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Unit - 5.3 - Data Analysis (1)

Unit 5.3 covers various aspects of data analysis in GIS, including spatial and non-spatial data analysis, manipulation techniques like spatial interpolation, and data retrieval methods such as reclassification. It explains operations like buffer analysis, vector and topological overlay analysis, and the importance of statistical, mathematical, and logical operations in deriving geographic information. The document also details methods for managing and analyzing both raster and vector data to facilitate effective geographic information system applications.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
54 views42 pages

Unit - 5.3 - Data Analysis (1)

Unit 5.3 covers various aspects of data analysis in GIS, including spatial and non-spatial data analysis, manipulation techniques like spatial interpolation, and data retrieval methods such as reclassification. It explains operations like buffer analysis, vector and topological overlay analysis, and the importance of statistical, mathematical, and logical operations in deriving geographic information. The document also details methods for managing and analyzing both raster and vector data to facilitate effective geographic information system applications.

Uploaded by

gomethaganmusa
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Unit 5.

3 – Data Analysis
• Spatial data analysis
• Non spatial data analysis
• Manipulation – spatial interpolation
• Data retrieval – Reclassification techniques
• Buffer analysis
• Vector and Topological Overlay analysis
• Raster overlay analysis
• Measurement – query
• Record modeling and expert system
Spatial data analysis
Data analysis involves operations with geographic data and their attributes to
obtain derived information, generate query, statistics etc. broad categories and
operations therein are as follows.

1) Statistics - for example, count, length, area, perimeter, shape, centroid,


etc. for geographic objects can be derived in GIS
2) Mathematical operations - e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, exponential, logarithm, absolute, truncation, round off, negative,
trigonometric operations can be performed in GIS
3) Logical operations - or, and, not, xor can be performed on maps
4) Conditional – if-then-else conditional operation can be performed on
maps. Eg: ‘if < return period <= 100 and landuse = residential, then
vulnerability = high else vulnerability = low’ condition gives flood
vulnerability map
5) Classification – it converts value into interval. A continuous surface is
input and area map is output for the operation. Eg: contours, isohyetes,
isobars etc.,
Contd.,
6) Search/Buffer – The operation is similar to distance, except that at a
specified distance an area geographic object is created
7) Neighborhood – Information in eight neighbor, their locations and
statistics, eg: mean, median, mode, minimum, maximum, standard
deviation, coefficient of variation etc., are extracted
8) Aggregate – Cell size of raster maps can be changed in fractions of half,
one fourth etc. using functions eg: mean, predominant, minimum and
maximum
9) Query – It is done by attributes or geometry. Eg: landuse=agriculture will
select/display agricultural areas
10) Output – GIS output may be obtained as paper maps or as a picture which
may be shared or printed or inserted in a report or presentation. The
output map represents various cartographic elements such as title,
graticules or grid, legend, north arrow, scale, notes etc.
Non-spatial data analysis
• Non-spatial data – Attribute data
Types
1. Nominal/Categories
2. Ordinal/Ranks
3. Interval
4. Ratio
5. Cyclic/Directional
6. Counts and amounts
Contd.,
• Nominal/Categories - The simplest type of attribute described by its name
and to identify or distinguish one entity from another, with no specific
order.
Eg: Categories of landuse, forest, Place names, names of houses, numbers on a
driver’s license.
• Ordinal/Ranks – List of discrete classes but with an inherent or natural
order / sequence. Ranks put features in order, from high to low. Ranks are
used when direct measures are difficult or if the quantity represents a
combination of factors.
Eg: Orders of Streams (1st order, 2nd order, etc.), Level of education (primary,
secondary)
• Interval - interval attribute will have natural sequence one and in addition it
will have the distance between values will have the meaning and example
is also given here for the Ph scale as well that is also an interval scale now
the forth type of attribute is a ratio attributes and that have the same
characteristics as interval variables.
Eg: Scale of Celsius temperature – 30°C, 20°C, 10°C intervals of 10
Contd.,
• Ratio – Attributes have same characteristics as interval variables, but in
addition, these have zero as starting point.

