INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

IBADAN

PHYSICS

EXTRA CLASS NOTE

SS 2/SECOND TERM

JANUARY ,2025

ON

1. Uncertainty Principle
2. Wave particle duality of matter
3. Laser
4. Non parallel Coplanar forces

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HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Considering a blindfolded person in the room searching for a ball whose velocity he has been
told to be 5ms-1 but not know the position.
He will come to know the position when the ball collides with him but at this point of time the
velocity of the ball would have changed due to the collision. This is precisely what Heisenberg
stated that exact velocity and exact position cannot be determined simultaneously.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that there is always an uncertainty in any attempt to
measure the position and momentum of an electron simultaneously
Mathematically
h
x . P 
2π
h
x . V 
2π
h
E . t 
2π
x is the uncertainty in the position measurement
P is the uncertainty in the momentum measurement
V is the uncertainty in the velocity measurement
E is the uncertainty in the energy measurement
t is the uncertainty in the time measurement
h = Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34Js

Worked Examples
1. The uncertainty in determining the duration during which an electron remain in a
particular energy level before returning to the ground state is 2 x 10 -19secs. Calculate the
uncertainty in determining its energy at that level.
h
E . t 
2π
−34
6.6 x 10
E . 2 x 10-19 
2 x 3.142
−34
6.6 x 10
E  −19
2 x 3.142 x 2 x 10
= 5.25 x 10-26 J

2. The uncertainty in the velocity of a moving electron of mass 10 -30kg is 3 x 106m/s.

Calculate the uncertainty of the simultaneous measurement of its position.
h
x . P 
2π
−34
6.6 x 10
x . MV 
2 x 3.142
−34
6.6 x 10
x . 10 x 3 x 10 
-30 -6
2 x 3.142
−34
6.6 x 10
x = −30 6
2 x 3.142 x 10 x 3 x 10
x = 3.52 x 10-11m

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3. Suppose the uncertainty of position of an electron is about 0.5 x 10 -10m, calculate the
uncertainty in its momentum
h
x . P 
2π
−34
6.6 x 10
0.5 x 10-10 x P 
2 x 3.142
−34
6.6 x 10
P  −10
2 x 3.142 x 0.5 x 10
P = 2.11 x 10-24kgm/s

4. The uncertainty in the momentum of an electron is 2.10 x 10 24kgm/s. What is the least
uncertainty in any simultaneous measurement of the position of this election?

h
E . P 
2π
−34 −34
6.6 x 10 6.6 x 10
E . 2.10 x 10 
-24
E  −24 === 5.02 x 10
-
2 x 3.142 2 x 3.142 x 2.10 x 10
1 j

Wave –particle duality of matter

Wave-particle duality of matter means light behaves or propagates either as a wave or as a

particle but not as both simultaneously.
Properties or physical phenomena that explain light as a wave
(1) Reflection (4) Interference
(2) Refraction (5) Wavelength
(3) Diffraction (6) Frequency
Properties or physical phenomena that explain light as a particle
1. Photoelectric effect 3. Compton effect
2. Black body radiation 4. Geiger counter

Louis de Broglie postulate states that every particle of mass moving with velocity v can be
treated as a wave having a wavelength  given as
h h
= = since P = mv
mv p
The wavelength  is sometimes called de Broglie wavelength
The following formula can be used to calculate wavelength
h h
1. = =
p mv
hv
2. =
2 eV

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 h
3. =
√2 eVme
Where h = Planck’s constant = 6.6 x 10-34Js
p = mv = momentum (kgm/s)
me = mass of electron = 9.1 x 10-31kg
v = velocity
V = voltage
e = electron = 1.6 x 10-19J

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 Worked Examples
1. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for
a. a proton of mass 1.67 x 10-27kg moving with a speed of 4 x 105m/s
b. a ball of mass 80g moving with a speed of 25m/s
−34
h 6.6 x 10
a. = =
mv 1.67 x 10−27 x 4 x 105
= 9.88 x 10-13m
−34
h 6.6 x 10
b. = =
mv 8 x 10−2 x 25
= 3.3 x 10-34m
2. Calculate the minimum wavelength of x-ray when a voltage of 60kV is applied to an x-
ray tube (e = 1.6 x 10-19C)
−34 8
hv 6.6 x 10 x 3.0 x 10
= =
2 eV 2 x 1.6 x 10−19 x 6 .0 x 10 4
= 1.03 x 10-11m
3. Calculate the wavelength of an electron of mass 9.1 x 10 -31kg moving with a velocity of
2.0 x 106m/s
−34
hv 6.6 x 10
= =
meV 9.1 x 10−34 x 2 .0 x 106
= 3.64 x 10-10m
4. If electrons are accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 10kV, what is the
wavelength?
−34
hv 6.6 x 10
= =
√2 eVMe √2 x 1.6 x 10−19 x 1 x 104 x 9.1 x 10−3
 = 1.22 x 10-11m

