YOUTH COMPETITION TIMES

RRB JE
2nd Stage (CBT-II)

CAPSULE
CIVIL & ALLIED
ENGINEERING
Study Material & Question Bank
Chief Editor
A.K. Mahajan
Compiled & Written by
Er. Rohit Kumar Singh, Er. Shipra Singh
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 INDEX

RRB JE Syllabus ............................................................................................ 3-4

Engineering Mechanics.................................................................................. 5-11

Building Construction .................................................................................. 12-16
Building Materials ....................................................................................... 17-45
Construction of Substructure ....................................................................... 46-52
Construction of Superstructure .................................................................... 53-78
Building Finishes ......................................................................................... 79-87
Building Maintenance .................................................................................. 88-92
Building Drawing ...................................................................................... 93-110
Concrete Technology ............................................................................... 111-158
Surveying ................................................................................................. 159-232
Computer Aided Design .......................................................................... 233-242
Geotechnical Engineering ........................................................................ 243-302
Hydraulics ................................................................................................ 303-350
Irrigation Engineering .............................................................................. 351-380
Mechanics of Structures........................................................................... 381-417
Theory of Structures ................................................................................ 418-440
Design of Concrete Structures ............................................................... 441-468
Design of Steel Structures........................................................................ 469-496
Transportation Engineering ..................................................................... 497-529
Highway Engineering .............................................................................. 530-576
Environmental Engineering ..................................................................... 577-629
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment ................................. 630-644
Estimating & Costing............................................................................... 645-661
Contracts & Accounts .......................................................................................... 662-672

2
 Syllabus for Civil & Allied Engineering
Exam Group - JE
S.N. Subject
1. Engineering Mechanics- Force (resolution of force, moment of force, force system,
composition of forces), Equilibrium, Friction, Centroid and Center of gravity, Simple
machines.
2. Building Construction- Building components (substructure, superstructure), type of structure
(load bearing, framed and composite structures).
3. Building materials- Masonry materials (stones, bricks, and mortars), Timber and
miscellaneous materials (glass, plastic, fiber, aluminium steel, galvanized iron, bitumen, PVC,
CPVC, and PPF).
4. Construction of substructure- job layout, earthwork, foundation (types, dewatering, coffer
dams, bearing capacity).
5. Construction of superstructure- stone masonry, brick masonry, Hollow concrete block
masonry, composite masonry, cavity wall, doors and windows, vertical communication (stairs,
lifts, escalators), scaffolding and shoring.
6. Building finishes- Floors (finishes, process of laying), walls (plastering, pointing, painting)
and roofs (roofing materials including RCC).
7. Building maintenance- Cracks (causes, type, repairs- grouting, guniting, epoxy etc.),
settlement (causes and remedial measures), and re-baring techniques.
8. Building drawing- Conventions (type of lines, symbols), planning of building (principles of
planning for residential and public buildings, rules and byelaws), drawings (plan, elevation,
section, site plan, location plan, foundation plan, working drawing), perspective drawing.
9. Concrete Technology- Properties of various types/grades of cement, properties of coarse and
fine aggregates, properties of concrete (water cement ratio, properties of fresh and hardened
concrete), Concrete mix design, testing of concrete, quality control of concrete (batching,
formwork, transportation, placing, compaction, curing, waterproofing), extreme weather
concreting and chemical admixtures, properties of special concrete (ready mix, RCC, pre-
stressed, fiber reinforced, precast, high performance).
10. Surveying- Types of survey, chain and cross staff survey (principle, ranging, triangulation,
chaining, errors, finding area), compass survey (principle, bearing of line, prismatic compass,
traversing, local attraction, calculation of bearings, angles and local attraction) leveling (dumpy
level, recording in level book, temporary adjustment, methods of reduction of levels,
classification of leveling, tilting level, auto level, sources of errors, precautions and difficulties
in leveling), contouring (contour interval, characteristics, method of locating, interpolation,
establishing grade contours, uses of contour maps), area and volume measurements, plane table
survey (principles, setting, method), theodolite survey (components, adjustments,
measurements, traversing), Tacheometric survey, curves (types, setting out), advanced survey
equipment, aerial survey and remote sensing.
11. Computer Aided Design- CAD Software (AutoCAD, Auto Civil, 3D Max etc.), CAD
commands, generation of plan, elevation, section, site plan, area statement, 3D view.
3
12. Geo Technical Engineering- Application of Geo Technical Engineering in design of
foundation, pavement, earth retaining structures, earthen dams etc., physical properties of soil,
permeability of soil and seepage analysis, shear strength of soil, bearing capacity of soil,
compaction and stabilization of soil, site investigation and sub soil exploration.
13. Hydraulics- properties of fluid, hydrostatic pressure, measurement of liquid pressure in pipes,
fundamentals of fluid flow, flow of liquid through pipes, flow through open channel, flow
measuring devices, hydraulic machines.
14. Irrigation Engineering- Hydrology, investigation and reservoir planning, percolation tanks,
diversion head works.
15. Mechanics of Structures- Stress and strain, shear force and bending moment, moment of
inertia, stresses in beams, analysis of trusses, strain energy.
16. Theory of structures- Direct and bending stresses, slope and deflection, fixed beam,
continuous beam, moment distribution method, columns.
17. Design of Concrete Structures- Working Stress method, Limit State method, analysis and
design of singly reinforced and doubly reinforced sections, shear, bond and development
length, analysis and design of T Beam, slab, axially loaded column and footings.
18. Design of Steel Structures- Types of sections, grades of steel, strength characteristics, IS
Code, Connections, Design of tension and compression members, steel roof truss, beams,
column bases.
19. Transportation Engineering- Railway Engineering (alignment and gauges, permanent way,
railway track geometrics, branching of tracks, stations and yards, track maintenance), Bridge
engineering (site selection, investigation, component parts of bridge, permanent and temporary
bridges, inspection and maintenance), Tunnel engineering (classification, shape and sizes,
tunnel investigation and surveying, method of tunneling in various strata, precautions,
equipment, explosives, lining and ventilation).
20. Highway Engineering- Road Engineering, investigation for road project, geometric design of
highways,
construction of road pavements and materials, traffic engineering, hill roads, drainage of roads,
maintenance and repair of roads.
21. Environmental Engineering- Environmental pollution and control, public water supply,
domestic sewage, solid waste management, environmental sanitation, and plumbing.
22. Advanced Construction Techniques and Equipment- Fibers and plastics, artificial timber,
advanced concreting methods (under water concreting, ready mix concrete, tremix concreting,
special concretes), formwork, prefabricated construction, soil reinforcing techniques, hoisting
and conveying equipment, earth moving machinery (exaction and compaction equipment),
concrete mixers, stone crushers, pile driving equipment, working of hot mix bitumen plant,
bitumen paver, floor polishing machines.
23. Estimating and Costing- Types of estimates (approximate, detailed), mode of measurements
and rate analysis.
24. Contracts and Accounts- Types of engineering contracts, Tender and tender documents,
payment,
specifications.

4
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE Coplanar Line of action lies in a same
In order to determine the effects of a force acting on concurrent forces plane and meets at a single
a body, we must known– point to each other.
Magnitude of the force (i.e. 100 N, 50 N, 20 N etc.) Coplanar non- The forces, whose lines of
Line of action of the force (i.e. along OX, OY, at 30o concurrent forces action lie on the same plane
but do not meets at a single
north etc.)
point.
Nature of the force (i.e. push or pull).
Non-coplanar Line of action does not lie on
Composition of Forces : The process of concurrent forces the same plane but meet at a
finding out the resultant force, of a number of given single point.
forces is called composition of forces. Non-coplanar The forces, whose lines of
Method for the resultant force : non-concurrent action do not lie on the same
• Parallelogram law of forces : forces plane and do not meet at
single point.
R = F12 + F22 + 2F1F2 cos θ
Non-concurrent Line of action of all forces do
F2 sin θ forces not pass through a single
tan α = point.
F1 + F2 cos θ Line of action of all forces
Collinear forces
θ = 0º Force act along the same line. passes through a single line.
Parallel forces Line of action of all forces are
θ = 90º Force act at right angle. parallel to each other.
θ = 180º Force act along same line but in (a) Like parallel Line of action of all forces are
opposite directions. forces parallel to each other in same
• Resolution of forces : The process of splitting up direction.
the given force into number of components without (b) Unlike parallel Line of action of all forces are
changing its effect on the body. forces parallel to each other in
Note : In general, the forces are resolved in the different direction.
vertical and horizontal direction. Non-parallel Line of action of all forces are
forces not parallel each other.
2 2
Resultant force ( R ) = ( H) ( V) Equilibrium of force :
V If the resultant of a number of forces acting on a
tan θ = particle is zero, the particle will be in equilibrium.
H • Condition of equilibrium :
The horizontal component of all the forces (ΣH) and
vertical component of all the forces (ΣV) must be
zero. ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0.
The resultant moment of all the forces (ΣM) must be
zero. (ΣM = 0).
• Lami's theorem– It states that if three forces
coplanar and concurrent forces acting at a point be
in equilibrium, then each force is proportional to the
sine of the angle between the other two forces.
Systems of Forces-
Force system Definition P Q R
= =
Coplanar forces The forces, having lines of sin α sin β sin γ
action lie on the same plane.
Collinear forces Line of action of forces lie on
the same line.
Concurrent forces When the forces meet at single
point or line of action of all
forces passes through a single
line

Engineering Mechanics 5 YCT

Note- M.A. < 1 (Always)
Lami's theorem is applicable only for coplanar, Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)-
concurrent, non-linear and radial forces.
When applied force on body is in equilibrium then Effort arm Load W
M.A. = = =
angle formed at joint should be 120º. Load arm Effort P
Moment of force :
• Introduction - FRICTION
Rotational tendency of a force about of fixed point is • Static friction : It is the friction experienced by a
called moment. body when it is at rest or it is the friction when the
body tends to move.
M = Force × Perpendicular distance of
Moment, • Dynamic friction :
force from fixed point
Sliding It is the friction, experienced by a
Unit- N-m friction body when it slides over another body.
• Varignon's theorem- Rolling The friction resisting the motion of a
"The algebraic sum of the moment of a resultant of rolling body on another surface is
two forces, about a point lying in the plane of the friction
forces, is equal to the algebraic sum of moments of known as rolling friction.
these two forces about the same point." • Limiting friction : The max. friction force, when a
The force system may be either coplanar or spatial, body just begins to slide over the another surface of
but it must be concurrent. body is called limiting friction. At this condition the
body just start moving.
∑ M Forces = M Resultant Limiting friction > Static friction > Dynamic friction.
Principle of moments is the extension of Varignon's
theorem. • Angle of friction : Angle between normal reaction
• Couple - R and resultant force is called angle of friction. It is
It is a pair of two equal and opposite forces acting on also called limiting angle of friction.
a body in a such way that the lines of action of the
two forces are not in the same straight line.
Ex.-Twisting a screw driver, Turning the cap,
Opening or closing a water tap
• Lever-
It is consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a
fixed hinge, or fulcrum about which it can rotate.
"It works on the principle of moments."
• Class of lever-
Class-I Lever- ∵ µS = tan λ
Static co-efficient of friction is equal to the tangent
of friction angle.
λ = tan −1 ( µS )

Ex. - A pair of Scissors, Crowbar, Beam balance, • Coefficient of friction :

Hand pump. limiting friction ( F)
Mechanical Advantage, M.A. ≥ 1 µ= = tan φ or F = µR
normal friction ( R )
Class-II Lever-
• Angle of repose(φ) : Minimum angle of a inclined
plane with the horizontal on which a body can slip is
called angle of repose.

Ex.- Nut-crackers, Wheel barrow, Paper sheet cutter,

Bottle openers, Weight lifting rod
M.A. > 1 (Always)
Class-III Lever-

Ex.-Fishing rod, Tongs, Human forearm, Forceps, Angle of repose = Angle of friction
Shovel, Knife tan φ = µS
Engineering Mechanics 6 YCT
CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY For an ideal machine the straight line will pass
through the origin.
Centroid It is a point through which the entire
line, area or volume is assumed to be
concentrated.
Centre of Point where entire weight of the body
Gravity is assumed to be concentrated.
It depends upon shape of the body.

Note :
Centre of gravity of uniform rod is at its middle
point. P = mW
Centre of gravity of a cube is at a distance of l/2 For an actual machine straight line will have an
from every face. intercept at C.
Centre of gravity of sphere is at a distance of d/2 The intercept C is the amount of effort required by
from every point. the machine to overcome the friction.
Centre of gravity of hemisphere is at a distance of
3r/8 from its base, measured along the vertical
radius.
The centre of gravity of right circular solid cone is
at a distance of h/4 from its base, measured along
vertical axis.
Centroid of regular plane figure-
Lamina Area x y
Triangle 1 b h
b.h
2 3 3
P = mW + C
Rectangle b.h b h Where,
2 2 P = Applied effort to lift the load.
Circle πr2 r r m = Slope of graph= tan θ (constant)
W = Lifted load
Semicircle 1 2 r 4r C = Constant (machine friction)
πr
2 3π TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MACHINES-
Quadrant Circle 1 2 4r 4r (i) Effort (P)-
πr
4 3π 3π The force which is applied to lift a load is called
Three quadrant 3 3 4r 4r effort.
πr (ii) Mechanical advantage -
circle 4 9π 9π
Projectile Motion- Lifted Load W
M.A. = =
Height Applied Effort P
u 2 sin 2 θ u2
h= h max. = , ( θ = 90° ) (iii) Velocity Ratio -
2g 2g
Displacement of theeffort y
V.R. = =
Time period 2u sin θ 2u displacement of theload x
T= Tmax. = , ( θ = 90° )
g g (iv) Efficiency of a machine -
Output of themachine w.x
Range u 2 sin 2θ u2 η= =
R= R max. = , ( θ = 45° ) Input to the machine P.y
g g
(v)Relation b/w M.A., V.R. and η of a machine -
SIMPLE MACHINE
M.A
It is a device, which enables us to do some useful η=
work at some point or to overcome some resistance, V.R
when an effort or force is applied on it, at some other (a) If η = 100% then, M.A = V.R
convenient point.
• Law of machine- (b) For Ideal machine M.A = V.R
It is relationship between the effort applied and the
(c) For Practical machine M.A < V.R
load lifted.
Engineering Mechanics 7 YCT
(vii) Ideal machine or perfect machine - (c) Resolution forces
(a) If no frictional losses, then (d) Composition of forces
η = 100% or 1 (Frictionless Machine) RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
Ans. (d) : Composition of Forces:-
(b) If friction losses consider
The process of finding out the resultant force of
η < 100% or 1 numbers of given forces is called composition of forces
Note- or compounding of forces.
Non-reversible machine also called self-locking Resultant force:-
machine. If a number of forces are acting simultaneously on a
A screw jack used for lifting the loads is a non- particle, then it is possible of find out a single force
reversible machine. which could replace them, i.e., which would produce
the same effect as produced by all the given forces. This
The velocity ratio of first system pulley is 2n. single force is called resultant force and the given forces
The velocity ratio of second system pulley is n. are called component forces.
Questions Asked in Previous Years 5. The sum of all the forces acting on a body is
Zero. The inference that can be deduced from
1. How many methods can be used to find the it is:
resultant of parallel force? (a) The body may be in equilibrium provided the
(a) Three (b) Four forces are parallel
(c) Two (d) Five (b) The body may be in equilibrium provided the
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 forces are concurrent
Ans (c) : The process of finding out the resultant (c) The body cannot be in equilibrium
force of a number of given forces are called (d) The body must be in equilibrium
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
composition of forces. There are two methods to
Ans. (b) : If the sum of all forces on the body is zero. It
find resultant of forces. means the body may be in equilibrium provided the
(i) Analytical method :- The analytical method forces are concurrent.
can be sub-divided into parallelogram law of
forces and method of resolution
(ii) Graphical method
2. How many force/forces are replaced in the
process of resolution?
(a) One (b) Two
(c) Four (d) Three If two equal and opposite forces act at a point or
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 concurrent, the torque produced will be zero. The body
Ans (a) : Composition and Resolution of forces:- will not have translational and rotational motion and
Forces can be combined to provide a single will be in equilibrium.
resulting force. The process of combining forces is 6. Which of the following branches of mechanics
deal with the equilibrium of the bodies under
called the composition of forces. A single force the effect of the forces?
can also be separated into two perpendicular (a) Kinetics (b) Kinematics
Components. The process breaking one force into (c) Statics (d) Dynamics
two is called resolution of forces. PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
3. The forces whose lines of action do not lie in Ans. (c) : Statics– It is that branch of mechanics which
one plane and they do not meet at one point are deals with the action of forces on bodies in equilibrium.
known as ______. Dynamics– It is that branch of mechanics which deals
(a) Non- coplanar and concurrent forces with the action of forces in motion.
(b) Coplanar and Non- concurrent forces Kinetics– It deals with the problems which require the
(c) Non-coplanar and Non-concurrent forces determination of the effect of forces on the motion of a
body or conversely the forces causing a certain motion.
(d) Coplanar and concurrent forces
BMC Tech. Asst. (Civil) 22/10/2023 7. The unit of moment of force is :
(a) N/m (b) Nm (c) N/m2 (d) Nm2
Ans. (c) : Non-coplanar and Non-concurrent forces– Kerala PSC AE Water Authority 29/12/2022
The forces which do not meet at one point and their
lines of action do not lie on the same plane are called Ans. (b) : The turning effect produced by a force on
non-coplanar non-concurrent forces. a rigid body fixed about a point is called moment
of a force or torque.
4. The process of finding out the resultant force of
a given forces is called Moment of force = force × perpendicular distance
(a) Net force of given of action of force from axis of rotation
(b) Transmissibility τ = F × d (N-m)
Engineering Mechanics 8 YCT
8. If P and Q two forces are perpendicular to each (c) It consists of two parallel forces of equal
other, then what will be resultant force R? magnitude but opposite direction
P (d) It does not produce any moment
(a) R + (b) R = P 2 + Q 2 PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
Q
Ans. (c) : Couple–When a pair of equal parallel forces
(c) R = P2 + Q2 (d) R = P + Q that are opposite in direction is applied on a body, then
GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023 it rotate about a point or axis is called a couple.
Ans. (c) :

11. The relationship between force, mass and

acceleration is given by :
(a) Force = Mass × Acceleration
(b) Force = Mass – Acceleration
(c) Force = Mass – Acceleration
θ = 90º (d) Force = Mass / Acceleration
Resultant formula– PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
2 2
R = P + Q + 2PQ cos θ Ans (a) : Acceleration: -
The rate of change of velocity of a body is called
R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos 90° acceleration. It is a vector quantity denoted by 'a' and
its SI unit is m/s2.
R = P2 + Q2
Change in velocity
∴ Acceleration =
9. What should be the angle of projection for a Time interval
projectile so that the attained range is
maximum for a given initial velocity? ∆v
a=
(a) 30º (b) 45º ∆t
(c) 90º (d) 60º Force:- As per Newton's 2nd law-
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023 Change in momentum with respect to time is called
Ans. (b) : Projectile motion– When a particle is force.
projected parabolically near the earth surface, It moves Mathematically:-
simultaneously in horizontal and vertical direction. ∆P
F=
This type of motion is called projectile motion. ∆t
Pfinal – Pinitial
= [∵ P = mv]
∆t
mv – mu
=
∆t
m (v – u)
=
∆t
F = m.a (in a given direction)
u 2sin2θ Impulse:- If a large force is acting on a body for a very
Range of projectile =
g short time, then the product of this large force (F) and
Where, u = Projected speed time (∆t) is known as impulse and large force itself is
θ = angle at which an object is thrown from the ground called impulsive force.
2 Impulse = Force × Time
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s
Range will be maximum when 2θ = 1 or θ = 45 o • It is a vector quantity and its SI Unit is N–s or kg- m/s
u 2 12. In a symmetrical and uniform object, where is
Rmax = the center of gravity located?
g
(a) At the geometric center
10. Which of the following statements is true about (b) At one end of the object
a couple? (c) At the midpoint of the object
(a) It is a single force (d) At an arbitrary location
(b) It produces translational motion PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
Engineering Mechanics 9 YCT
Ans. (a) : Center of gravity–The point at which all the 16. Efficiency of the machine is given by
weight of an object may considered to be concentrated. (a) Velocity Ratio/Mechanical Advantage
• In symmetrical and uniform object the center of (b) Mechanical Advantage/Velocity Ratio
gravity is located at geometric center. (c) Mechanical Advantage/Machine friction
(d) Velocity Ratio/Machine friction
BMC Tech. Asst. (Civil) 22/10/2023
Ans. (b) : Efficiency of machine :- The work done on
the machine by plying the effort is called work input
Winput similarly the work done by the machine on the
13. Select the correct statement regarding the 1st load in called work output (W
output)
and 2nd moment of area of circular lamina with
radius 'R'. work output
st nd
η=
(a) 1 moment of area is always +ve and 2 work input
moment of area is always -ve. L × dL L / E
(b) 1st moment of area and 2nd moment of area = =
E × dE dE
are always +ve.
st
(c) 1 moment of area is may be either -ve or +ve dL
nd
based on the chosen reference axes, but 2 Mechanical advantage
moment of area is always +ve. so η =
Velocity ratio
(d) 1st moment of area is always -ve and 2nd
moment of area is always +ve. 17. A machine is said to be reversible when the .....
SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning) (a) load gets lowered on the application of the
Ans. (c) : 1st and 2nd moment of area of a circular effort
lamina with radius 'R' is indicating 1st moment of area (b) load gets highered on the removal of the
is may be either –ve or +ve based on the reference axis
effort
but 2nd moment of area is always +ve.
(c) load gets highered on the application of the
14. What is the term for the force that opposes the
relative motion or tendency of such motion of effort
two surfaces in contact? (d) load gets lowered on the removal of the effort
(a) Friction (b) Tension GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
(c) Gravity (d) Inertia Ans. (d) : Reversible machine–It is said to be
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 reversible when the load (W) gets lowered on the
Ans. (a) : Friction–Friction always acts to oppose removal of the effort. In such a case, work is done by
relative motion between two surfaces in contacts. the machine in reverse direction.
Gravity–Gravity is a force that pulls things downward.
Inertia–The tendency of an object to resist a change in Irreversible machine–It is said to be irreversible when
its motion. the load (W) does not fall down on the removal of the
effort. In such a case, work is not done in the reverse
15. The maximum value of frictional force, which
direction.
comes into play when a body just begins to
The machines having efficiency less than 50% are
slide over the surface of the other body, is
irreversible or self-locking, whereas, machines having
known as:
(a) coefficient of friction efficiency greater than 50% are said to be reversible.
(b) angle of friction 18. Which of the following statements is/are
(c) normal reaction correct?
(d) limiting friction A. The forces are represented by the
Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023 directions only in the polygon law of forces.
Ans. (d) : Limiting Friction:- B. In the triangular law of forces, the
The maximum value of frictional force, which comes resultant force is shown in the same order
into play, which a body just begins to slide over the as the applied forces.
surface of the other body, is known as limiting friction. C. In the parallelogram law of forces, the
Coefficient of Friction:- forces are acting simultaneously on a body.
It is defined as the ratio of limiting friction to the
normal reaction (RN) between the two bodies. It is D. In the triangular law of forces, the
generally denoted by 'µ'. resultant force is shown in the reverse
Mathematically, order of the applied forces.
F (a) C and D (b) A and B
Coefficient of Friction (µ) = (c) A and C (d) B and D
RN
TSPSC AE 05/03/2023
Engineering Mechanics 10 YCT
 Ans. (a) : • In the parallelogram law of forces, the π
(a) (D 4 − d 4 )
forces are acting simultaneously on a body. 64
• Forces are represented by both direction and π 4
magnitude in polygon law of forces. (b) (D − d 4 )
8
π 4
(c) (D − d 4 )
16
π 4
(d) (D − d 4 )
32
• In the triangular law of forces, the resultant force is AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
shown in the reverse order of the applied forces. Ans. (a) :
Lamina Ixx Iyy
Hollow π π
Circular 64
( D4 − d 4 ) 64
( D4 − d 4 )
Section
Triangle bh 3 hb13 hb32
19. What will be the value of 'y', the distance of I yy ' = +
36 12 12
center of gravity, for the SOLID CONE given
in the figure? Circle πD 4 πD 4
64 64
Rectangle bh 3 hb3
12 12
Ellipse πab3 πba 3
r h 4 4
(a) (b)
4 4 21. The system of force represented in the
h r following figure is the_____
(c) (d)
3 2
DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-I
Ans. (b) :
• The centre of gravity of a cube is at a distance ℓ/2
from every face.
• The centre of gravity of a cylinder is at a distance of
h/2 from its base.
• The centre of gravity of right circular cone is at a
(a) coplanar concurrent force system
distance of h/4 from its base, measured along the
vertical axis. (where; h = height of cylinder) (b) non-coplanar concurrent force system
• The centre of gravity of a segment of sphere of a (c) coplanar non-concurrent force system.
3 (2r − h) 2 (d) non-coplanar non-concurrent force system
heights h is at a distance from the
4 (3r − h) APPSC AE (Civil/Mech.) 15/05/2022
centre of the sphere, measures along the height. Ans. (b) : Non-coplanar concurrent force system-
20. Which of the following expressions is correct to Multiple forces lying in different plane and intersecting
compute the moment of inertia (Iyy) of a hollow at one point are called non-coplanar concurrent force.
section shown in the figure?

