for lens A

1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
for lens B
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑣 𝑓
Adding above two equations
1 1 1 1
− = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑓
Also, − =

Therefore, when two lenses are kept in contact the equivalent focal length is given by
= +
And Power P = P1 + P2
Magnification is given by
𝑚 = 𝑚 × 𝑚
 Sign convention for mirrors and lenses  Distances in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive. All the
measurement is done from pole (P).
  When ray of light passes through a glass prism it undergoes refraction, then 𝑨 + 𝜹 = 𝒊 + 𝒆 and, the
expression of refractive index of glass prism

𝑛=
Relation between refractive index & angle of minimum deviation
𝑖=𝑒 ; 𝑟 =𝑟 =𝑟 & 𝛿=𝛿
As 𝐴+𝛿 =𝑖+𝑒
𝐴 + 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 or 𝑖 =
Also 𝐴 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝐴 = 2𝑟 𝑟=

From Snell’s Law 𝑛= or 𝑛=

As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation decreases, reaches a minimum value and then increases. This
minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of minimum deviation “δm”.

Where δ is minimum, i = e, refracted ray lies parallel to the base. For a small angled prism,
δm = (n – 1)A.
10. When white light is passed through a glass prism, it splits up into its constituent colours (VIBGYOR). This
phenomenon is called Dispersion.
Compound Microscope:

Objective: The converging lens nearer to the object.

Eyepiece: The converging lens through which the final image is seen.
Both are of small aperture. Focal length of eyepiece is slightly greater than that of the objective.
 Angular Magnification or Magnifying Power (M) : M = Me × Mo
(a) When final is formed at least distance of distinct vision.
𝑀= 1+ 𝑀= 1+ L = |vo| + |ue|
(b) When final image is formed at infinity 𝑀 =
(Normal adjustment i.e. image at infinity) Length of tube L = |vo| + |fo|
Formation of Image by Astronomical Telescope: (at infinity i.e. Normal Adjustment Position)
 Focal length of the objective is much greater than that of the eyepiece. Aperture of the objective is also large to allow
more light to pass through it.
Angular magnification or Magnifying power of a telescope.
(a) When final image is formed at infinity (Normal adjustment)
𝑀= 𝑀=
(fo + fe = L is called the length of the telescope in normal adjustment).
(b) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision.
𝑚= 1+ and L = fo + | ue |

Cassegrain telescope: (Reflecting Type)

WAVE OPTICS
 Wave front:
a) A wavelet is the point of disturbance due to propagation of light.
b) A wavefront is the locus of points (wavelets) having the same phase of oscillations.
c) A perpendicular to a wavefront in forward direction is called a ray.

HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
1.) Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets emanating from these points
spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave.
2.) These wavelets emanating from the wavefront are usually referred to as secondary wavelets and a common tangent
drawn to these spheres in the forward direction gives the position of the new wavefront at a later time.
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
The waves from S1 and S2 reach the point P with some phase difference and hence path difference
Δ = S2P – S1P
S2P2 – S1P2 = 𝐷 + 𝑦 + - 𝐷 + 𝑦−
(S2P – S1P) (S2P + S1P) = 2 yd ; where, S2P ≈ S1P ≈ D
Δ(2D) = 2 yd
Δ=
Constructive interference
Phase difference, Φ = 2nπ Where, n=0,1,2…
Path difference, Δ = nλ
Destructive interference
Phase difference Φ = (2n + 1) π
Path difference Δ = (2𝑛 + 1)
Fringe width (separation between two consecutive dark or bright fringes) 𝛽 =
Interference phenomenon
1. Resultant intensity at a point on screen
𝐼 = 𝑅 (𝑎 + 𝑎 + 2𝑎 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 + 2 𝐼 𝐼 cos 𝜙) Where 𝐼 = 𝑘𝑎 ; 𝐼 = 𝑘𝑎
If I1 = I2 = Io, then IR = 4𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2. Imax = 𝐼 + 𝐼 If I1 = I2 = I0, Imax = 4I0
Imin = 𝐼 − 𝐼 If I1 = I2 = I0, Imax = 0

3. =
( )
4. =
( )

5. = = , w1 and w2 are widths of two slits

Distribution of Intensity

Conditions for Sustained Interference:

a. The two sources must be coherent. (Two or more wave sources that emit waves with a constant
phase difference and the same frequency are called coherent sources)
b. The two interfering wave trains must have the same plane of polarisation.
c. The two sources must be very close to each other and the pattern must be observed at a large
distance to have suf icient width of the fringe 𝛽 = Angular width a = λ/d
d. The sources must be monochromatic. Otherwise, the fringes of different colours will overlap.
 e. The two waves must be having same amplitude for better contrast between bright and dark
fringes.

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT AT A SINGLE SLIT:

Width of Central Maximum:

𝜆𝐷
𝑦 =
𝑑
 For the nth fringe, we can divide the slit into 2n parts and use this condition as:
nλ = d sin θ
 Since the Central Maximum is spread on either side of O, the width is 𝛽 =
 ⇒ Angular width of central maximum = 2θ = 2λ/d

MCQ (One Mark)

1. Two plane wavefronts of light, one incident on a thin convex lens and another on the refracting face
of a thin prism. After refraction at them, the emerging wavefronts
respectively become
(a) plane wavefront and plane wavefront
(b) plane wavefront and spherical wavefront
(c) spherical wavefront and plane wavefront
(d) spherical wavefront and spherical wavefront
2. The phenomena which is not explained by Huygen’s construction of wavefront
(a) re lection (b) diffraction (c) refraction (d) origin of spectra
3. Two light waves superimposing at the mid-point of the screen are coming from coherent sources of
light with phase difference 3π rad. Their amplitudes are 1 cm each. The resultant amplitude at the
given point will be.
(a) 5 cm (b) 3 cm (c) 2 cm (d) zero
4. Two coherent sources of intensity ratio 1 : 4 produce an interference pattern. Find the ratio of
intensity in interference pattern will be
(a) 1:8 (b) 8:1 (c) 9:1 (d) 1:9
5. Two beams of light of intensity I1 and I2 interfere to give an interference pattern. If the ratio of
maximum intensity to that of minimum intensity is 25/9, then I1 /I2 is
(a) 5/3 (b) 4 (c) 81/625 (d) 16
6. A green light is incident from the water to the air – water interface at the critical angle (C). Select
the correct statement.
(a) The entire spectrum of visible light will come out of the water at an angle of 90º to the normal.
(b) The spectrum of visible light whose frequency is less than that of green light will come out to the air
medium.
(c) The spectrum of visible light whose frequency is more than that of green light will come out to the air
medium.
(d) The entire spectrum of visible light will come out of the water at various angles to the normal.
7. A plano-convex lens of refractive index 1.5 and radius of curvature 30 cm, is silvered at the curved
surface. Now this lens has been used to form the image of an object. At what distance from this lens an
object be placed in order to have a real image of size of the object?
(a) 60 cm (b) 30 cm (c) 20 cm (d) 80 cm
8. A double convex lens of focal length 6 cm is made of glass of refractive index 1.5. The radius of
curvature of one surface is double that of other surface. The value of smaller radius of curvature is
(a) 6 cm (b) 4.5 cm (c) 9 cm (d) 4 cm
9. An achromatic convergent doublet of two lenses in contact has a power of + 2D. The convex lens has
power + 5D. What is the ratio of dispersive powers of convergent and
divergent lenses?
(a) 2 : 5 (b) 3 : 5 (c) 5 : 2 (d) 5 : 3
10. A plano-convex lens of focal length 16 cm, is to be made of glass of refractive index 1.5. The radius
of curvature of the curved surface should be
(a) 8 cm (b) 12 cm (c) 16 cm (d) 24 cm
MCQ Ans. 1.c 2.d 3.d 4.c 5.d 6.b 7.c 8.b 9.b 10.c
Assertion Reasoning Questions
Directions: Each of these questions contains two statements, Assertion and Reason. Each of these questions also has
four alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer. You have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d)
given below.
(a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for assertion
(c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.

1. Assertion: The focal length of the convex mirror will increase, if the mirror is placed in water.
Reason: The focal length of a convex mirror of radius R is equal to, f = R/2.
2. Assertion: The image formed by a concave mirror is certainly real if the object is virtual.
Reason: The image formed by a concave mirror is certainly virtual if the object is real.
3. Assertion: The image of an extended object placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a mirror, will be
erect if the object is real but the image is virtual.
Reason: The image of an extended object, placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a mirror, will be erect
if the object is virtual but the image is real.
4. Assertion: Thin ilm such as soap bubble or a thin layer of oil on water show beautiful colours when
illuminated by white light.
Reason: It happens due to the interference of light re lected from upper and lower face of the thin ilm.
5. Assertion: No interference pattern is detected when two coherent sources are in initely close to each
other.
Reason: The fringe width is inversely proportional to the distance between the two sources.

Ans. 1.d,2.c ,3.b , 4.a , 5.a

Two marks questions with answers
1. A ray of light falls normally on the face of a prism of refractive index 1.5. Find a relation between angle of
prism and critical angle if there is no emergent ray.
Ans. At first face i = 0, r = 0
At second face r = C and the angle of emergence = 90º.
From the figure A + θ = C + θ = 90º
μ = 1/sinC, μ = 1.5
So C = 42º (approx.)
Hence A = C = 42º (approx.)
Q2. Diameter of the objective of telescope A is 5m and that of the other is 6m. What is the ratio of the light
gathered by A to that of B? Also compare the magnifications of the two telescopes provided the eye lenses
have same focal lengths.
Ans. Light gathering power is directly proportional to the square of the diameter of the objective. Hence ratio
of light gathering power = 52/62 = 25/36
Magnification of the telescope does not depend on the diameter of its objective. However, it depends upon
the focal length of the objective.
Q3. In a compound microscope the final image is obtained at a distance of distinct vision. If focal length of the
objective is 6cm and that of eye-lens is 4cm and length of the tube is 30cm, find the magnification of the
instrument.
Ans. M = DL/f0fe.
(25 x 30)/(4 x 6) = 125/4
Q4. If a jogger runs with constant speed towards a vehicle, how fast does the image of the jogger appear to
move in the rear-view mirror when (i) the vehicle is stationary (ii) the vehicle is moving with constant speed
towards jogger.
Ans. The speed of the image of the jogger appears to increase substantially though jogger is moving with
constant speed. Similar phenomenon is observed when vehicle is in motion.
Q5. The image of a small bulb fixed on the wall of a room is to be obtained on the opposite wall ‘s’ m away by
means of a large convex lens. What is the maximum possible focal length of the lens required?
Ans. For fixed distance ‘s’ between object and screen, the lens equation will give real solution for u = v = 2f, ‘f’
should not be greater than 4f = s. ∴ f = s/4
Three-mark questions with answers
Q1. The curved surface of a plano-convex lens is silvered. Let ' μ ' be the refractive index and 'R' the radius of
curvature of the curved surface, then the system behaves like a concave mirror. Find its radius.
Ans1. In this case, the rays of light starting from an object irst
(i) suffer refraction at plane surface and then
(ii) suffer re lection at concave mirror (polished concave surface) and inally
(iii) retrace out after refraction at plane surface
Let 'F' be the effective focal length of the system and 'fl' and 'fm' be the focal length of the lens and mirror
respectively, then
1/F = 1/fl + 1/fm + 1/fl = 2/fl + 1/fm.
Also, 1/fl = (μ- 1)(1/R) and 1/fm = 1/(R/2)
1/F = 2(μ - 1)/R + {1/(R/2)}
1/F = 2(μ - 1)/R + (2/R) = 2 μ /R => F = R/2 μ.
Radius of the equivalent concave mirror, R = 2F = R/ μ.
Q2. A glass sphere of 20 cm radius has a small bubble 8 cm from the centre. The bubble is seen along a
diameter of the sphere from the side on which it lies. How far from the surface will it appear to be, if
refractive index of glass is 1.5?
Ans2. Here, u = - 12 cm, R = -20 cm. v = ?
μ1 = 1.5, μ2 = 1 refer to figure. ( μ2 is used for image space and μ1 is used for object
space) where 'C' is the centre of curvature, 'O' is the position of object and 'I' is
the position of image.The expression for refraction from denser to rarer medium
is given below:
μ2/v - μ1/u = (μ2- μ1)/R
(1/v) - (1.5/-12) = (1 - 1.5)/-20
On solving it we get v = -10cm
Q3. An astronomical telescope having an objective of focal length 50 cm and an eyepiece of focal length 3 cm
is used to focus a very distant object. If the final image is formed at 25cm from the eyepiece, calculate the
length and the magnifying power of the telescope.
Ans3. When the object is at in inity then the object forms its image at its focus. This image must lie between
optical centre and focus of the eyepiece. So, length of the tube of the telescope,
L = vo + ue = fo + ue
 Magni ication produced by telescope
M = (fo/fe) x (1 + fe/D)
For eyepiece, ve = -25 cm and fe = + 3cm.
(1/ve) - (1/ue) = (1/fe)
or, - (1/25) - (1/ue) = 1/3
ue = -(75/28) cm
Now, L = fo + ue = 50 + (75/28) = 52.67 cm
and M = (fo/fe) x (1 + fe/D)
= (50/3) x (1 + 3/25) = 56/3
Q4. In young’s double slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity of light at a
point on the screen where path difference is λ is “K” units. Find the intensity of light at a point where path
difference is λ/3. [hint: 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 + 2 𝐼 𝐼 cos 𝜙) ]
Q5. A beam of light consisting of two wavelength 800 nm and 600 nm is used to obtain the interference
pattern in young’s double slit experiment on a screen placed 1.4 m away. If the separation between two slits
in 0.28 mm. Calculate the least distance from the central bright maximum, where the bright fringes of two
wavelength coincide. Ans. 12mm