LASER

The laser is a light source that produces a beam of highly coherent and very nearly
monochromatic light as a result of co-operative emission from many atoms .It is a device that
generates an intense beam of coherent monochromatic light. The name Laser is an acronym for
Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Types of laser
1. solid state 4.semi-conductor
2. chemical 5.fibre
3. Liquid state 6. Gas state

Bohr Atomic theory states that:

i. Electrons in an atom exist in stationary states or energy level.
ii. Transmission between stationary states produces/absorb electromagnetic radiation. When
an electron moves between stationary states, it is accompanied by the emission or
absorption of a photon. This photon’s energy is given by E = hf

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 Electromagnetic radiation is produced by the movement of electrons from higher energy
level to lower energy level. The angular momentum of a stationary electron is quantized.
 If E2∧ E1 are the energies corresponding to higher and lower energy levels respectively, the
frequency f of the emitted photon/energy is given by the relation:
E2− E1 = hf or E=hf
c hc
Since ¿ , therefore E =
❑ ❑

1. An electron jumped from a state of energy level -3.3eV to one of -8.6eV. Calculate the energy
and wavelength of the emitted radiation (h = 6.602 x 10-34Js, c = 3 x 108m/s, 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J).
Solution
Step A: What we know:
Higher energy level E2 = -3.3eV
Lower energy level E1 = -8.6eV
Step B: what we want to know: E =?,  =?
Step C: E = E2 – E1 = -3.3 – (-8.6)
 E = -3.3 + 8.6 = 5.3eV
Then convert eV to joules
 5.3eV = 5.3 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 8.48 x 10-19J
hc
But E=
❑
−34 8
hc 6.6 ×10 × 3 ×10
¿ = −19 = 2.33 x 10-7m
E 8.48 ×10
2. An electron radiated 4.5 x 10-19J of energy when it jumped from one energy level to another in
an atom. Calculate the wavelength of the radiation.
(h = 6.602 x 10-34Js, c = 3 x 108m/s,)
Solution
Step A: What we know: E = 4.5 x 10-19J
Step B: What we want to know:  =?
−34 8
hc 6.6 ×10 × 3 ×10
Step C: ¿ = −19 = 4.4 x 10-7m
E 4.5 ×10

3.

The diagram above illustrates the energy levels of an electron in an atom. If an excited electron
moves from n2 to n0, calculate the:
i. Frequency ii. Wavelength of the emitted radiation
(h = 6.602 x 10-34Js, c = 3 x 108m/s, 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J)
Solution
Higher energy level E2 = -2.0eV
Lower energy level E1 = -12.0V
E =?,  =?
 E = E2 – E1 = -2.0 – (-12.0) = -2.0 + 12.0 = 10eV
Then convert eV to joules,

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 10eV = 10 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 1.6 x 10-18J
I f=?
−18
E 1.6 ×10
 f= = = 2.42 x 1015Hz
h 6.6 ×10−34
−34 8
hc 6.6 ×10 × 3 ×10
ii. ¿ = −18 = 1.24 x 10-7m
E 1.6 ×10

4. The table below gives some of the energy levels of a hydrogen atom.
N 1 2 3 4 5 ∞

En/ - -3.39 -1.51 -0.85 -0.54 0.0

e 13 0
V .6
0

(i) Draw the energy level diagram for the atom.

(ii) Determine the wavelength of the photon emitted when the atom goes from the energy state, n
= 3 to the ground state.
[h = 6.6 x 10-34Js, c = 3.0 x 108ms-1, e = 1.6 x 10-19C]
So

(ii) E = E3 – E1 = -1.51 – (-13.60) = -1.51 + 13.60 = 12.09eV = 12.09 x 1.6 x 10 -19 = 1.934 x 10-
18
J
hc 6.6 ×10−34 ×3 × 108
 = = = 1.02 x 10-7m
E 1.934 ×10
−18

Spontaneous Emission: Atoms must absorb energy either from an electromagnetic source,
photon or heat source in order to jump to higher energy levels. When this occurs, the atom is said
to be excited. This electron however will not remain in the higher state for long and so on loses
its energy by radiating the same amount of energy it absorbed and returns to the ground state.