• Directional/Cyclic – In GIS, it is sometimes necessary to deal with data that


can be directional or cyclic, including flow direction on a map or compass
direction or longitude.
Eg: Latitude longitude which we are using is a cyclic and time is also a cyclic.
• Counts and amounts – Counts and amounts show total numbers. A count is
the actual number of features on the map. An amount can be any
measurable quantity associated with a feature. Using a count or amount lets
you see the actual value of each feature as well as its magnitude compare to
other features.
Eg: No. of students in a class.
Manipulation – spatial interpolation
• Spatial Interpolation is the process of using points with known values to
estimate values at other points. Through Spatial Interpolation, We can
estimate the precipitation value at a location with no recorded data by using
known precipitation readings at nearby weather stations.
• Spatial Interpolation covers a variety of method including trend surface
models, thiessen polygons, kernel density estimation, inverse distance
weighted, splines, and Kriging.

Spatial Interpolation requires two basic inputs:-


1. Control Points
2. Type of Spatial Interpolation
Control Points
• Control Points are points with known values. Also called known points,
sample points, or observations, control points provide the data necessary
for the development of interpolator (e.g.; Mathematical equation) for
spatial interpolation. This method is designed to capture the general trend
of the surface.
• The number and distribution of control points can greatly influence the
accuracy of spatial interpolation.
Contd.,
Type of Spatial Interpolation
1.Global Interpolation: It uses every known point available to estimate an unknown
value.
2.Local Interpolation: It uses a sample of known points to estimate an unknown
value. This method is designed to capture the local or short range variation.
3.An Exact interpolation predicts a value at the point location that is the same as is
known value.
4.An Inexact interpolation (or approximate) predicts a value at the point location that
differ from its known value.
5. A Deterministic interpolation method provides no assessment of errors with
predicted values.
6.A Stochastic interpolation methods offers assessment of prediction errors with
estimated variance.

• Global method – Trend Surface Models,


Regression Models
• Local method – Thiessen Polygons,
Density Estimation,
Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW),
Spline,
Kriging
Data retrieval – Reclassification techniques

• Data retrieval involves the capability to easily select data for graphic or
attribute editing, updating, querying, analysis and/or display. The ability to
retrieve data is based on the unique structure of the DBMS and command
interfaces are commonly provided with the software.
• Reclassifying attributes is the technique in GIS and other database
software of creating a new categorical attribute in a dataset by classifying
features based on existing attributes or other criteria, such as location. The
uses of reclassification include quickly updating cells when new
information is available, compiling data for suitability analyses, and
eliminating unneeded information by reclassifying cells as No Data. The
goal is often to simplify the output data in order to aid the interpretation.
Reclassification can also be performed on multiple layers as part of overlay
operation (described later).
• It can also be used for generalization for map simplification. In the vector
model, the process is known as map dissolve involving elimination of
boundaries.
Contd.,
• The reclassification functions reclassify or change cell values
to alternative values using a variety of methods. You can
reclass one value at a time or groups of values at once using
alternative fields; based on a criteria, such as specified
intervals (for example, group the values into 10 intervals); or
by area (for example, group the values into 10 groups
containing the same number of cells). The functions are
designed to allow you to easily change many values on an
input raster to desired, specified, or alternative values.
• This operation assigns new values to the existing values in a
map. This assignment may be a function of initial values, size
and shape of spatial configuration. Some times the data may
not be compatible with the user need or for further analysis.
Data may be at different resolution than needed by the user
Uses of reclassification
• Updating new information
• Compiling data for suitability analysis
• Eliminating unneeded information by reclassifying cells as No Data
1. Quantitative data – Quantitative data includes data that has
measurable values. In terms of GIS, some examples of raster
data that is quantitative could include the following:
precipitation, population density, temperature, etc. One of the
most classic examples of reclassifying attributes is regrouping
large amounts of data (say the numbers 1-100) to be
represented on the map by only 5 symbols (for example, the
number 1 on the map would refer to those cells with data
between 1 and 20).
Contd.,
2. Nominal data - Reclassification can also be used on nominal fields. For
example, a GIS user may wish to take five road types (interstate,
highways, main roads, collectors, and neighborhood roads) and reduce
them to two types by reclassifying interstates, highways, and main roads
as 'major streets' and collectors and neighborhood roads as 'local streets'.
In addition to simplifying attributes, the reclassify tool can be used to
assign values of sensitivity, priority or preference to a raster. The reclassify
tool can change nominal values (values that represent a class) to ratio or
interval data so that it can relate to other data on a common scale. In a
suitability analysis, data is usually reclassified to a scale of 1 to 10, giving
higher values to the more suitable areas.
Contd.,
3. Raster Data – Reclassifying attributes can be especially helpful in analyzing
raster attribute data, which is often interval or ratio data that is
continuous. This is easily done by assigning values to bins or ranges. For
example, a Digital Elevation Model that has unique elevation values for
each cell can be reclassified and symbolized to show specific elevation
ranges i.e., 1,000-1,200 feet.