Non-coplanar concurrent forces

Engineering Mechanics 11 YCT

 COMPONENTS OF BUILDING Foundation
The building components are the structures that serve It is the lowest part of the building structure resting
the purpose of load transfer, supporting, and on soil below ground level. Its main function is to
protecting the building. distribute the load evenly and safely to the ground.
Plinth
The part of the structure between the surface of the
surrounding subsoil and the surface of the raised
floor of the building, immediately above the ground.
The width of the plinth beam should be equal to the
width of the foundation at the ground level.
It acts as a barrier to the dampness and moisture
reaching the superstructure.
The plinth protects from water seepage in a framed
structure.
It protects the building from cracks at the time of
settlement of the foundation.
Super Structure
The portion above the ground floor level is known
as super structure. It includes walls, columns, beam,
floor, roofs, door and windows, lintel etc.
Damp Proof Course :
DPC is a barrier of impervious material built into
wall or pier to prevent moisture from moving to
building foundation. It is mainly laid on plinth
beam at plinth level or floor level.
Thickness - 2.5 - 4 cm with cement concrete 1: 1.5 :
3 and cement mortar 1 : 2 DPC provided over
full width of plinth wall but not provided at the sill
Sub Structure of door and verandah opening.
A substructure transfers the load from the various Walls
building components to the earth. A wall can be used for the transfer of load or for just
It is the parts of building, constructed below the partition purposes.
ground level (G.L.)
Ex. Foundation, plinth etc. Walls are of different types depending on their usage
and location such as cavity walls, partition walls,
retaining walls, compartment walls, dwarf walls,
parapet walls, and curtain walls.
Classification of walls -
1. Load bearing walls -
The wall which is constructed to support
superimposed load and their own loads.
Such a wall is made in first class brick and rich
mortar.
Ex. Solid wall with piers (pilasters), Veneered wall,
Cavity wall, Solid wall.
2. Non-load bearing walls or Drop walls-
It takes only self load i.e. partition wall. It serves as
screen for privacy.
It can be removed without affecting the building
Substructure and its components structure.
Building Construction 12 YCT
 Generally thickness is 100-125 mm The advantages of load-bearing structures and
Ex. Partition wall, Panel wall, Curtain wall, Free framed structures are coined in composite structures.
standing wall, Dwarf wall The walls in the composite buildings act as load-
3. Retaining walls - bearing structures while the columns run through the
A structure provided to the down side of the road to structure as framed structures.
protect freshly cut/fill or old surface of a natural hill.
Some examples of composite structures are long
It is used for support artificial cutting.
shed diaries, storage houses, workshops, etc.
4. Partition walls-
It is a thin wall constructed to divide an enclosed National Building Code-
space. NBC is a document that provides guidelines for
TYPE OF STRUCTURE construction, maintenance and fire safety of the
Load bearing structure : structure.
The structure in which a load of the roof is NBC was first published in 1970.
transferred through the walls to the foundation. Minimum life period of building is taken 50 years.
The loadbearing structures are used for the Most economical shape of building is square shape.
construction of small buildings. Small structures like It is most earthquake resistance shape.
temples, small houses, rural buildings, and low-rise IGBC - Indian Green Building Council.
buildings are examples of load-bearing structures.
❖ Classification of Building in Civil Engineering-
Residential building up to ground + 2 floors can be
built economically with such structure. Group Building Use
The load-bearing structure has good sound Classification
insulation properties. A Residential Sleeping, Living with or
Building without cooking or dining
(Treats as light
construction)
B Educational Education purpose.
Building
C Institutional Medical or other treatment or
Building care of persons suffering from
physical or mental illness.
Ex.- Nursing home,
orphanage, jail, sanatoria,
Framed structure :
The building components like beams, columns, and hospitals.
slabs are integrated to form a framed structure. D Assembly Building where groups of
In the framed structure, the load is transferred Building people gather.
through this frame to the foundation. Ex.-Temple, assembly halls,
The framed structure offers good stability and theatre
strength. These structures can easily withstand E Business Used for keeping records of
earthquake loads and wind loads. Building business transactions, town
These structures can be used to construct multi-story halls, court house etc.
buildings.
F Mercantile Used as housing shops, stores,
These structures can absorb the shocks and vibrations
Building showrooms to display and
in a better way as compared to loadbearing
sales.
structures.
G Industrial Assembling or processing all
Building types of material is to be
carried out.
H Storage building Storage purpose or sheltering
of goods, vehicles, grains.
Composite Structures : J Hazardous For storage, handling and
The load-bearing and framed structures are building manufacturing of explosive
combined to form the composite structures. The (Notational materials.
composite structures are used for long spans. colour→ Black)
Building Construction 13 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years 6. If the soil is dry, DPC for ground floor consists
of the layer of
1. A metal fastener which connects wythes of
(a) metal (b) coarse sand
masonry to each other or to other materials is (c) fine sand (d) concrete
known as ______.
PPSC JE 06/03/2022
(a) Bond (b) Wall tie
Ans. (b) : If the soil is dry, DPC for ground floor
(c) Column (d) Pier consist of the layer of course sand. Course sand layer of
GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024 about 75-100 mm thickness is provided over the entire
Ans. (b) : Wall tie– A wall tie is a mechanical metal area under the floor.
fastener that connects wythes of masonry to each other 7. Which of the following is NOT the property of
or the other materials, also referred to as an anchor. material, which is used for damp proofing
2. A panel wall is an ______ in a framed building. course?
(a) Internal non-load bearing wall (a) The material should be perfectly pervious
(b) External load-bearing wall (b) The material should be flexible so that it can
(c) Internal load-bearing wall accommodate the structural movement
(d) External non-load bearing wall without any fracture
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I (c) The material should be such that leak-proof
jointing is possible
Ans. (d) : Panel wall–Panel wall is the external non- (d) The material should be durable and should
load bearing wall, commonly related to framed have the same life as that of the building
structures. MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I
Non-load bearing wall–Non-load bearing wall carry
Ans. (a) : Damp proofing–Dampness in building refers
their own load only. They generally serve as divide to the access and penetration of moisture into the
walls or partition walls. building through the walls, floor, roof etc. Provision of
Load bearing wall–Load bearing wall are designed to damp proof course prevents the entry of moisture in the
carry super-imposed loads transferred through roofs in building.
addition to their own self weight. Requirements for materials for damp-proofing
3. Which of the following offers a sense of security The following are the requirements of ideal materials
and protection? for damp proofing–
(a) Boundary wall (b) Area wall • They should be impervious
(c) Edge wall (d) Perimeter wall • They should be durable with life span as long as that
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II of the building
Ans. (a) : Boundary wall– Boundary wall means any • They should be capable of bearing the load that may
wall, fence, or enclosing structure erected on or directly be imposed on them.
next to a cadastral property boundary, and any other • They should be dimensionally stable.
structure, including security devices, such as spikes, • They should be flexible enough to accommodate the
barbed wire, razor wire, or electric fences, affixed to or structural movements without undergoing any
on top of a boundary wall. fracture.
4. Minimum gap between openings in wall should be • They should be inexpensive.
(a) 1 brick (b) 2 bricks 8. As per National Building Code, what will be
(c) 3 bricks (d) 2.5 bricks the maximum permissible built-up area for a
plot area for 200 m2 to 500 m2?
PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
(a) 33.33% of the plot area
Ans. (b) : The minimum gap between openings in wall (b) 50% of the plot area
should be 18 inches or 2 bricks. (c) 40% of the plot area
5. What is the minimum recommended wall (d) None of the above
thickness for load bearing walls? UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
(a) 100 mm (b) 50 mm Ans. (b) :
(c) 300 mm (d) None of the above Maximum permissible
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 Area of the plot
built-up area
2
Ans. (a) : According to IS 456 : 2000- Less than 200 m 60% with two-storeyed
• Minimum thickness of load bearing RCC wall should structure
be 100 mm. 200-500 m2 50% of the site
• If the story height is equal to length of RCC wall, the 500-1,000 m2 40% of the site
percentage increase in strength is 10. More than 1000 m2 33.33% of site
Building Construction 14 YCT
9. Identify the correct statement with respect to 12. Which of the following is not a component of
different components of a building. sub-structure?
(a) Lintel beams are built between sub structure (a) Girders (b) Abutments
and super structure of a building, so that load (c) Piers (d) Wing walls
is distributed uniformly. JKSSB JE 29/10/2021 Shift-I
(b) Partition walls should be designed to carry the Ans. (a) : Sub-structure– A bridge substructure
roof loads. consists of the follow components which transfer the
(c) Thermal insulation efficiency of cavity walls bridge load forces to the foundation.
is better than of solid wall for the given (i) Abutment
thickness. (ii) Piers
(iii) Pier caps
(d) Stretcher bond is considered to be stronger
(iv) Wing walls
than English bond for the given thickness.
• Super-structure components
Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023
(i) Girder (ii) Bearings (iii) Trusses (iv) Decks (v)
Ans. (c) : Cavity wall– Cavity walls are constructed for Barriers (vi) Arches (vii) Spandrel
heat insulation sound insulation and damp prevention, it 13. Which of the following type of buildings fall
is economical as the cost of such a wall is only 80% of under group A as per the building classification
the solid wall of the same thickness. by NBC?
• To prevent dampness in the cavity walls a horizontal (a) Assembly buildings
DPC layer is provided in these walls about 15 cm below (b) Institutional buildings
the ground level and cavity is taken down only 10 cm (c) Residential buildings
below the DPC below this level. (d) Educational buildings
10. Which element of a building divides SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
superstructure and substructure? Ans. (c) : As per National building code of India
(a) Strap beam (b) Lintel beam (2016).
(c) Plinth beam (d) Landing beam Group A : (Residential buildings)– Ex. Lodging or
UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II rooming houses, darmitaries, hotels etc.
Group B : (Educational buildings)– Ex. School, college
Ans. (c) : Plinth beam of a building divides etc.
superstructure and substructure. Group C : (Institutional buildings)– Ex. Hospital,
• A plinth beam is provided at plinth level and refers to custodial institutians.
a horizontal structure element that interconnects Group D : (Assembly buildings)– Ex. Theatres, Motion
columns thereby preventing buckling of columns. picture house, Auditoria, museums etc.
Strap beam:- help to distributes weight of either Group E : (Business buildings)– Ex. Banks, officies of
heavily distributable column or eccentrically loaded architects, doctor, engineer, post office, T.V. station, air
column footings to adjacent footings traffic control tower.
Lintel Beam:- Built on top of openings such as portals, Group F: ( mercantile building) – Ex. Shop, store etc.
doors, windows etc Group G :(Industrial building) – Ex. Laboratory, dry
Landing Beam:- Beam provided between stairs clinic plant, power plant etc.
changing direction to support the landing between to Group H : (Storage buildings)– Ex. Ware houses, cold
storage, transit sheds etc.
flight stairs.
Group J : (Hazardous buildings)– Ex. Artificial flower,
11. In ordinary residential and public buildings, synthetic lether, explosive etc.
the damp proofing course is generally provided
14. One of the main objectives of providing
at foundation is to provide uniform ............. of the
(a) Ground level (b) Plinth level structures.
(c) Sill level (d) Lintel level (a) Settlement (b) Pressure
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II (c) Load transmission (d) Both (a) and (b)
Ans. (b) : In ordinary residential and public buildings, ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
the damp proofing course is generally provided at plinth Ans. (a) : One of the main objectives of providing
level. foundation is to provide uniform settlement of the
• DPC is prevent the entry of damp or moisture in the structures.
building the damp proof course is provided at various 15. The lowest part of the structure which transmit
levels of the entry of dampness into the building the load to the soil is known as
• Thickness DPC for boundary wall is 25 mm (a) Superstructure (b) Plinth
Thickness DPC for building is 40-50 mm (c) Foundation (d) Basement
JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023
Building Construction 15 YCT
 Ans. (c) The lowest part of the structure which transmit Group C : (Institutional buildings)– Ex. Hospital,
the load to the soil is known as foundation. custodial institutians.
• Plinth is divides super structure and substructure. The Group D : (Assembly buildings)– Ex. Theatres, Motion
part which is above the plinth level is called picture house, Auditoria, museums etc.
superstructure. Group E : (Business buildings)– Ex. Banks, officies of
Basement :- Floor of a building which is partly or
architects, doctor, engineer, post office, T.V. station, air
completely below the ground.
traffic control tower.
16. The component of a building below the ground
is called : Group F: ( mercantile building) – Ex. Shop, store etc.
(a) framed structure (b) hybrid structure Group G :(Industrial building) – Ex. Laboratory, dry
(c) super-structure (d) sub-structure clinic plant, power plant etc.
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 Group H : (Storage buildings)– Ex. Ware houses, cold
Ans. (d) : Sub-structure– It is the lower portion of the storage, transit sheds etc.
buildings, usually located below the ground level, Group J : (Hazardous buildings)– Ex. Artificial flower,
which transmits the loads of the super-structure to the synthetic lether, explosive etc.
supporting soil.
21. As per NBC-2016, constructed buildings have
17. The lowest part of the super structure between
been divided into ____ groups.
the ground and the floor is called :
(a) D.P.C. (b) Lintel (a) 4 (b) 2
(c) Plinth (d) Beam (c) 3 (d) 9
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : A part of the super-structure, located between Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
the ground level and the floor level is known as plinth. 22. As per National Building Code of India (1970),
18. Which of the following is used as escape which of the following is group C building?
element in building for fire safety? (a) Educational building
(a) Lobby (b) Strong room
(c) Floor (d) Outer wall (b) Institutional building
Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023 (c) Residential building
Ans. (a) : Lobby is used as escape element in building (d) Assembly building
for fire safety. MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-II
19. As per Part 4 of the National Building Code of Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
India (2016), which of the following types of 23. The construction above plinth level called:
buildings are classified as Group-B buildings? (a) Super structure (b) Wall
(a) Storage buildings (b) Assembly buildings
(c) Above structure (d) 1 & 2
(c) Educational buildings (d) Business buildings
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023
DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023
Ans. (c) As per Part 4 of the National Building Code of Ans. (a) : Super structure– In building construction,
India (2016), construction above plinth level is called as super
Group A– Residential building structure.
Group B– Educational building Sub structure– Construction below the plinth level is
Group C– Institutional building known as sub structure.
Group D– Assembly building • Level where the substructure and super structure of
Group E– Business building building meet is called plinth level.
Group F– Mercantile building 24. Which of the following building components
Group G– Industrial building plays the biggest role in the stability of a
Group H– Storage building
structure?
Group J– Hazardous building
(a) Plinth (b) Foundation
20. Under which category of building construction
(c) Super-structure (d) Columns
do air traffic control towers come?
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
(a) Storage building (b) Hazardous building
(c) Institutional building (d) Business building Ans. (b) : Foundation–The dictator of stability.
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-II The foundation is the lowest part of the building
Ans. (d) : As per National building code of India structure.
(2016). It provided a stable base on which the entire structure
Group A : (Residential buildings)– Ex. Lodging or rests.
rooming houses, darmitaries, hotels etc. The foundation transfer the load from the building to
Group B : (Educational buildings)– Ex. School, college the ground and ensures that any movements of the earth
etc. do not affect the stability of the building.

Building Construction 16 YCT

 STONES
Rock is a mineral mass of more or less uniform
composition.
It may consist of a single mineral (monomineralic)
or of several minerals (polymineralic)
Monomineralic rocks are quartz, sand pure gypsum
and magnesite, and polymineralic ones are granite,
basalt and porphyries.
• Rock forming minerals -
Quartz, Mica, Gypsum, Dolomite, Amphibole,
Calcite, Feldspar etc.
• Properties of Minerals-
Measurement of the capability of
some minerals to split along
Cleavage
certain planes parallel to the crystal
faces
Colour of the mineral in powder
Streak
form
Shine on the surface due to
Luster
reflection of light of a mineral
It is defined as shape, arrangement,
Texture distribution and coarseness of
grains of a mineral.
Hardness of stone based on Moh's scale-
Talc 1 Scratched
Gypsum 2 by the finger nail
Calcite 3 Scratched
Fluorite 4 by
Apatite 5 knife
Feldspar 6 Scarcely scratched
Quartz 7 by knife
Topaz 8 Not scratched
Corundum 9 by
Diamond 10 knife
Classification of Rocks-
On the basis of Percentage of silica available in
rock-

Building Materials 17 YCT

 Steps for Blasting-
Boring→ Cleaning→ Charging→ Tamping→ Firing
Quantity of Explosive-
L2
A=
0.008
A = Quantity of gun powder
L = Length of line of least resistance (m)
Types of Stones Finishing-
Compressive strength of different types of stones- Boasted For making non-continuous parallel
Compressive strength finishing marks on the surface of stone.
Stone
(in MPa) It is done by a tools called boaster.
Trap 350-380
Furrowed Sides are sunk up to 20 mm width
Gneiss 206-370
finishing and the middle portion is projected
Basalt 150-185
by 15 mm.
Slate 75-207
Dolerite 90-150 Polished Provided for marbles, granite which
Syenite 90-150 finish are mostly used for floor tiles.
Granite 75-127 Reticulated A margin of 20 mm wide is marked
Lime stone 54 finish on the sides of surface and irregular
Sand stone 64 sinking type finish is made in the
Use of various types of stone- middle area.
Name of Rock Use Tooled finish It is a classic finish which consists
Railway ballast, Roofing, parallel continuous marks.
Granite
Abutment, Pier and Sea walls Scrabbling Rough surface finish achieved after
Marble Ornamental work finish removing irregular projections on
Lime Stone Manufacture of cement the stone surface by the scrabbling
Slate Flooring, Roofing hammer.
Quartzite Retaining wall Vermiculated Sinking in this type of finish is more
Basalt Marine work, Rubble masonry finish curved and like worm eaten
Manufacture of Hydraulic appearance.
Kankar
lime Note-
Tools Used in Quarrying of Stone-
Time required for perfect seasoning of stone is
Jumper To make hole
6 to 12 month.
Scraping spoon For Cleaning hole
Specific Gravity of Various Types of Stone-
Dipper For making deep hole
Name of Stone Specific gravity
Priming Needle To make space for fuse
For tamping of explosive Sand Stone 2.65 - 2.95
Tamping Rod Length- 600 mm Marble 2.7 - 2.85
Dia (φ)- 16 mm Granite 2.65 - 2.79
Crow bar To removed the wedge Basalt 2.6 - 3
Wedge For split the rock slab Slate 2.72 - 2.89
Methods of Quarrying Laterite 2 - 2.2
Method Suitability Example Lime Stone 2 - 2.75
Wedging Costly, Soft and Sand stone, Gniess 2.5 - 2.7
Stratified rock. Lime stone,
Various types of test and purpose for stone-
Laterite, Marble
and Slate etc. Type of Test Determine for
Heating Most suitable for Granite, Gneiss Abrasion Test wearing resistance
quarrying of small etc. (By Dorry Testing machine)
thing and regular Hardness, Toughness
block of stone from Attrision Test
rock. and rate of wearing
(By Deval Testing Machine)
Digging To get stone at a Serpentine, resistance
small scale. Gypsum, Crushing Strength Test Compressive strength
Aterite. (By C.T.M)
Channeling Obtaining stone in the (IS : 1121-1974)
form of block. Soluble minerals/
Blasting To obtain stone at a Smith's Test
Muddy matter
large scale.
Building Materials 18 YCT
 Brard's Test Frost resistance Impart plasticity
Acid Test Weather resistance Alumina Excess-Cracks developed,
Crystallization Test Durability corner deformed
(IS : 1126-1974)
Hardness Test Hardness Reduce the shrinkage on
(Moh's Scale) drying
Lime
Impact Test Toughness Excess- Brick over burnt and
(By Page Impact Machine) shape changed
Water Absorption Test % Voids (≯5% for good
(IS 1124-1974) stone) Red colour, Used as flux
Note- Gives strength and hardness
Iron Oxide
Chronological order of Hydraulic conductivity Excess- Provide dark blue or
Vesicular basalt > Fractured metamorphic rock > blackish colour
Lime stone > Sand stone. Yellow colour and its prevent
Black marble is obtained from Jaipur. to shrinkage,
Magnesia
Hydrolysis is a type of chemical weathering under Reduce warping
which granite is convert into clay. Excess-Give yellowish colour
Stone used in various work- Note -
Hard stone Used in Rubble masonry Steel moulded bricks are good compared to wooden
• Cross cut saw is used moulded bricks.
for cutting. Steel moulded bricks are used in facing work.
Heavy weight stone Used in Dam, retaining Mould are made by steel or timber of Shisham.
wall and harbor.
Frog 10 cm × 4 cm × 1 or 2 cm
Light weight stone In Arch masonry.
Note-
Stock Board 21 cm × 10 cm × 6 cm
Calcium hydroxide is used to protect stones from (To make frog)
sulphate attack in Industries. Pallet Board 30 cm × 12 cm × 1 cm
Composition of sand stone Quartz, Lime and Silica. (To dry the brick)
Composition of granite Quartz, Feldspar,Mica.

BRICKS
Size of various types of bricks-
Brick Usual size Nominal size

Conventional/ 3" 3" "

Traditional/ 9"× 4 × 2 9"× 4 1 × 3" Standard brick
8 4 2
user size Sequence for the Preparation of Brick Earth-
(23×11.2×7.0) cm (23×11.4×7.6) cm
Standard/ Unsoiling → Digging → Weathering→
Modular/ (19×9×9) cm (20×10×10) cm Blending →Tempering/Kneeding → moulding
Normal size → drying → burning
Ingredients of Good Brick Earth- Burning Zone of Bricks-
Ingredients % in brick Burning Temperature- 900 - 1200°C
Silica (SiO2) 50 - 60
Dehydration Oxidation Vitrification
Alumina (Al2O3) 20 - 30
Zone Zone Zone
Lime (CaO) <5
400-650°C 650-900°C 900-1100°C
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 5-6
Magnesia (MgO) <1 Efficiency of Kiln-
Alkalies <1 Ist Class Remark
Functions of Various Brick Ingredients- Types of kiln Brick
outcome
Ingredients Function
Imparts Strength Pazawah 50-60% –
Retain shape Allahabad kiln 60-70% Intermittent
Silica
Excess-Brittle Bull's Trench kiln 70-80% Semicontinuous
(Due to loss of cohesion) Hoffman's kiln 80-90% Continuous

Building Materials 19 YCT

 Class of Brick on the Basis of Strength B. Basic refractory brick-
IS : 10719557-1970 These are use where basic slag are made. These are
Class Comp. Strength two types-
a. Magnesia refractory brick-
Grade AA ≮ 140 kg/cm2 Ingredient- 70% magnesium oxide (MgO) + 30%
silica and alumina
Grade A ≮ 105 kg/cm 2
b. Dolomite refractory brick-
In these brick is carbonate of calcium and
Grade B ≮ 70 kg/cm 2
magnesium [CaMg(CO3)2] are used as raw material
Use : In shaft and rotary kilns, which are use for
Grade C ≮ 35 kg/cm 2
production of lime and cement.
Note- C. Neutral refractory brick-
As per IS 1077 : 1992, cl. 7.2, after immersion in cold Ingredient of these brick are bauxite, silica and iron
water for 24 hrs, water absorption shall not be more oxide. It is use where acidic or basic slag are made.
than 20% by weight up to class 12.5 and 15% for 2. Hollow brick (IS : 3952)-
higher classes.
Efflorescence Test- According to IS 3495 (part-III) :
1992
White patches Alkalies
Maximum hollow ≯ 50% of total plan area.
Up to 10% Slight It is use for making sound proof and heat resistance
10 - 50% Moderate wall.
>50% Severe 3. Perforated Brick [IS : 2222]-
Presence in large amount Serious
Special Forms of brick-
Brick Figure Brick
Figure
Name Name
Total hollow area ≯ 30 - 40% of total plan area.
Rounded Cant Use- Covering wall sound proof and heat insulating
end wall construction.
Double Compass Compressive strength </ 7N / mm 2
cant Water absorption >/ 15%
Bull Perforated Efflorescence >/ 10%
nosed Warpage >/ 3 %
Hollow Coping 4. Over-burnt brick-
In over burnt brick a soft molten mass is produced
Queen King and the brick loose their shape.
closer Closer 5. Under burnt brick-
3 Bat When bricks are not burnt to cause complete
Brick vitrification, the clay is not softened because of
4 insufficient heat and the pores are not closed. These
❑ SPECIAL TYPES OF BRICKS- brick have higher degree of water absorption and
1. Refractory brick/Fire resistance brick- less compressive strength.
These brick are capable to resist very high General Data about bricks-
0
temperature up to 1500 C without melting or Types of
Water Compressive
softening. absorp- Strength Use
bricks 2
Lime quantity kept less so that brick burnt at high tion (%) (Kg/cm )
temperature of 1700 - 18000C. 1st Class
Facing work
≤ 20 >105
The minimum average compressive strength- 32.5 R.B.Slab
MPa. Hidden
2nd Class ≤ 22 >70
Water absorption- 4 - 10% Structure
Colour- Whitish yellow or light brown. Temporary
Use- Furnace lining, hollow tiles etc. 3rd Class < 25 >35 brick
Refractory bricks are following three types- masonry
A. Acid refractory brick- Perforated
Partition
Ingredient: 95 - 97% silica + 1 - 2% lime Bricks 15 70
Wall
Use: Where acidic slag are formed. (IS 2222)

Building Materials 20 YCT

 For making Use- For manufacturing fire bricks used in furnace
Hollow Bricks
heat proof, lining, hollow tiles and crucibles.
20 35 sound proof, Terracotta-
(IS 3952)
damp proof Clay is mixed with powdered glasses, pottery and
walls sand ground to fine powder and pugged several
Paving times till it gets uniform and soft for moulding.
Road
Bricks <5 400 Terracotta is refractory clay product and is used in
pavement
(IS 3583) ornamental parts of building.
Soling The clay used should have sufficient iron oxide and
Soling of alkaline matters.
Bricks < 20 50
road
(IS 5779) It is cheap and impervious.
Kiln lining, Muffle furnace are use for burning of terracotta
Refractory product.
furnace
Bricks 4 -10 350 Porcelain-
boiler
(IS 6902) A high grade ceramic ware having white colour, zero
combustion
Engineering water absorption and glazed surface.
Brick Porcelain is fine earthenware which is white, thin
Class-A 4 -5 >125 D.P.C and semi-transparent.
It is used for manufacturing sanitary wares
Multistorey
Class-B 7 75 containers and crucibles, reactor chambers and
building
15-25 electric insulators.
Sundry bricks - - Glazing-
≃ 21
Glazing is a process of providing a glassy or
TILES impervious layer on the surface of clay product or
The clay product which thickness is less than 40mm ceramics.
is known as tiles.
Burning of tiles is same as brick burning but some The glazing layer is fused to a ceramics body by
times tiles or clay products are burnt in two times- burning at a high temperature.
Ist is at 600 - 7000C is called biscuting and IInd is at Thickness of glazing is 0.1 to 0.2 mm.
900 -11000C, after dipping the tiles/clay product in
the solution of desired colour. MORTARS
❑ SPECIAL TYPES OF CLAY PRODUCT- It is a paste (Capable of setting and hardening)
Stoneware- obtained by adding water to mixture of fine
It is made from refractory clay mixed with crushed aggregates such as sand and binding material, e.g.,
pottery, stone and sand, burnt at high temperature clay, gypsum, lime or cement or their combinations.
and cooled slowly. Stoneware consists of about 75% Classification :
silica and 25% alumina. Iron oxide is added to give On the basis of bulk density :
colour
Type of mortar Bulk density (kg/m3)
Ex.–Domestic sewer pipe, wash basin, water closet,
drains pipe and fittings. Heavy weight > 1500
Earthenware- Light weight < 1500
These are made by burning ordinary clay at low On the basis of binding material :
temperature and cooling slowly. Glazed earthenware Cement Mortar– Prepared from portland cement,
becomes resistant to weathering action. sand and water.
Ex.- Faience Lime Mortar– Mixture of air hardening lime, sand
Majolica- and water.
It is Italian earthenware coated with opaque white Mud Mortar– Prepared from clay nodules, it is
enamel, ornamented with metallic colour. used in temporary construction work.
Manufactured from low heat clays to which up to Gypsum mortars : They are prepared from gypsum
20% calcium carbonate added in the form of chalk. or anhydride binding materials.
Use- Doorways, window casing and facing tiles.
Fire Clay- Types of construction Type of mortar
These are pure hydrated silicates of alumina and Pointing work Cement mortar 1 : 1
contain a large proportion of silica (55-75%), Damp proof course (DPC) Cement mortar 1 : 2
alumina (20-35%), Iron oxide (2-5%) with about 1% Concrete pavement Cement mortar 1 : 2
of lime, magnesia and alkalis. Masonry in super structure Cement mortar 1 : 3
It is capable of resisting very high temperatures up to Masonry in foundation Cement mortar 1 : 6
17000C, without melting or softening and resist
spalling. Plastering Cement mortar 1 : 4