Stimulated Emission: If before the electron returns to ground state, a photon whose energy =
E happens to pass by, the passing photon will cause the excited electron to decay in a manner
that the photon emitted is at exactly the same wavelength, at exactly the same direction and at
exactly the same phase as the passing photon. When two coherent photons are emitted by the
interaction of the single photon passing in the neighbourhood of the excited electrons. The two

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photons interact with two neighbouring excited atoms, thereby producing four photons, four
producing eight photons and so on i.e. there is amplification leading to a very intense beam of
light termed LASER BEAM

Population inversion: is the process of increasing the number of atoms in the excited state in
relation to the number in ground state. It is achieved by pumping electrons by some external
process from the lower state to higher state. Electrons will normally reside in the lowest available
energy level. They can be elevated to excited states by absorption, but no signification collection
of electrons can be accumulated by absorption alone since both spontaneous and stimulated
emission will bring them back. It enables the existence of many atoms in the excited state from
where they can be stimulated to emit greater energy.

Resonator: is a system of mirrors that reflect undesirable photon out of the beam and reflect the
desirable photons back to the excited population where they can continue to be part of the
amplification.
Components of a Laser
1. Pumping medium
2. High voltage source
3. A fully reflecting mirror or surface
4. Laser cavity
5. A partially reflecting surface

Characteristics of laser light

1. Laser light is highly coherent: Different parts of the laser beam are related to each other in
phase. These phase relationships are maintained over long enough time so that interference
effects may be seen or recorded photographically.
2. Laser light is highly monochromatic: Laser light consists of essentially one wavelength having
its origin in stimulated emission from a set of atomic energy levels.
3. Laser light can be sharply focused: Because of bouncing back between mirrored ends of a
laser cavity, those paths which sustain amplification must pass between the mirrors many times
and be very nearly perpendicular to the mirrors. As a result, laser beams are very narrow and do
not spread very much.
4. Tuning: Some lasers can be used to emit radiation over a range of wavelengths. Laser
tenability leads to applications in photochemistry, high resolution and roman spectroscopy.
5. Brightness: Laser lights have a higher brightness than any other source. We define brightness
as the power emitted per unit area per unit solid angle.
Application of laser
1. In Communication
 For hologram production
 For CD, VCD, DVD playing
 For data transfer
 Used in fibre optical cable

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2. In medicine
For welding the retina of our eyes
 For boring holes in the skull
 For testing biological samples
 For monitoring glucose level for diabetic patient
 For cauterizating blood vess

3. In security
 Used in guidance system of missiles
 Used in aircraft and satellite
 Used in generation of isotopes for nuclear weapons

Differences and similarities between ordinary light and laser light

Ordinary light Laser light
1 Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
2 Light is incoherent (photons Light is coherent (photons emitted are in phase)
emitted are out of phase)
3 Divergent Highly directional (focused to a sharp point)
4 Polychromatic (different Light is monochromatic (single colour,
frequency, wavelength and frequency and wavelength)
colours)

Similarities
1. Both are electromagnetic waves
2. Both travel with the speed of 3 x 108m/s in air or vacuum.

Properties of lasers that make them preferable to ordinary light beam

1. It is monochromatic
2. It gives more intense light
3. It can be emitted continuously
4. It has a very long narrow optical bandwidth
5. It travels a very long distance without losing its intensity

4 Non parallel Coplanar forces

Centre of Gravity
Try to balance a piece of cardboard or your notebook on your finger tip. What do you observe?
You will observe that there is only one point which the cardboard or notebook can be balanced.
The point where the cardboard/notebook can be balanced is called the centre of gravity.

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 What is Centre of Gravity of an Object?
This is a simple object of a shape of a block. We can think about every object, even in term of
having several parts and each part of the object has its own weight.
The weights can be combined into a single force – the total weight, acting from a single point.
The point is called the centre of gravity

Centre of gravity of an object is defined as the point from which the object’s entire weight can
be considered to act.
Centre of Gravity in Different Types of Bodies
 Centre of gravity in regular bodies
 Centre of gravity in irregular bodies
Centre of gravity in regular bodies
The centre of gravity of an object is the point in the middle (geometrical centre) provide, the
object: is symmetrical; , has a uniform density; and uniform gravitational field.