Case Study
1. Astronomical Telescope
Astronomical telescope is made up of two lenses: objective lens and eyepiece separated by a certain distance
to see heavenly bodies. The focal length of the objective lens of astronomical telescope is 80 cm and that of
eye piece is 4 cm. The diameter of the moon is 3.0x105 km and the distance of of the moon from the Earth is
3.75x108 km.
(i) The inal image formed by the astronomical telescope is:
(a) Real and inverted (b) Virtual and inverted (c) Real and erect. (d) Virtual and erect
(ii) Magnifying power of the telescope is:
(a) 5 (b) 10 c) 15 d) 20
(iii) The length of the tube of the telescope is:
(a) 76 cm. (b) 86 cm (c) 7.6 m. (d) 84 cm
(iv) The magnifying power of telescope can be increased by using:
(a) Objective of large focal length. (b) Objective of small focal length
(c) Eye lens of large focal length. (d) All the above
Ans1. (i).b , (ii).d (iii).d (iv).a
2. If Young’s double slit experiment, apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive
index, the wavelength of light reduces to λ and fringe width also reduces
to β′=β/μ . The given igure shows a double-slit experiment in which coherent
monochromatic light of wavelength A from a distant source is incident upon the two
slits, each of width w (w >> λ) and the interference pattern is viewed on a distant
screen. A thin piece of glass of thickness t and refractive index n is placed between
one of the slits and the screen, perpendicular to the light path.
(i) In Young's double slit interference pattern, the fringe width
(a) can be changed only by changing the wavelength of incident light
(b) can be changed only by changing the separation between the two slits
(c) can be changed either by changing the wavelength or by changing the separation between two
sources
(d) is a universal constant and hence cannot be changed
(ii) If the width w of one of the slits is increased to 2w, the be the amplitude due to slit
(a) 1.5a (b) a/2 (c) 2a (d) no change
(iii) The fringe width in a Young’s double slit experiment can be increased if we decrease
(a) width of slits (b) separation of slits
(c) wavelength of light used (d) distance between slits and screen
(iv) In Young's double slit experiment, a third slit is made in between the two slits. Then
(a) fringes of unequal width are formed.
(b) contrast between bright and dark fringes is reduced
(c) intensity of fringes totally disappears
(d) only bright light is observed on the screen
(v) In Young's double slit experiment, if one of the slits is covered with a microscope cover slip, then
(a) fringe pattern disappears
(b) the screen just gets illuminated
(c) in the fringe pattern, the brightness of the bright fringes will decrease and the dark fringes will
become more dark
(d) bright fringes will be more bright and dark fringes will become darker.
Ans2. (i).c , (ii).c (iii).d (iv).b (v).a

Five-marks questions with answers

Q1. With the help of ray diagram explain the phenomenon of total internal re lection. Obtain the relation
between critical angle and refractive indices of two media. Draw ray diagram to show how right-angled
isosceles prism can be used to:
(i) Deviate the ray through 180°.
(ii) Deviate the ray through 90°.
(iii) Invert the ray.
Q2. Draw a labelled ray diagram of a compound microscope and explain its working. Derive an expression for
its magnifying power if inal image is formed at least distance of distant vision.
Q3. Diagrammatically show the phenomenon of refraction through a prism. De ine angle of deviation in this
case. Hence for a small angle of incidence derive the relation δ = (µ – 1) A.
Q4. Explain the following:
(a) Sometimes distant radio stations can be heard while nearby stations are not heard.
(b) If one of the slits in Youngs Double Slit Experiment is covered, what change would occur in the intensity
of light at the centre of the screen?
Q5. De ine diffraction. Deduce an expression for fringe width of the central maxima of the diffraction pattern,
produced by single slit illuminated with monochromatic light source.
Q6. Derive lens maker formula for a thin converging lens.
Q7. Describe an astronomical telescope and derive an expression for its magnifying power using a labelled
ray diagram. When inal image is formed at least distance of distinct vision.
Q8. Derive a relation between object and image distance in terms of refractive index of the medium and the
radius of curvature of the curved spherical surface.
 CHAPTER 11. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
MIND MAP

Dual nature
of radiation
and matter

Particle
Wave nature of
nature of radiation
radiation

Einstein’s photo
Photo electric De- Broglie waves(or) Matter waves
electric
effect
equation For a moving particle λ =
𝒉
=
𝒉
=
𝒉
𝒎𝒗 𝑷 𝟐𝒎𝑲
E = W0+ K.E max
𝒉 𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
For an electron λ = = Å
𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽 𝑽

KEY POINTS
 Photon It is a packet of energy. The rest mass of a photon is zero. They travel in a straight line. The
hc
energy of a photon, E  hv  Photons emitted from a source travel through space at the same speed.

The frequency of a photon does not change when it travels through different mediums, but its
wavelength changes in different mediums, as the velocity of a photon in different media is different.
 Work function of a metal. The minimum energy, which must be supplied to the electron so that it can
just come out of a metal surface, is called the work function of the metal. It is denoted by ω0. It depends
on the properties of the metal, the nature of the surface and impurities. Its unit is Joule (J) or eV.
 Photoelectric effect: When light of a suitable frequency is incident on a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface. These photo (light)- generated electrons are called photoelectrons, and
this phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect.
 Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations
Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate
of an evacuated glass/quartz tube enclosing two electrodes
(metal plates), current flows in the circuit (Fig.1). As soon as
the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also
stopped. These observations indicate that when ultraviolet
radiations fall on the emitter plate C, electrons are ejected
from it, which are attracted towards the positive collector
plate A by the electric field. The electrons flow through the
evacuated glass tube, resulting in the current flow.
Fig.1
Experimental study of the photoelectric effect
Fig.2 Experimental study of the photoelectric effect
 Threshold frequency. The minimum frequency (ν0), which the incident light must possess so as to
eject photoelectrons from a metal surface, is called the threshold frequency of the metal.
 Work function. The minimum energy required to eject an electron from a surface is called the work
function of the surface.
ω0 = h ν0
 Laws of photoelectric effect:
1. The photoelectric emission takes place from a metal surface when the frequency of incident light
is above its threshold frequency.
2. The photoelectric emission starts as soon as the light is incident on the metal surface.
3. The maximum kinetic energy with which an electron is emitted from a metal surface is
independent of the intensity of light and depends upon its frequency.
4. The number of photoelectrons emitted is independent of the frequency of the incident light and
depends only upon its intensity.

Fig.3 Variation of photoelectric current Fig. 4 Variation of stopping potential V0 with intensity of light
with frequency ν of incident radiation

Fig. 5 Variation of photoelectric current with Fig. 6 Variation of photoelectric current collector plate potential
for different with collector plate potential frequencies of incident radiation
for intensities of incident radiation.
 Stopping potential: It is the minimum value of the negative potential (V0), which should be applied
to the anode in a photocell so that the photoelectric current becomes zero.
1
eV 0  m  max
2
, where vmax is the max velocity with which the photoelectrons are emitted. It depends
2
on:- (i) The frequency of incident light and (ii) The nature of the cathode material.
For a given frequency of incident radiation, it is independent of its intensity. The stopping potential is
directly related to the maximum K.E of electrons emitted is
 1
eV0 m  2 max  K .E max
2
 Einstein’s photoelectric equation
1
m 2
 hv   0  hv  hv 0
2 max

According to the law of conservation of energy, a part of photon energy is used

to emit the electron from the metal surface and the remaining energy is used in giving a velocity to the
emitted electron. This part of the energy is equal to the kinetic energy of the emitted photo-electron.
hυ = hυ0 + K.E.Max (Ø 0 = hυ0 ) or K.E.Max = hυ ― hυ0
 Photoelectric effect depends on
1.Intensity of incident light. 2.The potential difference applied between the two electrodes.
3.The nature of the cathode material.
WAVE NATURE OF MATTER
 de - Broglie hypothesis: Both radiation and matter have a dual nature. A particle of momentum p is
associated with a de-Broglie wave of wavelength,
h h
 
p m
The above relation is called the de-Broglie relation, and the wavelength of the associated wave is called
the de-Broglie wavelength of the particle.
 de-Broglie wavelength of an electron: An electron of kinetic energy E possesses de-Broglie wavelength,
h

2 mE
If an electron is accelerated through a potential difference V, so as to acquire kinetic energy E = eV, then
h 12.27 0
  A
2meV V
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 mark)

1. Three metals have work functions in the ratio 2:3:4. Graphs are drawn for all between the
stopping potential and the incident frequency. The graphs have slopes in the ratio
(a) 2: 3: 4 (b) 4: 3: 2 (c)6: 4: 3 (d)1: 1: 1
2. When UV rays are incident on a metal plate, the photo-electric effect does not occur. It occurs
by the incidence of :
(a) infrared (b) X-rays (c) radio wave (d) Visible light
3. The magnitude of the de-Broglie wavelength (λ ) of an electron (e), proton(p), neutron (n)
and α - particle (α ) all having the same energy of MeV, in increasing order will
follow the sequence:
(a) λe , λ p , λn , λα (b) λα , λn , λp , λe (c) λe , λ n , λp , λα (d) λp , λ e , λα , λ n
4. The de-Broglie wavelength of an electron and the wavelength of a photon are the same.
The ratio between the energy of the photon and the momentum of the electron is
(a) h (b) c (c) 1/h (d) 1/c
5. A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same potential difference.
The ratio of wavelengths associated with proton and alpha particles respectively is
(a) 1: 2√2 (b) 2:1 (c) 2√2 :1 (d) 4:1
6. The graph shown in the figure shows the variation of photoelectric current (i) and the applied
voltage (V) for two different materials and for two different intensities of the incident
radiation. Identify the pairs of curves that correspond to (a) different materials and (b) the same
intensity of incident radiations.
 (a) Curve 1 and 3, Curve 2 and 4 (b) Curve 1 and 2, Curve 3 and 4
(c) Curve 1 and 4, Curve 2 and 3 (d) Curve 1 only, Curve 2 and 4

7. The de Broglie wavelength of nitrogen molecule at 27°C is λ. What will be it’s new
de Broglie wavelength at 327° C?
(a) 2λ (b) 3λ (c) √2 λ (d) √3 λ
8. A photon of wavelength 3100°A incident on a metal surface having work function 2 eV, the minimum
reverse potential to be applied to stop the emission of an electron will be
(a) 8 V (b) 6 V (c) 4 V (d) 2 V
9. What happens to the de Broglie wavelength of an electron revolving around the nucleus of a
hydrogen atom if it jumps from the first orbit to the second orbit?
(a) Double (b) Halved (c) Remains Same (d) None of the above
10. The work function for a photosensitive surface is 3·315 eV. The cut-off wavelength for
photoemission of electrons from this surface is : [CBSE-2024]
(a) 150 nm (b) 200 nm (c) 375 nm (d) 500 nm
ASSERTION & REASONING
Choose the correct options as:
(A) Both Assertion and reason are true, and reason is the correct explanation of assertion.
(B) Assertion and reason both are true, but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion.
(C) Assertion is true and reason is false.
(D) Both Assertion and reason are false.
11. Assertion (A): Photoelectric current increases with an increase in intensity of incident
radiation for a given frequency of incident radiation and the accelerating potential.
Reason (R): An increase in the intensity of incident radiation results in an increase in the
numberof photoelectrons emitted per second and hence an increase in the photocurrent.
12. Assertion (A): The kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted by a photosensitive surface
depends upon the frequency of the incident photon.
Reason (R): The ejection of electrons from the metallic surface is possible with the frequency
of incident photons below the threshold frequency.
13. Assertion(A): In photoelectric emission, all emitted electrons do not have the same kinetic
energy.
Reason(R): If radiation falling on the photosensitive surface of a metal has different
wavelengths, then the energy acquired by electrons absorbing photons of different
wavelengths will be different.
14. Assertion (A): The photon behaves like a particle.
Reason (R): If E and Pare the energy and momentum of the photon, then p = E / c.
15. Assertion(A): Photoelectric saturation current increases with the increase in frequency of incident
light.
Reason (R): The energy of incident photons increases with an increase in frequency, and as a result,
photoelectric current increases.
KEY and HINTS FOR Q-1 to Q-15
1) d slope = h/e 6) a I α intensity & V0 11) A
differ with nature of material
2) b For PEE , λ < λ0 7) c Apply λ α
𝟏
12) B
√𝑻
3) b Apply λ =
𝒉 8) d Eincident must be in eV 13) B
√𝟐𝒎𝑲 & apply photo electric equation
4) b λ = h/p & E photon= 9) a λαn 14) A
hc/λ
5) c Apply 10) C W0 in ev = 15) D
𝒉 Å
λ =
𝟐𝒎𝒒𝑽
 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)
Q1. A proton and α- particle is accelerated through different potentials V1 and V2
𝐕𝟏
respectively, so that they have the same de Broglie wavelengths. Find ? [CBSE-2024]
𝑽𝟐
𝒉
Ans:- We know that λ = and given that λ1 = λ2, = , m1V1q1 = m2V2q2
𝟐𝒎𝑽𝒒
= = =
Q2 Draw a graph showing the variation of stopping potential with a frequency of incident
radiation for two photosensitive materials having work functions W1 and W2 (W1 <
W2).
Sol:

Q3) Assume that the frequency of the radiation incident on a metal plate is greater than
its threshold frequency. How will the following change, if the incident radiation is
doubled? (i ) Kinetic energy of electrons (ii) Photoelectric current
Ans.(i) If the frequency of the incident radiation is doubled, it is increased. Hence, kinetic energy is
increased.
(ii) If the frequency of the incident radiation is doubled, the number of photoelectrons will not
change; the photoelectronic current will remain the same.
Q4) The work function for a certain metal is 4.2 eV. Will this metal give photoelectric emission
for incident radiation of wavelength 330 nm?
Ans : E = hc/λ =6.6×10—34 ×3×108/ 330 x10-9 = 3.767eV
But W0 = 4.2eV since E < W0, hence no photoelectric emission.
𝟏
Q5) Plot a graph showing a variation of de-Broglie wavelength λ versus √𝑽, where V is accelerating
the potential for two particles and carrying the same charge but of masses m1 and m2
(where m1 > 𝒎𝟐 )
𝒉
Ans:- Since λ =
𝟐𝒎𝑽𝒒
Slope α
√

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)

Q1) Show that the energy of the photon is 2 λ mc/h times the kinetic energy of the electron.
( / )
Ans:- For an electron λ = h/p and Kinetic energy (K electron ) = = =
/ 𝟐𝝀𝒎𝒄
The energy of the photon (Ephoton ) = , So, we will get = =
/ 𝒉
𝟐𝝀𝒎𝒄
E photon = [ ] k electron
𝒉
Q2) The following graph shows the variation of stopping potential, V0 with the frequency v of
the incident radiation for two photosensitive metals, X and Y:
(i) Which of the metals has a larger threshold wavelength? Give reason.
 (ii) Explain giving reason, which metal gives out electrons having larger kinetic energy for the
same wavelength of the incident radiation.
(iii) If the distance between the light source and metal X is halved, how will the kinetic energy of
electrons emitted from it change? Give reason.

Ans : (a) Metal- X has the largest wavelength since its threshold
frequency is less
(b) Metal-X , since kinetic energy = E-W0 , Here W0 is less for metal-X .
so electrons' kinetic energy is more.
(c) No change, since the kinetic energy of electrons does not depend on the distance between
Light source and metal.
Q3) Light of wavelength 2000 Å falls on an aluminium surface. In aluminium, 4.2 eV is required
to remove an electron. What is the kinetic energy of (a) the fastest and (b) the slowest
photoelectron?
Ans:- (i) Energy of incident photon = ev = ev = 6.2ev ,
Å
Given work function (W0) = 4.2ev
Maximum kinetic energy of electrons = E-W0 = 6.2- 4.2 = 2ev
(ii)The velocity of the slowest electron would be zero, hence the kinetic energy it possesses is
also zero.

Q5) de Broglie wavelength as a function of 1/√𝑲, for two particles of masses m1 and m2
are shown in the figure. Here, K is the energy of the moving particles. (CBSE-2024)

m2
m1
λ
𝟏
√𝐊
(a) What does the slope of a line represent? (b) Which of the two particles is heavier?
(c) Is this graph also valid for a photon? Justify your answer in each case.

𝒉 𝒉 𝟏
Ans: (a) λ = =[ ] (b) slope of m2 is more than mass m1 then m1 is heavier
√𝟐𝒎𝑲 √𝟐𝒎 √𝐊
𝒉
Slope = (c ) No, momentum p = √2𝑚𝑘 is not valid for photons.
√𝟐𝒎
CASE-BASED QUESTIONS
Q1. When a photon is incident on a metallic surface, it interacts with an atom in the metal and
transfers all its energy to one of the atom's electrons. This electron may then escape through the
electric field at the surface, which keeps less energetic electrons inside the metal. The emerging
electron then has energy equal to the energy of the photon minus the energy W0 lost inescaping the
metal. W0, the work function of the surface, is a material-dependent constant. Sinceelectrons also lose
energy in collisions with other electrons before emerging, we may only specify the maximum possible
energy for an electron liberated by the light of frequency (ʋ) from a metal. If the material work function
is W0, this maximum energy is Kmax = hʋ -W0.
(i) If photons of frequency ‘ ʋ ’ are incident on the surfaces of metals A and B of
ʋ ʋ
threshold frequencies and respectively, the ratio of the maximum kinetic energy of
𝟐 𝟑
electrons emitted from A to that from B (CBSE-2020)
(a) 2:3 (b ) 3:4 (c) 1:3 (d) √3 ∶ √2
(ii) A photocell connected in an electrical circuit is placed at a distance d from a
source of light. As a result, current I, flows in the circuit. What will be the current
 in the circuit when the distance is reduced to d/2? (ALL INDIA-2020)
(a) I (b) 2I (c) 4I (d) I/2
(iii) Which one of the following is the correct graph between the maximum kinetic
energy (K.E) of the emitted photoelectrons and the frequency of incident radiation
(v) for a given photosensitive surface? (CBSE-2024)

(iv) The photoelectric effect is based on the law of conservation of

(a) momentum (b) energy (c) angular momentum (d) mass
Q2) According to de-Broglie, a moving material particle sometimes acts as a wave and sometimes
as a particle or a wave is associated with a moving material particle, which controls the particle
in every respect. The wave associated with moving material particles is called matter wave or
de-Broglie wave, whose wavelength, called de-Broglie wavelength, is given by λ = h/mv.
(i) An electron, an α-particle, and a proton have the same kinetic energy. Which of these
particles has the shortest de Broglie wavelength? (NCERT)
(a) Electron (b) proton (c) α-particle (d) All the above
(ii) A body of mass 10kg splits into two pieces of masses 4kg and 6kg. what will be the
ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths associated with the two pieces?
(a) 2:3 (b) 3:2 (c ) 1:1 (d) 2:5
(iii) A n electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100V.What will be the de-
Broglie
the wavelength associated with it? (NCERT)
(a) 1.23Å (b) 0.123nm (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
(iv) A Graph drawn between the de-Broglie wavelength and momentum of a moving
particle will be
(a) Straight line passing through the origin (b)Rectangular Hyperbola
(c ) Parabola (d) All the above

KEY and HINTS TO CASE-BASED QUESTIONS

Q1) i) b K.E max = E - w0 Q2) i) c Apply λ =
𝒉
√𝟐𝒎𝑲
ii) c Iα ii) c Here p= const. & λ =
iii) b K.E max = hʋ - w0 iii) c λ =
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
Å
√𝑽
iv) b Law of cons. Of energy iv) b λα
LONG QUESTIONS
1. A proton, deuteron and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same potential
difference. Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths associated with them.
(Hint: λ = and Answer = 2√2 : 2: 1)
2. The work function of cesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency 6 x 1014 Hz is
incident on the metal surface, photoemission of electrons occurs. What is the
(a) Maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons, (b) Stopping potential, and
(c) Maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons? (NCERT)
3. In an experiment on the photoelectric effect, the slope of the cut-off voltage versus
frequency of incident light is found to be 4.12 × 10–15 V s. Calculate the value of Planck’s
constant.
( Hint : slope = tanθ = h/e )
4. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. How can we explain that Einstein’s photo-electric
equation is correct?
5. The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3 × 1014 Hz. If the light frequency
8.2 × 1014 Hz is incident on the metal, predicting the cutoff voltage for the photoelectric emission.
Answer = 2.0292 V (NCERT)
6. Show that the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is equal to the de Broglie
wavelength of its quantum (photon). (NCERT]

Chapter 12 & 13 ATOM AND NUCLEI

MIND MAP OF TOPICS
 Atoms

Atomic Models

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom DE Broglie’s

Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Explanation of
Disctance of Closest Approach, 𝑟 =
Bohr’s 2nd Postulate
r= , V=
Impact Parameter,
1 𝑍𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃/2 E=-
𝑏=
4𝜋𝜖 𝐾
E = -(13.6) 𝑒𝑉

Atomic Spectra
The Line Spectra of the Hydrogen Atom
1 2𝜋 𝑚𝐾 𝑍 𝑒 1 1
= −
𝜆 𝑐ℎ 𝑛 𝑛

For hydrogen Z=1,ṽ = 𝑅 −

Nuclei

Composition of
Nuclear Force Nuclear Energy
Nucleus

Size of the Nucleus Fission

R ∝ A1/3 𝑈+ 𝑛→ 𝐵𝑎 + 𝐾𝑟 + 3 𝑛 + 210𝑀𝑒𝑉

Mass-Energy Fusion
E=mc2 𝐻 + 𝐻 → 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Nuclear Binding Energy

Binding energy, Eb = [Zmp + (A – Z) mn – mN]c2

STUDY MATERIAL
Atom is an electrically neutral and therefore contains an equal amount of positive and
negative charges.
Rutherford's model—
Rutherford's α-particle scattering
experiment
Rutherford performed experiments on the
scattering of alpha particles by extremely thin
gold foils. The collimated beam is allowed to
fall on a thin gold foil of thickness of the order
of 2.1 X 10-7 m.

Experimental set up used by Rutherford and his collaborators, Geiger and Marsden
Observations-
(i) Most of the α-particles pass through the foil straight
away undeflected.
(ii) Some of them are deflected through small angles.
(iii) A few α-particles (1 in 1000) are deflected through
the angle more than 90o.
(iv) A few α -particles (very few) returned back i.e.
deflected by 180o.
(v) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension).

Distance of Closest Approach - At a certain distance r0 from the nucleus, whole of the KE of α-particle
converts into electrostatic potential energy and α- particle cannot go farther close to nucleus, this distance (r0)
is called distance of closest approach.

𝑟 = , KE of α- particle in term of ro is given by K =

ℇ ℇ

Impact parameter- The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of a-particle from the central line of the
nucleus of the atom is called impact parameter (b).
1 𝑍𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃/2
𝑏=
4𝜋𝜖 𝐾

where, K is KE of α-particle, θ is scattering angle, Z is atomic number of the nucleus and e is charge of nucleus.

After Rutherford's scattering of α-particles experiment, following Conclusions were made as regard
atomic structure:
(i)Most of the mass and all of the charge of an atom concentrated in a very small region is called atomic
nucleus.
(ii) Nucleus is positively charged and it’s size is of the order of 10–15 m = 1 fermi.
(iii)In an atom there is maximum empty space and the electrons revolve around the nucleus in the same way
as the planets revolve around the sun.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
(i) It Could not explained stability of atom clearly.
(ii) It unable to explain line spectrum.
Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom: Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts and gave his theory
in the form of three postulates. These are:
(i) Bohr‘s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the
emission of radiant energy, contrary to the predictions of electromagnetic theory.
(ii) Bohr‘s second postulate defines stable orbits. This postulate states that the electron revolves around the
nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is equal to some integral multiple of h/2π, where
h is the Planck‘s constant (= 6.6 x 10-34 Js).
Thus, the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantised, i. e. L = nh/2π.
As, angular momentum of electron (L) = mvr
∴ For any permitted (stationary) orbit, mvr = nh/2π where, n = any positive integer i.e. 1, 2, 3, …. It is also
called principal quantum number.
(iii) Bohr‘s third postulate states that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified stationary-
radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the
energy difference between the initial and final states. The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by hν
=Ef– Ei
where, Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final states and Ef > Ei .
On the basis of these postulates, we can calculate
(a)Radii of Bohr’s stationary orbits

r=

r∝𝑛 i.e. radii of stationary orbits are in the ratio 1:4:9….

The stationary orbits are not equally spaced.
(b)Velocity of electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit
V = , V =
In the first stationary orbit of hydrogen atom, orbital velocity of electron is 2.2 X 106 m/s.
(c)Frequency of electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit
ν =
(d)Total energy of electron in Bohr’s stationary orbit
First postulate of Bohr’s model

= ,

𝑚𝑣 = ,

K.E of electron = 𝑚𝑣 =

Potential energy of electron = potential x charge =

Total Energy of electron in the orbit , E =K.E.+P.E.= ……….(1)

Putting r = in equation(1)

we get E=-

Substituting the standard values, we get

E = -(13.6) 𝑒𝑉
 .
For hydrogen atom, Z = I, E = - 𝑒𝑉

Total energy of electron in a stationary orbit is negative, which means the electron is bound to the nucleus
and is not free to leave it.
Relation between Kinetic energy ,Potential energy and Total energy--
K.E.= -T.E. and P.E. = -2K.E.
(e)Origin of spectral lines
If = total energy of electron in the inner (n1th) orbit
If 𝐸 =total energy of electron in the inner (n2th) orbit
When an electron jumps from an outer to an inner orbit, the energy of radiation emitted according to Bohr’s
third postulate, is hv = E2 – E1
hv = - +

1 2𝜋 𝑚𝐾 𝑍 𝑒 1 1
= −
𝜆 𝑐ℎ 𝑛 𝑛
= ṽ is called wave number of radiation emitted

= 𝑅 = 1.097 x107m-1, is called Rydberg constant,

For hydrogen Z=1, ṽ = 𝑅 −

The atomic Hydrogen emits a line spectrum consisting of

various series.
.
As E = - 𝑒𝑉
For ground state n=1
For first excited state n=2
For second excited state n=3
For third excited state n=4 and so on.