Building Materials 21 YCT

 Introduction These lime contain 95 to 97% calcium carbonate
Lime is a binding material found in the form of lime (CaCO3) and quantity of impurity does not increase
stone. It is not found in free state in the atmosphere. more than 2 to 3%.
Lime is obtained from the calcinations of lime stone. It is manufactured by burning of marble, white
❖ Sources of Lime- chalk, sea shell and coral.
Type of Stone Type of lime Use-Plastering and white washing.
Lime Stone (CaCO3) Pure Lime 2. Lump lime-
Kankar Hydraulic Lime It is obtain in the form of lump after calcination.
Dolomite (MgCO3) Magnesia Lime 3. Quick lime/Caustic lime-
It is obtained immediate after calcination is called
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) Sweet Lime
Quick lime.
Shell, Chalk Pure Lime
4. Slaked lime-
❖ Lime and its chemical formula- The lime whose hydration is completed is called
Name of Lime Chemical Formula slaked lime.
Lime Stone Calcium Carbonate 5. Magnesia lime-
[CaCO3] It is manufacture by calcination of dolomite. It
Lime, Quick lime, Lump Calcium oxide contain 20 to 35% magnesia.
lime, White lime, Rich [CaO] Colour - Reddish
lime, Pure lime Types of lime on the basis of Impurities-
Slaked lime, Fat lime Calcium Hydroxide 1. Pure lime- Impurities < 5%
[Ca(OH)2] 2. Impure lime- Impurities >5%
Plaster of Paris (P.O.P.) Calcium Sulphate Impure lime is following two types-
[CaSO4.1/2 H2O] (i) Lean lime or Poor lime/Impure lime-
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate It consists 80% CaO, less than 5% MgO and clay
[CaSO4.2H2O] impurities more than 7% in the form of silica,
Calcination- alumina and iron oxide.
The process under which lime stone is burned at Setting and hardening process is very slow.
8000C to 9000C to removed CO2 & moisture is called It's expansion is less than that of fat lime.
calcination. (ii) Hydraulic Lime-
CaCO3 + 42.52 kcal 800−9000 C CaO It is capable to setting under water and in damp
 → + CO 2 ↑ situation.
Lime stone Calcination
Quick Lime
Impurity range- 5 to 30%.
Slaking of Lime- setting time under water- 7 to 30 days.
In this process quick lime reacted with water and
formed Ca(OH)2. ❖ Hydraulic lime is classified into further three
Volume increases 2 to 2.5 times of its initial volume. categories-
CaO Ca (OH) 2 Feebly Moderate Eminently
HO
+ 2  slaking
→ + Heat Item Hydraulic Hydraulic Hydraulic
Lime Water Slaked lime description lime lime Lime
Slaking is an exothermic reaction. % Impurities 05 to 10% 11 to 20% 21 to 30%
Type of lime Slaking time Slacking Few 1 or 2 1 day or
Lump lime, Quick lime, action minutes hours more
Rich lime, Pure lime, Fat 2 to 3 hrs. 3 week or 1 week or 1 days or
Setting action
more more more
lime, White lime
Hydraulicity Feebly Moderate Eminently
Hydraulic lime, Poor lime, 12 to 48 hrs. For Use in very
Lean lime Used for
superior damp places
ordinary
Hardening or setting of lime- Use type of
masonry
It depend on the types of lime and its hardening masonry
work
condition. It is three types– work
i). Carbonate Hardening ❖ Classification of Lime as per BIS : 712-1984-
ii). Hydrate hardening Class of Example Use
iii). Hydrosilicate hardening lime
Carbonate hardening- Class A Eminently Hydraulic lime Hydraulic structure
In this process slaked lime reacts with CO2 and set Class B Semi Hydraulic lime Masonry and in lime
& hard. Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 → CaCO3 + H 2 O + Heat concrete
Class C Pure lime/Fat lime Plaster work
Various types of lime- Class D Magnesium White washing and
1. Pure lime/Fat lime/White lime/Rich lime- lime/Dolomite lime finishing
It slakes rapidly and its volume increase by 2-2.5 Class E Kankar lime Masonry mortar
times than its original volume. Class F Siliceous dolomite lime -
Building Materials 22 YCT
 Test of lime- Unit weight of lime-
1. Visual Inspection Test- Type of lime Unit weight (kg/m3)
Class of lime Colour Unslaked lime 1050
Class A Dirty white Slaked lime 640
Class B Light dirty white Hardened lime 800
Class C White Lime putty is the plastic paste of lime and water.
Lumps of lime indicates quick lime or unburnt lime.
Class of lime Modulus of rupture
2. HCl Test/Acid Test-
(kg/cm2)
This test is perform to find out impurities and
amount of calcium carbonate.
Class A (Hydraulic lime) ≥ 10.5
A teaspoon of powdered lime is taken in the test tube Class B ≥7
and 10 ml of 50% dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) is (Semi hydraulic lime)
added to it, and heat for few minute.
If bubble is formed during heating it indicate TIMBER
calcinations of lime is not done perfectly.
3. Ball Test- Timber classification on the Basis of Growth-
Balls (40 mm size) of stiff lime paste are made and left
for 6 hours. After six hours, the balls are immersed in a
water basin. If expansion and disintegration of balls is
observed, the lime is of type C. Little expansion and
numerous crack indicate it to be class B lime. Class A
lime will have no adverse effect.
4. Soundness Test [IS : 6932 (Part-IX)]-
Aim-To find out the quantity of free lime,
unsoundness and disintegration property of lime.
This test is conduct with the help of Le-chatelier apparatus.

Conifers Tree-
These trees having pointed needle like leaves. Most
Conifer tree are evergreen tree but not all of them.
(Ex.- Larch tree (larix Laricina) or Tamarack)
External diameter of cylinder of Le-chatelier On the Basis of Modulus of Elasticity (E)-
apparatus = 30 mm Group E (kN/mm2) in bending
The expansion of indicator should not be more than
A > 12.5
10mm.
B 9.8 – 12.5
5. Compressive Strength Test [IS : 6932 (Part -II)]- C 5.6 – 9.8
12 cube of 50mm sides are prepared from standard
lime sand mortar ( 1:3) Availability-
6 Cube are tested after 14 day's and remaining 6 Grades Quantity in m3 per year
cube are tested after 28 day's with the help of X ≥ 1415
compression testing machine. Y 355 - 1415
Rate of loading- 150 N/min Z < 355
Note-
Durability-
Carbide lime is a by-Product of manufacturing of
acetylene. Durability Avg. life in months
Barium plaster is used as final coat for surface of X- High ≥ 120
Ray room. Moderate 60 - 120
Potash- lime glass is also known as Bohemian glass. Low < 60

Building Materials 23 YCT

 Structure of timber : • A.D - Air dried • Used for rapid seasoning
The innermost part or core of on large scale.
Medulla (Pith) • Kiln seasoning causes case
the stem of a tree
Heart wood Death portion of the tree hardening.
Sap wood Outer layers of a log of wood 4. Charring or • It is used for lower part of
Cambium To growth wood cells Scorching wood pole which is below
Protect the wood against the ground level.
Bark 5. Mc. Neil's Process • Best but most expensive
mechanical damage
Transverse septa The vascular tissue which (15 - 60 days) method.
(Medullary rays) Encloses the pith 6. Electric Seasoning • Timber losses their
A cellular tissue and woody strength and may split.
Annual rings fibre arranged in distinct • Most expensive method.
concentric circle • Strength of timber at 12% Moisture Content-
Trunk of tree obtained after the Shear strength 6.5 -14.5 N/mm2
Log
removal of branches. Bending strength 10.2 -18.2 N/mm2
Lumber
It is a log pieces of timber sawn Compressive strength 33 -77.5 N/mm2
into pieces of desired shape. Tensile strength 80-190 N/mm2
Defects of Timber-
Checks Longitudinal cracks which is normal
to the annual rings
Shakes Longitudinal separation b/w the
Annual rings.
Star shake Wide at outside and diminish inside
Heart shake Wide at center and diminish out side
Cup shake Caused due to rupture of tissue in
circular direction. It is developed
due to non uniform growth
Ring shake When cup shake cover the entire
ring.
Seasoning of Timber (IS : 1141)- Radial shake When timber is exposed to sun for
Purpose of Seasoning- seasoning after being felled down
1. Reduce the weight of timber.
Knots These are the base of branches
2. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement
which are broken or cut-off from the
in structure.
trees.
3. Increase strength, durability and workability.
Rind Galls Abnormal growth or curved
4. Make it suitable for painting.
swellings on the body of tree.
5. Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
Foxiness It is a sign of decay appearing in the
• Method of Seasoning and its property-
form of yellow or red tinge.
Method Property Cause-Over maturity lack of
(A). Natural or Air It take long time but best ventilation.
Seasoning- quality of seasoned wood Burl It is a deformed growth occurs when
(6 month to 1 Year) are obtain. the tree receives shock or injury in
• Easy and most economical its young age.
method. Callus It is the soft tissue or skin which
• Reduce moisture up to 12- cover the wound of a tree.
15%
Druxiness White spots are formed on the top
(B). Artificial Seasoning-
surface of wood.
1. Water Seasoning It is quick process but elastic
(2 - 4 weeks) property and strength are Twisted fiber It is caused by wind turning the
reduced. trunk of young tree in one direction.
2. Boiling This process is very quick • Reaction wood is the wood with
(3 - 4 Hour) but expensive. twisted fiber.
3. Kiln Seasoning Most effective and Upsets In this case wood fibers damaged by
( 3 - 5 days) economical method. compression or crushing.
• K.D- Kiln dried • Loss in strength < 10% Rupture It is due to injury or impact.

Building Materials 24 YCT

 Cup This is the hollowing of the board
throughout its length on its bark side face
Twist In this defect the end of timber is rotate in
opposite direction.
Preservation of Timer (IS: 401)-
It is done with the helps of various types of
preservative to increase life, durability of timber.
1. Tarring-
Process of heating the coal tar to make it in workable
condition is called tarring.
2. Charring- It is a old method of preservation of
timber. This method is not suitable for exterior wood
works.
3. Oil Paint- It is suitable for well seasoned wood and
generally applied 2-3 coats.
4. Creosote Oil-
It is derived from wood or coal tar and best
antiseptic material.
It is applied at 500C and pressure of 0.7 - 1.0 N/mm2.
5. Solignum Treatment- This treatment well suitable
for preserving timber from white ants.
Defect Due to Conversion of Timber– 6 AsCu Treatment-
It is developed at forest research institute Dehradun.
Defect Description 7. Worms and Insects treatment-
Chip Mark A mark or sign placed by planer on 8. Dipping- In this method timber is dipped directly
finished surface of timber. in the preservative solution. The solution penetrates
the timber better than the case of brushing or
Wane It is the original rounded surface on spraying.
the manufactured part of timber. 9. Fire resistance of timber-
Torn Grain Small depression occurs on the (i) Able's Process- It is used to make wood Fire
finished surface (along the fiber of resistance.
timber) due to falling of tool. Chloride, Borex, Boric Acid, Sodium arsenate and
Ammonium sulphate is used in Able's Process of
Diagonal It is formed because of improper Preservation of timber.
Grain timber sawing indicate by diagonal (ii) Bethel Process- It is used when max. absorption of
mark on the straight-grained surface the preservative is desired.
of the timber. (iii) Boucherie Process- It is used to treatment of green
wood.
Empty cell process-
It is also known as pressure process. It is aimed at a
maximum penetration of the preservative with a
minimum net retention.
The Lawry process and Rueping process are
commonly used.
Diffusion process-
It is the method of treatment of timber (poles and
planks) and other plant material like in green
condition.
Properties of a good timber-
Defect due to seasoning- Properties Value
Warp Due to unequal shrinkage the curved Density 540 kg/m3
deformation formed along the length of Specific gravity 1.54
Moisture content 10-12%
board.
Shrinkage 0.1- 0.3% Along fibers
Bow Curve along the face of board caused by Swelling 0.1- 0.8% Along length
the wood on one face shrinking more than Sound 2-17 time more than air
face. Conductivity
Building Materials 25 YCT
 Use of Various Type of Timber- Parts of plywood and its other name-
Outer most veneer sheet - Faces
Guava Scientific instruments
Interior ply (grain parallel to face) - Core/Centre
Babool Agricultural instruments
Interior ply (grain perpendicular to face) - Cross
Mulberry Sports Goods band.
Jackfruit Musical instruments Fiber boards-
Benteak Boat It is a type of engineered wood product that is made
Teak Plywood out of wood fibers.
Sal, Deodar Railway sleepers, Timber Types of fiber board-
1. Particle board/Low density fiber board (LDF)
VENEERS (IS : 14315) 2. Medium density fiber board(MDF) (<400 kg/m3)
3. High density fiber board (HDF)
Note:- Hard fiber board can be used as wall slab,
door board, floor, furniture and other decorations.
Hard board -
Hard board is a tough smooth panel made with wood
fibers compressed under high pressure and heat.

MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
Introduction-
Glass is an amorphous substance having
It is the thin strip of timber which thickness is about homogeneous texture and mixture of metallic
0.4 mm to 0.6 mm. It should not be exceed 1 mm in silicates.
any case. Constituent of glass their function-
It is also known as Ply and made by good quality Constituent Function
timber like Teak, Sal, Deodar etc. Silica/Sand It is the major constituent of glass.
Walnut is most suitable wood for this purpose. Lime It makes the glass fluid and suitable for
blowing, drawing, rolling, pressing or
PLYWOOD
spinning.
Soda Impart durability and toughness. Acts
as an accelerator for the fusion of
glass.
Potash It renders glass infusible and makes
fire resistance.
Lead oxide Imparts colour, brightness and shine.
Classification of Glass Based on
Composition-
Glass Composition
Common glass Silicate of Na, Ca and Fe
Soda lime glass Silica, lime and soda
Plywood is a material manufacture from thin layer or ead glass or Silica, lead and potash
'Plies' of wood veneer that are glued together with flint glass
adjacent layer having their wood grain rotate upto Boro-silicate Silica borax, lime and feldspar
900 to one another. glass
Plywood are glued under pressure of 130 - 140 MPa Various manufacturing Process of Glass-
and from an odd number of layers (≥ 3 layers) of
veneers. Each layers are perpendicular to each other. Process Used for
Advantage of Plywood- Blowing Glass bottle and Jar
Drawing Tube, Rod, window glass
• Strength of plywood is equal in all direction.
Rolling Glass sheet
• Impact load resistance capacity is more.
Pressing Open pot
• It is made of odd layers of ply. Casting Lens, mirror
• Tendency to shrink, swell and twisting is reduced. Spinning Heat, sound and electric
• It can be curved into desired shape. insulator glass.

Building Materials 26 YCT

 Colouring Pigment- Examples are material resins— rosin, kopal, amber,
It is mixed to impart colour in the glass. shellac; cellulose derivatives— cellulose acetate,
Colour Pigment cellulose nitrate, nitrocellulose or celluloid, cellulose
Blue Cobalt oxide, cupric oxide acetate-butyrate; polythenic or vinyl resin—
polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate,
Red Selenium oxide, Iron
vinyl chloride = vinyl acetate, poly vinylidene
White Antimony oxide, tin chloride, polystyrene, polymethyl methyacrylate or
Yellow Lead with antimony lucite or plexiglass and polytetrafluoroethylene;
Ruby Red Gold chloride polyamides Nylon 6:6, Nylon 6 and Nylon 11.
Green Chromium oxide • Thermosetting plastic :
Commercial Forms of glass- It cannot be reused.
Type of Glass Remark They are hard, strong and more brittle.
Pyrex glass It is fire resistance and use The important thermosetting resins are phenolic
for making laboratory resins or phenoplasts (bakelite), amino resins,
apparatus and insulator. polyester resins, epoxy resins and silicon resins.
Optical Glass • It contain phosphorus, lead The principal uses are in electrical equipment, plugs,
silicate and cerium oxide. sockets, switches, ash trays, handles etc.
• It is absorb UV ray and use FIBRES
for making lenses. Fibres are a flexible, hair like strand whose length is
Opal glass or It is used where high thermal much more than its width or thickness.
milk glass shock resistance & chemical The purpose of adding fibre is to control cracking
durability is desired. due to plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage.
Ground glass Used for bedroom, toilets and When added to concrete, fibres reduce permeability
for making black board. of concrete and hence reduce bleeding. Further,
Obscured glass It is used in doors and some of the fibres in concrete are added to improve
or Patterned window of bedroom and resistance to impact and abrasion.
glass bathroom. The concrete with fibres is called fibres reinforced
Bullet Proof or It produced by placing vinyl concrete (FRC).
Laminated glass plastic and glass in several Types of Fibres
alternate layers and pressing • Natural Fibres – These are naturally occurring
them with outer layer of glass vegetable fibres. Some examples of natural fibres
• Used in banks, Jewelry are jute, bamboo, sisal, flex, coir, banana etc.
stores and display window. • Synthetic Fibres – Artificially manufactures fibres
Sheet glass It is used for glazing door, are referred as synthetic fibres. These include steel
window and partition. fibres, glass fibres, carbon fibres, polymers i.e.
made by blowing, available plastic fibres.
with in 2 - 6 mm thickness. • Jute Fibres
Plate Glass It is used for all engineering Jute is a naturally occurring fibrous material which
purpose and is superior than is traditionally used to make sacking bags and as a
sheet glass. backing material in carpets.
Forming and Shaping- Jute fibres are added in concrete mainly to improve
Molten glass can be fabricated to desired shape by its resistance to shrinkage.
one of the following method- Jute fibres have a good bonding with concrete.
1. Blowing, • Glass Fibres
2. Flat drawing The glass fibres are available in the form of strands
which can be cut into desired lengths and used as
PLASTICS reinforcement in concrete.
Plastics are made from resin with or without fillers, The glass fibres reinforced concrete (GRC) is
plasticisers and pigments. lightweight and has very good resistance to
Types of plastics : aggressive environment like alkali attack, acid attack
• Thermo plastic : etc.
It is softens on heating and hardens on cooling. • Plastic Fibres
They can be remoulded, for use as many times as Plastic fibres are typically synthetic fibres which are
required. engineered for concrete to withstand long term
These are formed by addition polymerisation and alkaline environment.
have long chain molecular structure. Plastic fibres are manufactured polymer based
They can be remoulded, for use, as many times as materials such as polypropylene, nylon or
required. polyethene.
Building Materials 27 YCT
 Plastic fibres are added during the mixing operation 2. Viscosity Test [IS : 1206 : 1978]
of concrete. It is the measure of resistance to flow. It is suitable
Plastic fibres in concrete include control of plastic to test tars and cutbacks.
shrinkage during fresh or green stage of concrete. Apparatus- Orifice type viscometers.