Reclassification and Map-Making – Reclassification is helpful for the map-


maker because he/she can reclassify data based on the theme of the map or the
point that the map is trying to convey. For example, a large-scale map might
show more categories than a small-scale map. If the map-maker wanted to
project a large scale map to a smaller scale, he/she might decide to reclassify
the data to have fewer categories in order to avoid complexity and confusion.
By grouping attributes into a few discernible categories, the visual hierarchy of
the map can be more clear.
Reclassification of vector data

Crop type map

Recorded map of Vegetable and


Cereal Crop

Redundant boundaries removed


Buffer analysis
Buffer: A buffer is a zone with a width created around a spatial feature and is
measured in units of distance from the feature. The generated buffer takes the
shape of the feature. In case of a point the buffer is a circle with a radius equal
to the buffer distance. In case of a line, it is a band and for a polygon it is a belt
of a specific buffer distance from the edge of polygon, surrounding the
polygon. The inward buffer for a polygon is called setback. Buffering is used
for neighborhood analysis which aims to evaluate the characteristics of the
area surrounding the spatial feature. Common examples of buffering include
the identification of properties within a certain distance of an object,
delineation of areas around natural features where human activities are
restricted, determination of areas affected by location etc.

Setback (Inward
buffer)
Contd.,
Buffer Analysis is a basic GIS spatial operation. It automatically builds zones with a
certain width around point, line, or region geometric objects according to a specified
buffer distance. For example, in an environmental protection project, a zone can be
drawn to include areas within a certain distance of a polluted river to represent the
contamination area; a zone with a certain size can be drawn around an airport to define
a non-residential area for public health concerns.
• Point buffer analysis – Builds buffer for point objects. Example, buffers can be
build for two radio broadcasting stations to analyze the residential area that can be
covered by the signal transmitted from each of the two stations as well as the area
covered by signals from both stations.
• Point Multi-buffer analysis – Builds multi-buffers for point objects. Example, zones
with different radii can be created around a pollution source to represent the
diffusion process of the pollutant

Point buffer Point Multi-buffer


Contd.,
• Line buffer analysis – Builds buffer for line objects. Example, suppose two adjacent
streets are to be expanded by 20 metres. A buffer analysis combined with a general
query analysis can identify the buildings that need to be pulled down before
expanding the streets
• Line Multi-buffer analysis – Builds multi-buffer for line objects. Example, one-
sided multi-buffer can be created for the border line of a country to produce a
hatching effect
• Polygon buffer analysis – Builds buffer for region objects. Example, buffers can be
built for rivers and lakes to identify areas vulnerable to floods
• Polygon Multi-buffer analysis – Builds multi-buffers for region objects. Example,
buffer analysis can be applied t a desert to create a multi-buffer with distances of
20km and 50km, to provide basic information for analyzing the distribution of
desert expansion and to assist with desertification controlling

Line buffer Line Multi-buffer Polygon buffer Polygon Multi-buffer


Vector and Topological Overlay analysis
Vector Operations and Analysis- Single Theme
1) Nodepoint: Creates a new point theme from the nodes of arcs
Eg. Figure shows the road feature- a line theme where nodes are
present at locations where two or more roads meet. At these
intersections lie the traffic light poles.