Limitations of Bohr’s model -Bohr’s model is applicable only to hydrogenic (single electron) atoms.
It cannot be extended to even two electron atoms such as helium.
This model is also unable to explain for the relative intensities of the frequencies emitted even by hydrogenic
atoms.
MCQ’s type questions
1. What was the order of thickness of gold foil on which beam of alpha particles allowed to fall in the Geiger-
Marsden Experiment?
(a) 10-3m (b) 10-9m (c) 10-7m (d) 10-5m
2. Which spectral series of hydrogen lie in the UV region?
(a) Paschen (b) Lyman (c) Brackett (d) Balmer
3. When alpha particles are sent through a thin gold foil, most of them go straight through the foil, because
(a) Alpha particles are positively charged
(b) Mass of the alpha particle is more than mass of the electron
(c) Most of the part of an atom is empty space
(d) Alpha particles moves with high velocity
4. In equation En=-13.6/n2, what does this negative sign indicates.
(a) Electrons are free to move
(b) The electron is bound to the nucleus.
(c) Kinetic energy is equal to potential energy
(d) Atom is radiating energy
5. Energy required to excite an electron in a hydrogen atom from its ground state to its first excited state is .
(a) 6.2 eV (b) 3.40 eV (c) 10.2 eV (d) -13.6 eV
Ans: 1c 2b 3 c 4b 5c
SHORTS ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)
1. The ground state energy of a hydrogen atom is -13.6eV. What are the kinetic and potential
energies of the electron in this state.
2. Write two important limitations of Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom.
3. The radius of inner most electron orbit of hydrogen atom is 5.1 x 10-11m. What is the radius of
orbit in second excited state ?
4. In α particle scattering experiment by a thin gold foil, draw a graph between no. of α particles
scattered and scattering angle.
Ans. 1) K.E. = -(TE)=13.6eV , PE = 27.2eV
2)cannot explain stability of atom, could not explain presence of nucleus
3)r3= 4.77 x 10 -10m
SHORTS ANSWER QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)
1. A difference of 2.3eV separates two energy levels in an atom. What is the frequency of radiation emitted
when the atom makes a transition from the upper level to the lower level?
2. Prove that the speed of election in the ground state of a hydrogen atom is equal to 1/137 times the speed of
light in vacuum for innermost orbit.
3. The radius of the innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3 × 10 -11 m. What is the radius of orbit
in the second excited state?
Ans: 1)frequency = E/h = 5.5 x 1014 Hz
2) v = 2π KZe2/ nh , for H atom, Z=1, n=1, for Li++ Z=3, n=2
ASSERTION - REASON TYPE
Directions: These questions consist of two statements, each printed as Assertion and Reason. While
answering these questions, you are required to choose any one of the following four responses.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
1.Assertion:The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
Reason:The mass of a nucleus can be either less than or more than the sum of the masses of nucleons
present in it.
Ans. c
Assertion : The force of repulsion between atomic nucleus and α-particle varies with distance according to
inverse square law.
Reason : Rutherford did α-particle scattering experiment.
Ans. b
2. Assertion : According to classical theory the proposed path of an electron in Rutherford atom model
will be parabolic.
Reason : According to electromagnetic theory an accelerated particle continuously emits radiation.
Ans.d
Case Study Question 1
By performing scattering experiments in which fast electrons, instead of α- particles, are projectiles that
bombard targets made up of various elements, the sizes of nuclei of various elements have been accurately
measured. It has been found that a nucleus of mass number A has a radius R = R0 A1/3, where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15
m. This means the volume of the nucleus, which is proportional to R3 is proportional to A. Thus, the density of
nucleus is a constant, independent of A, for all nuclei. Different nuclei are likes drop of liquid of constant
density. The density of nuclear matter is approximately 2.3 × 1017 kgm–3. This density is very large compared
to ordinary matter, say water, which is 103 kg m–3. This is understandable, as we have already seen that most
of the atom is empty. Ordinary matter consisting of atoms has a large amount of empty space.
Q1. Relative density of nucleus with respect to water is
a) 2.3 × 1017 kgm–3 b) 2.3 × 1014 kgm–3
c) 23 × 1017 kgm–3 d) .23 × 1017 kgm–3
Q2. From R = R0 A1/3 how can we conclude that density of almost all the nucleus is same
a) Volume being proportional to square of R density becomes independent of mass number A
b) Volume being proportional to cube of R density becomes independent of mass number A
c) Volume being proportional to R density becomes independent of mass number A
d) Density has no relation with R
Q3. What is the kinetic energy of α-particles bombarded towards the gold nucleus in Geiger and Marsden
classic experiment?
a) 8.8x10-13 Joule b) 8.8x10-15 Joule
c ) 8.8x10 Joule
-23 d)8.5 x 10-13 Joule
Q4. What is the range of volume of hydrogen nucleus?
a) 10-45m. b) 10-30m.
c) 10-15m. d) 10-60m.
Ans. 1b 2b 3a 4a
NUCLEUS
The entire positive charge and nearly the entire mass of atom is concentrated in a very small space called the
nucleus of an atom. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. They are called nucleons.
Terms Related to Nucleus
(i) Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the element is called the atomic
number (Z) of the element.
(ii) Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons present inside the nucleus of an atom of
the element is called the mass number (A) of the element.
(iii) Nuclear Size: The radius of the nucleus R ∝ A1/3 ⇒ R = Ro A1/3 where Ro = 1.1 x 10-15 m is an empirical
constant.
(iv) Nuclear Density: Nuclear density is independent of mass number and therefore same for all nuclei.
ρ = mass of nucleus / volume of nucleus ⇒ ρ = 3m / 4π R3 o where, m = average mass of a nucleon.
(v) Atomic Mass Unit: It is defined as 1 / 12th the mass of the carbon nucleus. It is abbreviated as amu
and often denoted by u.
Thus 1 amu = 1.992678 x 10-26 / 12 kg = 1.6 x 10-27 kg = 931 Me V /c2
(vi) Isotopes The atoms of an element having the same atomic number but different mass numbers. are
called isotopes. e.g., 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 are isotopes of hydrogen
(vii) Isobars: The atoms of different elements having the same mass numbers but different atomic
numbers, are called isobars. e.g., 1H3, 2He3 and 10Na22, 10Ne22 are isobars.
(viii) Isotones The atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers and different mass
numbers but having the same number of neutrons, are called isotones. e.g., 1H3, 2He4 and 6C14, 8O16
are isobars.
(ix) Isomers: Atoms having the same mass number and the same atomic number but different
radioactive properties are called isomers,
(x) Nuclear Force: The force acting inside the nucleus or acting between nucleons is called nuclear
force.
(a) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.
(b) It is a very short range attractive force.
(c) It is non-central.
(d)non-conservative force.
(e) It is neither gravitational nor electrostatic force.
 (f) It is independent of charge.
(g) It is 102 times that of electrostatic force and 1038 times that of gravitational force. According to
the Yukawa, the nuclear force acts between the nucleons due to the continuous exchange of
meson particles.
Mass Defect : The difference between the sum of masses of all nucleons (M) mass of the nucleus (m) is
called mass defect.
Mass Defect (Δm) = M – m = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – mN]
Nuclear Binding Energy: The minimum energy required to separate the nucleons up to an infinite distance
from the nucleus, is called nuclear binding energy.
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon = Nuclear binding energy / Total number of nucleons
Binding energy, Eb = [Zmp + (A – Z) mn – mN]c2
Important inferences from of the average
binding energy curve:
1. BE rises as the mass number increases until it
reaches a maximum value of 8.8 MeV for A= 56
(iron) and then it slowly decreases.
2. The average binding energy per nucleon is
about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass
numbers between A = 40 and 120. These elements are
comparatively more stable and not radioactive.
3. For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces
slowly and BE for uranium is about 7.6 MeV. They are unstable and radioactive.
4. If two light nuclei with A < 28 combine with a nucleus with A < 56, the binding energy per nucleon is more
for the final nucleus than the initial nuclei. Thus, if the lighter elements combine to produce a nucleus of
medium value A, a large amount of energy will be released. This is the basis of nuclear fusion and is the
principle of the hydrogen bomb.
5. If a nucleus of the heavy element is split (nuclear fission) into two or more nuclei of medium value A, the
energy released would again be large. The atom bomb is based on this principle and huge energy of atom
bombs comes from this fission when it is uncontrolled.
6. The nuclei containing even number of protons and an even number of neutrons are the most stable. The
nuclei containing the odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons are the most instable.
Variation of Potential energy between a pair of Nucleons as a function
of their separation
* Potential energy is minimum at a distance ro = 0.8fm.
* Nuclear force is attractive for distance larger than ro.
* Nuclear force is repulsive for distance less than ro.

Differences between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

 When the nucleus of an atom splits into lighter Nuclear fusion is a reaction
nuclei through a nuclear reaction, the process is through which two or more light
termed nuclear fission. nuclei collide with each other to form
a heavier nucleus.
Fission reactions do not occur in nature naturally Fusion reactions occur in stars and
the sun
When each atom splits, a tremendous amount of The energy released during
energy is released nuclear fusion is several times greater
than the energy released during
nuclear fission.
Atomic bomb works on the principle of nuclear Hydrogen bomb works on the
fission principle of nuclear fusion.
𝑈+ 𝑛→ 𝐵𝑎 + 𝐾𝑟 + 3 𝑛 + 210𝑀𝑒𝑉 𝐻 + 𝐻 → 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

MCQ’s Type Questions

1. For the shortest wavelength present in the Paschen series of spectral lines 1/λ =R [ 1/n22 -1/n12]
(a) n2= 3, n1 =∞ (b) n2=∞, n1= 3 (c) n2=3 , n1=1 (d) none of these
2. Nuclear forces exists between
(a) neutron – neutron (b) proton – proton
(c) neutron – proton (d) all of these
3. Find the true statement.
a) Nuclear charge is dependent on the charge
b) The nuclear force is weaker than the electromagnetic force
c) The nuclear force is independent of charge
d) The nuclear force is weaker than the gravitational force
4. Which isotope below has the highest binding energy?
a) 4He b) 16O c) 32S d) 55Mn
5. When the number of nucleons in nuclei increases, the binding energy per nucleon numerically
(a) increases continuously with mass number.
(b) decreases continuously with mass number.
(c) First increases and then decreases with increase of mass number.
(d) Remains constant with mass number.
Ans 1a 2d 3c 4a 5c
ASSERTION -REASON TYPE
Directions: These questions consist of two statements, each printed as Assertion and Reason. While
answering these questions, you are required to choose any one of the following four responses.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
1.Assertion: Density of all the nuclei is same.
Reason: Neutrons are slightly more massive than protons. (Ans. b)
2. Assertion: Neutrons penetrate matter more readily as compared to protons.
Reason: Radius of nucleus is directly proportional to the cube root of mass number. (Ans. b)
3.Assertion: Mass number of a nucleus may be equal to its atomic number
Reason: . The mass number of a nucleus is always less than its atomic number (Ans. c)
4. Assertion: Energy is released when heavy nuclei undergo fission or light nuclei undergo fusion.
Reason: For heavy nuclei, binding energy per nucleon increases with increasing Z while for light nuclei it
decreases with increasing Z. (Ans. c)
 VERY SHORTS QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)
1. Two nuclei have mass no. in ratio 1:8. What is the ratio of their nuclear radii?
2. 2He4 and 1H3 have same mass no. Do they have same binding energy?
3. Write two distinguish features of nuclear forces.
Ans: 1) 1:2 2) 1H3 has more binding energy.
SHORTS QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)
1.Two nuclei have the mass number in the ratio of 27: 125, what is the ratio of their nuclear radii?
2. Draw a graph showing the variation of the potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their
separation to indicate the region in which the nuclear force is attractive and repulsive.
3. State two characteristic properties of nuclear force.
4. Calculate the energy released in MeV in the following nuclear reaction:
𝑈→ 𝑇ℎ + 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑄
[Given Mass of 𝑈 = 238.05079𝑢,
Mass of 𝑇ℎ = 234.043630𝑢,
Mass of 𝐻𝑒 = 4.002600𝑢, 1u=931.5MeV/c2
Ans. 1) R1/R2 =3:5
2) correct graph. The potential energy is minimum at a distance 𝑟0 of about 0.8𝑓𝑚.
3) charge independent and strongest force in nature.
4) Energy released 4.24764 MeV
Case Study Question 2:
Neutrons and protons are identical particle in the sense that their masses are nearly the same and the force,
called nuclear force, does into distinguish them. Nuclear force is the strongest force. Stability of nucleus is
determined by the neutron proton ratio or mass defect or packing fraction. Shape of nucleus is calculated by
quadrupole moment and spin of nucleus depends on even and odd mass number. Volume of nucleus depends
on the mass number. Whole mass of the atom (nearly 99%) is centred at the nucleus.
(i) The correct statements about the nuclear force is/are
(a) charge independent (b) short range force
(c) non-conservative force (d) all of these.
(ii) The range of nuclear force is the order of
(a) 2 x 10-10 m (b) 1.5 x 10-20 m
(c) 1.2 x 10 m
-4 (d) 1.4 x 10-15 m
(iii) A force between two protons is same as the force between proton and neutron. The nature of the
force is
(a) electrical force (b) weak nuclear force(c) gravitational force(d) strong nuclear force
(iv) All the nucleons in an atom are held by
(a) nuclear forces (b) Van der Waal’s forces
(c) tensor forces (d) coulomb forces

Ans: 1) d 2)d 3)d 4)a

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS (MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS)
Mind Map
 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

Classification of Types of
Materials Conductor

Intrinsic Extrinsic
Energy Bands
Semiconductor Semiconductor

p-n Junction

Semiconductor
Diode

Junction Diode as
a Rectifier

Electronic Device: The device whose functioning is based on controlled movement of electrons through it, is
called an electronic device.
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, CONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS:
Types of Solids Conductors Semiconductors Insulators
Resistivity (⍴) 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m 10–5 – 106 Ω m 1011 – 1019 Ω m
Conductivity (σ) 102 – 108 S m–1 105 – 10–6 S m–1 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1
Energy Bands in Solids: There are very large number of closely placed energy levels in a certain (small) range,
which is called energy band.
i)Valence Band: The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called the
valence band or the band formed by filled energy levels is known as Valence Band.
ii)Conduction Band: The energy band which includes conducting (free) electrons is called conduction band (CB). It
lies above the valence band and is either partially filled or empty.
Band gap or Forbidden Energy gap: The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the
conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap Eg).