ALUMINIUM STEEL
The principal constituents of bauxite (Al2O32H2O)
which yield aluminium on a commercial scale are
hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron with some
silica.
Aluminium is silver white in colour with brittle
metallic lustre on freshly broken surface.
Aluminium is harder than tin.
Tensile strength of aluminium is 117.2 N/mm2 in the 3. Ductility Test [IS : 1208 – 1978]
cost from and 241.3 N/mm2 when drawn into wires. Apparatus- Standard briquette.
It is most suitable for making door and window To measure the adhesive property of bitumen and its
frames, railings of shops and corrugated sheets for ability to stretch.
roofing system.
C/S area of briquette 10 mm × 10 mm (1 cm2)
GALVANIZED IRON Rate of pull- 50 mm/min.
Galvanized iron is the same as standard iron, the Temperature - 27-C.
only difference is that it features a layer of zinc. Minimum ductility- 50- 75cm
The added layer of zinc helps to protect the iron 4. Softening Point Test [IS : 1205–1978]
from rust and corrosion. Apparatus- ''Ring and Ball''.
Without it, the iron will be exposed to moisture and Dia. of steel ball- 10 mm
oxygen from its surrounding environment. Softening point- 350 - 700C.
Corrugated galvanized iron sheets are used for roof 5. Flash and Fire Point Tests [IS : 1209 – 1978]
covering. Object-To determine flash and fire point of bitumen
The GI sheets are generally 0.9 m wide. These are Apparatus- Pensky Marten's closed cup
manufactured in the length of 1.8 m, 2.2 m, 2.5 m, Fire point is always > flash point.
2.8 m, 3.0 m, and 3.2 m. Minimum specified flash point for pavement =
BITUMEN 175oC
Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the 7. Specific gravity test [IS : 1202 – 1978]
fractional distillation of crude oil. Apparatus- Pycnometer
It is viscous liquid, black or brown in colour. Specific gravity for-
It is soluble in carbon di-sulphide and carbon tetra (i). Bitumen- 0.97 - 1.02
chloride but insoluble in water. (ii). Tar- 1.10-1.25
The bituminous materials are mostly employed for (iii). Natural asphalt- 0.92- 1.02
the construction of flexible pavement. Cutback Bitumen-
Specific gravity of Pure bitumen 0.97 - 1.02. It is obtained by reducing the viscosity of bitumen
by diluents or by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in
It oxidizes slowly and chemically inert.
presence of some suitable liquid distillates of coal tar
Bitumen is more resistant to water than tar. or petroleum.
Tests on Bitumen It is prepared by using naphtha or kerosene oil.
1. Penetration Test [IS : 1203 - 1978]– Use- Road construction and soil stabilization, cold
Apparatus- Penetrometer. region.
Object-To determine hardness or softness of Cutback Bitumen are of three types–
bitumen (a) Rapid Curing (RC) Cutback-
Common grades are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100. Recommended for surface dressing and patch work.
Penetration value- 80 - 120.
It is flux with Petroleum, Naphtha or gasoline.
(b) Medium Curing (MC) Cutback-
Recommended for premix with less quantity of fine
aggregates.
Bitumen is flux with kerosene and light diesel oil.
(c) Slow Curing (SC) Cutback-
It is obtained by blending bitumen with high boiling
point gas, oil or by controlling the rate of flow and
temperature of crude during the first cycle of
refining.
Building Materials 28 YCT
Note : Questions Asked in Previous Years
Cutback bitumen used for premix with appreciable
Quantity of fine aggregates. 1. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a
RC-2 is more thick than RC-1 but RC-2, MC-2 & (a) thermosetting material
SC-2 have same viscosity. (b) thermoplastic material
Each group of cutbacks is subdivided into six (c) elasto-plastic material
categories in the increasing order of viscosity. (d) rigid plastic material
Bitumen Emulsion - GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022
It is liquid product in which a substantial amount of Ans. (b) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)–
bitumen is suspended in finely divided condition in • It is a plastic that gets deformed easily when heated
an aqueous medium and stabilized by means of one and can be molded again into other forms.
or more suitable materials. • It is used to make pipes, containers, various types of
Emulsion is the two phase system consisting of two toys etc.
immiscible liquid. Bitumen/Tar content in it- 40 - • It is a thermoplastic material.
60% (remains is water)
Emulsion is always applied in cold state. 2. Bitumen felt is used for
Types of Bitumen Emulsion - (a) Water proofing (b) Damp proofing
Slow setting - Use for fine aggregate mixes (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
Medium setting - Used for premixing with coarse JSSC JE (Civil) 03/07/2022
aggregate Ans. (c) : Roofing felt or bitumen felt– is a roll
Rapid setting - Used for surface dressing. material prepared by impregnating roof cardboard with
Blown bitumen or oxidized bitumen- soft bitumen.
It is obtained by passing air under pressure at a high • Subsequently coating it on one or both sides with
temperature through the bitumen. high-melting bitumen and finally facing it with
It can be used as roofing and damp-proofing felts, in finally ground mineral powder, mica or coloured
the manufacture of pipe asphalts and joint fillers. mineral granules.
It has a lower penetration grade and more softening • Bitumen felt used for water roofing damp proofing.
point in comparison to pure bitumen. 3. Polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride resins are
Plastic bitumen- used in various parts of building areas for:
It consists of bitumen, thinner and a suitable inert (a) structural strength
filler (40 to 45%). (b) structural ductility
It is used for filling cracks in masonry structures for (c) water proofing
stopping leakage. (d) termite proofing
POLY-VINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) SSC JE Civil 14/11/2022 Shift-I
PVC is an economical construction material which Ans. (c) : Polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride resin are
has very good insulating properties, good water used in various parts of building areas for water
resistance and good fire resistance. proofing.
PVC sheets are used to make electrical panels and • Polyvinyal chloride resins are totally rust-proof, rot-
boards in buildings. It is a light weight material and proof, termic-proof, and water proof.
is easy to use and assemble. 4. Which of the following is a requirement for
PVC pipes are used as water and waste water thermal insulation in materials?
carrying pipes. (a) High temperature resistance
(b) Low density
PVC sheets are used as flooring, roofing and wall
(c) High permeability
panelling to give decorative look to the structure.
(d) Low thermal conductivity
CHLORINATED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
CPVC is a thermoplastic produced by chlorinated of Ans. (d) : Thermal resistance of a material is the
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin. property which resists the flow of heat in a material.
CPVC is significantly more flexible than PVC, and • For a material to be a good thermal insulator, it must
can also withstand higher temperatures. have low thermal conductivity.
Uses include hot and cold water delivery pipes and 5. Which of the following materials possesses a
industrial liquid handling. specific gravity value in the range of 0.97 to
1.02?
POLYPROPYLENE FIBRES (PPF)
(a) Pure bitumen
A polypropylene fibre has good compressive and (b) Asbestos
tensile strength. (c) Ordinary Portland cement
These are used in reinforced concrete as a partial (d) Lime
replacement to steel to take up tensile stresses. DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III
Building Materials 29 YCT
Ans. (a) : Specific gravity test on bitumen– A Thermosetting plastic– These are the plastic which set
knowledge of the correct specific gravity of bituminous after application of heat and pressure and then do not
materials have mainly two application convert the change their form on further application of heat and
specified bitumen content by weight of volume basis. pressure. These plastic originally pass through the
• When the binder is measured by volume in thermoplastic phase.
necessary to know the coefficient of expansion or Example– Bakelite, E-poxy resin, Melamine, resin etc.
specific gravity value is useful to identify the source 9. The pipe material 'UPVC' stands for _______.
of a bituminous binder. (a) Unplasticized polyvinylchloride
• Pure bitumen has specific gravity in the range from (b) Ultrastrength polyvinyl chloride
0.97 to 1.02. (c) Unplasticized polyvanadium chloride
6. Which type of thermo-resins helps make (d) Ultrastrength polyvanadium chloride
plastics as clear as glass and possess excellent AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
electrical properties? Ans. (a) : UPVC–Unplasticized polyvinylchloride.
(a) Styrene (b) Cellulose • It is a type of piping that is made from PVC plastic.
(c) Alkyd (d) Cumarone- indene 10. Where is lead glass commonly used in building
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 construction?
Ans. (b) : Thermoplastic or themoresins–These (a) Plumbing and piping
plastics soften on heating and harden on cooling. The (b) Facades and windows
process of softening and hardening can be repeated any (c) False ceiling
number of times, provided the temperature is not so (d) Flooring works
high as to cause chemical decomposition. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
• Major thermoplastic is PVC, polyethylenes, Ans. (b) : In the case of lead glass, lead oxide (PbO)
cellulose, acrylic, styrene etc. replaces the calcium oxide. However, with the
• Where, cellulose base conductive materials have exception of glass for protection against x-rays, this
excellent electrical and thermal conductivity. It is type of glass has no significance for the building
also stable, strong, wear resistant, transparent. industry.
• The films of cellulose exhibit excellent optical • It is used in building construction as a Facades and
properties with glass. windows.
Thermosetting plastics–These plastics undergo 11. Which of the following is NOT an engineering
chemical changes at temperatures 127º–177ºC and set property of glass?
into permanent shape under pressure. Reheating will not (a) Recycling property (b) Value
soften them. (c) Transparency (d) Strength
Example– Phenol, formaldehyde, melamine PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
formaldehyde.
Ans (b) : Engineering property of glass–
7. Which of the following is NOT a type of (a) Strength (b) Transparency
polymer? (c) Workability (d) Transmittance
(a) Fibres (b) Brass (e) Recycle property.
(c) Plastics (d) Elastomers 12. Which is the acidic refractory material that is
GAIL JA (Tech) 13.05.2023 used for preparing coke oven and lining for
Ans. (b) : Polymer– High polymer, also known as glass furnaces?
macromolecular, are large molecules of colloidal (a) Dolomite (b) Silica
dimensions having high weight. (c) Fire-clay (d) Quartzite
Example– Resins, plastic, rubbers, elastomers ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
Note– Brass in classified as a metal. Ans. (b) : • Acid refractory bricks consist of silica
8. Which of the following is a thermosetting bricks (95-97% silica and 1-2% lime) and ganister
plastic? bricks (ganister - a hard coloured sand stone containing
(a) Polycarbonate (b) Bakelite 10% and 2% of lime), used in lining furnaces having
(c) Polytetrafluorethylene (d) Polyvinyl chloride siliceous and acidic slag, steel industry and coke oven.
CRPF Assistant Commandant 2023 • The softening temperature ranges from 1700ºC to
Ans. (b) : Thermoplastic– These are the type of 1800ºC.
polymers which becomes soft upon heating and • These cannot be used for lining of furnaces which
becomes hard on cooling. Such plastic can undergo have to be cooled and reheated frequently.
infinite cycles of heating and cooling provided the 13. Glass used in windows to prevent heat loss:
temperature is not so high to cause any chemical (a) Colored glass (b) Frosted glass
composition. (c) Processed glass (d) Insulating glass
Example– Polystyrene, nylon, Teflon etc. PGCIL DT 05.12.2023
Building Materials 30 YCT
Ans. (d) Insulated glass application– Insulating glass 18. Seasoning of timber is
is traditionally used at office buildings, hospitals, hotels, (a) a process of removing sap
houses and those buildings where large amount of (b) creosoting
heating or cooling is required. That place where (c) painting with sodium silicate
humidity and temperature needs to be controlled (d) coating with tar
insulated glass is best suited for them. PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
14. Which property of borosilicate glass makes it Ans. (a) : Seasoning of timber (IS : 1141)– It is the
suitable for thermal shock resistance ? process of reducing the moisture content of timber in
(a) Low density order to prevent the timber.
(b) High transparency It is use for–
(c) Low thermal expansion coefficient. • Reduce its weight and increase strength and durability
(d) High refractive index
• Make timber burn readily as a fuel
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
• Make it suitable for paining
Ans. (c) : Borosilicate glass– Borosilicate glass is a
form of glass that contains silica and boron trioxide as • Reduce its tendency to split and decay and reduce
its major ingredients. shrinkage and warping.
• Borosilicate glasses have much lower thermal 19. In which type of seasoning is timber immersed
expansion coefficients than most common glass in a solution of suitable salt, and then taken out
making them very resistant to thermal shocks. and seasoned in ordinary way?
• Such glass is less thermally stresses and sustain (a) Water seasoning (b) Chemical seasoning
temperature difference of up to 1650C without (c) Kiln seasoning (d) Boiling
cracking. Reagent bottles and flasks, as well as SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
digits, electronics and cooking are all made from it. Ans. (b) : Chemical or salt seasoning–An aqueous
15. Fiberglass materials have a usable temperature solution of certain chemicals have lower vapor pressure
up to ................... than that of pure water. If the outer layers of timber are
(a) 105oC (b) 473oC treated with such chemicals the vapor pressure will reduce
o
(c) 45 C (d) 200oC and a vapor pressure gradient is setup. In chemical
MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-I seasoning timber immersed in a solution of suitable salt
Ans. (d) : Fiberglass– Fiberglass materials have a low and then taken out and seasoned in ordinary way.
service temperature which is below 200ºC. This is 20. In plywood, three or more veneers in odd
despite the fact that they usually have high strength. numbers are placed one above the other with
These materials also have a great impact resistance and the direction of grains of successive layers at
are extremely flexible. Fiberglass is composed of glass ________ to each other.
fibers bonded with a thermosetting resin. It is resistant (a) 600 (b) 450
0
to bacteria or fungus attack. (c) 90 (d) 300
16. The glass which is used for glazing of windows, SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
door and for making ordinary glassware. Ans. (c) : Plywood–A wood panel glued under pressure
(a) Soda-lime glass (b) Bonemian glass on odd number (three or more) of layer of veneers are
(c) Pyrex glass (d) Common glass placed one above the other with the direction of grains
(e) Answer not known of successive layers at perpendicular to each other is
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023 known as plywood.
Ans. (a) : Soda-lime glass- It is also known as soda ash 21. ______ determines the thickness of plywood
glass or soft glass. it is obtained by fusing a mixture of board.
silica, lime and soda. The quality of this glass can be (a) pile width
improved by adding alumina magnesium oxide and the (b) pile length
glass is then called crown glass. This is most type of (c) pile area
glass used in doors, windows and for making glassware (d) number of pile layers
such as bottles.
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
17. Percentage content of silica in window glass, is
____ Ans. (d) : Plywood–A wood panel glued under pressure
from an odd number (usually 3 to 13) of layers of
(a) 85 to 90 (b) 45 to 55
veneers is known as plywood.
(c) 55 to 60 (d) 70 to 75
As per IS: 303-1989, thickness of plywood
JSSC JE (Civil) 03/07/2022
3 ply → 3, 4, 5, 6 mm
Ans. (d) : The composition of soda-lime glass is
normally 60-75% of silica, 12-18% soda and 5-12% 5 ply → 5, 6, 8, 9 mm
lime. • A low percentage of other materials can be 7 ply → 9, 12, 15, 16 mm
added for specific properties such as colouring. 9 ply → 12, 15, 16, 19 mm
• Percentage content of silica in window glass is 70 to 11 ply → 19, 22, 25 mm
75%. more than 11 ply → as per order.
Building Materials 31 YCT
22. Which types of trees grow inwards and fibrous Ans. (d) :
mass is seen in their longitudinal sections? Some of the objects of seasoning wood are follows–
(a) Deciduous (b) Endogenous trees • Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in
(c) Exogenous trees (d) Conifers structure.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I • Increase strength, durability and workability.
Ans. (b) : Endogenous trees–These are the types of • Reduce it weight.
trees which grows in bulk is inward direction and • Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
fibrous mass can be seen across their longitudinal 26. In the context of structure of timber, the
section. function of_____ is to grow wood cells on the
Example–Bamboo, cane, palm etc. insider and smaller best cells on the outside.
Exogenous tree–These grows outward, for all (a) sap wood (b) bark
engineering work we use exogenous tree. (c) medullary rays (d) cambium
SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
Ans. (d) : Cambium–The second layer is the cambium,
a thin tissue where tree growth takes place. Cambium
cells are constantly dividing. Producing food
transporting phloem cells closer to the bark of the free
and xylem or wood cells towards the core of the tree.
27. Which group of timber are most commonly
23. How many methods are employed for the available in quantity 1415m3 or more per year
seasoning of Timber? according to IS: 399-1963?
(a) Three (b) Two (a) Z (b) Y
(c) Four (d) Five (c) X (d) Q
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 DDA JE 17/10/2023 (Shift-III)
Ans (b) : Seasoning of timber:- The newly cutted Ans. (c) :
trees have water in large quantity in sap and minimum Classification of timber based on availability–
in this inner part of wood. X : Most common grade – 1415 m3 (1000 tonnes) and
more per year
• We remove sap of the wood, then do seasoning for
Y : Common grade – 355 m3 (250 tonnes) to 1415 m3
drying the wood and making for structural use
(1000 tonnes) per year
• By drying the timber we make its strength high more Z : Less common grade – Below 355 m3 per year.
elastic and durable. Based on durability
• A well seasoned timber has 12% moisture content in it. Durability Average life
(I) Natural seasoning High > 120
(II) Artificial seasoning Moderate 60 < life < 120
24. How are trees classified based on mode of Low < 60
growth? Basis of seasoning characteristics–
(a) Grade and elasticity 1. High refractory: Class A
(b) Perpendicular and parallal 2. Medium refractory: Class B
(c) Endogeneous and exogeneous 3. Non refractory: Class C
(d) Small and large 28. A very thin sheet of wood which is cut from the
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 round logs with 0.5 to 5 mm thickness is called:
Ans. (c) : Classification of trees– Trees are classified (a) veneer (b) chipboard
as endogenous and exogenous according to the mode of (c) fibre wood (d) blockboard
growth. Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023
Endogenous Trees– Trees grow inwards e.g. palm, Ans. (a) : Veneers (IS 14315)– The primary process in
bamboo etc. the manufactures of wood based products is veneering
Exogenous trees– Trees grow outwards and are used which produces thin sheets of wood known as veneers.
for making structural elements. They are further • The thickness of veneers varies from 0.4 to 0.6 mm. In
subdivided as conifers and deciduous. no case it should exceed 1 mm.
25. Select the INCORRECT objective of seasoning 29. Star shake, a type of defect in timber arises due
of timber. to ______.
(a) growth of layers of sapwood over Wounds
(a) Reduce the shrinkage and warping after
(b) severe frost and fierce heat of sun
placement in structure
(c) wind causing young tree to turn in one
(b) Increase strength, durability and workability direction
(c) Reduce its tendency to split and decay (d) greater evaporation of sap at the end grains of
(d) Increase its weight log
Odisha JE Lect. 28/01/2024 Paper-I DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 29/06/2022 Shift-I
Building Materials 32 YCT
Ans. (b) : Star shake– It is radial splits or cracks wide 33. Timber is considered moderately heavy when
at circumference and diminishing towards the centre of the density varies from_______
the tree. This defect may arise from severe frost and (a) 2.5 to 4.5 kN/m3 (b) 5.5 to 7.5 kN/m3
3
fierce heat of sun. Star shakes appear as the wood dries (c) 7.5 to 9.5 kN/m (d) None of these
below the fibre saturation point. It is a senous fault UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
leading to separated by when sawn. Ans. (b) : Density of light to very light timber is less
30. During the construction of particle board in the than 5.5 kN/m3 moderate timber has density between
extrusion pressing process, what is the 5.5 to 7.5 kN/m3 and heavy to very heavy timber has
orientation of the wood particles with respect density greater than 7.5 kN/m3.
to the plane of board? 34. The shrinkage of wood from green to over dry
(a) 45° (b) 30° condition will be maximum in
(c) 90° (d) 0° (a) Longitudinal direction
SSC JE Pre. 09/10/2023 (Morning) (b) Tangential direction
Ans. (c) : Particle board/chip board (IS : 3129,12406, (c) Radial direction
3478)– They are manufactured from particles of wood (d) Wood exposed to moisture
or other ligno-cellulose materials which are UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
agglomerated, formed and pressed together by the use Ans. (b) : Shrinkage of wood– Shrinkage is the
of an organic binder together in the presence of heat, reduction in linear and volumetric dimensions in drying
pressure or moisture. of wood.
• During the construction of particle board in the • Linear shrinkage along the fibres lies between 0.1 to
extrusion pressing process, it is the orientation 900 of the 0.3 percent, in radial direction between 3 to 6
wood particles with respect to the plane of board. They are percent and in the trangential direction between 7 to
manufactured from small timber pieces and wood wastes. 12 percent.
The latter is first converted into small chips. • In general the radial shrinkage of wood is 60 percent
31. A wood panel glued under pressure from an of the tangential and the longitudinal shrinkage is
odd number of layers of veneers is known negligible.
as___ 35. The density of wood used for construction in
(a) plywood (b) fibre board the ranges between
(c) hard board (d) particle board (a) 1.2 to 1.3 g/cm3 (b) 1.5 to 1.6 g/cm3
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-III (c) 2.3 to 2.6 g/cm 3
(d) 2.6 to 2.9 g/cm3
Ans. (a) : Plywood : ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
• A wood panel glued under pressure from an odd Ans. (b) : The density of wood used for construction in
number (usually 3 to 13) of layers of veneers is the ranges between 1.5 to 1.6 g/cm3.
known as plywood.
36. As per IS : 303 and 10701, the thickness of 5
• Plywood may be classified upon direction of gains ply plywood boards for structural purpose are
in the piles and on the type of adhesive used. available in
• Normally the alternate plies are oriented at 300 or (a) 6 mm and 9 mm (b) 12 mm and 16 mm
600 in star plywood. (c) 16 mm and 19 mm (d) 10 mm and 15 mm
32. Which of the following defects occur in the ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
seasoning process of wood? Ans. (a) : Thickness of plywood boards (IS : 303
(a) bow (b) brown rot and 10701)–
(c) sap stain (d) blue stain Thickness (mm)
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023 Board General Structural
Ans. (a) : purpose purpose
3 Ply 3,4,5,6 4
5 Ply 5,6,8,9 6,9
7 Ply 9,12,15,16 12,16
9 Ply 12,15,16,19 16,19
11 Ply 19,22,25 19,25
above 11 ply On order
37. According to IS : 14315-1995, the maximum
thickness of commercial veneers produced
from wood is:
(a) 12 mm (b) 6 mm
(c) 8 mm (d) 3 mm
Kerala PSC (PWD) Draftsman 15/06/2023
Building Materials 33 YCT
Ans. (b) : As per IS 14315 : 1995, clause 9.3 41. The shearing strength of wood along the fibres is:
The maximum thickness of the veneer shall be 6 mm. (a) 6.5 to 14.5 N/mm2 (b) 10 to 30 N/mm2
Veneers– A thin slices of wood that typically are glued (c) 2.5 to 3 N/mm2 (d) 20 to 30 N/mm2
on to core panels in order to produce flat panels. UPMRCL JE 02/01/2023
• The thickness of veneers lies between 10–6 mm Ans. (a) Properties of timber–
having same strength in all direction.
• Tensile strength along the grains is 2-4 times
• These are commercial wood which are used to make
plywood. stronger than compressive strength.
38. The innermost central portion or core of the • The shearing strength of wood along the fibres is
tree is called as .............. 6.5 to 14.5 N/mm2.
(a) Cambium layer (b) Medulla • The shearing strength along the fibers. Resistance of
(c) Annular rings (d) bark wood to cutting across the fibers is 3 to 4 times
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 greater than that along the fibers.
Ans. (b) : Structure of timber– 42. Timber can be made more fire resistant by
Bast–The barks inner layer called bast conveys the (a) Dipping and stepping process
nutrients from the crown downwards and stores them. (b) Sir Abel's process
Pith–Inner most central portion or core of the tree is (c) Charring
called the pith or medulla. (d) Hot and cold open tank treatment
Sap wood– The outer annual rings, between heartwood
KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023
and cambium layer is known as sapwood.
Heart wood– It consist of the inner annual rings round Ans. (b) Fire resistance of timber–
the pith. Sir Abel's process– Surface of wood is painted by a
Inner bark– It is the inner skin or layer covering the weak solution of sodium silicate.
emulsion layer. • Thereafter slaked lime solution of the consistency of
Cambium layer– The thin layer below bark not a paste is applied followed by the application of
converted to sap woods it is called cambium layer. concentrated solution of sodium silicate in two coats
the second being applied after 6 hours of the first coat.
Composition of the solution is–
• Sodium silicate 56g
• Water 50 g
• Kaolin 75 g
43. Identify the endogenous tree type from among
the following.
(a) Palm (b) Pine
39. The moisture content in a property seasoned (c) Deodar (d) Oak
timbers will in the range of? SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
(a) 5% to 10% (b) 8% to 10%
Ans. (a) Endogenous tree–These tree grow more in
(c) 10% to 12% (d) 12% to 15%
length. Inwards and fibrous mass can be seen in the
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023 longitudinal section.
Example: Bamboo, cane, palm.
Ans. (c) : The process of drying the wood to moisture
content approximately equal to the average humidity of These trees have limited engineering applications.
surroundings where it is to be permanently fixed is Exogenous trees– Trees grow outward and these are
called seasoning. used for making structural elements.
• The seasoning of timber is required to remove sap • They are further subdivided as conifers and decidous.
from the timber. Ex-Deodar, chir, teak, shishum pine etc.
• The moisture content in a well seasoned timber is 44. Along the grains, tensile strength of timber is
10-12%. .... the corresponding compressive strength
40. Which of the following types of wood flooring is (a) same (b) less than
the softest wood?
(c) not comparable (d) more than
(a) Pine (b) Oak
(c) Maple (d) Pecan NBCC JE 09/05/2022
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023 Ans. (d) : Tensile strength of timber along the grain
Ans. (a) Pine flooring– (parallel to grain) is 2 to 4 times more than the
• Pine wood flooring is the softest wood. compressive strength.
• Evergreen trees • Pins, space and firm • It is an order of 80 to 190 N/mm2. Further, across the
• Less costly • Almost light grain (perpendicular the grain) tensile strength of timber
Uses–Chips for laminated wood, flooring, roofing, shingles. is low.

Building Materials 34 YCT

45. Which of the following is not a types of 48. As per IS 3129-1985, the permissible tolerance
seasoning of timber? for the length of finished boards shall be
(a) Air Seasoning (b) Soil Seasoning ___________.
(c) Electrical Seasoning (d) Water Seasoning (a) ±6 mm (b) ±2 mm
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II (c) ±8 mm (d) ±4 mm
Ans. (b) : Air seasoning– The log of wood is sawn into SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
planks of convenient sizes and stacked under a covered Ans. (c) : According to IS 3129-1985, the permissible
shed in cross wise direction in alternate layers so as to tolerances on the nominal sizes of finished boards
permit free circulation of air. shall be as follows–
Water seasoning– The logs of wood are kept
completely immersed in running stream of water, with Dimension Nominal size Tolerance
their larger ends pointing upstream. Length for all lengths ±8 mm
Electrical seasoning– The logs are placed in such a Width for all widths ±8 mm
way that their two ends touch the electrodes. Thickness above 25 mm ±1 mm
• Current is passed through the setup, being a bad upto and ±0.8 mm
conductor, wood resists the flow of current, generating
including 25 mm
heat in the process, which results in its drying.
46. Tensile strength of timber parallel to the fibres 49. Timber which are slow and difficult to season
is in the range of free from defects, are classified as based upon
(a) 10–80 N/mm2 (b) 80–190 N/mm2 their behavior to cracking and splitting during
(c) 190–250 N/mm 2
(d) 250–310 N/mm2 normal air-seasoning practice.
GPSC AE Class-2, N.W.R. 05/09/2021 (a) Null refractory
Ans. (b) : Tensile strength of timber parallel to the fibre (b) Moderate refractory
is in the range 80-190 N/mm2. (c) High refractory
The compressive strength is lower and is usually 30- (d) Low refractory
77.5 Mpa (N/mm2). SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
• Shear strength 6-15 N/mm2. Ans. (c) : Non-refractory timbers can be rapidly
• Tensile strength along a direction parallel to the grains seasoned without any trouble. They can be seasoned
is found to have the greatest strength that can be even in the open air and sun. Examples are deodar,
developed under any kind stress. simul etc.
47. _____ is a sign of decay appearing in the form • Moderately refracting timbers have tendency to split
of yellow or red tinge or discolouration of and to crack during seasoning. They are therefore to be
overmatured trees. protected against rapid drying conditions.
(a) Foxiness (b) Twisted fibres • Highly refracting timbers are likely to be damaged
(c) End splits (d) Upsets severally during seasoning. They are difficult to season.
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II 50. Which of the following indicates a preliminary
Ans. (a) : stage of dead knot, where the fibres of knot are
Knot These are the base of branches which not firmly held in the surrounding wood?
are broken or cut-off from the trees. (a) Tight knot (b) Dead knot
Rind galls Abnormal growth or curved swellings (c) Loose knot (d) Round knot
on the body of tree. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
Foxiness It is a sign of decay appearing in the Ans. (c) : Knots in Timber–These are the sections of
form of yellow or red tinge. the branches of the tree present on the surface of the
Cause-Over maturity lack of ventilation. wood which appears in the form of hard and dark
Burl is the growth of tree in which the pieces.
grain has grown in a regular projection • Knots are the spots of weaknesses in timber when
Burl or the timber body. used to carry compression.
• It formed when the tree receives shock Pin knot–When the diameter is less than 12 mm.
or injury in its young age. Small knot– When the diameter is 12-20 mm.
Callus It is the soft tissue or skin which cover Medium knot– When the diameter is 20-40 mm.
the wound of a tree. Large knot–When the diameter is more than 40 mm.
Druxiness White spots are formed on the top Tight knot–Tight knot are those which are joined
surface of wood. securely to the adjacent wood.
Twisted It is caused by wind turning the trunk Dead knot– The fibers of knot are properly
fiber of young tree in one direction. interconnected with those of surrounding wood. Hence
• Reaction wood is the wood with it can be easily separated out from for engineering
twisted fiber. purposes.
Upsets It is due to the crushing of fibers Loose knot:– It indicates preliminary stage of dead
running transversely during the growth knot.
of the tree due to strong winds and
unskilled felling consequently resulting The fibers of knot are not firmly held in the surrounding
in discontinuity of fibers. wood.

Building Materials 35 YCT

51. __________ are popularly known as white ants, 55. Which of the following IS codes provides
though they are in no way related to ants. specifications on ‘Plywood for concrete
(a) Bacteria (b) Flies shuttering work - Specification [Wood and
(c) Termites (d) Viruses other lignocellulosic products]’?
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III (a) IS 5440:2011 (b) IS 5450:2011
Ans. (c) : White ants are really called termites. (c) IS 4990:2011 (d) IS 2330:2011
Although, these insects are often called white ants they MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
are nothing like ants when we dig a little deeper. Ans. (c) : IS 4990 : 2011 → Ply wood for concrete
• White ants actually belong to the cockroach family. shuttering work- specification (wood and other ligno
52. To make timber more fire resistant than it is, cellulosic products)
the wood is first impregnated with a fire IS 5440 : 2011 → optical flats
retarding chemical solution such as _____. IS 2330 : 2011→ Metallic Materials - Tube flanging test
(a) gasoline 56. Which of the following types of wood is known
(b) ammonium phosphate for its high strength and resistance to decay,
(c) butane making it suitable for outdoor construction?
(d) turpentine (a) Cedar (b) Pine
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I (c) Oak (d) Mahogany
Ans. (b) : Fire Resistance of timber– Fire proofing RITES AM 05/05/2024
makes timber resistant to fire at high degree that it is Ans. (d) : Mahogany wood is a durable hardwood that
difficult to ignite and support its own combustion. The is resistant to scratches, dents and other types of
fire resistance of wood can be enhanced either by damages. It is also resistant to rot and decay, making it
impregnating it with chemicals like phosphates of a popular choice for outdoor furniture and decking.
ammonia, mixture of ammonium phosphate and 57. What is the primary purpose of a rip saw?
ammonium sulphate etc. or by designing wood to (a) Making finer cuts
provide slow burning construction. (b) Cutting along the grain
53. Which property of timber makes it resistant to (c) Cutting panels for door shutters
corrosion and rust? (d) None of these
(a) High strength HSSC JE 18.02.2024
(b) High moisture absorption Ans. (b) : Rip saw–A rip saw is wood saw that is
(c) Low density specially designed for making a rip cut, a cut made
(d) Non-metallic composition parallel to the direction of the wood grain.
Compass saw–A compass saw is a type of saw used
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
for making curved cuts known as compasses,
Ans. (d) : Corrosion is a natural process that occurs particularly in confined spaces where a larger saw
when a material reacts with its environment such as air, would not fit.
water or other substances. Dovetail saw–A small backsaw used to cut dovetails,
• Corrosion resistant materials are designed to resist these saws will usually have a higher number of teeth
this process, either via a protective layer on the per inch (around IS-20 T.P.I) with teeth sharpened in a
surface or through a chemical composition that does rip tooth pattern and minimal set to leave a narrow
not react with the environment. kerfs this fine tooth pattern also works well in cross
• Timber is non-metallic composition those makes it cutting operations.
resistant to corrosion and rust. Tenon saw–A mid sized backsaw, the saw derives its
54. Which property of particle board makes it name from its used in the cutting of tenons for mortise
advantageous for use in ceiling panels? and tenon joinery. Tenon saws are commonly available
with rip-filed teeth for rip cutting and cross-cut for
(a) Thermal insulation properties
cutting across the grain.
(b) Sound insulation properties
(c) Lightweight 58. What is the difference between soft wood and
hard wood?
(d) Termite resistance
(a) The colour of soft wood is light whereas the
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
colour of hard wood is dark
Ans. (b) : Particle board:- It is made out of small size
(b) Soft wood is heavy and hard wood is light
timber and wood waste residue of all types like logs and
(c) Soft wood is more fire-resistant than hard
tops of trees, edgings of saw mills, end cuts, stump
wood
....etc and other similar woody material.
(d) Soft wood has more strength in compression
→ Sound insulation of particle board makes it and shear compared to hard wood
advantages for use in ceiling panels HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Building Materials 36 YCT
 Ans. (a) : 63. Which of the following is manufactured from
Soft wood Hard wood particles of wood or other ligno cellulose
In soft wood the fibers In case of hard wood the materials, which are agglomerated, formed and
are less dense. fibers are quite close and pressed together using an organic binder
dense. together in the presence of heat, pressure or
It is light weight and It is heavy weight and moisture?
softer than hardwood. harder than softwood. (a) Block boards (b) Particle boards
It is light in colour Normally these are dark (c) Plywood (d) Veneers
colour woods. SSC JE Pre. 11/10/2023 (Morning)
It has poorer resistance It has better resistance to Ans. (b) : Particle board/chip board (IS :
to fire than hardwood fire softwood. 3129,12406, 3478)– They are manufactured from
and burn at a high rate particles of wood or other ligno-cellulose materials
It has less strength and It has more strength and which are agglomerated, formed and pressed together
shear in compression shear in compression hard by the use of an organic binder together in the
hard wood wood presence of heat, pressure or moisture. They are
59. Which of the following additives is typically manufactured from small timber pieces and wood
included in paint to increases itself life and wastes. The latter is first converted into small chips.
stability but may raise environmental or health
concerns if released into the environment? 64. Crushing of fibres running transversely during
(a) Pigments the growth of the tree due to strong winds is
(b) Bio-accumulative agents known as–
(c) Plasticizers (a) Upsets (b) End splits
(d) Solvents (c) Twisted fibres (d) Rind galls
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 CHB Asst. Architect 05.02.2023
Ans. (b) : Bio-accumulative agents are used in paints to Ans. (a) : Upsets – Caused by the crushing of fibre
increases its life and stability but may raise running transversely during the growth of the tree due
environmental or health concerns if released into the to strong winds and unskilled felling consequently
environment. resulting in discontinuity of fibres.
60. Identify the defect in timber, which is NOT Twisted fibres – Caused by wind constantly turning the
caused by seasoning of timber? trunk of young tree in one direction.
(a) Checks (b) Rind gall Rindgall – It is peculiar curved swellings formed on
(c) Warpage (d) Splitting the body of a tree. These are caused due to the growth
SSC JE Mains 04.12.2023 of layers over the injuries left over after improper
Ans. (b) : felling of trees.
Knot– Knots are bases of branches buried by cambial
activity of the mother branch. The root of the branch is
embedded in the stem, with the formation of annual
rings at right angles to those of the stem. The knots
interrupt the basic grain direction of the wood, resulting
in a reduction of its strength.
65. Curved swellings found on the body of a tree
are known as ...............
(a) Shakes (b) Knots
(c) Rind galls (d) Upsets
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
61. Which of the following is NOT related with Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
defects in timber? 66. The number of zones in India for classifying
(a) Cup shake (b) Upset allowable moisture content for building timber
(c) Rindgall (d) Bark as per the Indian Standard are -
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I (a) Four (b) Six or five
(c) Three (d) Two or one
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
SSC JE Civil 14/11/2022 Shift-I
62. Which of the following defects is NOT caused Ans. (a) : As per IS 287 : 1993
by seasoning of timber? Zones– The country has been broadly divided into the
(a) Splitting (b) Dry rot following four zones on the basis of information
(c) Checks (d) Warpage collected by the forest research institutes on the
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III seasonal changes in the moisture content of timber at 12
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. localities in India supplemented by published