Intersection of roads Traffic light poles


Contd.,
2) Buffer: A buffer is a zone with a width created around a spatial feature and
is measured in units of distance from the feature. The generated buffer
takes the shape of the feature. In case of a point the buffer is a circle with
a radius equal to the buffer distance. In case of a line, it is a band and for a
polygon it is a belt of a specific buffer distance from the edge of polygon,
surrounding the polygon. The inward buffer for a polygon is called
setback
Contd.,
3) Dissolve: It merges the adjacent features if they have the same attribute
value and reduces the records from the attribute table. Let us understand it
through following examples.
Type is used as the dissolve item
Land-use type
Vector Operations and Analysis- Multiple Theme
These operations work on the layers at a time rather than selective spatial
features. The layers which are used must be topologically structured so as to
get a correct, topologically structured output.
1) Clip is used to subset a point, line or a polygon theme using another
polygon theme as the boundary of the area of interest.
2) Split causes the input features to form subset of multiple output feature
classes. The split field's unique values form the names of the output
feature classes.

Clip

Split
Overlay Operations

• Union creates a new theme by overlaying two polygon themes. It is same


as ‘or’ Boolean operator. The output theme contains the combined polygons
and attributes of both themes. Only polygon themes can be combined using
union. Let’s say we are interested in knowing no potential zone for urban
development. It is clear that no construction can be done on a waterbody or
land covered by agriculture or forest. So, we can say union of areas under
water, agriculture and forest would present us the area having no potential
for urban development.
Contd.,
• Intersect creates a new theme by overlaying a point, line or polygon theme
with an intersecting polygon theme. It is same as ‘and’ Boolean operator.
The output theme contains only the feature inside the intersecting polygons.
From the same example given above, if we try to know the area having
potential for urban development we need to intersect the polygon themes to
get a common area which is not under water, agriculture or forest. From the
same example given above, if we try to know the area having potential for
urban development we need to intersect the polygon themes to get a
common area which is not under water, agriculture or forest.
Contd.,
• Identity creates a new theme by overlaying a point, line, or polygon theme
with an intersecting polygon theme. The output theme contains all the
original point, line, or polygons as well as the attributes transferred by the
intersecting polygon theme.
• Erase removes polygons in a theme from the area covered by polygons of
another theme. The output feature class only contains those features of the
input polygon theme that fall outside the polygons of the second theme.

Identity

Erase
Input features Overlay features Operation Result

Identity

Intersect

Symmetrical difference

Union

Update
Network Analysis
It is a type of line analysis which involves set of interconnected lines.
Railways, highways, transportation routes, rivers etc are examples of
networks. Network analysis can be used for the following:
• Address Geocoding - It is the process of estimating the locations of
addresses in GIS coordinate system. It requires a table of addresses and
theme that contains attributes that can be used to match to the table of
addresses.
Contd.,
• Imagine that the fire department is reported about a fire in a building at
1000 West Main Street. To estimate the location, GIS determines the arc by
matching its name, type and suffix. Once the arc is determined the address
can be estimated using linear interpolation. The arc corresponding to West
Main Street is the Arc 01. The address is an even number and lies on the
left side of the arc. The left side has addresses ranging from 100 to 1300
(range is 1200). The length of the arc is 2000 meters. The address of 1000
can be geocoded as
Contd.,
• Optimal Routing - Optimal routing is the process of finding out the best
route to go from one location to another location. The most common path
finding algorithm is Dijkstra algorithm which was published by E.W.
Dijkstra in 1956. It is a graph search algorithm that provides the shortest
path for a single source shortest path problem. Optimal routing is the
process of finding out the best route to go from one location to another
location. The most common path finding algorithm is Dijkstra algorithm
which was published by E.W. Dijkstra in 1956. It is a graph search
algorithm that provides the shortest path for a single source shortest path
problem.
We build two tables, one for the nodes that have been already processed and the other for the
adjacent nodes which are to be processed. We begin with Node A as follows:

Final Output

Node E is the destination so we stop here. The quickest route to reach node E takes
40 minutes and it is Node A Node B Node D Node E
Contd.,
• Finding closest facilities - Sometimes we try to find out a point closest to a given location.
The point is called a facility and the given location is called an event location. Finding which
flat would be near to the working place, which fire station has the best response time to a
report to the fire location, which houses are close to the schools are examples of optimal
routing for closest facilities. In the illustration, imagine that the office (red star) is located at
some address and we want to know the closest place around the office where an employee can
live. The address of the office is geocoded to a street location and then optimal path can be
computed from each house to the office. House 4 is closest to the office as the travel time is
least for it.
Functions Description
Union is a fundamental overlay operation. Performs the spatial or geometric combination of two spatial
data sets to generate a new integrated output. Union also performs attribute combination and carries
UNION
forward the attributes of the two input datasets into the output. All spatial features are combined into the
new output theme.