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ACCORDING TO ENERGY BAND THEORY:

(a) Conductors: In conductors, either the conduction band is partially illed and the valance band is partially
empty or the conduction and valance bands overlap.
 (b) Insulators: In insulators, a large band gap Eg exists (Eg > 3 eV). There are no electrons in the
conduction band, and therefore no electrical conduction is possible even by using thermal excitation.
(c) Semiconductors: Here a inite but small band gap (Eg < 3 eV) exists. Because of the small band gap,
at room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire enough energy to cross the
energy gap and enter the conduction band.

Types of Semi-conductors:
(i) Intrinsic Semiconductor: These are the pure semiconductors in
which the electrical conductivity is totally governed by the electrons
excited from the valence band to the conduction band and in which
no impurity atoms are added to increase their conductivity. In an
intrinsic semiconductor-
ne = nh = ni where ne = the free electron density in conduction
band, nh = the hole density in valence band, and ni = the intrinsic carrier concentration.
(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductors: A Semiconductor doped with suitable impurity atoms to increase its
conductivity is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors: Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types:

(i) n-type semiconductors: When a semiconductor of Group IV (tetra valent) such as Si or Ge is doped with
a penta-valent impurity (Group V elements such as P, As or Sb), n– type semiconductor is formed. When
germanium (Ge) is doped with arsenic (As), the four valence electrons of As form covalent bonds with four
Ge atoms and the ifth electron of As atom is loosely bound.

In an N-type semiconductor, free electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are the minority
charge carriers. If n and p represent the electron and hole concentrations respectively in N-type
semiconductor, then ne >> nh and np = ni pi = ni2 where ni and pi are the intrinsic carrier concentrations.
ii) P - Type Semiconductors: When a
semiconductor of Group IV (tetra valent) such as Si
or Ge is doped with a tri-valent impurity (Group III
elements such as In, B or Ga), P–type
semiconductor is formed. When germanium (Ge) is
doped with indium (In), the three valence electrons
of In form three covalent bonds with three Ge
atoms. The vacancy that exists with the fourth
covalent bond with fourth Ge atom constitutes a
hole.
In a P–type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge carriers and the electrons are the minority charge
carriers. nh >> ne . It can be shown that, np = ni pi = ni2

Energy bands of (a) n-type semiconductor at T > 0K, (b) p-type semiconductor at T > 0K.
PN Junction Diode: When a P-type semiconductor is joined to a N-type
semiconductor such that the crystal structure remains continuous at the
boundary, the resulting arrangement is called a PN junction diode or a
semiconductor diode or a crystal diode.
Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction:
diffusion and drift.
 Due to the concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides, holes
diffuse from p-side to n-side (p→ n) and electrons diffuse from n-
side to p-side (n→ p). This motion of charge carries gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.
 As the electrons continue to diffuse from (n → p), a layer of positive charge on n-side of the junction is
developed and the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge on the p-side of the junction is
developed.
 The space-charge region on either side of the junction in which no mobile charge carriers are present is
known as depletion region.
 Also, an electric ield develops, directed from the p-side to the n-side of the junction. This is because of
the positive space-charge region on the n-side and the negative space-charge region on the p-side of
the junction.
 The current constituted due to the movement of electrons from the p-side to the n-side and holes from
the n-side to the p-side under the effect of barrier electric ield of depletion region, is called as drift
current. Direction of drift current starts is opposite to that of diffusion current.
 At equilibrium, diffusion current = drift current
 Barrier Potential:The potential barrier in the p-n junction diode is the barrier which does not allow
charge low across the junction normally.

p-n junction diode under forward bias: When the positive terminal of
the battery is connected to P-region and negative terminal is connected to
N-region, then the PN junction diode is said to be forward-biased.
 The direction of the applied voltage (V) being opposite to that of the
built-in potential (V0), the depletion layer’s width decreases and
the barrier height reduce.
 A current is thus set up in the junction diode and is of the order of
milli-amperes.
p-n junction diode under reverse bias: When the negative terminal of the
battery is connected to P-region and positive terminal is connected to N-region,
then the PN junction diode is said to be reverse-biased.
 The direction of the applied voltage (V) being the same as that of the
built-in potential (V0), the depletion layer’s width widens and the
barrier height increases. Hence, the diffusion current decreases to a
great extent.
 Due to the direction of the electric ield, the electrons in the p-side and holes in the n-side are swept to
their majority zones, if they come close to the junction. This causes drift current. The drift current is
usually of a few μA.
Characteristics of a p–n junction diode: As can be seen in the graph above, in the forward biased diode,
initially the current increases almost negligibly till a certain value is reached.
Post that, the current increases exponentially even for a small increase in diode bias voltage. This voltage is
the threshold voltage. (~0.7 V for silicon diode and ~ 0.3 V for germanium diode)

 In the reverse biased diode, the current is very small and almost remains constant with a change in bias
voltage. It is the Reverse saturation current. In some cases, beyond the breakdown voltage, the current
increases suddenly.
 Hence, from this experiment, we can conclude that the p-n junction diode allows the low of current
only in one direction, i.e. forward-bias. Also, the forward bias resistance is lower than the reverse bias
resistance.
 For diodes, we de ine a quantity called dynamic resistance as the ratio of small change in voltage ∆V to a
small change in current ∆I. r = ∆V/ ∆I
APPLICATION OF JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER: A recti ier is an electronic device that converts an
alternating current into a direct current by using one or more P-N junction diodes. The conversion of ac into dc
is called the recti ication.
(1) Half-wave Recti ier: The circuit diagram for junction diode as half wave recti ier is shown in
the following ig.

 The secondary of a transformer supplies the desired ac voltage across terminals A and B. When
the voltage at A is positive, the diode is forward biased and it conducts.
 When A is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and it does not conduct. The reverse saturation
current of a diode is negligible and can be considered equal to zero for practical purposes.
 Therefore, in the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor RL and we
get an output voltage, as shown in Fig. (b), whereas there is no current in the negative half-
cycle. In the next positive half-cycle, again we get the output voltage. Thus, the output voltage,
though still varying, is restricted to only one direction, and is said to be recti ied. Since the
recti ied output of this circuit is only for half of the input ac wave, it is called as half-wave
recti ier.
(2) Full Wave Recti ier: The circuit diagram for junction diode as full wave recti ier is shown
in the following ig.
  Suppose the input voltage to A with respect to the centre tap at any instant is positive, diode D1 gets
forward biased and conducts (while D2 being reverse biased is not conducting). Hence, during this
positive half cycle we get an output current.
 In the course of the ac cycle when the voltage at A becomes negative with respect to centre tap, the
voltage at B would be positive. In this part of the cycle diode D1 would not conduct but diode D2 would,
giving an output current and output voltage (across RL) during the negative half cycle of the input ac.
Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the negative half of the cycle.
Multiple Choice Questions(MCQs)
1.The energy gap is maximum in:
(a) metals (b) superconductors (c) insulators (d) semiconductors
2. In a semiconductor
(a) there are no free electrons at 0 K
(b) there are no free electrons at any temperature
(c) the number of free electrons increases with pressure
(d) the number of free electrons is more than that in a conductor
3.The forbidden gap for germanium is,
a) 0.12 eV b) 0.72 eV c) 7.2 eV d) None of these
4. Let nh and ne be the number of holes and conduction electrons in an extrinsic semiconductor. Then
(a) nh > ne (b) nh = ne (c) nh < ne (d) nh ≠ ne
5. When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the low of current across the junction is mainly due to
a) drifting of charges b) diffusion of charges
c) both drift and diffusion of charges d) minority charge carriers
6. In an n-type silicon, which of the following statement is true:
(a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
(b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(c) Holes are minority carries and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(d) Holes are majority carries and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
7. In a full wave recti ier, input ac current has a frequency ‘ν’. The output frequency of current is
(a) ν /2 (b) ν (c) 2 ν (d) None of these
8. The reverse current shows a sudden increase at the voltage named by-
(a)Biasing Voltage (b) Reverse Voltage (c) Breakdown Voltage (d)Knee Voltage
9. In a full wave recti ier circuit operating from 50 Hz mains frequency, the frequency in the output
wave-form would be
(a) 50 Hz (b) 100 Hz (c) 25 Hz (d) 150 Hz
10. In which of the following igures, the p-n diode is forward biased.
ANSWERS: 1(c) 2(a) 3(b) 4(d) 5(b) 6(c) 7(c) 8(c) 9(b) 10(c)

Assertion and Reasoning Questions

Directions : In the following questions, A statement of Assertion (A) is followed by a statement
of Reason (R). Mark the correct choice as.
A. If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
B. If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
C. If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
D. If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
1. Assertion: A Pure semiconductor has negative temperature coef icient of resistance.
Reason: On raising the temperature, more charge carriers are released, conductance increases and
resistance decreases.
2. Assertion: The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with temperature.
Reason: The atoms of a semiconductor vibrate with larger amplitude at higher temperature there by
increasing its resistivity.
3.Assertion (A): If the temperature of a semiconductor is increased then its conductivity increases.
Reason (R): The energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very small.
4. Assertion: The p-n junction diode primarily allows the low of current only in one direction
(forward bias)
Reason: The forward bias resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias resistance.
5. Assertion: If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence band, all electrons in
the valence band remain bound and no free electrons are available in the conduction
band. Then the material behaves as an insulator.
Reason: Resistance of insulators is very low.
Answer: 1(A) 2(C) 3(A) 4(A) 5(C)

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 MARKS)

1.What is an ideal p-n junction diode? Draw V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode.
2. Why does the reverse current show a sudden increase at the critical voltage?
3. How does the width of the depletion layer of a p-n junction diode change when the reverse bias
is decreased? Why is the current under reverse bias almost independent of the applied potential
up to a critical voltage?
4. With the help of energy band diagrams, distinguish between metals, semiconductors and insulators.
5. Describe brie ly, with the help of a diagram, the role of two important processes involved in the formation
of p-n junction.
6. Write the characteristics of a p-n junction which make it suitable for recti ication.
7. Piece of copper and of silicon are initially at room temperature. Both are heated to temperature T. What
will be the effect on their conductivity.
8. If a small voltage is applied to a p-n junction diode how will the barrier potential be affected when it is (i)
forward biased, and (ii) reverse biased?
9. Why does the conductivity of a semiconductor change with temperature?
10. Why cannot we take one slab of p-type semiconductor and physically join it to another slab of n-
type semiconductor to get p-n junction
Hints:- 2. Because, a large number of covalent bonds break, resulting in availability of large number of charge
carriers
3. Decreases; as the current in reverse bias is due to minority charge carriers
6. Unidirectional property
7. Decreases, increases
8. As continuous contact at the atomic level will not be possible
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARKS)
1.Explain how a p-n junction diode works in forward and reverse bias? Draw the corresponding circuit
diagrams.
2. What is the main difference between the energy band diagrams of n-type and p-type
semiconductors? Draw their energy band diagrams.
3. With the help of a circuit diagram, explain the working of a junction diode as a half wave recti ier.
Draw its input and output waveforms.
4. With the help of a circuit diagram, explain the working of a junction diode as a full wave recti ier. Draw its
input and output waveforms.
5. Draw the energy band diagrams of p-type and n-type semiconductors.