Building Materials 37 YCT

meteorological data on the humidity variations in the 70. Which is the product that is formed after the
country. heating of gypsum at 393 K and evaporation of
Zone-I Average annual relative humidity less than 75% of water content from it?
40%. (a) Cement (b) Geo-polymer
Zone-II Average annual relative humidity 40-50%. (c) Plaster of Paris (d) Calcined lime
Zone-III Average annual relative humidity more than UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
so and up to 67%. Ans. (c) : Gypsum on heating at 393 K will produce
Zone-IV Average annual relative humidity more than 1
CaSO4 . H 2O ( Plaster of paris )
67%. 2
67. What is the maximum limit of water-soluble 1 3
content (percentage by mass) present in fly ash, CaSO4 .2H 2O  393K
→ CaSO4 . H 2O + H2O
2 2
which could be used as an additive to brick Most plasters theoretically approach which contains
earth? about 6.2% of water.
(a) 1.5% (b) 5% Properties–
(c) 15% (d) 0.1% • White in colour
BHEL Exe. Trainee, 24.08.2023 • Setting time is 5 to 10 minutes
Ans. (d) : Apparatus required for water absorption • Specific gravity is 2.57.
test– 71. What is the chemical combination formula of
The following apparatuses are required for the testing of Plaster of Paris?
water absorption of fly ash bricks. (a) CaCO3.2H2O (b) CaSO4.2H2O
(i) A sensitive weighing balance capable of weighing 1
within 0.1% of the total mass of the specimen. (c) CaSO4. H2O (d) CaSO3.2H2O
2
(ii) Ventilated oven [1100C ( ± 5 0C)]
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
(iii) Water bath [270C ( ± 120C)]
Ans. (c) : See the explanation of above question.
(iv) Damp cloths.
72. Unslaked lime is :
68. As per is 712, which of the following is class A
(a) calcium carbonate (b) calcium oxide
type lime?
(c) calcium hydroxide (d) calcium sulphate
(a) Magnesium lime
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
(b) Fat lime
(c) Semi hydraulic lime Ans. (b) : Unslaked lime-
Unslaked lime or quick lime (CaO) pure lime. generally
(d) Eminently hydraulic lime
called quick, however, contains more or less
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 magnesium oxide, which gives the product a brownish
Ans. (d) : As per IS 712-1984– Cl– 3.1 or grayish tinge. Quick lime obtained after the
Building lime– calcination of limestone. It is also called caustic lime. It
Class A- Eminently hydraulic lime used for structures is capable of slaking with water and has no affinity for
purposes. carbonic acid. The specific gravity of pure lime is about
Class B- Semi-hydraulic lime used for masonry 3.40.
mortars lime concrete and plaster undercoat. 73. Identify the INCORRECT statement with
Class C- Fat lime used for finishing coat in plastering, respect to a type of stone ‘Kankar’.
white washing, composite mortar etc. (a) Kankar is irregular in shape
Class D- Magnesium/dolomitic lime used for finishing (b) Kankar has a porous structure
coat in plastering, white washing. (c) Kankar is a type of metamorphic rock
Class E- Kankar lime used for masonry mortars. (d) Nodular Kankar is used to produce hydraulic
Class F- Siliceous dolomitic lime used for undercoat lime
and finishing coat of plaster. DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III
69. Which of the following non-metallic materials Ans. (c) : Kankar: A stone with irregular shape and
are also known as thermo softening plastic? porous structure that is used to produced hydraulic lime.
(a) Elastomers (b) Thermoplastics Kankar is as sedimentary rock.
(c) Thermoset materials (d) Minerals 74. What is produced when water is added to quick
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 lime?
Ans. (b) : Thermoplastic materials are those which (a) Fat lime (b) Hydraulic lime
soften on the application of heat, with or without (c) Lime stone (d) Caustic lime
pressure and require cooling to be set to a shape. JSSC JE (General Engg.) 16/10/2023
• They can be heated and cooled any number of times, Ans. (d) : Caustic lime is obtained by adding water in
only they should not be heated above their quick lime.
decomposition temperatures. • It is capable of slaking with water and has no affinity
• They are highly plastic and are easy for moulding or for carbonic acid. The specific gravity of pure lime is
shaping. about 3.4.

Building Materials 38 YCT

75. Which lime contains about 70% to 80% CaO 79. Fat lime is pure lime that contains
and 20% to 30% clay? approximately calcium oxides :
(a) Fat lime (b) Pure lime (a) 90% to 95% (b) 80% to 90%
(c) Poor lime (d) Hydraulic lime (c) 80% to 85% (d) 85% to 90%
JSSC JE (General Engg.) 16/10/2023 UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
Ans. (d) : Hydraulic lime–it is a product obtained by Ans. (a) : Fat or pure lime–It is a pure lime that is
moderate burning (900ºC-1100ºC) of raw limestone made by burning a pure limestone rock like chalk, shell
which contains small proportions of clay (silica and or coral.
alumina) 5-30 percent and iron oxide in chemical • It contains approximately 90% to 95% of calcium
combination with the calcium oxide content (CaO + oxides, fat lime absorbs carbon dioxide when it is
MgO 70-80% with MgO less than 5%). In slaking exposed in air and gets transferred into calcium
considerable care is required to provide just sufficient
carbonate.
water and no excess, since an excess would cause the
lime to harden. • Fat lime has the following properties–
1. It hardens very slowly
76. Lime is obtained by burning limestone at a
temperature of about: 2. Fat lime has very high degree of plasticity
(a) 1000 ºC (b) 800 ºC 3. Fat lime slakes vigorously
(c) 1100 ºC (d) 850 ºC 4. Fat lime sets very slowly if exposed to air.
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I 80. Which one of the following is NOT correct for
Ans. (b) : Calcination of lime– It refers to the heating characteristics of lime?
of lime stone of redness in the presence of air. (a) Lime possesses good plasticity and is easy to
Lime is obtained by calcination of limestone. Moisture work with
and CO2 are removed from the limestone leaning behind (b) It stiffens easily and is resistant to moisture
lime. (c) The excellent cementitious properties make it
CaCO 3 Calcination
→ CO 2 ↑ + CaO ( lime ) most suitable for masonry work
8000 C
(d) The shrinkage on drying is large because of
77. Which of the following is NOT a property of its high water retentively
Lime? ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
(a) Flexible and easily workable
Ans. (d) Characteristics of lime–
(b) Poor plasticity
(c) Solidify in less time and become hard (i) Lime has good plasticity and has high workability.
(d) Highly resistant moisture (ii) It has good cementetious properties and is suitable
for masonry works.
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
(iii) If stiffens easily and has light resistant to moisture,
Ans (b) : Property of lime–
because of its high water retentively. Shrinkage on
• Lime possesses good plasticity and easy to work drying is small compared to cement.
with.
81. As per IS : 712 – 1984, the lime used for
• It stiffens easily and resistance to moisture.
structural purposes (for making mortar and
• The excellent cementitious properties make it most
concrete for construction and foundation
suitable for masonry work.
works) having an initial setting time of 2 hours
• The shrinkage on drying is small because of its high (minimum) and final setting time of 48 hours
water retentivity.
(maximum) is :
78. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic (a) Class D - Magnesium/Dolomitic lime
of poor lime? (b) Class C - Fat lime
(a) Slaking requires more time and so it hydrates (c) Class A - Eminently hydralic lime
slowly. (d) Class F - Silicious Dolomitic lime
(b) It makes thin paste with water. JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil)
(c) setting and hardening is fast. Ans. (c) : As per IS 712-1984– Cl– 3.1
(d) The colour varies from yellow to grey. Building lime–
UPRVNL JE (Civil) 23/12/2022 Class A– Eminently hydraulic lime is used for making
Ans. (c) : Poor lime– It is also known as lean lime or mortar and concrete for construction and foundation
impure lime. As it contains more than 30% of clay, works, i.e. for structural purposes.
which makes lime to slaking slowly. Characteristics–
• It sets and hardens very-slowly compared to the other (i) The colour is grey
types of limes. It has very poor binding properties (ii) Calcium oxide and clay are 60-70 and 25 percent
and can form a thin paste with water. It is colour respectively.
varies from yellow to gray. (iii) Sets and hardens reading under water with initial
• It is used for inferior types of works because of its setting time 2 hour and final setting time 48 hours.
inferior quality. (iv) Slakes with difficulty.

Building Materials 39 YCT

 Class B- Semi-hydraulic lime used for masonry Ans. (c) : Engineering bricks are used where in
mortars lime concrete and plaster undercoat. construction where strength and resistance to water/fire
Class C- Fat lime used for finishing coat in plastering, and frost attack are important.
white washing, composite mortar etc. • Some common application examples are–Retaining
Class D- Magnesium/dolomitic lime used for finishing walls, damp proof courses, manholes, sewers and
coat in plastering, white washing. general ground works.
Class E- Kankar lime used for masonry mortars.
86. Which one of the following statements is NOT
Class F- Siliceous dolomitic lime used for undercoat correct?
and finishing coat of plaster.
(a) Rustic Brick has mechanically textured finish,
82. Which of the following lime is used in masonry varying in pattern
work? (b) Arch Bricks are over-burnt also known as
(a) Hydraulic lime (b) Fat lime clinker bricks obtained from inner portion of
(c) Quick lime (d) White lime the kiln
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III (c) Pale Bricks are over-burnt bricks obtained
Ans. (a) : Hydraulic lime is obtained by burning of from outer portion of the kiln
kankar. (d) Body Bricks are well burnt bricks occupying
• Hydraulic lime has proportion of clay 5–30%. central portion of the kiln
• Hydraulic lime is used in lime concrete in masonry ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023
work. Ans. (c) Rustic brick– It has a mechanically textured
83. When heated to 205 ºC, pure gypsum loses its finish which varies in the pattern.
luster and its specific gravity is increased from Arch bricks– These are over burnt bricks obtained
_____ to _____ due to the loss of water of from the inner portion of the kiln.
crystallization. Pale bricks– These are under burnt bricks obtained
(a) 2.3 ; 2.95 (b) 1.5 ; 2.95 from outer portion of the kiln..
(c) 2.3 ; 2.7 (d) 2.3 ; 3 Body bricks– These are well-burnt bricks obtained
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I from the central portion of the kiln.
Ans. (a) : Gypsum– Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder 87. Which of the following is an example of an
occurring naturally as a soft crystalline rock or sand. igneous rock?
Pure gypsum is a white in colour and so soft that it can
(a) Phyllite (b) Marble
be scratched by a finger nail.
(c) Aplite (d) Dolomite
• When heated to 2050C pure gypsum loses its luster
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
and its specific gravity is increased from 2.3 to 2.95 due
to the loss of water of crystallization. Ans. (c) : Igneous Rock:– It is also known as primary,
unstratified rocks. Igneous Rocks are formed as a result
84. As per IS : 1077, how many whole bricks shall
the solidification of molten mass lying below or above
be selected at random from the sample for
the earth's surface. If the magma solidifies below the
carrying out dimensions test?
earth's surface itself, the solid crystalline rock is termed
(a) 5 (b) 10
or deep-seated plutonic rock. The examples are granite,
(c) 15 (d) 20
Aplite, Syenite, diorite and gabbro.
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
88. Marble is formed after the metamorphosis of
Ans. (d) : Dimension test (IS 1077)– 20 pieces out of
selected pieces are taken and are laid flat. (a) Sand stone (b) granite
The dimensions of bricks when tested shall be within (c) Slate (d) Lime stone
the following limits per 20 bricks. DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
For modular size– Ans. (d)
Length 3720 to 3880 mm (3800 ±80 mm) Rock Rock after metamorphism
Width 1760 to 1840 mm (1800 ± 40 mm) Granite Gneiss
Height 1760 to 1840 mm (1800 ±40 mm) Basalt Schist
(For 90 mm high bricks) Limestone/Marl Marble
760 to 840 mm (800 ± 40 mm) Mudstone / shale Slate
(For 40 mm high bricks) Sandstone Quartzite
85. What type of bricks are known for their high 89. Specific gravity of most of stones lie
compressive strength and resistance to fire? between_____.
(a) Perforated bricks (b) Solid bricks (a) 3.2-3.5 (b) 2.5-3
(c) Engineering bricks (d) Common bricks (c) 4.5-5.4 (d) 1.2-2.2
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 04/10/2023 SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
Building Materials 40 YCT
 Ans. (b) : A good stone should not be porous, rain 94. Among the following, the hardest mineral is :
water, enter the pores which is generally acidic, (a) Quartz (b) Mica
chemical composition of stone limestone and weak (c) Talc (d) Calcite
sandstone are relatively less durable than a good sand ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
stone, granite or gneiss.
Ans. (a) : Talc is a soft rock.
• Specific gravity for most of the building stone lie
between 2.5-3.0 • The moh's scale of mineral hardness is based on
• Crushing strength of good building stone should scratch hardness comparison ranging from 1 to 10,
be more than 1000 kg/cm2 or 100 MPa. a value of 10 being the hardest of minerals.
• Toughness index </ 13. • The hardness talc, the softest of minerals, defines
90. Granite, which is mainly composed of quartz the value of 1 on the scale.
and feldspar particles, is obtained from : Type of rocks Hardness on Moh's scale
(a) Metamorphic Rocks (b) Igneous Rocks Talc, easily scratched 1
(c) Segimentary Rocks (d) All of the above with the thumb-nail
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I Gypsum 2
Ans. (b) : Granite which is mainly composed of quartz Calcite 3
and feldspar particles is obtained from igneous rocks. Fluorite 4
Igneous rock also known as primary unstratified rock
are of volcanic origin and are formed as a result of Apatite 5
solidification of molten mass lying or above the earth's Orthoclase 6
surface. Quartz, not scratched 7
91. A good building stone should not absorb water steel
more than Topaz 8
(a) 5% (b) 10% Sapphire 9
(c) 15% (d) 20% Diamond (Hardest) 10
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
95. A broad - faced chisel used for dressing a stone
Ans. (a) Characteristics of good building stone are– to a comparatively smooth surface is called a
• Compressive strength > 1000 kg/cm2. ____.
• High durability and co-efficient of hardness > 14. (a) soft stone chisel (b) boaster
• Specific gravity > 2.7 (c) claw chisel (d) fillet chisel
• Toughness index > 13 SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
• Water absorption < 5%
Ans. (b) A broad-faced chisel used for dressing a stone
92. Select the Indian standard code which provides
guidelines for testing and determination of the to a comparatively smooth surface is called a boaster.
compressive strength of natural building stones.
(a) IS 1121 (Part 3) : 2013
(b) IS 1121 (Part 1) : 2013
(c) IS 1121 (Part 2) : 2013
(d) IS 1121 (Part 4) : 2013 Boaster Scutch Trowel
DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023 96. According to Moh’s Hardness Scale, the
Ans. (b) : IS : 1121 (Part-I) 2013 – Compressive Hardness value of Quartz is_______.
strength of stone. (a) 7 (b) 5
IS : 1121 (Part-II)– Transverse strength test stone. (c) 2 (d) 10
IS : 1121 (Part-III) – Tensile strength of stone. JSSC JE (Civil) 31/10/2022
IS : 1121 (Part-IV) – Shear strength of stone. Ans. (a) Hardness number for different minerals
IS : 1124 – Absorption test of stone.
based on Moh's scale are–
IS : 1126 – Crystallisation test of stone
Mineral Scale number
93. Formation of ______ type(s) of rocks involves
biological activity in addition to complex Talc 1
mechanical or chemical processes. Gypsum 2
(a) sedimentary rocks (b) metamorphic rocks Calcite 3
(c) volcanic rocks (d) igneous rocks Fluorite 4
SSC JE Pre. 11/10/2023 (Morning) Apatite 5
Ans. (a) Sedimentary rock– are also known as Feldspar 6
aqueous or stratified rocks. The properties of the Quartz 7
sedimentary rocks very considerably depending upon
the nature of the sediment and type of bond between the Topaz 8
sediment and grains. Corundum 9
Ex- Sand stone, lime stone, shale, gravel, gypsum etc. Diamond 10

Building Materials 41 YCT

97. Crushing strength of good building stone 100. Expanded perlite is used as an insulating
should be more than material. It is a chemically inert substance
(a) 50 N/sqmm (b) 100 N/sqmm composed basically of ..............
(c) 150 N/sqmm (d) 200 N/sqmm (a) limestone and rock salt
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III (b) glass and calcium carbonate
Ans. (b) : Crushing strength of stone is determine by (c) silica and aluminium
compression test. This test occurs in compression (d) asbestos and mica
machine. After immerse 24 hrs stone are obtained and PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
then rate of loading 140 kg/cm2/minute is apply So,
compressive strength are express in kg/cm2 Ans (c) : Expand perlite– Perlite is a volcanic rock
Ultimate crushing strength of stone (kg/cm2) = containing from 2 to 5% bonded water. It is a
chemically inert substance composed basically of silica
crushing weight
and aluminium, but some impurities, such as Na2O,
weighted surface CaO, MgO and K2O which are hygroscopic can absorb
The crushing strength of stone is 100 N/mm2. moisture easily.
98. In which type of dressing of stone are about 1 101. As per IS 3495 part-3 (1992), soluble salts, if
cm vertical or horizontal grooves sunk with a present in bricks, will cause efflorescence on
chisel having its shape as a hollow semi-circle? the surface of bricks. If the white deposits
(a) Punched dressing cover about 10% of the surface, the
(b) Reticulated finish efflorescence is said to be ________.
(c) Close picked and fine tooling (a) nill (b) moderate
(d) Boasted or droved finish
(c) slight (d) heavy
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Ans. (a) : Punched dressing–In this method of
dressing of stone, about 1 cm vertical or horizontal Ans. (c) : Efflorescence test of brick as per IS :
grooves are sunk with a chisel having its shaped as a 3495 Part-3– It is the whitish crystalline substance
hollow semi-circle. The sides of the rock are kept which appears on the surface due to presence of salt
chamfered or sunk. in brick.
• Close picked and fine tooling–A punched stone is Exposed area of brick Conditions
then further dressed so as to obtain a finer surface. 10% exposed area of the brick is Slight
• Boasted or drove finish–It is a very common type covered with a thin salt layer.
dressing of stone in which the surface of the stone is It is covering upto 50% of the Moderate
covered with parallel marks that may run in any exposed area of brick but
direction. unaccompanied by powdering or
99. In which type of the finish is the booster or flaking of the brick surface
chisel used to make non-continuous parallel There is a heavy deposit of salt which Heavy
marks on the stone surface? These marks may covers 50% or more than 50% of the
be horizontal, inclined, or vertical. exposed area of the brick surface but
(a) Hammer dressed finish unaccompanied by powdering or
(b) Dragged or combed finish flaking of the brick surface.
(c) Rubbed finish
(d) Furrowed finish dressing of stones There is a heavy deposit of salt Serious
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I accompanied by powdering and
flaking of the exposed surface of the
Ans. (b) : Dragged or combed finish–The dragged or
brick.
combed finish is the booster or chisel used to make non-
continuous parallel marks on the stone surface. This 102. Depending on the quality of burning, B class
finish is used only in soft stones. bricks are ..............
• These marks may be horizontal inclined or vertical. (a) Under burnt (b) Over burnt
• Boosted finish, dragged or combed finish, are same of (c) Well burnt (d) Normal burnt
the finishes which can be developed by using specific ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
type of chisel in specific way. Ans. (c) : Characteristic of B class brick (Second
Hammer dressed finish–The stone blocks are made class) :
roughly square or rectangular by means of Waller's • A second class brick is well-burnt but slightly over
hammer. The exposed face is roughly shaped by means burnt is acceptable.
of mash hammer. • It has a rough surface.
Rubbed finish–This type of finish is obtained by
• Its edges are neither straight nor well defined.
rubbing a piece of stone on the level surface.
Furrowed finish–This type of finish is applied to the • It is not free from lumps and cracks.
fillets or flat bands of cornics, string courses, doors and • It does not have a uniform colour.
windows archita etc. • It has fine, compact and uniform texture.

Building Materials 42 YCT

103. In case of absorption test on burnt clay Ans. (b) : Water absorption as per IS : 1077-1992
building bricks as per IS 3495 (part 2);1992, (Clause 7.2)– The bricks, when tested in accordance
bricks shall be soaked in cold water for a with the procedure laid down in IS : 3495 (Part-2) :
duration of______ 1992 after immersion in cold water for 24 hrs. water
(a) 16 hours (b) 9 hours absorption shall not be more than 20% by weight upto
(c) 12 hours (d) 24 hours class 12.5 and 15% by weight for higher classes.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
108. According to IS Code provisions, minimum
Ans. (d) : Water absorption test of bricks as per IS 3495 compressive strength of heavy-duty bricks
(part 2) 1992, bricks shall be soaked in cold water for a required for masonry in heavy engineering
duration of 24 hours at temperature 27 ± 2°C. works such as bridge structures and industrial
• Five bricks are taken for test. foundations is
• They are allowed to dry in an oven at 110° to 115°C (a) 40 N/mm2
till they attain a constant weight which usually takes (b) 20 N/mm2
place in 48 hours. (c) 10 N/mm2
104. As per IS 1077:1992, the size of standard (d) 5 N/mm2
modular burn clay building bricks is___ MH Nagar Parishad JE (Civil) 24/11/2023
(a) 19 cm × 18 cm × 18 cm
(b) 22 cm × 15 cm × 10 cm Ans. (a) : Heavy duty burnt clay brick (IS 2180)–
(c) 25 cm × 19 cm × 9 cm The compressive strength of heavy duty brick should
(d) 19 cm × 9 cm × 9 cm not be less than 40 N/mm2.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III • Water absorption should not be more than 10% after
Ans. (d) : Size of various types of bricks– 24 hours immersion in water for heavy burnt clay
bricks.
Brick Usual size Nominal size
Classification–
classification
Class 400 → Compressive strength 40-45.0 N/mm2
Standard/modu (19 × 9 × 9) cm (20 × 10 × 10)
lar/ normal size cm Class 450 → Compressive strength 45.0 N/mm2
Conventional/ Efflorescence → Should be nil.
3 1
traditional/ user 9" × 4 8 " × 9"× 4 "× 3" Bulk density → Should be less than 2500 kg/m3.
2
size (23 × 11.4 × 109. According to IS-1077 (Specification common
3 burn clay building brick), what is the limiting
2 " 7.6) cm
4 percentage of water absorption for class 25
105. The temperature at which vitrification of low bricks?
melting clay bricks occurs at a temperature of (a) 5% (b) 10%
_____. (c) 15% (d) 7%
(a) 300ºC-500ºC (b) 900ºC-1100ºC DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III
(c) 600ºC-800ºC (d) 1200ºC-1400ºC Ans. (c) : Water absorption as per IS : 1077-1992
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I (Clause 7.2)– The bricks, when tested in accordance
Ans. (b) : Vitrification–To convert the mass into glass with the procedure laid down in IS : 3495 (Part-2) :
like substance. The temperature ranges 900-1100ºC for 1992 after immersion in cold water for 24 hrs. water
low melting clay and 1000-1250ºC for high melting clay. absorption shall not be more than 20% by weight upto
106. What is the maximum percentage of absorption class 12.5 and 15% by weight for higher classes.
allowed for bricks? 110. The compressive strength of a second class
(a) 90% (b) 75% brick is
(c) 20% (d) None of these (a) 10.5 N/mm2 (b) 12 N/mm2
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 (c) 7.0 N/mm 2
(d) 4.0 N/mm2
Ans. (c) : 20% of its dry weight, water absorption of a MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I
burnt clay building brick up to class 12.5 as per IS 1077-
Ans. (c) :
1992, is immerged in cold water for a duration of 24 hour.
Class Compressive strength
• Water absorption of IInd and IIIrd class brick, when
1st class brick 10.5 N/mm2 or 105 kg/cm2
immerged in cold water for duration of 24 hour are
2nd class brick 7 N/mm2 or 70 kg/cm2
22.5% and 25%.
3rd class brick 3.5 N/mm2 or 35 kg/cm2
107. As per IS code 1077 : 1992 the maximum
Water Absorption of common burnt clay brick 111. The number of bricks required per cubic metre
is not more than by weight for higher classes. of brick masonry is________.
(a) 20 percent (b) 15 percent (a) 430 (b) 500
(c) 12.5 percent (d) 10 percent (c) 450 (d) 340
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023