Intersect is also an overlay operation where the geometry or spatial combination of two input themes is
INTERSECT done on a selective basis based upon the commonality of the spatial features. Intersect also carries
forward the attributes of the two input themes into the output theme.

CLIPPING is a variant of the overlay operation where features in an input theme are either erased or
CLIPPING preserved based upon the spatial extent of another theme. Thus theme features which fall inside the
outermost bound of the CLIP theme are removed or preserved.

Generates a buffer region around points, lines or polygons. Useful for corridor generation analysis. The
BUFFER distance for buffering needs to be specified. For polygon features, buffering could be done either
inwards or outwards.
Aggregates or merges polygon features based upon the commonality of a specified attribute value.
AGGREGATION
Mainly a map aggregation function.
Merges polygon features based upon an attribute specification. This is mainly useful where sliver
SLIVER
polygons generated during union process are to be eliminated.

Provides facility to transform spatial data from one co-ordinate system to another coordinate system. The
TRANSFORM
transformation is set based on the specification of common Registration Points in the spatial data.

APPEND Allows for appending spatial data which are adjacent and need to be mosaicked.
3D ANALYSIS Slope generation, aspect generation, viewshed, perspectives etc are some of the analysis functions.
PATH determination, resource allocation, facility location etc are some of the modeling functions for
NETWORK
NETWORK data.
Raster overlay analysis
• In raster overlay, each cell of each layer
references the same geographic location. That
makes it well suited to combining characteristics
for numerous layers into a single layer. Usually,
numeric values are assigned to each
characteristic, allowing you to mathematically
combine the layers and assign a new value to
each cell in the output layer.
• An example of raster overlay by addition is
shown in figure. Two input rasters are added
together to create an output raster with the
values for each cell summed. This approach is
often used to rank attribute values by suitability
or risk, then add them to produce an overall rank
for each cell. The various layers can also be
assigned a relative importance to create a
weighted ranking (the ranks in each layer are
multiplied by that layer's weight value before
being summed with the other layers).
Contd.,
• Below is an example of raster overlay by addition for suitability modeling.
Three raster layers (steep slopes, soils, and vegetation) are ranked for
development suitability on a scale of 1 to 7. When the layers are added
(bottom), each cell is ranked on a scale of 3 to 21.
Raster overlay tools
Raster overlay tools are located in several toolsets in the Spatial Analyst
toolbox. Spatial Analyst is an ArcGIS extension that is licensed separately. If
your site has a Spatial Analyst license and the Spatial Analyst extension has
been installed, you will have access to the Spatial Analyst toolbox in Arc
Toolbox.

Tool Location What it does

Summarizes values in a raster layer by zones (categories) in


Zonal Statistics Zonal toolset another layer—for example, calculate the mean elevation for
each vegetation category.

Assigns a value to each cell in the output layer based on


Combine Local toolset
unique combinations of values from several input layers.

Automates the raster overlay process and lets you assign


Weighted Overlay Overlay toolset weights to each layer before adding (you can also specify
equal influence to create an unweighted overlay).