Case Study Based Questions:

There are different techniques of fabrication of p-n junction. In one such technique, called fused junction
techniques, an aluminium ilm is kept on the wafer of n-type semiconductor and the combination is then
heated to a high temperature (about 600oC). As a result, aluminium fused into Silicon and produces p-type
semiconductor and in this way a p-n junction is formed.
i) When a p-n junction is reverse biased, then
a) No current lows. b) Height of potential barrier is decreased.
c) The depletion region is reduced. d) Height of potential barrier is increased.
ii) The cause of potential barrier in p-n junction is:
a) Depletion of positive charges near the junction.
b) Concentration of –ve charges near the junction.
c) Concentration of +ve charges near the junction.
d) Concentration of +ve and –ve charges near the junction.
iii) The circuit has two oppositely connected ideal diodes in parallel. What is the
current lowing in the circuit?

a) 1.17 A b) 2.0 A c) 2.5 A d) 1.33 A

iv) When a p-n junction is forward biased, then
a) Only diffusion current lows.
b) Both diffusion current and drift current low but diffusion current is more than drift current.
c) Only drift current lows.
d) Both diffusion and drift current low but drift current exceeds the diffusion current

Ans.- i) d ii) d iii) b iv) b

 SAMPLE PAPER 1
PHYSICS

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 70

General Instructions:
(1) There are 33 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
(2) This question paper has five sections: Section A, Section B, Section C, Section D and Section E.
(3) All the sections are compulsory.
(4) Section A contains sixteen questions, twelve MCQs and four Assertion Reasoning based of 1 mark each,
Section B contains five questions of two marks each, Section 𝐶 contains seven questions of three marks
each, Section D contains two case study based questions of four marks each and Section 𝑬 contains three
long answer questions of five marks each.
(5) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been provided in one question in
Section B, two questions in Section C, one question in each CBQ in Section D and all three questions
in Section E. You have to attempt only one of the choices in such questions.
(6) Use of calculators is not allowed.
(7) You may use the following values of physical constants where ever necessary
𝑐 = 3 × 108 m/s; 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19C ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34Js
𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7TmA−1 𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12𝐶2𝑁−1𝑚−2
Avogadro's number = 6.023 × 10 per gram mole
23

SECTION A
1. An electric dipole of length 2 cm is placed at an angle of 30° with an electric field 2 × 105 N/C. If the
dipole experiences a torque of 8 × 10–3 Nm, the magnitude of either charge of the dipole, is
(A) 4 μC (B) 7μC (C) 8 mC (D) 2 mC
2. Two long parallel wires kept 2 m apart carry 3A current each, in the same direction. The force per unit
length on one wire due to the other is
(A) 4.5 × 10–7 N/m, attractive
(B) 4.5 × 10–7 N/m, repulsive
(C) 9 ×10–7 N/m, repulsive
(D) 9× 10–7 N/m, attractive
3. A square shaped coil of side 10 cm, having 100 turns is placed perpendicular to a magnetic ield which
is increasing at 1 T/s. The induced emf in the coil is
(A) 0.1 V (B) 0.5 V (C) 0.75 V (D) 1.0 V
4. Which one of the following electromagnetic radiation has the least wavelength?
(A) Gamma rays (B) Microwaves (C) Visible light (D) X-rays
5. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the screen is moved away from the plane of the slits. What will be
its effect on the following?
(i) Angular separation of the fringes.
(ii) Fringe-width.
(A) Both (i) and (ii) remain constant.
(B) (i) remains constant, but (ii) decreases.
(C) (i) remains constant, but (ii) increases.
(D) Both (i) and (ii) increase.
6. The ratio of the nuclear densities of two nuclei having mass numbers 64 and 125 is
(A) 64/125 (B) 45 (C) 54 (D) 1
7. Which of the following statements about a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source is correct?
(A) If the frequency of the source is increased, the impedance of the circuit first decreases and then
increases.
(B) If the net reactance (XL - XC) of circuit becomes equal to its resistance, then the current leads the voltage
 by 45°.
(C) At resonance, the voltage drop across the inductor is more than that across the capacitor.
(D) At resonance, the voltage drop across the capacitor is more than that across the inductor.
8. According to Huygens principle, the amplitude of secondary wavelets is
(A) equal in both the forward and the backward directions.
(B) maximum in the forward direction and zero in the backward direction.
(C) large in the forward direction and small in the backward direction.
(D) small in the forward direction and large in the backward direction
9. A charge Q is placed at the centre of a cube. The electric lux through one if its face is
(A) Q/ε0 (B) Q/6 ε0 (C) Q/8 ε0 (D) Q/3 ε0
10. What is the ratio of inductive and capacitive reactance in an ac circuit ?
(A) w2LC (B) LC2 (C) LCω2 (D) w2L
11. A current of 0.8 A lows in a conductor of 40 W for 1 minute. The heat produced in the conductor will
be
(A) 1445 J (B) 1536 J (C) 1569 J (D) 1640 J
12. A cell having an emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a variable external resistance R.
As the resistance R is increased, the plot of potential difference V across R is given by

13. Assertion : Work done in moving a charge between any two points in an electric ield is independent
of the path followed by the charge, between these points.
Reason: Electrostatic force is a non conservative force.
14. Assertion : Interference pattern is made by using yellow light instead of red light, the fringes
becomes narrower.
Reason : In YDSE, fringe width is given by β=λD/d
15. Assertion : Between any two given energy levels, the number of absorption transitions is always less
than the number of emission transitions.
Reason : Absorption transitions start from the lowest energy level only and may end at any higher
energy level. But emission transitions may start from any higher energy level and end at any energy level
below it.
16. Assertion : A parallel plate capacitor is connected across battery through a key. A dielectric slab of
dielectric constant K is introduced between the plates. The energy which is stored becomes K times.
Reason : The surface density of charge on the plate remains constant or unchanged.
SECTION – B
17. Draw a graph showing the variation of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their
separation. Indicate the region in which the nuclear force is (a) attractive and (b) repulsive.
18. (a) How will the De Broglie wavelength associated with an electron be affected when the (i) velocity
of the electron decreases? and (ii) accelerating potential is increased? Justify your answer. OR (b) How
would the stopping potential for a given photosensitive surface change if (i) the frequency of the incident
radiation were increased? and (ii) the intensity of incident radiation were decreased? Justify your answer
19. Identify the electromagnetic wave whose wavelengths range is from about (a) 10–12 m to about 10–8
m. (b) 10–3 m to about 10–1 m. Write one use of each.
20. Write the expression for Lorentz magnetic force on a particle of charge q moving with velocity v in a
magnetic ield B. Shown that two no work is done by this force on the charged particle.

21. The given graph shows variation of charge ‘q’ versus potential difference ‘V’ for two capacitors C1 and
C2. Both the capacitors have same plate separation but plate area of C2 is greater than that of C1. Which
line (A or B) corresponds to C1 and why?

SECTION – C
22 (a) A plane wave-front propagating in a medium of refractive index ‘μ1’ is incident on a plane surface
making an angle of incidence (i). It enters into a medium of refractive index μ2 (μ2 > μ1).
Use Huygen’s construction of secondary wavelets to trace the retracted wave-front. Hence, verify Snell’s
law of refraction.
OR
(b) Using Huygen’s construction, show how a plane wave is reflected from a surface. Hence, verify the law
of reflection.
23. Two metallic wires of the same material have the same length but cross-sectional area is in the ratio 1
: 2. They are connected(i) in series and(ii) in parallel. Compare the drift velocities of electrons in the two
wires in both the cases (i) and (ii).
24. With the help of a suitable diagram, explain the formation of depletion region in a p-n junction. How
does its width change when the junction is
(i) forward biased, and (ii) reverse biased?
25. Plot a graph showing the variation of stopping potential with the frequency of incident radiation for
two different photosensitive materials having work functions W1 and W2 (W1 > W2). On what factors does
the
(i) slope and
(ii) intercept of the lines depend?
26Draw a plot of the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number for a large number of
nuclei, 2 ≤ A ≤ 240. How do you explain the constancy of binding energy per nucleon in the range 30 < A <
170 using the property that nuclear force is short-ranged?
27. Draw magnetic field lines when a
(i) diamagnetic,
(ii) paramagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field.
Which magnetic property distinguishes this behaviour of the field lines due to the two substances?
28. A rectangular loop PQMN with movable arm PQ of length 20 cm and resistance 5 Ω is placed in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.2 T acting perpendicular to the plane of the loop as is shown in the figure.
The resistances of the arms MN, NP and MQ are negligible. Calculate the
(i) emf induced in the arm PQ and
(ii) current induced in the loop when arm PQ is moved with velocity 15m/s
SECTION D
29.From Bohr's atomic model, we know that the electrons have well defined energy levels in an isolated
atom. But due to interatomic interactions in a crystal, the electrons of the outer shells are forced to have
energies different from those in isolated atoms. Each energy level splits into a number of energy levels
forming a continuous band. The gap between top of valence band and bottom of the conduction band in
which no allowed energy levels for electrons can exist is called energy gap.

(i) In an insulator energy band gap is

(a) Eg = 0 (b) Eg< 3eV (c) Eg > 3eV (d) None of the above
(ii) In a semiconductor, separation between conduction and valence band is of the order of

(a) 0 eV (b) 1 eV (c) 10 eV (d) 50 eV

(iii) Based on the band theory of conductors, insulators and semiconductors, the forbidden gap is
smallest in

(a) conductors (b) insulators (c) semiconductors (d) All of these

(iv) Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. At room temperature which one of
the following statements is most appropriate?

(a) The number of free electrons for conduction is significant only in Si and Ge but small
in C.
(b) The number of free conduction electrons is significant in C but small in Si and Ge.
(c) The number of free conduction electrons is negligibly small in all the three.
(d) The number offree electrons for conduction is significant in all the three.
OR
(iv) Solids having highest energy level partially filled with electrons are
(a) semiconductor (b) conductor (c) insulator (d) none of these
30. A compound microscope is an optical instrument used for observing highly magnified images of tiny
objects. The magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended
at the eye by the final image to the angle subtended at the eye by the object when both the final image
and the object are situated at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye. It can be given that: m = me
× mo, where me is magnification produced by the eye lens and mo is magnification produced by the
objective lens.
(i)Consider a compound microscope that consists of an objective lens of focal length 2.0 cm and an
eyepiece of focal length 6.25 cm separated by a distance of 15 cm.The object distance for eye-
piece, so that final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, will be
(a) 3.45 cm (b) –5 cm
(c) –1.29 cm (d) 2.59 cm
(ii)How far from the objective should an object be placed in order to obtain the condition
described in Q above?
(a) 4.5 cm (b) 2.5 cm
(c) 1.5 cm (d) 3.0 cm

(iii)The intermediate image formed by the objective of a compound microscope is

(a) real, inverted and magnified
(b) real, erect, and magnified
(c) virtual, erect and magnified
(d) virtual, inverted and magnified.

(iv)The magnifying power of a compound microscope increases when

(a) the focal length of objective lens is increased and that of eye lens is decreased.
(b) the focal length of eye lens is increased and that of objective lens is decreased.
(c) focal lengths of both objective and eye-piece are increased.
(d) focal lengths of both objective and eye-piece are decreased

SECTION E

31.Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the image of an object placed on the axis of a convex
refracting surface, of radius of curvature ‘R’, separating the two media of refractive indices “n1 and ‘n2‘
(n2 > n1). Use this diagram to
deduce the relation n2/v−n1/u=n2−n1/R, where u and v represent respectively the distance of the object
and the image formed.
OR
a) Draw a ray diagram showing the path of a ray of light entering through a triangular glass prism.
Deduce the expression for the refractive index of glass prism in terms of the angle of minimum
deviation and angle of the prism.
b) A ray PQ incident normally on the refracting face BA is refracted in the prism BAC made of material of
refractive index 1.5. Complete the path of ray through the prism. From which face will the ray
3 2 . a ) Explain briefly, with the help of a labelled diagram, the basic principle of the working of an a.c.
generator.
b)In an a.c. generator, coil of N turns and area A is rotated at v revolutions per second in a uniform
magnetic field B. Write the expression for the emf produced.
A 100-turn coil of area 0.1 m2 rotates at half a revolution per second. It is placed in a magnetic field 0.01 T
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. Calculate the maximum voltage generated in the coil.
OR
Describe briefly, with the help of a labelled diagram, working of a step-up transformer. A step-up
transformer converts a low voltage into high voltage. Does it not violate the principle of conservation of
energy? Explain.
B) In an ideal transformer, how is this ratio related to the currents in the two coils?
33. a)Derive the expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having plate area A and plate
separation d.
b) A point charge Q is placed at point O as shown in the figure. Is the potential difference VA – VB positive,
negative or zero, if Q is
(i) positive
(ii) negative?

Or
a)A slab of material of dielectric constant K has the same area as that of the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor but has the thickness d/2, where d is the separation between the plates. Find out the expression
for its capacitance when the slab is inserted between the plates of the capacitor.
b)A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery. After some time the battery is disconnected and a
dielectric slab of dielectric constant K is inserted between the plates. How would
(i) the capacitance,
(ii) the electric field between the plates and
(iii) the energy stored in the capacitor, be affected? Justify your answer.