Building Materials 43 YCT

Ans. (b) : Ans. (a) Silica– It enables the brick to retain its shape
Nominal size of brick = 20 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm and imparts durability, prevents shrinkage and warping.
Per cubic meter required number of brick = Alumina– Absorbs water and renders the clay plastic.
Lime– Normally constitutes less than 10% clay.
1m3
= = 500 m3 Magnesia– Rarely exceeding 1%, affects the colour and
0.20 × 0.10 × 0.10 ( m3 ) make the brick, yellow, in burning.
112. The clay used for brick making consists mainly 116. The minimum average compressive strength of
of : common burnt clay bricks shall not less
(a) Silica and alumina than____.
(b) Silica and magnesia (a) 3.50 kg/mm2 (b) 3.50 N/mm2
2
(c) 10.00 N/mm (d) 7.50 N/mm2
(c) Lime and alumina
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
(d) Lime and magnesia
Ans. (b) : As per IS 1077-1992 Cl 4.1, the common
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
burnt clay bricks shall be classified on the basis of
Ans. (a) : The clay used for brick making consists average compressive strength.
mainly of silica and alumina mixed in such a proportion Average
that clay becomes plastic when water is added to it. Class compressive
2
The proportion of various ingredients are as– N/mm
designation strength not less
• Silica 50 – 60% than (kgf/cm2)
• Alumina 20 – 30% 35 35 350
• Lime 2 – 5% 30 30 300
• Magnesia <1% 25 25 250
• Iron Oxide 3 –5% 20 20 200
113. What should be the recommended size of frog 17.5 17.5 175
provided in the standard brick? 15 15 150
(a) 9 × 4 × 0.8 cm 12.5 12.5 125
(b) 9 × 4 × 1 cm 10 10 100
(c) 10 × 3 × 1 cm 7.5 7.5 75
(d) 10 × 4 × 1 cm 5 5 50
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 3.5 3.5 35
Ans. (d) : The most important purpose of frog in a 117. The purpose of providing frog in clay bricks is
brick is to form keyed joint between brick and mortar to :
and therefore the brick are laid with frogs on top. Frog (a) form a reinforced cement column
is not provided in 4 cm high bricks and extruded brick. (b) form a key for holding the mortar
(c) drain out the moisture or water
• The size of frog should be 10 × 4 × 1 cm. (d) circulate air in the brick wall
114. According to IS : 1077-1992, non-modular size DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-II
of the bricks is ______. Ans. (b) : The purpose of providing frog is to form a
(a) 190×90×40 mm key for holding the mortar and therefore, the brick are
(b) 190×90×90 mm laid with frogs on top. Frog is not provided in 4.6 m
(c) 230×110×40 mm high bricks and extruded bricks.
(d) 230×110×70 mm • The size of frog should be 10 × 4 × 1 cm.
UP MRC AM (Civil) 02.01.2023
Ans. (d) : The size of non-modular brick size is 230 ×
110 × 70 mm.
• Additionally, for obtaining proper bond arrangement
and modular dimension for the brick work with the non-
modular sizes.
115. Which of the following ingredients of bricks 118. Efflorescence is the ill effect of
(a) dampness
enables the brick to retain its shape and imparts
durability, prevents shrinkage and warping? (b) growth of vegetation
(a) Silica (b) Alumina (c) action of weathering agents
(c) Lime (d) Magneisa (d) chemical action of mortar on masonry
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I PPSC JE 06/03/2022

Building Materials 44 YCT

Ans. (a) : As efflorescence is a sign of excessive 122. Which component enhances the refractory
moisture attach on structure, so not addressing the properties of bricks and makes them resistant
problem can lead to some unpleasant surprise like to high temperatures?
structural damage or mold formation. (a) Alumina (b) Silica
• Efflorescence results from moisture. (c) Iron oxide (d) Clay
• Sametimes salt, inside the structure react within the MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
other structural materials and can damage gradually.
Ans. (a) : These are made from fire-clay using the
• Efflorescence is the ill effect of dampness. same process as an ordinary
119. Second class bricks are recommended for
(a) Hidden masonry work
• They are yellowish or light brown coloured brick
(b) Reinforced brick work • It is made up of materials which have high melting
(c) Flooring brick work points and have properties which make them suitable
(d) Pointing to act as heat resisting barriers between high and low
MHADA JE 01/02/2022, Shift-II temperature zones.
Ans. (a) Second class brick, are supposed to have the • Alumina enhances the refractory properties of bricks
same requirements as the first class ones except that. and makes them resistant to high temperatures.
• Small cracks and distortions are permitted. • Water absorption varies from 4–10% and this
• A little higher water absorption of about 22.5% of compressive strength lies b/w 15–20 N/mm2
dry weight is allowed.
• It is generally used for the lining blast furnaces
• The crushing strength should not be less than 7 ovens, kiln, Boilers and chimneys
N/mm2.
123. Mortar usually used in masonry work is
Used– Second class bricks are recommended for all
important or unimportant hidden masonry work and (a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2
centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement (c) 1 : 6 (d) 1 : 10
concrete (RCC) structures. SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
120. Which type of material is mainly used in Ans. (c) : Mortar usually used in masonry work is 1 : 6.
making insulating tubes, switch blocks and • For external wall masonry = 1 : 4
lamps sockets? • For internal wall masonry = 1 : 6
(a) Earthenware • For ceiling wall masonry = 1 : 3
(b) Terracotta • For grouting = 1 : 1
(c) Porcelain • For pointing = 1 : 2
(d) Polished terra cotta
124. What type of mortar can be used in
UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022 unimportant buildings made of bricks?
Ans. (c) : Porcelain– A high grade ceramic were (a) Cement mortar
having white colour zero water absorption and glazed (b) Lime mortar
surface which can be safe or hard consists of finely (c) Mud mortar
dispersed clay, kaolin, quartz and felspar, backed at
(d) Epxy mortar
high temperature and covered with coloured or
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
transparent glass.
Ans. (c) : Mud mortar– They are the cheapest type of
121. The dimension of modular bricks when tested
in accordance with IS : 1077 – 1992, the mortar prepared with locally available ingredients and
maximum tolerance in length of brick is limited are used for masonry works, surfacing floors and
per 20 bricks as : plastering wall surfaces in low cost houses.
(a) ± 10 mm (b) ± 40 mm 125. Which of the following is an application of
(c) ± 60 mm (d) ± 80 mm ferrous metals in construction?
GPSC DEE (GWSSB) 04.07.2021 (a) Reinforcing bars used for concrete structures
Ans. (d) : As per IS 1077-1992 Cl. 6.2 (b) Window frames made up of aluminium
For modular size bricks (limits for 20 bricks) (c) PVC pipes used for plumbing
Dimension Tolerance (d) Roofing tiles
(mm) (mm) MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
Length (L) 3800 mm ± 80 mm Ans. (a) : Ferrous metals such as steel are widely used
Width 1800 mm ± 40 mm in construction for building structures, bridges and
Height 1800 mm ± 40 mm roads due to their high strength and durability
For 90 mm Reinforced concrete, which uses steel rebar is a
high bricks common construction material.

Building Materials 45 YCT

 JOB LAYOUT
Job layout can be defined as a drawing of the
proposed construction site which shows different
locations such as entry point, exit point, equipment,
and material stores, temporary facility, site office,
and place where workers will stay.
Job layout helps us to plan the construction site in
such a way that different construction resources like
tools, machinery, materials, manpower, etc. can be
arranged easily and optimal uses of construction
space can be achieved.
Following are the main purpose of job layout :
It helps in reducing the completion time for the Face Line Method of Job Layout
construction. In the face line method, the marking by lime sand
powder is done on the wall exterior and interior
It provides easy movement of equipment from one
surface.
point to another. The marked line is extended by 2 meters away from
It helps in reducing wastage and deterioration of the the excavated point.
material.
It saves time by delivering and making a uniform
flow of material at the site.
It provides more safety to the worker at the site.
The output from manpower and equipment can be
increased using the job layout.
Factors Affecting Job Layout
(1) Type of project : The construction layout varies
according to the project and its functioning.
(2) Method of construction : The construction at the
site may require a pre-cast structure or castin-situ or
both.
(3) Availability of resources : Various resources such EARTHWORK
as manpower, machinery, material, etc. are required
at the construction site. The process of the excavation and deposition of
(4) Temporary road : Roads are important to transfer excavated material is known as earthwork.
material and equipment from one place to another The earthwork includes the excavation, loading,
place inside the construction site. transportation, deposition, compaction, and
(5) Miscellaneous facilities : The necessary provision improvement of the soil. After the clearance of the
site, the earthwork begins.
for facilities such as electricity, water supply,
Earthwork can be defined as engineering work that
material storage yard, and telephone connection involves moving the soil or processing the soil from
should be there in the site job layout. the earth’s surface.
Centre Line Method of Job Layout In this process, the soil moves from one part to other
The Centre line method is generally used for load- parts and help in achieving the desired shape
bearing structures that have a wall foundation of a required for construction purpose.
similar cross-section. Earthworks mainly required heavy machinery
In this method, the center line length of all the equipment for the excavation of soil and backfill.
Heavy machinery is generally used due to the
layout structures is measured which have similar
involvement of large quantities of the material
cross sections and the same type of foundation. which has to be moved.
Construction of Substructure 46 YCT
 Excavation for Foundation If the area is larger the pressure reduces. The
Excavation can be defined as a process that helps in foundation acts on the same principle. The load of
transferring subsoil, rock, or any other material the structure is distributed by the foundation and
using machinery and tools. transferred to the ground.
It includes trenching, tunneling, earthworks, and The larger the area of the foundation, the lesser will
wall shafts. be the load intensity and the safer will be the
One of the common practices using excavation is structure.
building construction. The load is distributed uniformly by the foundation.
Excavation is primarily used in foundation for If the load is distributed non-uniformly or unevenly,
digging, trenching, and site development. there can be differential settlements in the base.
The following points are considered while doing The differential settlements can cause cracks in the
excavation work : building components. In extreme cases, even failure
If the soil does not permit the vertical sides of the of building components can occur.
trench, support should be provided. There is a significant impact of winds and
The shoring can be done for the unstable sides of the earthquakes on the buildings. The wind and
trench. earthquake loads have a tendency to overturn the
The excavated material should be placed at least 1 m building due to their horizontal impact.
away from the place of the excavation. The foundation binds the superstructure and
The bottom of the trench should be perfectly provides lateral stability to the structure.
leveled. SHALLOW FOUNDATION
The bed of the foundation should be rammed before Classification of shallow foundation :
pouring concrete for better stability. Spread footings :
The soft soils or the rocks should be removed and The spread footings are the footings that distribute
the bed of the trench should be leveled and filled the load to the earth by spreading the load over a
with stabilized soil. larger area.
The wires should be placed around excavation work Types of spread footing :
so that no person or any stray animal from the
outside area falls inside the excavated region.
Underground water pipelines, gas pipelines,
communication cables, etc. should be protected
while digging a trench.
Earthwork for Embankment
Earthwork is the engineering work using machinery
and tools for moving or processing subsoil and
underground rocks.
The subsoil may be transported from one location to
another or formed into any shape that is required for
the construction. Single column footing Stepped column footing
Earthwork generally involves cutting and filling and
machine excavation at the site.
FOUNDATION
Foundation is the lowermost part of the structure
which transfers the load of the superstructure and
other loads to the ground. Strip wall footing Stepped wall footing
A foundation may be defined as a solid base on
which the structure rests. Foundation remains in
direct contact with the ground to transfer the dead
load and superimposed load.
The foundation plays a major role in the stability
and strength of the structure.
Functions of Foundation
A foundation provides a hard and level surface that
is suitable for the construction of a superstructure
over it.
The foundation distributes the load from the Grillage footing
structure to a larger area which helps in reducing the Combined footings :
load intensity. We know that pressure is the ratio of If the columns are constructed near to each other, it
force to area. is not possible to provide the individual footings.
Construction of Substructure 47 YCT
 So, a combined footing for two or more columns is Sometimes structures like commercial buildings,
provided. water tanks, silos, storage tanks, etc. have very high
The combined footings are more economical as loading. So, a mat foundation can be used when the
compared to the individual footing for each column. structure faces very high superimposed loads.

Combined rectangular footing

Combined trapezoidal footing

DEEP FOUNDATION
Strap footings : If the hard stratum lies deep below the ground, a
Strap footing is a special type of combined footing. deep foundation can be provided. A deep foundation
The combined footing can only be used if the is the type of foundation that has more depth than its
columns are not much far from each other. width.
If the columns have a larger distance between them, Types of deep foundation
the trapezoidal footings become narrow. Pile foundation
A pile may be defined as a slender long column
made of timber, concrete, steel, or composite
material that is used to transfer the load of the
structure through its bottom or friction action or by a
combination of both.
The diameter of the piles is generally equal to or less
than 0.6 m.

Raft foundations :
The raft foundation is also known as the mat
foundation. The raft foundation is provided
throughout the base of the superstructure as a mat.
It is a continuous slab that supports a number of
columns. The mat foundation transfers the load of
all the components of the building to the earth.
The raft foundation also reduces the differential
settlements.
The raft foundation is suitable for the regions where
the bearing capacity of the soil is low or the soil is
subject to movement. Pile foundation
Construction of Substructure 48 YCT
 Strait shaft Bell shape
Well foundation or Caissons
Mechanism of end bearing pile Caissons are box or cylindrical type structures that
are hollow in nature.
The caissons are fabricated on the ground and
penetrated at the waterbed.
The caissons are used to support the bridges in the
water bodies.

Friction pile

Floating caisson

Combined action piles

Pier foundation
A pier is a drilled cylindrical column with a large
diameter.
If the diameter of the cylindrical structure is less Open caisson
than or equal to 0.6 m, it is known as drilled pile. DEWATERING
If the diameter of the bored pile is more than 0.6 m, Drainage is the process of removal of the water from
it is called a pier. the soil. The drainage can be classified into two
The load can be transferred by the bottom end or types which are surface drainage and sub-surface
skin friction or by the combined action. drainage.
A pier can be provided as a straight shaft or a bell The runoff water that moves on the ground is
can be provided at the bottom. diverged in any other direction to save the site from
If the hard stratum lies within 5 m below the ground the flow of water. This type of drainage is known as
surface drainage.
level, a straight concrete pier can be used for the
If the water which is held in the pores of the soil is
transfer of the superimposed load. removed, this process is known as sub-surface
If the hard stratum is deeper than 5 m, the bottom of drainage or dewatering.
the pier can be enlarged in the form of a bell. The dewatering also improves the properties of the
The angle of the bell portion is kept around 60º. soil.
Construction of Substructure 49 YCT
 If the water is removed only at the time of BEARING CAPACITY
construction and the water level is maintained again, The supporting power of a soil or rock is referred to
then it is called temporary dewatering.
If the water is removed permanently and the water as its bearing capacity.
level is varied, it is called permanent dewatering. Gross pressure intensity (q)-
It is the total pressure at the base of footing due to
weight of structure, self weight of footing and
weight of earth fill.
Net pressure intensity-
q net = q g − σ qg = Gross pressure

Various types of bearing capacity of soil-

1. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)-
It is the maximum gross pressure that soil can
support before it fails is in shear.
qu = CNc + γDf
Well point
COFFER DAM 2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)-
The coffer dams are an arrangement of enclosing the It is the minimum net pressure causing shear failure
working area so that water can’t enter and the of soil.
construction work can be performed.
The coffer dams are made temporarily and facilitates q nu = q u − σ Where, σ = γ Df
the construction of bridges, piers or dams. 3. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)-
When the work is to be carried out in an open water,
the coffer dams are used. q nu q − γD f
q ns = = u
When water table is high, coffer dams can be used FOS FOS
on the ground construction too.
The cofferdams should be stable against the water 4. Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)-
currents. Max. pressure which soil can carry safely without
The coffer dams can be constructed from the earth, risk of shear failure
sheet piles, rocks etc.
q nu
q s = q ns + γD f = + γD f
FOS
σ or γDf = Overburden pressure.
Factor of Safety-
Ultimate net bearing capacity
FOS =
Allowable net bearing capacity

Ultimate bearing capacity

Earth cofferdam Safe bearing capacity =
Factor of safety
5. Net Allowable bearing pressure/capacity (qna)-
It is the maximum net intensity of loading that can
be imposed on the soil with no possibility of shear
failure or the possibility of excessive settlement.
qu
q na =
F.O.S
Rockfill cofferdam It can be used for the design of foundations.
(i) qna = qns, If qnρ > qns
(ii) qna = qnρ, If qns > qnρ
qnρ = Net safe settlement pressure.
Decreasing order of bearing capacities-
q u > q nu > q s > q ns
Load carrying capacity of footing-
Sheet pile cofferdam Strip < Circular < Square footing
Construction of Substructure 50 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years 4. Which among the following is not types of
shallow foundation?
1. A pile has an enlarged base of mush-room (a) Raft foundation
shape is called
(b) Isolated footing
(a) Franki pile (b) Vibro pile
(c) Strip footing
(c) Simplex pile (d) Padestal pile
(d) Friction pile
Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
Ans. (a) : Franki pile– Franki pile have an enlarged
Ans. (d) : Friction pile is a type of deep foundation. It
base of the mushroom shape, which gives the effect of
is used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load
spread footing.
carrying material by means of skin friction along the
• This pile is best suited in granular soil. length of the pile. Such piles are generally used in
Vibro piles– This pile is used where the ground is soft. granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is very
It offer little frictional resistance to the flow of great.
concrete.
• Raft foundation, strip footing and isolated footing are
Simplex pile– This type of pile is used through soft type of shallow foundation.
soil or hard soil.
5. The _______ is made of steel sheet piles and
Pedestal pile– This pile is used where thin bearing
this type of cofferdam is proved successful in
stratum is reached with reasonable depth.
unwatering large areas.
2. Which of the following purpose is not served by (a) Suspended cofferdam
the foundations? (b) Cellular cofferdam
(a) Reduction of load intensity
(c) Dikes
(b) Protection against extreme heat and extreme
(d) Concrete cofferdam
cold
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
(c) Lateral stability
(d) Provision of level surface Ans. (b) : Cellular cofferdam– The cellular
cofferdam is made of steel sheet piles and this type of
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
cofferdam is provide successful in unwatering large
Ans. (b) : Purpose of foundation– areas.
• To distribute the weight of the structure over a large There are two types of cellular cofferdam–
area in order to avoid overloading the underlying soil. (i) Diaphragm cellular cofferdam
• To anchor the structure against natural forces (ii) Circular cellular cofferdam
including earthquakes, floods, droughts, frost heaves,
6. When the depth of water is from 4.5 m to 6 m,
tornadoes and wind.
the type of cofferdam used is
• To provide a level surface for construction. (a) Earthen cofferdam
• To prevent lateral movements of the supported (b) Rockfill cofferdam
structure. (c) Single-walled cofferdam
• To anchor the structure deeply into the ground, (d) None of the above
increasing its stability and preventing overloading. GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
3. Which of the following type of pile is not used Ans. (c): Single walled cofferdams– Single wall
in building foundation? cofferdams are used for small areas with a depth of
(a) End bearing piles (b) Bakelite piles water typically between 4.5 to 6 meter. Guide piles
(c) Compaction piles (d) Friction piles made of timber are driven deep into the river bed-
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 below the firm ground beneath it.
Ans. (b) : End bearing pile– It is used to transfer load Double wall cofferdams– A double wall cofferdam
through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum. consists of two straight parallel walls made of sheet
Such piles are used to carry heavy loads safely to hard piling that are tied together. The space between the two
strata. Multi-storeyed buildings are invariably founded walls is filled with soil.
on end bearing piles, so that the settlements are • Double wall cofferdams are used in water with a
minimized. depth upto 12 meters.
Friction pile– It is used to transfer loads to a depth of a 7. A temporary structure which is constructed so
friction load carrying material by means of skin friction as to remove water and/or soil from an area
along the length of the pile. Such piles are generally and make, it possible to carry on the
used in granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is construction work under reasonably dry
very great. condition is called
Compaction pile– It is used to compact loose granular (a) cofferdam (b) foundation
soils, thus increasing their bearing capacity. The (c) caisson (d) spillway
compaction piles themselves do not carry any load. Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
Construction of Substructure 51 YCT
Ans. (a) : A cofferdam is a temporary structure which is 11. The relative displacement between the floors
built to remove water from an area and make it possible above and/or below the storey under
to carry on the construction work under reasonably dry consideration is termed as
conditions. (a) soft storey (b) storey drift
Cofferdams are usually required for projects such as (c) weak storey (d) displacement
dams, locks and construction of bridge piers and PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
abutments. Ans. (b) : Storey drift as the relative displacement
8. Anchor piles are used ________. between the floors above or below the storey. The
(a) to provide anchorage against horizontal pull storey drift shall not exceed 0.004 times the storey
from sheet piling or other pulling forces height.
(b) in bulkheads or cut-offs to reduce seepage 12. When setting a foundation for a sub-structure,
and uplift in hydraulic structures what is the primary reason for allowing
(c) to transfer loads through the pile tip to a concrete to cure properly before proceeding
suitable bearing stratum, passing soft soil or with the construction of the superstructure?
water (a) To ensure that the construction workers have
ample time to prepare the scaffolding
(d) to transfer loads to a depth in a frictional
material by means of skin friction along the (b) To allow for modifications in the design of
the superstructure if necessary
surface area of the pile
(c) To achieve the necessary strength to support
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
the loads from the superstructure
Ans. (a) : Anchor pile:– It provides anchorage against (d) To allow time for the site inspection team to
horizontal pull from sheet piling or other pulling forces. their reports
The anchors provided forces for the stability of the BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
sheet pile, in addition to the lateral passive resistance of
Ans. (c) : When setting a foundation for sub-structure
the soil into which the sheet piles are driven. It does not of concrete to be cure properly because to achieve the
take any vertical load. Anchor plates and Anchor piles necessary strength to support the loads from the super
are connected to the wall by steel anchor tie. structure.
9. _________ foundation is a large continuous 13. The Rules and regulations framed by the
rectangular or circular concrete slab that government to regulate and control
carries the entire load of the superstructure construction of buildings are known as
and spreads it over the whole area beneath the (a) Area usage rules
building. (b) Building rules
(a) Shallow (c) Construction valuation code
(b) Combined (d) Building bye laws
(c) Mat CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023
(d) Strip Ans. (d) : The rules and regulations framed by the
MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024 government to regulate and construction of buildings
Ans. (c) : Raft/Mat foundation is a large continuous are known as building bye law.
rectangular or circular concrete slab that carries the 14. Select the examples of shallow foundations
entire load of the superstructure and spreads it over the from the following.
whole area beneath the building. 1. Pile foundation
10. The aim of thermal insulation is to ________ 2. Strip foundation
between outside and inside of the building. 3. Raft foundation
(a) Enhance the transfer of heat 4. Pier foundation
(b) Minimize the transfer of heat (a) Only 2 and 3 (b) Only 1 and 4
(c) Balance the temperature (c) Only 2 (d) Only 4
(d) Retard the transfer of heat DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
(e) Answer not known Ans. (a) :
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Ans. (b) : The term thermal insulation is used to
indicate the construction or provisions by way of which
transmission of heat from or in the room is retarded.
• The aim of thermal insulation is to minimize the
transfer of heat-between outside and inside of the
building.

Construction of Substructure 52 YCT

 STONE MASONRY 3. Flint Rubble Masonry-
When sufficiently suitable large stones are not
Classification of stone masonry- available then smaller stones such as flints or
Rubble masonry- cobbles of varying width and thickness from 7.5 cm
Stone masonry in which either undressed or rough to 15cm and lengths from 15cm to 30cm are used for
dressed stone are used with a suitable mortar having masonry purpose.
wider joint. • These are hand stones obtained from irregularly
Joints are not in uniform thickness. shaped nodules of silica.
The masonry has wide joints since stones of
irregular size are used.
1. Random rubble masonry-
Stones used in the work are hammer or chisel
dressed. It is the roughest and the cheapest form of
stonewalling. Since stones are not of uniform shape
and size.
Height of stone should be > breadth or length of tail.
More skill is required to make the masonry
structurally stable.
Masonry appearance is good.
Joint thickness ≯ 13 mm.

Ashlar Masonry-
A stone masonry in which finely dressed stones with
extremely fine bed and end joints are laid in cement
or lime mortar is termed as ashlar masonry.
Its have architectural importance that provide
smooth appearance.
This is used for heavy structures arches, architectural
building, high piers, bridge abutment etc.
2. Dry Rubble masonry- This types of masonry is much costly as it requires
It is cheaper than ordinary rubble masonry dressing of stones.
constructed without mortar. The height of stone varies from 25 to 30cm.
More manpower required in construction.
Useful for non-load bearing walls like compound 1. Ashlar Fine Masonry-
retaining wall, boundary wall. All stones have same size and stones are fine tooled
It is also used in pitching the earthen dam and the on all bed and side joints and the face are rendered
canal slope. perfectly.
For any stone H ≯ 30 cm
Height of stone ≮ Breadth and L > (2-3)H
Bed and side joint > 3mm.
thickness
2. Ashlars Rough Tooled Masonry-
Expose faces of stone has rough and uneven but
corners and sides are perfect dressed.
Joint thickness ≯ 6 mm.
Construction of Superstructure 53 YCT
 b. Cross joint/Vertical joint or Head joint-
Mortar joint in masonry normal to the face of the
wall.
Technical terms in masonry–
Bed -Horizontal mortar joints on which masonry
units are laid is known as bed.

3. Ashlars Chamfered Masonry-

Dressing and surface are same as above but edged
around the exposed faces of stone is chamfered at
450.
BRICK MASONRY
Important terminology used in masonry- Quoin-
1. Face and facing- It is the exterior angle or corner of the wall.
Outer or exposed front face of the wall is called face
and material used on face is called facing.
2. Back and Backing-
Internal or back surface of the wall is back and
material used is called backing.
3. Hearting or Filling-
It is the internal portion between face and back.
4. Spall-
Small pieces or chips of stone.
It is used in filling the interstices in stone masonry. Cornice Brick -
5. Frieze- Several shapes and size of brick when combined to
Course of stone masonry provided just below the form cornice are known as cornice bricks.
cornice.
Provided to increase the appearance of wall.
6. Template or bed block-
A stone or concrete block used under a girder or
beam to spread the concentrated load from the roof
over a large area of bearing surface.
7. Intending-
Process of leaving recesses in masonry into which
future work can be bonded.
8. Perpend-
An imaginary lines containing vertical joints in Various forms and shapes of bricks-
masonry. It is represented by 'A'.
9. Joint-
It is junction of two or more bricks/stones.

a. Horizontal or bed joints-

Thickend horizontal layer of mortar just below the
course.
Construction of Superstructure 54 YCT
 Bat- Generally its weight is one third of ordinary bricks.
Portion of a brick cut across the width or a brick cut Sufficiently strong for all purpose except in case of
by some fraction of its length. concentrated load.
Bat is used in flemish bond. Useful for non-load bearing walls.
Closer- Perforated Brick-
Position of bricks obtained by cutting it along Its consists 35-45% cylindrical holes on their thick
length.
surface.
King Closer-
A brick which is cut to remove half the header and
half the stretcher or the triangular pieces between
the center of one end and the center of one side.
When two walls meet at an angle king closer is used.
Queen Closer-
It is a brick cut into two parts longitudinally then
one part is known as Queen closer.
To get a proper bond it is placed next to the first
header in alternate course.
Note-King closer and Queen closer are related to Not useful for hydraulic structure.
brick masonry. It should be free from cracks and free lime.
Bull-Nosed bricks- The dimensions are 19×9×9cm and 29×9×9cm.
Used to round off sharp corners. The shapes of brick may be circular, square,
rectangular or any other shape in cross-section
Use-use in the panel of light weight structure and
multi- storeyed frame structure
. BOND-
The art applying to the overlapping of the brick in a
wall in each alternate course to bind up the whole
wall together is known as bond.
Coping Bricks- Rules for Bonding-
It is used to topmost course of parapet and its shape 1. The amount of overlap should be minimum 1/4 brick
are made like that rain water drained out from the along the length of the wall and 1/2 brick across the
top of parapet. thickness of the wall.
Throat- throw the rain water from the face of wall. 2. As for as the use of brick bat should be avoided
except under a special circumstances.
3. Length of the brick should be twice its width plus
one joint.
4. It is preferable to provide header course on both the
sides of the wall at every six course.
5. The vertical joint in the alternate course should be
along the same perpend.
6. Hearting should be carried out with headers only.