Overlays several rasters, multiplying each by their given


Weighted Sum Overlay toolset
weight and summing them together.
Measurement
Measurement – It involves the calculation of
1. Distance between points
2. Length of lines
3. Area an perimeter of polygons
4. Sometimes distance between a point and a line or a polygon is also required
5. Total no. of points within a polygon
6. Volumetric analysis for a cut and fill operation in calculation of earthworks
Attribute Query
• Querying is the capability to retrieve data, usually a data subset, based on some
user defined formula. These data subsets are often referred to as logical views.
Often the querying is closely linked to the data manipulation and analysis
subsystem. Many GIS software offerings have attempted to standardize their
querying capability by use of a Standard Query Language (SQL).
• An attribute query is the process of searching and retrieving records of features
in a database based on desired attribute values. Such queries are a fundamental
part of managing and analyzing GIS data. Typically, this is performed using a
criteria-based query language, most commonly SQL.
• While attribute queries select features by sorting through attribute records,
spatial selection chooses features from the map in the user interface.
• In most cases, it selects features from one layer that fall within or touches an
edge of polygon features in a second layer (or an interactively drawn graphic
polygon). Spatial query operations generally are not available in raster-based
GIS packages even though these packages have SQL attribute data queries
Select by Attributes
• In ArcGIS, the 'Select by Attributes'
window provides a quick way to build a
SQL query to create a selection based on
map attributes. In the screenshot below, a
simple SQL query has been built that
queries the underlying 'POP' (population)
attribute record of a layer containing
information about US cities (citiesx020 in
the example). After executing the query,
only those cities having a population
greater than 100000 will be selected in
the map.
Select by Location
• The Select By Location tool selects
features based on their location relative
to features in another map layer. For
instance, if you want to know how many
homes were affected by a recent flood,
you could select all the homes (layer 1)
that fall within the flood boundary (layer
2).
• A variety of selection methods are
available to select the point, line, or
polygon features in one layer that are
near or overlap the features in the same
or another layer. Based on the example
screenshot below, when the query is
executed, all cities that are contained
within the source layer ('cma') polygon
feature will be selected.
Record modeling and expert system
• In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system that
emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert. Expert systems are
designed to solve complex problems by reasoning through bodies of
knowledge, represented mainly as if–then rules rather than through
conventional procedural code.
• An expert system is divided into two subsystems: the inference engine and
the knowledge base. The knowledge base represents facts and rules. The
inference engine applies the rules to the known facts to deduce new facts.
Inference engines can also include explanation and debugging abilities.
• An expert system is an example of a knowledge-based system. Expert
systems were the first commercial systems to use a knowledge-based
architecture. The inference engine is an automated reasoning system that
evaluates the current state of the knowledge-base, applies relevant rules,
and then asserts new knowledge into the knowledge base. The inference
engine may also include abilities for explanation, so that it can explain to a
user the chain of reasoning used to arrive at a particular conclusion by
tracing back over the firing of rules that resulted in the assertion.
Contd.,
As expert systems evolved, many new techniques were
incorporated into various types of inference engines. Some of the
most important of these were:

• Truth maintenance - These systems record the dependencies in


a knowledge-base so that when facts are altered, dependent
knowledge can be altered accordingly. For example, if the
system learns that Socrates is no longer known to be a man it
will revoke the assertion that Socrates is mortal.
• Hypothetical reasoning - In this, the knowledge base can be
divided up into many possible views, a.k.a. worlds. This
allows the inference engine to explore multiple possibilities in
parallel. For example, the system may want to explore the
consequences of both assertions, what will be true if Socrates
is a Man and what will be true if he is not?
Contd.,
• Fuzzy logic - One of the first extensions of simply using rules to
represent knowledge was also to associate a probability with each
rule. So, not to assert that Socrates is mortal, but to assert Socrates
may be mortal with some probability value. Simple probabilities
were extended in some systems with sophisticated mechanisms for
uncertain reasoning and combination of probabilities.
• Ontology classification - With the addition of object classes to the
knowledge base, a new type of reasoning was possible. Along with
reasoning simply about object values, the system could also reason
about object structures. In this simple example, Man can represent
an object class and R1 can be redefined as a rule that defines the
class of all men. These types of special purpose inference engines
are termed classifiers. Although they were not highly used in expert
systems, classifiers are very powerful for unstructured volatile
domains, and are a key technology for the Internet and the emerging
Semantic Web.
References
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105107129/28
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105102015/24
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105102015/21
• http://textofvideo.nptel.ac.in/105107155/lec6.pdf
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105102015/gis%20don
e/chapter%208/spatial%20interpolation.html
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105104100/39
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105102015/23

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