SOLUTIONS
1A 2D 3D 4A 5C 6D 7A 8B
9B 10A 11B 12B 13C 14A 15A 16C

17. Conclusions:
(i) The potential energy is minimum at a distance 𝑟0 of about 0.8𝑓𝑚.
(ii) Nuclear force is attractive for distance larger than 𝑟0.
(iii) Nuclear force is repulsive if two are separated by distance less than 𝑟0.
18.(i) From De Broglie equation λ = h/ mv As velocity (v) decreases, the wavelength (λ) increases. (ii) λ =
h /2meV As accelerating potential (V) increases, wavelength (λ) decreases. OR
(b) (i) From Einstein’s photoelectric equation, hv = φ0 + KE, KE = eVs, where VS is the stopping potential.
(i) Stopping potential depends on the frequency of the incident radiation. If frequency increases KE
increases (Since, φ0 remains constant). Hence, stopping potential increases. (ii) There is no intensity term
in Einstein’s equation. Hence, stopping potential is independent of intensity of incident radiation.
19. (a) X-Ray. Used as diagnostic tool in medical science.
(b) Microwave. Use in radar system.
20. (a) Expression for Lorentz force:
F = q(vx B)
O
The force is maximum when the angle between v and B is 90 .
Here, F is perpendicular to v. So, no work is done by this force on the particle during its motion
21. Line B corresponds to C1
Reason: Since slope (qv) of ‘B’ is less than that of ‘A’
22.DERIVATION
23

24. i) In forward biased, the width of depletion region is decreased.

(ii) In reverse biased, the width of depletion region is increased.
25
26

(b) Nuclear force is short-ranged for a sufficiently large nucleus. A nucleon is under the influence of only
some of its neighbours, which come within the range of the nuclear force. If a nucleon can have maximum
of P neighbours within the range of nuclear force, its binding energy would be proportional to ‘P’ Thus on
increasing ‘A’ by adding nucleons binding energy will remain constant.

27. i) When a diamagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field.

(ii) When a paramagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field.

28.

29.
 (i)c (ii)b (iii)a (iv) a OR (iv)b

30.
(i) b (ii)b (iii) a (iv) d

31.DERIVATION
OR b)
The ray will emerge from the face AC as shown. A

The angle of incidence (i) on the face AC is 30°, which is < ic

32.E=0.314V
O R [IP and IS are the current in the primary and secondary respectively

33.As OA < OB, so the quantity within bracket is negative.

(i) If q is positive charge, VA – VB = negative
(ii) If q is negative charge, VA – VB = positive
OR
As the dielectric (K) is introduced after disconnecting the battery
We have the new values of charge, Q’ = Q Capacitance C’ = KC
Potential V’ = QKC=VK
(i) New capacitance is K times its original.
 SAMPLE PAPER 2 CLASS: XII
SESSION: 2024-25 SUBJECT: PHYSICS (THEORY)
Maximum Marks: 70 Time Allowed: 3 hours. SECTION-A
1. An electric dipole is placed antiparallel in uniform electric field can experience –
(a) A force but not a torque
(b) A torque but not a force
(c) Always a force and a torque
(d) Neither a force nor a torque.
2. Two capacitors of 3 µF and 6 µF are connected in series with a battery of P.d. 12 V. The P.d. across
3µF and 6µF capacitors respectively will be:
(a) 8 V, 4 V (b) 6 V, 6 V
(c) 4 V, 8 V (d) 9 V, 3 V
3. A metallic plate exposed to white light emits electrons. For which of the following color of light,
the stopping potential will be maximum?
(a) Blue (b) Yellow
(c) Red (d) Violet
4. When alpha particles are sent through a thin gold foil, most of them go straight through the foil,
(a) alpha particles are positively charged
(b) the mass of an alpha particle is more than the mass of an electron
(c) most of the part of an atom is empty space
(d) alpha particles move with high velocity
5. An electron is moving along positive x-axis in a magnetic field which is parallel to the positive y-axis. In
what direction will the magnetic force be acting on the electron?
(a) Along -x axis (b) Along -z axis
(c ) Along +z axis (d) Along -y axis
6. The relative magnetic permeability of a substance X is slightly less than unity and that of substance Y is
slightly more than unity, then
(a) X is paramagnetic and Y is ferromagnetic
(b) X is diamagnetic and Y is ferromagnetic
(c) X and Y both are paramagnetic
(d) X is diamagnetic and Y is paramagnetic
7.An ammeter of resistance 0.81 ohm reads up to 1 A. The value of the required shunt to increase the
range to 10 A is-
(a) 0.9Ω (b ) 0.09 Ω (c) 0.03 Ω (d) 0.3 Ω
8. The SI unit of inductance is the henry. It can be written as-
(a) weber/ampere (b) volt-second/ampere (c) joule/(ampere)2 (d) ohm-second
9. The large-scale transmission of electrical energy over long distances is done with the use of
transformers. The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up because of
(a) decrement of current
(b) decrement of current and voltage both
(c) Increment of current
(d) Increment of current and voltage both
10. Two monochromatic light beams intensities of I and 4I are superposed. The maximum and minimum
possible intensities in the resulting beam are-
(a)5I and I (b) 5I and 3I
(c) 9I and I (d) 9I and 3I.
11. An electron enters a uniform magnetic field with speed v. It describes a semi-circular path and comes
out of the field. The final speed of the electron is-
(a) zero (b) v (c) v/2 (d) 2v
12. The impact parameter proportional to the mass of the particle as
(a)m (b)m2 (c)1/m2 (d) 1/m
ASSERTION REASONING
13. Assertion: If the temperature of a semiconductor is increased then its resistance decreases.
Reason: In a semiconductor the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very small.
14. Assertion: A white light source is used in interference experiment. It only bright and dark fringes.
Reason: Width of fringe is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the light used.
15.Assertion: In Photoelectric effect, saturation current increases with the increase in frequency of
incident light.
Reason: Energy of incident photons increases with increase in frequency and as a result current also
increases.
16. Assertion: The work done to move a charge on an equipotential surface may not be zero.
Reason: The work done does not depend on quantity of charge to be moved.
SECTION-B
17. An alpha-particle and a proton are accelerated from the state of rest through the same potential
difference V. Find the ratio of de Broglie wavelengths associated with them.
18. A converging and a diverging lens of equal focal lengths are placed co-axially in contact. Find the
power and the focal length of the combination.
19. V-I graph for a metallic wire at two different temperature T1 and T2 is shown in the figure. Which
of these two temperatures is higher? Justify your answer.

20. With the help of a circuit diagram explain the use of PN junction diode as a half wave rectifier.
21. State the conditions for total internal reflection. Calculate the speed of light in the medium whose
critical angle is 45° .
OR
The image of a candle is formed by a convex lens on a screen. The lower half of the lens is painted black to
make it completely opaque. Draw the ray diagram to show the image formation. How will image be
different from the one obtained when the lens is not painted black?
SECTION-C
22. Draw the graph showing variation in Binding Energy per nucleon versus mass number and explain
the phenomenon of nuclear fusion and fission by using it.
23. (iii) An electric field along x-axis is given by 𝐸⃗ = 100𝑖̂ N/C for x > 0 and
𝐸⃗ = −100𝑖̂ N/C for x <0. A right circular cylinder of length 20cm and radius 5cm lies parallel to the x-axis,
with its centre at the origin and one face at x = + 10cm, the other face at x = -10cm. Calculate the net
outward flux through the cylinder.
24.(a)Show that nuclear density in a given nucleus is independent of mass number.
(b)Compare the radii and mass density of two nuclei with mass numbers 1 and 27 respectively.
25. Using Kirchhoff’s law, calculate the value of electric current I1, I2 and I3 in the given network.
26. (a) What is the importance of Radial magnetic field and how it is produced?
(b) “Increasing the current sensitivity of a galvanometer may not necessarily increase its voltage
sensitivity”. Justify this statement.
27. Identify the part of the electromagnetic spectrum which is :
(i) suitable for radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
(ii) adjacent to low frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum
(iii) produced in nuclear reactions.
Write the name of sources from which these can be obtained.
28. Two long straight parallel current carrying conducting wires are kept ‘a’ distant apart in air. The
direction of currents in both the wires are same. Find the magnitude of force per unit length. Hence
define 1 Ampere.
OR
By using Biot-Savart law derive the expression of magnetic field intensity at the axis of a current carrying
circular coil. If magnetic field at the centre a current carrying coil is 16 T, calculate its value along the axis
of same coil at a distance √ 3 times of the radius of coil.
SECTION-D
Case Study Based Questions
29. Sunita was thinking that C, Si and Ge have same lattice structure, but C is insulator while Si and Ge
intrinsic semiconductors. For its answer, she met her friend Parul. She explained her that the four
bonding electrons of C, Si and Ge lie respectively in the second, third and fourth orbit. So, energy required
to take out an electron from these atoms known as ionisation energy. IE will be least for Ge, followed by
Si and highest for C. Hence number of free electrons for conduction in Ge and Si are significant while
negligible small for C.
(i) Energy band gap in a pure semiconductor is of the order of
(a) 1eV (b) 0eV
(c) 10eV (d)nothing can be said
(ii) How many types of current carriers are present in a semiconductor?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) > 2
(iii) Which is better semiconductor silicon or germanium?
(a)silicon (b) germanium (c) both have equal resistivity (d)Depends on temperature
(iv)With increase in temperature resistivity of semiconductor is
(a)Increases(b)Decreases
(c)remain same (d)Depends on its nature
OR
(iv)When a pure semiconductor is doped. Its conductivity
(a)Increases (b)Decreases
(c) remain same (d)Depends on its nature.
30. Ramesh and Abdul were both creating a series of circular waves by jiggling their legs in water. The
waves form a pattern. Their friend, Anita, advised Ramesh and Abdul not to play with water for a long
time. She then observed beautiful patterns of ripples which became very colourful, when her friend Lata
poured an oil drop on it. Lata, a 12th standard girl, had explained the cause for colorful ripple patterns to
Anita.
(i)Name the phenomenon involved in the activity
(a) Reflection (b) Refraction
(c) Interference (d)Polarization
(ii) A surface over which an optical wave has a constant phase is called
(a) Wave (b) Wavefront
(c) Elasticity (d) None of these
(iii) Which of the following is correct for light diverging from a point source?
(a) The intensity decreases in proportion for the distance squared.
(b) The wavefront is parabolic.
(c) The intensity at the wavelength does depend of the distance.
(d) None of these.
(iv) The phenomena which is not explained by Huygens’s construction of wavefront
(a)reflection (b) diffraction
(c) refraction (d) origin of spectra
OR
Huygens’s concept of secondary wave
(a) allows us to find the focal length of a thick lens
(b) is a geometrical method to find a wavefront
(c) is used to determine the velocity of light
(d) is used to explain diffraction
SECTION-E
31. (a) With the help of a diagram explain the working principle and construction of AC generator. Hence,
obtain an expression for the instantaneous value of the emf generated. Plot the graph between generated
alternating emf and time.
(b) The primary coil of an ideal step-up transformer has 100 turns and transformation ratio is also 100.
The input voltage and power are 220 V and 1100 W respectively. Calculate
(i) the number of turns in the secondary coil
(ii) the current in the primary coil
(iii) the voltage across the secondary coil
(iv) the current in the secondary coil
OR
(a) A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac source. Draw its phasor diagram and by using it derive an
expression for the impedance of the circuit.
(b) A sinusoidal voltage V = 200 sin 314 t is applied to a resistor of 10Ω resistance. Calculate-(i) rms value
of voltage (ii) rms value of current (iii) power dissipated as heat in watt
32.(a) Derive an expression for electrostatics potential energy of an electric dipole placed in uniform
electric field obliquely. Draw diagram showing electric dipole in- (i) stable & (ii) unstable equilibrium.
(b) An electron is taken from a point at 20 V potential to another point at 10 V. calculate the amount of
work done in eV.
OR
(a) A 4 µF capacitor is charged by a 200 V supply. The supply is then disconnected and the charged
capacitor is connected to another uncharged 2 µF capacitor. How much electrostatic energy of the first
capacitor is lost in the process of attaining the steady situation?
(b) A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery. When the battery remains connected, a dielectric
slab is inserted in the space between the plates. Explain with reason what changes if any, occur in the
values of (i) electric field strength between the plates(ii) charge on the plates (iii) energy stored in the
capacitor?
33. (a) A thin convex lens having two surfaces of radii of curvature R1 and R2 is made of a material of
refractive index n2. It is kept in a medium of refractive index n1 . Derive, with the help of ray diagram the
lens maker formula when a point object placed on the principal axis in front of a radius of curvature R1
produces an image I on the other side of the lens. (n2>n1)
(b) A prism is made of glass of unknown refractive index. A parallel beam of light is incident on a face of
the prism. By rotating the prism, the minimum angle of deviation is measured to be 40º. What is the
refractive index of the prism. Now this prism is placed in water (refractive index 1.33), predict the new
minimum angle of deviation of prism in water. The refracting angle of prism is 60º.
[sin 50o = 0.7660, sin35o =0.576].
OR
(a) A converging lens of focal length 6.25 cm is used as a magnifying glass. If the near point of the
observer is 25 cm from the eye and lens is held close to eye, calculate (i) the distance of the object from
the lens (ii) angular magnification (iii) angular magnification when final image is formed at infinity.
(b) An equi-convex lens with radii of curvature of magnitude r each, is put over a liquid layer poured on
top of a plane mirror. A small needle, with its tip on the principal axis of the lens, is moved along the axis
until its inverted real image coincides with the needle itself. The distance of the needle from the lens is
measured to be ‘a’. On removing the liquid layer and repeating the experiment the distance is found to be
‘b.’ Obtain a formula for the refractive index of the liquid in term of given variables.
MARKING SCHEME
Q1.D Q2.A Q3.D Q4.C Q5.B Q6.D Q7.D Q8.A Q9.A Q10.C Q11.B Q12.B Q13.B Q14.D Q15.D
Q16.D, 17. 1/2√2
18. P = 0 D ; f = Infinite
19. Slope of I-V graph = 1/R; T2 > T1
21. speed of light = 2.12 x 10 8 m/s
OR
Intensity will decrease
23. Total flux =αa 5/2 ( √2−1)
electric charge = q=3×10−9C
24. Radii = 1/3; Mass density remain same.
25. I1 = 18/31A, I2= 66/31A, I3 = 48/31A
27.(i) Microwave, Source- Special vacuum tube and etc. (ii)Microwave, Source- Special vacuum tube and
etc. (iii)gamma ray, Source- Radioactive decay, nuclear reaction etc.
28. OR B = 2 Tesla
29.(1) B (2) B, (3)B, (4)B, (OR) B
30.(1) C, (2) B (3)A (4)D (OR) B
31. (b) NS= 10000; IP= 5A; VS= 22000V;
IS= 0.05A
OR
(b)Vrms = 100√2 volt; Irms = 10√2 A, P = 2000 W
32. Work done W = -10eV
OR
Energy loss = 2.67×10−2 J
(b) (U will increase)
33. (b) R.I. = 1.532
Angle of minimum deviation = 10 degree 0.5M
OR
(a)(i) calculation of object distance u = -5
 SAMPLE PAPER 3
General Instructions: Same as sample paper 1
SECTION A
1.A charged particle is moving on circular path with velocity 𝑣 in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵, if the
velocity of the charged particle is doubled and strength of magnetic field is halved, then radius becomes
(a) 8 times (b) 4 times (c) 2 times (d) 16 times
2. A strong magnetic field is applied on a stationary electron. Then the electron
(a) moves in the direction of the field. (b) remains stationary.
(c) moves perpendicular to the direction of the field.
(d) moves opposite to the direction of the field.