Cant, Splay or plinth brick-

Types of bond-
These are used in door and window jambs and also 1. Stretcher Bond-
in plinth. All the bricks are laid as stretcher horizontally on
There is splay may be on the header or stretcher. the faces of wall.

It is possible only for half brick walls or 10 cm thick

wall.
Hollow or Cavity Brick (IS : 2222-1979)- Ex.- Partition wall.
Solid volume of brick ≮ 1/2 of total volume. It is also known as running bond.
Advantage- Overlap is obtained by commencing each alternate
Provide insulation against heat and sound. course with a half brick bat.
Construction of Superstructure 55 YCT
2. Header Bond- Facing of the wall consist flemish bond while
backing consist English bond in each course.
(b) Double Flemish Bond-

In this types of bond bricks are laid as only header

on the face of wall.
It is mostly used for footing in foundation.
Header bond is usually used for one brick wall (20
cm) or in well lining, well foundation.
Not used for load bearing walls because of it not
contain enough strength in delivering pressure along There is same appearance in each course can be seen
the length of wall. in the front and back face of the wall.
3. English Bond-
Flemish bond is used on both faces.
This bond have better appearance than English bond.
Header and stretchers are laid in each course
alternately.
This bond have maximum used of half bat, quarter
bat and 3/4 brick bat in wall thickness.
Quoin closers are laid next to quoin headers in each
alternate course.
Other types of bond-
This bond consists alternate course of headers and Facing Bond-
stretcher. It is the strongest bond and required more Useful where facing and backing are desired to be
facing bricks than other bond. constructed with bricks of different thickness.
This is most common and popular bond that is used Dutch bond-
for wall thickness ≥ 20 cm.
A queen closer must be provided after the quoin
header.
Header course should never start with queen closer.
Continuous vertical joints should not be allowed.
Joint in a header course should be thinner than those
in stretcher course.
Stretcher should have minimum lap of 1/4th their
length over the headers in stretcher course.
It is costly and stronger than Flemish bond and used It is the modified form of English bond.
in all government works. Dutch bond consists of alternate courses of header
4. Flemish Bond- and stretchers.
Every stretcher course starts with three quarter (3/4
brick) bricks and in every alternate stretcher course
in the header is place after the three quarter bricks.
In every alternate course, a header is placed next to
the three quarter brick bat provided at the quoin.
Flemish Bond
Each course has alternate header and stretchers. HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY
Every alternate course starts with a header at the The concrete blocks are made of ordinary Portland
corner. cement and aggregate. High-density blocks are
(a) Single Flemish Bond- fabricated using cement, sand, and gravel.
The concrete blocks can be categorized in solid
concrete blocks and hollow concrete blocks. In the
solid concrete blocks, the cavity is not provided or
remains below 25% of the gross cross-sectional area.
In the hollow concrete blocks, one or more cavities
are provided and it can be up to 50% of the total
It is the combination of English and flemish bond. gross cross-sectional area.
Construction of Superstructure 56 YCT
 Stone facing with brick backing :
The wall is constructed of bricks and the stones are
provided at the face.
The advantages of the hollow concrete blocks are as
follows: The stone facing with brick backing is provided to
These are light in weight due to the cavity. So, the improve the appearance of the structure.
handling and placing of the hollow concrete blocks Stone slab facing with brick backing:
are easy. Stone slabs of 5 cm to 10 cm thickness are provided
The construction of structures with hollow concrete on the face of the wall while the wall is constructed
blocks is quick and easy. It consumes less time in of bricks.
construction.
Brick facing with concrete backing:
The buildings can be made earthquake-resistant
using hollow concrete blocks. For this purpose, In this type of composite masonry, concrete is
these blocks can be reinforced with steel bars and provided in the back for providing strength while the
concrete. bricks are used on the surface.
These blocks provide good acoustic and thermal
insulation due to the availability of the cavity. CAVITY WALL
The cavities in the hollow concrete blocks are used Cavity walls are types of walls made up of two
for the installation of electrical setup and plumbing different walls joined with the help of wall ties.
systems. In this type of wall, an outer wall is attached with
The production cost of the hollow concrete blocks is the help of ties to the inner wall separated by
slightly lesser than the bricks. These blocks consume cavity/airspace. Metal strips are used as wall ties.
less mortar as compared to bricks.
The maintenance cost of the hollow concrete blocks Wall ties are placed at the gap of 90 cm along the
is lesser. length and 45 cm in the direction of height.
There is no need for formwork like in the case of The cavity wall protects the building from external
construction of concrete members. wall moisture and rainwater and also provides space
The hollow concrete blocks are divided into A and B for the installation of thermal insulation.
grades. The cavity starts from the floor level to the roof of
If the minimum density for the A-grade hollow the building and is covered from the top to prevent
concrete blocks is 1500 kg/m3. For B-grade blocks,
the density varies. the penetration of rainwater.
The size of cavity wall varies from 4 to 10 cm.
COMPOSITE MASONRY
Composite masonry is composed of more than one
type of masonry.
The construction materials like stones, bricks, etc.
are used for improving the performance and
appearance of the structure.
Composite masonry imparts higher strength and
durability. The appearance of the structures can be
improved using composite masonry.
The optimum use of the locally available material
helps in achieving economy in construction.
Composite masonry is high in cost and requires
skilled workers due to the complexity of
construction.
Glass composite masonry is also used nowadays.
Construction of Superstructure 57 YCT
 DOORS Various Parts of Door-
An openable barrier or as a framework of wood,
steel, aluminium or combination of these material
secured in a wall opening for the purpose of
providing access to the users is known as door.
Common name of all door, window and such units
are called joinery.
Designation of Door-
Width of door × Door type × Height of door
x.DS.y Single shutter door with width of 'x'
module and height equal to 'y' module.
Where,
Width of door = x module or x×100 mm
D - Door
S - Single shutter
x.DT.y Height of door= y module or y × 100 mm
T = Double shutter Horn-
Size of Doors- Horizontal projection of the head and sill of a frame
Types of building Size of door (m) to facilitate the fixing of the frame in the wall
opening.
1. Residential building Projection length beyond post – 10 - 15 cm.
External door 1 × 2 - 1.1 × 2 Rebate-
Internal door 0.9 × 2 - 1 × 2 It is the cut or depression in door frame to fitting the
Bathroom & W.C. door 0.7 × 2 - 0.8 × 2 shutter.
2. Public building as Hospital, 1.2 × 2, 1.2 × 2.1 Rebate size in chaukhat - 12 - 20 mm
School, Library. or 1.2 × 2.25 Depth of rebate = Thickness of shutter
Rebate is cut on both side of post, if double door is
3. Door for garage 2.25 × 2.25
required.
Door should be away 20 cm from the corner. Transom-
As far as possible door should be located near the Transom is defined as the horizontal member of a
corner of room because of proper space utilization frame that is employed to horizontally sub-divided a
and privacy. window opening.
Components of door- Mullion-
Vertical intermediate member of the frame which
1. Frame or Chaukhat-
divide the door/window vertically is known as
A wooden structure made with two vertical member mullion.
known as post and one top horizontal member Post-
known as head is called door frame or chaukhat. These are vertical rectangular compression member
of frame that support the shutter of door.
Hold Fast-
It is mild steel flats bent-up in Z-shape to fix or hold
the frame into wall.
Length of hold fast - 20 cm
Cross-section - 30 mm × 6 mm
Note -
Min. Number of holdfast required on each side.
1. For door frame - 3
• If horn is available - 2
2. For window frame - 2
Sill-
It is the Bottommost horizontal parts or door of
window. Mostly sill is not provided for door. It
should be kept 70-90 cm above floor level.
• Door frame - 8 × 10cm - 10 × 12cm Reveal-
• Window frame - 8 × 8cm - 8 × 10cm The external jamb of door/window opening at right
angle to the wall face is known as reveal.
• Ventilator frame - 8 × 8 cm Dimension - 5 cm
Construction of Superstructure 58 YCT
 Jamb- Panelled Door-
This is the vertical wall face of an opening which This door consist of timber framework with styles
supports the frame. and rails which are grooved on the inside to receive
Its dimension is taken - 20 cm one or more panels.
2. Shutter or Leaf- This types of door provided in all types buildings.
Door shutter is an assembly of style, panel and rail. Bottom and lock rails are of bigger size than the top
It is the openable part of the door.
and frieze rails. Bottom rails are wider than that of
Max. thickness is taken 50 mm.
all.
Style-
Vertical outside member of shutters without any Maximum area of a single panel ≯ 0.5m2
joint is known as style.
Style width generally kept 8-10 cm.
Style which are hang on one side is called hanging
or hinged style.
Top Rail-
Top most horizontal member of shutter (width 8-10
cm)
Lock Rail-
It is middle horizontal member of shutter in which
lock is fixed (width, 20 cm)
It is fixed at the height of 75-85 cm above floor
level.
Bottom Rail-
Lowermost horizontal member of a door shutter
with width of 15-20 cm called bottom rail.
Middle or Frieze Rail-
An extra frame used between top rail and lock rails
is known as middle or frieze rail.
Panel-
For single panel door- Plywood thickness ≮ 12 mm.
Area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails
is called panel. For double panel door- Plywood thickness ≮ 10 mm.
Sash bar/Glazing bar-
It is a strip of wood or metal separating and holding Revolving Door-
glass panels in a window.
Types of door-
Framed Ledged and Braced door-

Elevation
It consists mullion at its centre to which four
It is similar to above two doors only different except radiating shutters are attached. It provides entrance
that the braced are introduced. on one side and exit on other simultaneously
Braced should be inclined upward from the hanging keeping the opening automatically closed when not
side. in use.
It can be used for external side because of this is • Revolving door are only provided in public building
more durable and stronger. like museum, banks, libraries etc.
Construction of Superstructure 59 YCT
 Louvered Door- Area required for window-
It permits natural ventilation when closed. It also (a) For residential building
provide privacy in the room. 1
(i) Total area with frame = × A room Floor
8
1
(ii) Total area of door and window = + A room Floor
4
1
(iii) Area of ventilators = + A room Floor
25
1
(iv) Area of window in W.C. and bathroom = + A Floor
10
(b) Hospital, school- 20% × Aroom Floor
Area of glass panel in window - 8% × Aroom Floor for
adequate natural light.
Classification of window-
A. Window on the basis of fitted in walls-
1. Casement Window- It is like as simple doors in
which shutters open like doors.
Rolling Shutter-
This door consists frame, drum and a shutter of thin
steel plate inter locked together. A horizontal shaft is
provided in the drum which helps to open or close
the shutter.
• Use for warehouse, garages, shops etc.

2. Pivoted or Revolving Window-

Shutter rotates about a pivot fixed to window frame.
Window frame have not any rebate. Shutter may
rotate horizontally or vertically.

❖ Use of Doors-
1. Revolving door Public building and AC
building 3. Bay or Projected Window-
2. Sliding door Bank, office garrage,
workshop and AC building.
3. Glazed and Residential and public
planelled door building.
4. Rolling steel shutter Garrage, Godowns, shops.
5. Swinging door Residential building.
6. Louvered door Used in toilets of public and
residential building. Types of window which are projected outward from
7. Collapsible door Workshop, sheds, warehouse. the wall of a room is known as bay window.
Its provide an increase area of opening in three
WINDOWS direction and admitting more light and ventilation.
Window is defined as an opening in the wall for the 4. Clerestory window-
purpose of providing daylight, vision and Provide near the main roof of a room and opens
ventilation. above the adjoining verandah.
Construction of Superstructure 60 YCT
 5. Louvered Window-
This types of window is provided for the purpose of
ventilation and proper outside vision but not permit
inside vision.

B. Window Provided on Roof-

1. Dormer window-
Dormer window is provided on the sloping sides of
roof. This types of window is provided to achieve 6. Lantern Window- This types of window is
proper lighting and ventilation to the enclose space provided on flat roof on a room. It is a glass
below the roof. structure that sits on top of a flat roof. They are
Dormer window projects vertically beyond the plane usually pyramid shaped to encourage light to come
of the pitched roof. through from all angles.
2. Gable Window-
The window provided on the gable end of a pitched
roof is known as gable window.

VERTICAL COMMUNICATION
3. Sky Light-
This types of window is provided on the sloping side STAIR
of pitched roof being parallel to the sloping. Introduction -
A stair is may be defined as a series of steps suitably
arranged between two or more floors of a building to
bridge a large vertical distance.
or
A part of building enclosed with series of steps,
balustrade, hand rail, landings is called stair case.
Terminology related to stair-

4. Fan Light -
Fanlight is fitted between the head of the door frame
and transom. It provides cross ventilation in the
room while the door is closed.
It is also known as transom window.

Steps-
A portion of stairway comprising the tread and riser
which permit the ascent or descent from one floor to
another.
Construction of Superstructure 61 YCT
 Stair consists a set of steps. Winder-
Tread- It is the horizontal portion of the step on Triangular or wedge shaped steps, that is used to
which foot is placed to ascent or descent. changing the direction.
Riser- Landing-
Vertical portion of step to providing support the It is a horizontal platform provided between two
steps which connects the tread is called riser. flights.
Horizontal distance between the two consecutive If, L = 2B → Half space landing
risers is known as Going, go or Run. Where,
Rise- L = Length of rectangular landing
Vertical distance between the upper surface of the B = Width of stair
successive treads is called rise. Head room or head way-
Pitch or slope- The clear vertical distance between the tread of step
The angle at which line of nosing of the stairs makes or nosing line and the ceiling of the stair case or
with the horizontal. soffit of the flight.
Pitch of stair- ≯ 400 and ≮ 250 Head room should not be less than 2.05 m.
Newel Post- Spandrill-
It is a wooden or metallic post supporting the hand A triangular framing under the outside string of an
rail and is usually provided at the top and bottom of open string stair.
a flight.
Baluster-
These are the short wooden, metal or masonry
vertical member which support the hand rail.
Balustrade-
It is the combination of hand rail, newel post and
balusters.
Stringers-
It is a sloping wooden member employed to
provides support for the steps.
Thickness - 32 - 50 mm, Depth - 25 -38 cm.
Soffit-
Inner surface of the stair is known as soffit.
Run-
Total length of stair in horizontal plane including
landing. Requirement of a good stair-
Hand Rail- Number of steps in a flight-
Moulded block of wood or metal provided to afford • Maximum - 12
assistance and safeguard to person during going on • Minimum - 3
stairs. Width of stair-
Railing height - 75 cm from nosing line.
Handrail supports the balustrade and run parallel to
• For public building - 1.5 - 1.8 m
the slope of stair. • For residential building - 90 cm
Flight- Width of landing ≮ width of stair.
Continuous series of steps in one direction without Minimum head room ≮ 2.10 m
any plateform separated by horizontal plateform or Fixing the tread and Rise-
binders. Tread + Rise 40 - 45 cm
Nosing- Tread + 2 × Rise 60 cm
It is the outer front projecting edge of the tread. Tread × Rise 375 - 450
Usually it is rounded in shape that provide good Tread + 2 × Rise 55 - 65 cm
architectural effect to the tread. Standard size of-
Line of nosing joint the ends of nosing of all treads 1. Rise - 15 cm
in a flight. 2. Tread - 30 cm
Scotia- ❖ For residential building-
Molding provided under nosing to beautified the
elevation of steps. • Size of step 25 cm × 16 cm
Scotia block is wooden triangular block used below • Without nosing min. 25 cm
the nosing to given it additional strength. width of tread
• For public buildings 27 cm × 15 cm to
Fliers- 30 cm × 13 cm
A straight step having a parallel and equal width of size of step
• Width of tread for cinema hall 25-30 cm
tread or it is a rectangular steps of uniform shape
• Area of stair case ≯ 12 m2
and size.
Construction of Superstructure 62 YCT
 Tread and Rise Calculation- Use of various stairs-
Ceiling height of Room Residential building Dog-legged, straight flight
Riser height =
No. of risers Public building Open -well, bifurcated
Number of tread To give better Geometrical stair.
Length available − Landing width appearance
=
Tread depth
LIFTS
A lift (or elevator) is a form of vertical
transportation between building floors, levels or
decks, commonly used in offices, public building
and other types of multi-storey building.
• The main components of lifts are following :
No. of Tread
= No. of Riser - 1 (in case of straight staircase) The lift can moving on guide rails.
No. of tread Suspension ropes (steel wire rope with FOS 12 to
= No. of Riser - 2 (in case of one landing and two 20).
flight) Counter weight on pulley to balance the car with 40
Classification of stairs- to 50% of maximum live load.
1. Straight Flight Stair- The passenger capacity of a lift is usually rated
Provided where place is long and narrow and assuming the weight of a person as 68 kg.
possibility of any other form of stair may not be
practically possible.
In case of steep ascending straight flight can be
broken with intermediate landing.

2. Dog-legged stair-
It is a common type of stair case in which two • Structural components of lifts :
consecutive right angle (2×900 or 1800) changes at A lift well of suitable size, usually extending up to
mid landing slab level. 1600 to 2600 mm, below the bottom landing.
It is also known as half turn or U-turn stair. Opening of height of 2 m for entry of people at
No space is provided between two flights. every floor level.
Useful, where width of staircase hall = 2 × width of
landing. ESCALATORS
It A power-driven inclined continuous stair way
used for raising or lowering passengers known as
Escalators.
It is suitable where movement of large number of
people at a controlled rate in a minimum available
space is involved.
The escalators are provided in hospitals, shopping
malls, business areas, and any place where users are
large in number.

SCAFFOLDING
A scaffolding is a temporary structure to support
original structure as well as workmen, material etc.
It is a platform to carry the construction work.
Construction of Superstructure 63 YCT
 Important members used in scaffolding- It is also called as independent scaffolding

1. Standards -
Vertical tube held suitable distance from the wall
that transfer the load to the ground.
2. Ledgers - Mason's Scaffolding
Horizontal member parallel to the wall connected 3. Suspended scaffolding-
between standards. There is no use of standards, bracing etc.
It decide the height of working platform. These scaffolding are suspended using ropes or
3. Putlog - chain from a strong overhead structures.
They are at right angles to the wall. It is free from touch of ground.
These are horizontal member parallel to wall which Used for painting and repairing work.
is placed one end on wall holes and other is SHORING
connected on standards or kept over ledger.
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure
4. Transom or Bearer -
to support an unsafe structure.
It is used to Supports standards and placed at right
It is used in case of wall cracks, bulge out of wall,
angle to the ledgers.
openings are to be newly made, timbering of the
Bay width may defined by transom. trench etc.
5. Diagonal Braces - Used to change the room dimension.
To increase the strength of basic structure to carry
more loads. Types of shoring-
6. Boards - 1. Inclined or Raking Shore-
It is temporary working platform made of steel or This is a system of giving temporary support to an
wooden boards to kept material and for standing unsafe wall. In this method, inclined members
workmen. known as rakers used to give lateral supports to wall.
It is supported over putlog. Inclination of rakers 450 - 750.
7. Volt - Angle between top shore and platform- 87 to 89
Used to bind the all parts of the scaffold to withstand C/C distance b/w rakers along the wall length 3-4.6
load and make a framed structure. m.
Inclined rakers are suitable for 5 m height of wall.
Types of scaffolding-
1. Single/Brick layer or putlog scaffold -
This cheap and common types of scaffolding widely
used for brick masonry.
One end of scaffold is supported on wall while other
is on standards so it is called single scaffold.
C/C distance b/w standards - 2.4 - 3.0 m and from
wall - 1.2m.
Vertically C/C distance b/w ledgers- 1.2 - 1.5m
C/C distance b/w putlog - 1.20-1.5m
2. Mason or Double Scaffold -
If there is difficult to leave whole in stone wall to
support the putlog mason's or double scaffolding is
provided. In its two frame of standards, ledgers and
braces used. One is placed near the wall and other is
1.5 m apart the first.
Two rows of standards are provided in this system. 2. Flying Shoring or Horizontal Shoring-
It is totally free from masonry wall. Flying shores is a system of providing temporary
It is generally used for stone masonry supports to the partition wall of the two building.
Construction of Superstructure 64 YCT
 Centre line of flying shore and strut and those of the Questions Asked in Previous Years
wall should meet at floor level of the two buildings.
Strut inclination - 450 1. Identify the stair element pointed by the arrow
Single flying shore is suitable for 8-10 m distance.

(a) Handrail (b) Wooden Rail

(c) Baluster (d) Naval Post
Andaman PWD Arch. Asst. 18/02/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : Important terminology about stair–

3. Dead or vertical shoring-

Vertical shore is used to render vertical support to
floors, wall and roofs etc.
Dead shore erected to increase the size of opening in
an existing wall.

Soffit – The underside of a structural component, such

as a beam, arch, staircase.
Headroom– It is the height above the nosing of a tread
to the ceiling above it. The minimum height of a head
room in stair case is 2.1 m.
Pitch – The angle of inclination of the stairs with the
floor is known as a pitch. It also indicates the angle
which the line of noising makes with the horizontal.
Winders– It steps that are narrower on one side than the
other they are used to change the direction of the stair
without landing. A series of winders form a circular or
spiral stairway.
Tread– Horizontal portion of step in stair case is known
as tread.
Riser - It is the vertical portion of a step providing a
support to the tread.
Landing – The width of the landing should not be less
Purpose- than the width of the stair, landing is the horizontal
• Opening in the wall to be made. platform provided at the top of a flight.
• To rebuilt the defective lower part of the wall. Stairwell–The space/void provided for the stairs.
Scotia/cornice–The piece running between the wall and
• To replace or deepen the existing foundation which
ceiling at the top of the wall is called a scotia.
have either becomes unsafe or required Nosing–the edge of the tread projecting beyond the face
strengthening for carrying heavier loads. of the riser and the face of a cut string.
A buttress in a wall is intended to provide lateral Flight– The length of staircase situated between two
support to wall. landings is called flight.
Construction of Superstructure 65 YCT
Baluster–It is a safety member of stair which is made 6. To provide light to the inner portion of the
of wood or metal to support the handrail. building where light coming from the windows
Newel post– This is a vertical member supporting the in the external walls is insufficient, which type
handrail at the end of the flights connected to string. of windows are fixed on flat roofs?
Run– The total length of stair in a horizontal plane is (a) Clerestory windows (b) Lanterns
known as the run and it in includes the lengths of (c) Dormer windows (d) Skylights
landings. PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
2. ______ are used for cutting and shaping the Ans. (b) : Lantern Light– It is an open work timber
wood. construction placed on top of a building to admit light
(a) Chisels (b) Auger bit and allow smoke to escape.
(c) Gimlet (d) Mallet
MH PWD CEA 16/12/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (a) : Chisels–The chisels which are used to cutting
and shaping the wood.
Gimlet–The gimlet is hand operated tool and used to
bore small holes, such as for starting a screw or large
nail.
Mallet–It is generally made of wood or plastic it is used
whenever slight blows are required. Wooden hammer
(mallet) is most commonly used because it does not
damages the work surface. Dormer windows– A dormer window is vertical
3. When should holdfasts for doors and windows window provided on the sloping roof, such a window
be embedded in brick masonry construction? provides ventilation and lighting to the enclosed space
(a) After the wall construction is completed below the roof, and at the same time, very much
(b) Before the wall construction starts improve the appearance of the building.
(c) During the wall construction
(d) None of the above
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Ans. (c) : Holdfasts for doors and windows should be
embedded in brick masonry with cement mortar or
concrete. It the time of constructing the wall itself.
4. Which of the following type of HVAC uses
tubes instead of larger ducts to move air into a
room from an outdoor compressor and Sky window: It is a window provided on a sloping roof
condenser? to admit light.
(a) Split system
(b) Hybrid Heat pump system
(c) Ducted Mini-Split system
(d) Ductless Mini-Split system
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
Ans. (c) : A ducted mini-split system uses tubes instead
of larger ducts to move air into a room from an outdoor 7. The window which is provided on a sloping
compressor and condenser. roof of a building is called
• This solution is best for homes where there isn't a lot (a) Louvered Window (b) Lantern Window
of room for traditional duct works. (c) Dormer Window (d) Corner Window
• Compared to ductless mini-split systems, ductile mini- PGVCL VS JE 20/01/2022
splits have the advantage of better air circulation. Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
5. Types of flushed doors are 8. ................ is a glass/timber piece attached in
(a) Solid core or laminated core inclined position within a window/ventilator
(b) Hollow and cellular core frame.
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a) Rebate (b) Architrave
(d) None of the above (c) Louver (d) Sill
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans. (c) : Flush door– Two types of flush doors are Ans. (c) : Louvered window– These are provided for
available. A door with an outer frame with plywood
the sole function of ventilation and not for the vision
sheets covering on the front and backsides is called, a
hollow core flush door. Instead of keeping the inner outside..
portion empty; it may be filled with an inferior variety • The louvers are usually fixed act 450 inclination
of wooden planks. This type of door is called a solid sloping downward to the outside to run-off the rain
core flush door. water.