Centre of gravity in irregular bodies

Irregular body is the body that has improper shape i.e. they do not have any specific shape.
Determination of C.G of Irregular Bodies Procedure:

 Make small holes near the edge of the irregularly shaped object;
 Put a pin through one of the holes and held firmly to a clamp and stand so the object can swing
freely;

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 A length of string is attached to the pin and the other end to a heavy metal e.g. pendulum bob.
This arrangement is known as a plumb line.
 When the bob stops swinging freely, draw a line on the object along the vertical string of the
plumb line. The centre of gravity lies on the plumb line.
 To find the position of the centre of gravity, repeat the procedure by suspending the object
from other holes.
 The centre of gravity will be the point of intersection of the lines drawn on the object.

Centre of Mass Centre of mass of an object is the average position of the masses of different
parts of an object.
Centre of gravity and Centre of mass of an object are at the same point providing the object is in
iform gravitational field e.g. near the earth’s surface. But centre of gravity and centre of mass
can be at different points if the object is in a non-uniform gravitational field.

The Moment of a Force Terminology

Fulcrum: Fulcrum/pivot/hinge is a short shaft or pin supporting something that turns.
Point of application of a force: This is the point on the object where the force is applied.
Fulcrum: Fulcrum/pivot/hinge is a short shaft or pin supporting something that turns.
Point of application of a force: This is the point on the object where the force is applied.
Line of action of a force: This is the line which passes through the point of application of the
force.
The moment of a force can be defined as the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
of the pivot from the line of action of the force. Mathematically: Moment = force x
perpendicular distance of the pivot from the line of action. (the bigger the force, the greater its
moment and the further the force acts from the pivot, the greater its moment).
 It is a vector quantity
 Its S.I unit is Nm
Clockwise, Anticlockwise and Zero Moment
 Clockwise moment: There will be a clockwise moment if the force turns the object in the
direction that the hands of a clock move.
 Anticlockwise or counterclockwise moment: There will be an anticlockwise moment if the
force turns the object in the direction opposite to the direction in which the hands of a clock
move.
 Zero moment: There will be zero moment if the line of action of the force passes through the
fulcrum (turning point).

 P will turn the bar in an anticlockwise direction. So, P has an anticlockwise moment about
point, C.
 R will turn the bar in a clockwise direction. So, R has a clockwise moment about point, C.
 The line of action of Q lies on C. So, Q has zero moment about point C.
Principles of Moment of a force
1. The sum of forces in one direction is equal to the sum of forces in opposite direction ie
total upward forces = total downward forces
2. The sum of the anticlockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of the clockwise
moments about the same point.
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Worked Examples
For each situation below, determine the moment of the force, and state the direction in which it
acts.

1.
Solution
Moment = force x perpendicular distance of the pivot from the line of action.
Moment = 4 x 0.4 = 1.6Nm (Anticlockwise)

2.

Solution
Moment = force x perpendicular distance of the pivot from the line of action.
Moment = 5 x 0.5 = 2.5Nm (Clockwise)
Many Moments
Sometimes more than one force acts on the same side of the pivot. Their overall turning effect is
easy to work out. So, when more than one force acts in the same direction, their overall turning
effect is just the sum of their moments
Worked Examples
3. A weightless uniform rod MN of length 50m is placed horizontally on a pivot placed 10m
from M. If the weights of 20N and 5N are hung at M and N respectively, determine whether the
rod will remain balanced or rotate about the pivot.
Solution
Note that the rod is uniform and its weight supposed to act at the centre of the rod, but since it is
weightless, it has no weight and the only forces acting on the rod are two hung weights 20N and
5N pulling the rod downward at respective ends and the pivot which pushes the rod up.

what we want to know: whether the rod is balanced or rotating.

 Moment of 20N about the pivot = 20 x 10 = 200Nm (Anticlockwise).
 Moment of 5N about the pivot = 5 x 40 = 200Nm (Clockwise).
Since total moment in the clockwise direction is equal to the total moment in the anticlockwise
direction, the rod is balanced.