3.The magnetic flux linked with a coil varies with time ,given by Φ = (4𝑡 + 7𝑡 + 3) weber. What is the
induced emf at 𝑡 = 2 𝑠 ? (a) 3 V (b) 28 V (c) 32 V (d) 44 V
4. Power delivered by the source of an a.c. circuit is maximum when
(a)𝐿𝜔 = 𝐶𝜔 (b) 𝐿𝜔 = (c)𝜔 = (d) √𝜔 = 𝐿𝐶
5. Two slits in Young's double slit experiment have widths in the ratio 81:1. The ratio of the amplitudes of
light waves is (a) 3:1 (b) 3:2 (c) 9:1 (d) 6:1
6. An electron is moving with an initial velocity 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣 𝚤̂ and is in a magnetic field 𝐵⃗ = 𝐵 𝚥̂. Then its de
Broglie wavelength
(a) remains constant (b) increases with time
(b) decreases with time (d) increases and decreases periodically

7. The radius of a spherical nucleus as measured by electron scattering is 3.6fm. What is the mass number
of the nucleus most likely to be? (a) 27 (b) 40 (c) 56 (d) 120
8. A sphere S1 of radius r1 encloses total charge Q.If another concentric sphere S2 of radius r2 (>r1) and
there be no additional charges between S1 and S2 what is the ratio of electric flux through S1 and S2.
(a)Infinity (b) zero (c) -1 (d) 1
9. The effective wattage of 60 W and 40 W lamps connected in series is equal to:
(a) 24W (b) 20 W (c) 100 W (d) 80 W.
Q10. The direction of 𝐸⃗ × 𝐵⃗ in an electromagnetic wave is
(a) same as that of 𝐸⃗ (b) same as that of 𝐵⃗
(c) same as the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave.
(d) None of these.
11. A capacitor has some dielectric between its plates, and the capacitor is connected to a dc source. The
battery is now disconnected and then the dielectric is removed, then
(a) capacitance will increase. (b) energy stored will decrease.
(c) electric field will increase. (d) voltage will decrease.

12. Which among the following materials display higher magnetic susceptibility?
(a) Ferromagnetic material (b) Paramagnetic material
(c) Diamagnetic material (d) Both diamagnetic and paramagnetic material

For Questions 13 to 16, two statements are given - Assertion and Reason . Select the correct answer to
these questions from the options as given below. (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is
correct explanation of Assertion. (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct
explanation of Assertion. (c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false. (d) If both Assertion and Reason are
false.
13. Assertion : The positively charged nucleus of an atom has a radius of almost 10−15 m.
Reason : In 𝛼-particle scattering experiment, the distance of closest approach for 𝛼-particles is 10−15 m.

14. Assertion : An alternating current shows magnetic effect.

Reason : Magnitude of alternating current varies with time.

15 Assertion : The total charge stored in a capacitor is zero.

Reason : The field just outside the capacitor is σ/ε0 . (σ is the charge density).
16. Assertion (A): Photosensitivity of a metal is high if its work function is small.
Reason (R): Work function = ℎ𝑣0, where 𝑣0 is the threshold frequency.

SECTION B
17. Name the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum which is (a) suitable for radar systems used in
aircraft navigation. (b) used to treat muscular strain. (c) used as a diagnostic tool in medicine. Write in
brief, how these waves can be produced.
18. In an experiment on 𝛼-particle scattering by a thin foil of gold, draw a graph showing, the number of
particles scattered versus the scattering angle 𝜃. Why is it that a very small fraction of the particles are
scattered at 𝜃 > 90°? Write two important conclusions that can be drawn regarding the structure of the
atom from the study of this experiment.
19. If a toroid uses Bismuth at its core, will the field in the core be lesser or greater than when it is
empty?
20. With the help of a suitable diagram, explain the formation of depletion region in a p-n junction. How
does its width change when the junction is forward and reverse biased?
21. You are given following three lenses.
Which two lenses will you use as an Lenses Power(P) Aperture
Eyepiece and as an objective to construct L1 3D 8 cm
an astronomical telescope? Explain. L2 6D 1 cm
L3 10 D 1 cm

SECTION C
22. Two identical circular coils of radius 0.1 m, each having 20 turns are mounted co-axially 0.1 m apart.
A current of 0.5 A is passed through both of them (i) in the same direction, (ii) in the opposite directions.
Find the magnetic field at the centre of each.
23. (a) An electron and a proton are accelerated through the same potential. Which one of the two has (i)
greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it, and (ii) lesser momentum? Justify your answer
in each case. (b) How is the momentum of a particle related with its de-Broglie wavelength? Show the
variation on a graph.
24. The value of ground state energy of hydrogen atom is −13.6eV. (i) Find the energy required to move
an electron from the ground state to the first excited state of the atom. (ii) Determine the kinetic energy
and orbital radius of this electron .
25. A hollow cylindrical box of length 1 m and area of
cross-section 25 cm2 is placed in a three dimensional
coordinate system as shown in the figure. The electric
field in the region is given by 𝐸⃗ = 50𝑥𝚤̂, where 𝐸 is in
NC−1 and 𝑥 is in metres. Find (i) net flux through the cylinder.
(ii) charge enclosed by the cylinder.

26. A series LCR circuit is connected to an a.c. source having voltage v = vm sin ωt.
Derive the expression for the instantaneous current I and its phase relationship to the applied voltage.
Obtain the condition for resonance to occur. Define ‘power factor’. State the conditions under which it is
(i) maximum and (ii) minimum
27. Derive the expression for force per unit length between two long straight parallel current carrying
conductors. Hence define one ampere.
28.Draw a ray diagram for the formation of image by a compound microscope. Derive the
expression for total magnification when the image is formed at infinity.
SECTION D
Case Study Based Questions
29. An optical fibre is a thin tube of transparent material that allows light to pass through, without being
refracted into the air or another external medium. It makes use of total internal reflection. These fibres
are fabricated in such a way that light reflected at one side of the inner surface strikes the other at an
angle larger than critical angle.

(i) Which of the following is based on the phenomenon of total internal reflection of light?
(a) Sparkling of diamond (b) Optical fibre communication
(c) Instrument used by doctors for endoscopy (d) All of these

(ii) A ray of light will undergo total internal reflection inside the optical fibre, if it
(a) goes from rarer medium to denser medium
(b)is incident at an angle less than the critical angle
(c) strikes the interface normally
(d) is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle

(iii) If in core, angle of incidence is equal to critical angle, then angle of refraction will be
(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 90 (d) 180°

(iv) In an optical fibre, correct relation for refractive indices of core(n1) and cladding (n2) is
(a) n1 = n2 (b) n1 > n2 (c) n1 < n2 (d) n1 + n2 = 2
OR
If the value of critical angle is 30° for total internal reflection from given optical fibre, then speed of light
in that fibre is
(a) 3 x 108 m S-1 (b) 1.5 x 108 m S-1 (c) 6 x 108 m s-1 (d) 4.5 x 108 m s-1

30. Emf of a cell is the maximum potential difference between two electrodes of the cell when no
current is drawn from the cell. Internal resistance is the resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell
when the electric current flows through it.

(i) The terminal potential difference of two electrodes of a cell is equal to emf of the cell
when (a) I≠0 (b) I=0 (c) both (a) and (b) d) neither (a)nor (b)

(ii) A cell of emf E and internal resistance r gives a current of 0.5 A with an external resistance
of 12Ω and a current of 0.25 A with an external resistance of 25Ω. What is the value of the internal
resistance of the cell? (a) 5Ω (b) 1Ω (c) 7Ω (d) 3Ω

(iii) Choose the wrong statement.

a) Potential difference across the b) Internal resistance of a cell decreases
terminals of a cell in a closed circuit is with the decrease in temperature of the
always less than its emf. electrolyte.
c) Potential difference versus current d) Terminal potential difference of the
graph for a cell is a straight line with a cell when it is being charged is given as V
negative slope = E + Ir.
(iv) An external resistance R is connected to a cell of internal resistance r, the maximum current flows
in the external resistance, when
(a) R = r (b) R < r (c) R> r (d) R=l/r
OR
If external resistance connected to a cell has been increased to 5 times, the potential difference across
the terminals of the cell increases from 10 V to 30 V. Then, the emf of the cell is (a) 30 V (b) 60V
(c) 50 V (d) 40 V

SECTION E

31.a) Write any two distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the
basis of energy band diagrams. b) Draw a labelled diagram of a full wave rectifier circuit. State its
working principle. Show the input-output waveforms. OR
Draw the energy band diagram of n-type and p-type semiconductor at temperature, T > O K. Explain,
what role do donor and acceptor energy levels play in conduction and valence bands.

32. (i)Define electric flux. Write its SI unit,

(ii) Using Gauss’ law, prove that the electric field at a point due to a uniformly charged infinite
plane sheet is independent of distance from it.
How is the field directed if (a)the sheet is positively charged (b)negatively charged?
OR
a) Write Kirchoff’s loop rule.
b) Two cells of emf ε1, ε2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 respectively are connected in parallel. Deduce
the expression for
(i)The equivalent emf of the combination.
(ii) The equivalent resistance of the combination.
(iii) The potential difference between the points A and B.

33.Define wavefront of a travelling wave. Using Huygens principle, obtain the law of refraction at a plane
interface when light passes from a rarer to a denser medium.
OR
a) In YDSE experiment slits are illuminated by light of consisting two wavelengths, λ1=600 nm and λ2= 400
nm. Slit separation is 0.5 mm and screen is 2 m away from slits. What will be the Separation
between second order minima of two wavelengths in mm .

b) The ratio of intensities of minima to maxima in YDSE is 9: 25. Find the ratio of width of two slits.

ANSWERS/HINTS

1(b) 2(b) 3(c) 4(b) 5(c) 6( a) 7(a) 8(d)

9 (a) 10 (c) 11(c) 12(a) 13(a) 14(b) 15(C) 16(b)
17. (a) Microwaves -produced by special vacuum 23. . Hint (i) 𝜆 = = (Ans𝜆𝑒>𝜆𝑝). (ii)
tubes, namely klystrons, magnetrons. (b) Infra-
produced by hot bodies and molecules. (c) X- 𝑝=ℎ 𝜆
rays - produced when high energy electrons are (b) 𝜆𝑝=ℎ (rectangular hyperbola)
stopped suddenly on a metal of high atomic 24. . (i) 𝐸𝑛= 13.6/ 𝑛2 eV ,Δ𝐸=𝐸2−𝐸1
number. (ii)K2=−𝐸2=+3.4eV and rn= aon2
(Ans. 10.2eV ,2.12 Å)
18. Hint-very small size of nucleus 25. (i)Net flux=flux leaving-flux entering (ii)𝑞 =
19. Bismuth is diamagnetic, hence, the overall Φ𝜀
magnetic field will be slightly (𝐴𝑛𝑠. 0.125 𝑤𝑏, 1.1 × 10 𝐶)
less.
21. Objective – Less power and more aperture. 29. (i)d (ii)d (iii) c (iv) b OR d
So L1 Eyepiece – More power and less aperture. 30. (i)b (ii)b (iii) b
(iv) a OR b
So L3.
31.OR a) 𝑦 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜆𝐷 2𝑑
22. Ans (i) 𝐵1+B2=8.50×10−5 T Δ𝑦 = (𝜆 − 𝜆) (Ans. 1.20 mm)
(ii) 𝐵1−𝐵2=4.06×10−5 T ( )
b) =( and = (Ans 16:1)
)