4. A uniform rod MN of length 50m and weight 3N is placed horizontally on a pivot placed 20m
from M. If the weights of 20N and 5N are hung at M and N respectively, determine whether the
rod will remain balanced or start to rotate about the pivot.
Solution
The rod is uniform and its weight will act at the centre of the rod. So, the forces acting on the rod
are the;
 Two hung weights

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  Weight of the rod
 Pivot

what we want to know: whether the rod is balanced or rotating

 Moment of 20N about the pivot = 20 x 20 = 400Nm (Anticlockwise).
 Moment of 5N about the pivot = 5 x 30 = 150Nm (Clockwise).
 Moment of 3N about the pivot = 3 x 5 = 15Nm (Clockwise).
- The total clockwise moment = 150 + 15 = 165Nm
Since the total clockwise moment is not equal to the total anticlockwise moment, the rod is not in
equilibrium; it will rotate anticlockwise since anticlockwise moment is greater than clockwise
moment.

5.

From the figure above, calculate the reactions at P and Q if the system is balance.
Solution
Upward forces = downward forces
 P + Q = 2000N + 1000N + 2000N ---- (i)
When there are two or more pivots, just take moment about one of them. Here let’s take moment
about P.
 Moment of car red about P = 2000 × 10 = 20000Nm (Clockwise)
 Moment of car green about P = 1000 × 60 = 60000Nm (Clockwise)
 Moment of car yellow about P = 2000 × 90 = 180000 (Clockwise)
 Moment of pivot Q about P = Q × 100 = 100PNm (Anticlockwise)
Since the system is balanced:
Total clockwise moments = total anticlockwise moments
20000 + 60000 + 180000 = 100Q
260000 = 100Q
260000
Q¿ = 2600N
100
From equation;
P + Q = 2000N + 1000N + 2000N ---- (i)
P + 2600 = 5000
P = 5000 – 2600 = 2400N
So, reactions at P and Q are 2400N and 2600N respectively.

6. A uniform metre rule of mass 480g, is suspended horizontally by two vertical strings at points
10cm from each end. If masses of 1.0 and 3.0kg are hung on it at points 20cm respectively from
one end and 25cm from the other, what would be the tension on the strings?
Solution

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 what we want to know: Tension at T1 and T2
Upward forces = downward forces
T1 + T2 = 10N + 4.8N + 30N ---- (i)
When there two or more pivots, just take moment about one of them. Here let’s take moment
about T2.
 Moment of 30N about T2 = 30 × 0.15 = 4.50Nm (Anticlockwise)
 Moment of 4.8N about T2 = 4.8 × 0.4 = 1.92Nm (Anticlockwise)
 Moment of 10N about T2 = 10 × 0.7 = 7.00 (Anticlockwise)
 Moment of T1 about T2 = T1 × 0.8= 0.8T1Nm (Clockwise)
Since the system is balanced:
Total clockwise moment = Total anticlockwise moment
 4.50 + 1.92 + 7.00 = 0.8T1
 13.42 = 0.8T1
13.42
 T1 ¿ = 16.775N
0.8
From equation (i);
T1 + T2 = 10N + 4.8N + 30N ---- (i)
 16.775 + T2 = 44.8
T2 = 44.8 – 16.775 = 28.025N
So, reactions at T1 and T2 are 16.775N and 28.025N respectively.

7. Using the diagram below, calculate the reactions at points A and B

(N/2016/I/Q12c)

Solution
Total upward force = Total downward force
A + B = 20 + 60 + 20 = 100 ---------- (i)
Taking moments about A
-Moment of 20N at pivot A = 20 x 0.4 = 8Nm ACWM
-Moment of 60N at pivot A = 60 x 0.1 = 6Nm (CWM).
-Moment of B at pivot A = B x 0.4 = 0.4BNm (ACWM)
-Moment of 20N at pivot A = 20 x 0.6 = 12Nm (CW)
Sum of ACWM = sum of CWM
8 + 0.4B = 6 +12
0.4B = 6 + 12 – 8 = 10

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 10
0.4B = 10 B = = 25N
0.4
From equation (i),
A + B = 100
A + 25 = 100 A = 100 −¿25 = 75N.

Two forces F and 250 N act on a uniform rigid body of weight 50 N as illustrated in the diagram
above. Calculate the:
(α) clockwise moment about the pivot; (β) value of F. (W/2018/E/Q8a)
Solution
() Clockwise moment = 250 x 0.75 = 187.5Nm
(β) Sum of ACWM = sum of CWM
F x (3 – 0.75) + 50 x (1.5 – 0.75) = 187.5
 F = 66.7N

9 A light beam AB balances on two pivots C and D as shown in the diagram below. Calculate
the forces acting on C and D.

(N/2018/E/Q12d)
Solution
Total upward force = Total downward force
C + D = 20 ---------- (i)
Taking moments about C
-Moment of 20N at pivot C = 20 x 5 = 100Nm (CWM).
-Moment of D at pivot C = D x 17 = 17DNm (ACWM).
Sum of ACWM Sum of CWM
100
17D = 100 B = = 5.88N
17
From equation (i),
C + D = 100
C + 5.88 = 20 C = 20 −¿5.88 = 14.12N

10 . The diagram below represents a light beam pivoted at two points balanced with
weights W1 and W2.

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Derive an expression for the reaction force at B. (N/2019/E/Q12b)
Solution
Since the reaction at B is needed, the moment can be taken from A. So,
 Moment of B at A = B x 7 = 7B (ACWM)
 Moment of W2 at A = W2 x 5 = 5W2 (CWM)
 Moment of W1 at A = W1 x 2 = 2W1 (CWM)
Total ACWM = Total CWM
5W 2+ 2W 1
7B = 5W2 + 2W1 B =
7

Types of Equilibrium
There are three types of equilibrium: stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium.
Stable equilibrium
If a body returns to its original position without toppling after being slightly displaced, it is said
to be in a stable equilibrium.

A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if:

 It has a low centre of gravity
 It has a wide base,
 The vertical line through its centre of gravity remains within the base of support when the body
is slightly tilted.
 The moment of C.G is that which tends to return the body to its original position when tilted
and released.
 On tilting, the position of C.G increases, thereby increasing the magnitude of its potential
energy.
Examples of Stable Equilibrium
 A cone resting on its base,
 A heavy base lamp
 A racing car with low C.G and wide base
 A ball or sphere in the middle of a bowl

Unstable Equilibrium
If a body continues to move away from its original position after being displaced, it is said to be
in an unstable equilibrium

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 G
A body is said to be in an unstable equilibrium, if:
 It has a high centre of gravity,
 It has a narrow base
 The vertical line through its centre of gravity falls outside the base of support when the body is
slightly tilted
 The moment of C.G is that which cannot return its body to its original position when tilted and
released.
 On tilting, the position of C.G decreases, thereby decreasing the magnitude of its potential
energy
Examples
 A cone or egg resting on its apex or pointed end
 A tight-rope walker
 A racing vehicle with high C.G and narrow base
 A ball or sphere resting on an inverted bowl

Neutral equilibrium
If a body rolls and stays in its new position after being displaced, it is said to be in a neutral
equilibrium.

 When the body is slightly displaced, the weight of the body has no moment or turning effect
 When displaced to another position, the position of the C.G and its height above the horizontal
surface remain unchanged.

Examples:
 A cone or cylinder resting on its side

 A ball or sphere on a smooth horizontal table

Relationship between Centre of Gravity and Stability

The relationship between stability and the Centre of gravity of a body is that:
The stability of a body increases as the C. G of the body is
is lowered and decreases as the C.G of the body is raised. That is, for a good stability, the C.G
must be low and the base wide
Torque of a Couple

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The figure above shows the forces acting on the steering wheel of a vehicle. The two forces
balance each other because F1 = F2, so the wheel will not move up, down or sideways. However,
the wheel is not in equilibrium. The pair of the forces will cause the wheel to rotate. A pair of
forces like this is known as the couple. A couple has a turning effect, but does not cause an
object to accelerate. To have a couple, two forces must be:
 Equal in magnitude
 Parallel but opposite in direction
 Separated by distance, d
Couple: is defined as two equal but oppositely directed parallel forces acting on a body.
Torque: Torque is defined as the turning effect or moment of a couple. It is the product of one of
the forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the two forces.
 Torque or Moment of couple = F x d
Additional Information
 The couple has a zero resultant force, but has a turning effect or moment on the body on which
it is acting on
 The unit is Nm
 It can produce only a rotation of the body.

Two forces each of magnitude 4N, act in the opposite direction at the ends of a rod. If the length
of the rod is 40cm, calculate the moment of the couple acting on the rod.

Moment of couple = one of the forces x perpendicular distance between them = 4 x 0.4 =1.6Nm

Practical applications of the couple include:

 Turning of the steering wheel of a vehicle
 Opening or closing a tap
 Turning a spanner
 Setting a flywheel in motion about an axis through its centre
 Motion of a spinning spindle

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