Construction of Superstructure 66 YCT

9. The horizontal projections at head and sill of a Generally adopted sizes of door for various types of
door frame which are embedded into the side buildings–
walls for fixing the frame are known as • External door – (1.0m × 2m) to (1.1m to 2m)
(a) horns (b) holdfasts • Internal door – (0.9m × 2m) to (1m to 2m)
(c) jambs (d) rebates • Bathrooms and WC –(0.7m × 2m) to (0.8m to 2m)
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18.11.2022 Shift-II
• Public building– (1.2m×2.1m) to (1.2m to 2. 5m)
Ans. (a) : Horns–The horizontal projection at the head
of a door frame which are embedded into the side walls 12. Staircase with a central post with radiating
for fixing the frame on wall opening, the length of steps that spiral upwards to the floor above is
horns is kept about 10 to 15 cm, which is embedded ................... stairs.
into the side wall. (a) Winder (b) Curved
Jamb– This is the vertical wall face of an opening (c) Spiral (d) Closed
which supports the frame. ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Rebates– It is depression or recess made inside the Ans. (c) : Spiral staircase– Spiral staircase have a
door frame, to receive the door shutter. central post with radiating steps that spiral upwards to
Holdfasts – The horizontal length of holdfast is kept the floor above, typically through a hole cut into the
about 20 cm is embedded in the masonry. These are floor level.
mild steel flats (section 30 mm × 6 mm), generally 13. The minimum slope for a stairs is ...............
bent-up into z-shape, to fix or hold the frame to the (a) 30º (b) 26º
opening. (c) 28º (d) 24º
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans. (b) : The minimum slope for a stairs is 260.
14. Minimum width of staircase for a single family
residential house is ............. cm.
(a) 180 (b) 60
(c) 90 (d) 75
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans. (d) :
• Minimum width of staircase for a single family
residential house is 75 cm.
• The maximum slope for a staircase is 37o.
15. Which of the following components of a
staircase is defined as an unbroken series of
steps between landings?
(a) Waist (b) Landing
(c) Winders (d) Flights
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans (d) : Flight– This is an unbroken series of steps
between landing.
10. ............. are the vertical sides of an opening for Landing– It is a level platform at the top or bottom of a
doors and windows. flight between the floors.
(a) Jambs (b) Sill
(c) Lintel (d) Reveals 16. What is the minimum required width of stair
for residential building?
ISRO Technical Asst. 03/11/2022
(a) 1000 mm (b) 700 mm
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation (c) 800 mm (d) 650 mm
11. Common criteria for the size of Door used in UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023
India is :
Ans. (a) : Minimum width of provision for
(a) Width = 0.4 to 0.6 x Height
staircase-
(b) Height = 0.8 to 1.0 x width
(c) Height = 0.4 to 0.6 x width a. i - residential low risk building 0.9 m
(d) Width = 0.8 to 1.0 x Height ii - Other residential building flats, 1.25 m
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-III hostels, group housing
Ans. (a) : As per rule the height of a door should not be b. Assembly buildigs like, 2.0 m
less than 1.8 to 2m. audotorium theatres and cinemas
Width = 0.4 to 0.6 height c. All othe buildings included hotels. 1.5 m
Height = (width + 1.2) meter. d. Institutional building like hospitals 2.0 m
• Height of door in domestic building usually taken as e. Educational buildings like school 1.5 m
2.10 m. college
Construction of Superstructure 67 YCT
17. The minimum width of a staircase in an • Escalators are moving stairs provided for continuous
educational building shall be _____. operation and to move large number of people/goods
(a) 1.5 m (b) 1.0 m from floor to floor.
(c) 3.0 m (d) 2.0 m 22. What is the term used to describe the height of
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II one step of a staircase?
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation (a) Pitch (b) Run
18. If a staircase has 'N' number of risers, the (c) Rise (d) Tread
number of treads would be equal to : PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
(a) N + 1 (b) N – 1 Ans. (c) : Riser - It is the vertical portion of a step
(c) N + 3 (d) N – 3 providing a support to the tread.
UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023 Pitch – The angle of inclination of the stairs with the
Ans. (b) : Tread– It is an upper horizontal portion of a floor is known as a pitch. It also indicates the angle
step upon which the foot is placed while ascending or which the line of nursing makes with the horizontal.
de-secending.
Flight– This is an unbroken series of steps between
landing.
Number of tread = rise– 1
19. Identify the correct technical term for the given
description, related to stairs.
"An additional finish or moulding provided to
the nosing or treated to beautify the elevation
of the step and to provide strength to the
nosing."
(a) Winder (b) Flier
(c) Waist (d) Scotia
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 23. Horizontally Wedge-shaped Treads in
Ans. (d) : Scotia– An additional finish or moulding Stairways are termed as
provided to the nosing or treated to beautify the (a) Stringers (b) Winders
elevation of the step and to provide strength to the (c) Scotia (d) Newel
nosing. Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023
Winder– These are the tapered treads, provided at the Ans. (b) : Winders– triangular as horizontally wedge
turnings of the landing space to reduce the number of shaped steps, used for changing the direction are called
steps required in the other straight portions of the stairs winders.
and thus economize the length required for the staircase. Flies– Rectangular steps of uniform shape and size are
20. Treads and riser in staircase is respectively: called fliers.
(a) 150mm and 300mm • Winders allow a turn by 900 (Single winder), 1800
(b) 300mm and 150mm (double winder).
(c) 150mm and 150mm 24. The horizontal platform that is used for connecting
(d) 300mm and 300 mm two flights of a staircase is called_______.
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023 (a) Connector (b) landing
Ans. (b) : Speciation of staircase– (c) thread (d) stringer
2 × Riser + Tread = 530 – 630 mm SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
Maximum height of riser = 150 mm to 200 mm Ans. (b) : Stair related terminology–
Minimum tread length = 250 mm – 300 mm Landing–It is an intermediate floor or platform
• Rise + Tread = 400 – 450 mm. between flights of stairs. Landings permit directional
• Riser × Tread = 40000 – 45000 mm2 changes in the staircase.
• Number of riser = Number of treads + 1 • It is also defined as the horizontal platform that is used
21. ______ are moving stairs provided for to connecting two flights of a staircase.
continuous operation and to move large Riser–Vertical component of a step is known as riser.
number of people/goods from floor to floor.
(a) Spiral staircase (b) Escalators Tread–It is an horizontal component of staircase or the
(c) Life (d) Dog-legged stair step, the part you step on.
TSPSC Architecture Engg.05/09/2023 Shift-II Stringer–It is an structural component that supports the
treads and risers.
Ans. (b) Escalators are power driven, inclined,
continuous stairways used for transporting passengers in 25. In a staircase, the horizontal projection
large departmental stores, airports, exhibition halls etc. distance between the first and the last riser or
They transport person between two levels with speeds an inclined flight is called :
not more than 38 meters per minute and its capacity (a) waist (b) tread
may vary from 3200 to 6400 passengers per hour (c) going (d) nosing
depending on the width of the escalator. PPSC Building Inspector 27/11/2022
Construction of Superstructure 68 YCT
 Ans. (c) : Going– It is the horizontal projection 30. The width of landing in a staircase should not
between the first and the last riser of an inclined flight. be less than
Tread– The horizontal top portion of a steep where foot (a) 1.0 m (b) 1.2 m
rest is known as tread. The dimension range from 270 (c) 0.9 (d) Stair width
mm for residential buildings and factories to 300 mm Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
for public buildings where large number of persons use Ans. (d) : Minimum dimension of steps–
the staircase. (1) No stair in residential building shall have a rise of
Nosing– In some cases the tread is projected outward to more than 20 cm and tread of less than 25 cm.
increase the space. This projection is designated as nosing. (2) No stair in a commercial, public or industrial
Waist– The thickness of the waist slab on which step buildings shall have a rise of more than 18 cm and a
are made is known as waist. The depth of the waist is tread of less than 27 cm.
the minimum thickness perpendicular to the soffit of the (3) The width of landing should not be less than the
staircase. width of stair.
Baluster–It is a safety member of stair which is made 31. Sum of tread and rise must lie between
of wood or metal to support the handrail. (a) 300 mm to 350 mm
Landing – The width of the landing should not be less (b) 400 mm to 450 mm
than the width of the stair, landing is the horizontal (c) 500 mm to 550 mm
platform provided at the top of a flight.
(d) 600 mm to 650 mm
26. The upper horizontal portion of a step upon TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
which the foot is placed while ascending or
Ans. (b) : As per thumb rule, Design property of stair–
descending is called as :
(a) Riser (b) Landing • Rise + Tread = 400 – 450 mm.
(c) Tread (d) Baluster • Riser × Tread = 40000–45000 mm2
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 • Number of riser = Number of tread + 1
Ans. (c) : See the above Explanation. • (2 × riser in mm) + (tread in mm) = 600 mm
Take riser = 150 mm and tread = 300 mm as standard
27. The protecting part of the tread beyond the
face of Riser is known as a __________. In the case of flight the number of treads = No. of riser –1.
(a) Nosing (b) Pitch 32. Which of the following factors do NOT affect
(c) Riser (d) Rise the design of escalatory system?
Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021 (a) Location
(b) Carrying capacity
Ans. (a) : See the above Explanation.
(c) Traffic patterns
28. Nosing is the outer projection edge of a (d) Colour of the building
(a) riser (b) tread SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
(c) baluster (d) landing
Ans. (d) : Escalators–These stairs are also known as
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
moving stairs or even moving flights. By a revolving
Ans. (b) : See the above Explanation. drum, the escalator is kept in motion. A few steps at top
29. In which of the following staircase and bottom are kept level through moving individually.
classifications is the stair slab supported A person has to occupy a step of the escalator for the
parallel to the riser at two or more locations, upward or downward motion.
causing the slab to bend longitudinally between The main factor which affects the design is the floor of
the supports? floor height. The stair way should be kept independent
(a) Slab cantilevered from a spandrel beam or by providing a structural framework around the stair
wall well. The structural frame is designed to take care of the
(b) Stair slab spanning longitudinally load of floor, hand rail etc.
(c) Slab supported between two stringer beams or 33. As per IS-875., for stair in residential building
walls office building, hospitals, etc., where is no
(d) Slab doubly cantilevered from a central spine possibility of overcrowding, the live load taken
beam as________ .
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I (a) 6000 N/m2 (b) 3000 N/m2
Ans. (b) : Structural system of stair slab– (c) 5000 N/m 2
(d) 2000 N/m2
1. Stair slab spanning horizontally SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
2. Stair slab spanning longitudinally
Ans. (b) : As per IS 875 Part 2, Clause 3.1.9 imposed
Stair slab spanning longitudinally- In this case, the
supports to the stair slab are provided parallel to the floor load for residential building are:
riser at two or more locations, causing the slab to bend Residential buildings UDL (kN/m2)
longitudinally between the supports it may be noted that 1. All rooms and kitchens 2.0
longitudinal bending can occur in configuration other 2. Toilet and bathrooms 2.0
than the straight stair configuration such as quarter-turn 3. Corridors, passages, staircases 3.0
stairs, dog-legged stairs, open well stairs and including tire escapes and store rooms
helicoidally stairs. 4. Balconies 3.0
Construction of Superstructure 69 YCT
34. ............... is the light weight scaffolding used for 37. Longitudinal horizontal members parallel to
repair works. the wall used in scaffolding is called as :
(a) Cantilever scaffolding (a) Planks (b) Standards
(b) Mason's scaffolding (c) Stringers (d) Putlogs
(c) Steel scaffolding DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-II
(d) Trestle scaffolding Ans. (c) : Stringer– Longitudinal horizontal members
TNPSC AE Civil 11.07.2022 parallel to the wall used in scaffolding is called as
Ans. (d) Trestle scaffolding– Generally used inside of stringer.
building for repairs and maintenance works. It is the Putlogs– These are horizontal members which are
light weight scaffolding used for repair works. perpendicular to the walls. One end of the putlog is
Cantilever scaffolding– Used when ground does not supported by the wall and the other by the ledger.
have capacity to supports standards, ground near the wall
needs to be free from traffic or upper part of construction. Standards– The vertical members of the framework are
Mason scaffolding– It is difficult to leave wholes in the called standers.
stone masonry to provide a bearing for the putlogs in 38. Jacketing is used for _______.
mason's scaffolding two frames of standards at a (a) Waterproofing of slab
distance of 1.5 m from the first one. Thus mason's (b) Strengthening the structural members
scaffolding is entirely independent of the stone wall. (c) Increasing bearing capacity of soil
35. What will be the suitable type of shoring which (d) Removing dampness
is having a maximum distance of about 9 m Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021
between the end-to-end parallel walls? Ans. (b) : Jacketing is a techniques used to increase the
(a) Vertical shore (b) Dead shore strength of existing structural member or strengthening
(c) Flying shore (d) Raking shore the structural members.
DSSSB JE Tier-I 28/06/2022 Shift-I 39. The depression or recess made in the door
Ans. (c) Type of shoring– There are three types of frame, to receive the door shutter is called as :
shoring, depending upon their supporting (a) Rebate (b) Hold fast
characteristics:
(c) Jamb (d) Reveal
(i) Raking shore or inclined shores
(ii) Dead or vertical shores ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
(iii) Flying or horizontal shores– Ans. (a) : Rebate– It is the depression or recess made
• When in a series of building one of the intermediate inside the door frame to receive the door shutter.
buildings is to be pulled down due to some reasons Transom– It is a horizontal member of a frame which
or the other, flying or horizontal shores are used. is employed to sub-divide a window opening
• The flying shores are generally not recommended horizontally.
when the distance between the wall is more than 9 m. 40. ............ window projecting beyond the walls of
36. According to IS : 10440(1983), the formwork room to provide additional space for light, air
for the RB and RBC floor or roof shall NOT be and for architectural purposes.
removed before _____ after laying. (a) Bay (b) Gable
(a) 28 (b) 7 (c) Casement (d) Clerestorey
(c) 14 (d) 21 ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022 Ans. (a) : bay windows are projects windows from wall
Ans. (c) : As Per IS 10440 : 1983, Clause 7.6 The which are provided to increases the area of opening.
formwork for the RB and RBC floor or roof shall not Which enables more ventilation and light from outside.
removed before 14 days after laying.
41. .......... doors are generally provided in interior
• As per IS 465 : 2000 Clause 11.3 minimum period wall openings or in hospitals, colleges etc. :
of formwork for various part.
(a) Louvered (b) Glazed
Minimum period (c) Flush (d) Wire Gauged
Types of formwork
of formwork
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Vertical formwork to columns, 16-24 hr
beams and walls Ans (b) : Glazed door or sash door– This type of door
Soffit formwork to slabs 3 days is used in residential as well as in public building like
(props to be refixed after hospitals, schools colleges, etc. It is provided where
removal of formwork) natural light is required to be admitted through the door,
Soffit formwork to beams 7 days or where the visibility of the interior of one room is
(props to be refixed immediately required from the adjacent one these doors do not
after of formwork) provide any security and also do not keep up the privacy
of the room.
Props to slabs
• It is type of casement window, but in this case panels
• Spanning upto 4.5 m 7 days are fully glazed.
• Spanning over 4.5 14 days
42. .......... is type of casement window, but in this
Props to beams case panels are fully glazed.
• Spanning upto 6 m 14 days (a) Metal windows
• Spanning over 6 m 21 days (b) Sash windows
Construction of Superstructure 70 YCT
 (c) Double hung windows
(d) Louvered windows
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Ans (b) : See the above explanation.
43. ............ windows consist of pair of shutters
attached to one frame.
(a) Double hung (b) Casement
(c) Louvered (d) Metal
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Ans (a) : Double hung window– This window has a
pair of shutters one above the other which can slide
within the grooves in the frame two metallic weights are
connected to each shutter by a cord or chain passing
over pulleys.
44. ____is the exposed vertical surface left on the
sides of an opening after the door or window
frame has been fitted in position.
(a) Jamb (b) Corbel 48. Minimum width of toilet door:
(c) Soffit (d) Reveal (a) 900 mm (b) 850 mm
UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023 (c) 750 mm (d) 915 mm
Ans. (d) : Reveals– There are the exposed vertical Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023
surfaces left on the sides of an opening after the door or Ans. (c) : Standard size of interior doors–
window frame has been fitted in position. Door Size (mm)
Corbet– A corbet is a projecting stone which is usually Toilet door 750 to 762 mm × 2032 mm
provided to serve as support for joist, truss, weather Bathroom door 762 mm × 2032 mm
shed etc. Kitchen door 914 mm × 2032 mm
Jamb– The vertical sides of a finished opening of door, Main door 1067 mm × 2134 mm
window or fire place etc are termed as jambs.
49. The vertical member in the middle of the
45. Which of the following type of door commonly window frame which subdivides the window is
used in buildings? called :
(a) Flush door (b) Collapsible door (a) Mullion (b) Rebate
(c) Composite door (d) Rotating door (c) holdfast (d) Transom
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (a) : Flush door– The shutter of flushed doors are Ans. (a) : Technical terms of window/door–
made of plywood or block boards of uniform thickness. Mullion– Mullion is a vertical member which is
The shutters are available in various veneer finishes. employed to sub-divide a window or door opening
These doors are suitable for interior portions only, as vertically.
they are not resistant to moisture. These days, flushed Transom– It is horizontal member that is employed to
doors are commonly used in residential and office sub-divide a window opening horizontally.
buildings. Rebate– It is a recess in a door jamb that is provided as
46. In ........... doors, a solid or semi-solid or core a stop for the screen door.
portion is covered on both sides with plywood Hold fast– A member which project from the body of
or face veneer. door or window frame which holds the window or door
(a) Louvered (b) Sliding frame in walls.
(c) Glazed (d) Flush
50. ______ is the recommended size of door (in
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
mm) for public building like hospital, library.
Ans (d) : See the above explanation. (a) 900 × 1000 (b) 400 × 500
47. In____the glass panel or the glazed shutter is (c) 2200 × 2400 (d) 1200 × 2100
permanently fixed in the opening in the wall MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I
(a) Casement window (b) Fixed window
Ans. (d) : Size of doors
(c) Pivoted window (d) Sliding window
Types of buildings Size of the door (in
GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
mm)
Ans. (b) : Fixed window–
1. The door of the
• In this windows the glazed shutter is permanently residential building
fixed in the windows.
(a) External door 1000 × 2000
• It is used when light and vision is only needed in the
room. (b) Internal door 900 × 2000
• No ventilation is possible through such windows. (c) Poor for bath or WC 800 × 2000

Construction of Superstructure 71 YCT

 2. Doors of public 55. Which of the following components of
buildings such as scaffolding are known as uprights?
(a) Schools, 1200 × 2000 (a) Couplers (b) Standards
(b) Hospital 1200 × 2100 (c) Ledgers (d) Transoms
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
(c) Library 1200 × 2250
Ans (b) : Scaffolds are temporary structures that allow
3. Doors of garage 2250 × 2250 people to work at heights.
51. The frame work for door and windows is fixed • Upright, support and standard the vertical
to masonry wall providing horns of length. components of scaffolds.
(a) 12 cm (b) 15 cm
• The vertical parts are usually called the uprights,
(c) 20 cm (d) 10 cm supports or standards, if the upright rests on the
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I ground it is fitted with base plate.
Ans. (b) : Horn– It is a horizontal projection at the top
56. In the context of shoring, .......... is a system of
and bottom member of the frame to enable the fixing of
the frame in the wall opening. providing temporary support to the party walls
of two buildings where the intermediate
Length of the horn in door is kept between 10 to 15 cm
building is to be pulled down and rebuilt.
(generally 15 cm).
Holdfast– It is used to hold the frame in position. It is (a) flying shoring (b) needle shoring
fixed at one end of the frame and other end is inserted in (c) raking shoring (d) dead shoring
the wall. MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-III
• Horizontal length of hold fast = 20 cm. Ans. (a) : Flying shoring–Flying shores are also
• Generally minimum 3 holdfast on each side of the known as horizontal shores. These shores do not rest on
door are recommended. ground. Flying shores are used to provide lateral
support temporarily to the parallel walls of two
52. The vertical member used in the door frame is
called- buildings which have become unsafe due to the removal
(a) Lock Rail (b) Bottom Rail or collapse of the intermediate building.
(c) Hold Fast (d) Post
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18/11/2022 Shift-II
Ans. (d) : The vertical member used in the door frame
is called post.
A door frame consists of two vertical members called
jambs and post
53. The type of door commonly used for garages
and godowns is
(a) Rolling shutter door (b) Swing door
(c) Revolving door (d) Flush door
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II
Ans. (a) Rolling shutter door– A rolling shutter door
consists of a frame, a drum and shutter made of steel
plates. The width of the door may be 2-3m. The shutter,
which moves on steel guides provided on the sides can
easily roll up. For this, counterbalancing is done with
helical springs on the drum. The shutter can be pulled
down easily. This type of door used for additional safety
in shops, godown, office, bank and factories.
54. 'Putlogs' is one of the parts of scaffolding which
is described as :
(a) members used to bridge opening
(b) planks on which workmen stand
(c) horizontal members normal to the wall
(d) horizontal members parallel to the wall
UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II
Ans. (c) : Putlogs– These are horizontal members which
are perpendicular to the walls. One end of the putlog is 57. A temporary structure, constructed to support
supported by the wall and the other by the ledger. an ancient structure, is called:
Standards– The vertical members of the framework are (a) Scaffolding (b) Jacking
called standard. (c) Shoring (d) Bracing
Braces– Diagonal members fixed on standards are RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021
called braces. Ans. (c) : Shoring– The process of construction of
Ledgers– These are horizontal members which are temporary structure to support unsafe structure
parallel to the wall. temporarily. Shoring can be used when wall buldge out
Construction of Superstructure 72 YCT
or when walls crack due to unequal settlement of the Ans. (d) : Removal of centering– when the arch has
foundation. developed sufficient strength the centering can be
Jacking– It is a term used to described the application removed. No load should be placed on the arch unless
of force with the aim of pushing or lifting an object. the centering has been removed. For small spans, the
Scaffolding– Temporary elevated suspended work removal of centering is done by loosening the folding
surface used to support workers/materials. wedges.
Bracing– serves to stablize main girders during
construction. 62. The process of providing a new foundation
under an existing foundation is known as
58. __________ type of scaffolding is used when the
(a) Shoring (b) Underpinning
proper hard ground is not available for the
standards to rest. (c) Scaffolding (d) Raking
(a) Trestle scaffolding KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023
(b) Cantilever scaffolding Ans. (b) : Underpinning– Underpinning is the process
(c) Steel scaffolding of strengthening the foundation of an existing structure
(d) Bricklayers scaffolding in different cases such as repairing, renewal, change soil
Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021 properties etc.
Ans. (b) : Cantilever or Needle scaffolding– Formwork– It is a temporary structure that is used to
Cantilever or Needle scaffolding the general formwork support wet concrete until it becomes hard.
may be of single or double type of scaffolding. Scaffolding– It is generally used for the temporary
This type of scaffolding is useful under the following structure used to support the concrete formwork or more
conditions. popularly for supporting the workman during the
(i) In situations where it has to be provided on a busy construction work.
street so as not to disturb the traffic. Shoring– Shoring is the construction of temporary
(ii) In situations where it is difficult to fix the standards structure required to support an unsafe building or
on the ground. existing structure.
(iii) In construction of tall buildings. 63. The underpinning is the process of :
59. A temporary rigid structure which is used by (a) strengthening the roof of building
masons to work at different stages of building, (b) strengthening the beams
is called: (c) Strengthening an existing foundation
(a) Scaffolding (b) Shoring (d) plastering the walls
(c) Dead shore (d) Underpinning ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021 Ans. (c) : See the above expiation.
Ans. (a) : Scaffolding– It is a safe working platform 64. ............. of formwork should be carried out only
provided for the workers working at an elevation greater after the time when concrete has gained
than 1.5 m, and also the have limited space for storage strength, at least twice the stress to which the
of building materials. It is a temporary rigid structures
concrete may be subjected to when the
made of steel or bamboo.
formworks are removed.
Underpinning– It is placing of the new foundation
(a) Clipping (b) Stripping
below ground level process of strengthening the
existing foundation. (c) Strapping (d) Clamping
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2
60. The loads considered for design of formwork
are ............ Ans. (b) Stripping time– Forms shall not be removed
(a) Live load due to labour untill the concrete has achieved a strength of at least
(b) Dead weight of wet concrete twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected
(c) Impact due to pouring concrete at the time of removal of formwork. The strength
(d) All the above referred to shall be that of concrete using the same
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 cement and aggregates and admixture, if any with the
same proportion and cured under conditions of
Ans. (d) : Formwork loads– Two types of gravity
temperature and moisture similar to those existing on
loads are considered in the design calculations, dead
the work.
loads and live loads, the weight of the form work and
the plastic concrete are considered dead loads, while 65. Chips of stones used to fill up the empty spaces
workers and equipment are considered as live load. in the stone masonry are known as
61. How is the removal of centering done for small (a) Spalls (b) Cornices
spans? (c) Quoins (d) Corbels
(a) Lowering the props gradually GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 26/09/2021
(b) Using folding wedges Ans. (a) : Spall– Chips of stones used to fill up the
(c) Securing bottom of the prop in a sand box empty spaces in the stone masonry.
(d) Loosening the wedges slightly Corbel– A projection putting out from a wall to support
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 a structure above it.
Construction of Superstructure 73 YCT
 Cornice– It is a horizontal mounded projection stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are
provided near the top of a building. laid in cement or lime mortar.
Quoins : The exterior angle or corner of a wall is 2. Ashlars Rough Tooled Masonry-Expose faces of
known as quoin. The stones or bricks forming the stone has rough and uneven but corners and sides
quoins are known as stone quoins or quoins bricks. are perfect dressed.
66. Perpend 3. Ashlars Chamfered Masonry-Dressing and
(a) is the vertical joint separating the bricks in surface are same as above but edged around the
either length or cross direction exposed faces of stone is chamfered at 450.
(b) is the horizontal distance between the vertical 4. Ashlars Block-in- Course Masonry- This type of
joints in successive courses masonry is used in heavy structures such as
(c) is the horizontal layer of mortar upon which retaining walls, abutments, and piers of bridges
the bricks are laid which carry heavy loads. The depths of the courses
(d) is the edge formed by the intersection of may vary from 15cm to 25 cm.
plane surface of bricks 5. Ashlars Rock or Quarry- faced Masonry- The
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 26/09/2021 exposed face at the stone are not dressed to give and
Ans. (a) : Perpend– It is a vertical joint on the face of original appearance of the natural rock surface.The
a wall directly over vertical joints in alternate course. thickness at the course generally vary between
15cm to 25 cm.
69. The uncoursed square rubble, masonry also
sometimes called as
(a) Random rubble masonry
(b) Square snecked rubble masonry
(c) Poly walling
(d) Flint square walling
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
67. ______ is a projecting stone which is provided Ans. (b) : Square rubble- uncoursed or square-
to serve as support for a roof truss, a beam or a snecked rubble Masonry- Square rubble masonry uses
weather shed. stones having straight bed and sides.
(a) Corbel (b) Cornice
(c) Sill (d) Lintel • The stones are usually squared and brought to
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III hammer dressed or straight cut finish.
Ans. (a) : Corbel -The term corbel refers to an • The uncoursed square rubble masonry, also
architectural member that projects out (1/3 part) from a sometimes known as square-snecked rubble
wall and acts as a type of bracket to carry weight. masonry.
Corbels are made of stone, timber or metal Plate. 70. In which of the following stone masonries are
Corbel provide support for joist, roof truss, weather the joints bevelled at a 45º angle to a depth of
shed. 25 mm rough tooled and will have chisel
dressing 2.5 mm wide all-round the edges?
(a) Rubble stone masonry
(b) Plain ashlar masonry
(c) Chamfered ashlar masonry
(d) Coursed stone masonry
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Ans. (c) : Types of stone masonry–
Rubble stone masonry– Blocks of stones that are used
either undressed or comparatively roughly dressed.
68. ................ is the type of stone masonry in which Chamfered ashlar masonry– It is a special form of
finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime rock faced ashlar masonry in which the strip provided
mortar. around the perimeter of the exposed face is chamfered
(a) Rubble masonry or beveled at an angle of 450 employing a chisel to a
(b) Ashlar masonry depth of 25 mm.
(c) Random rubble masonry Plain ashlar masonry– It is rough tooled ashlar
(d) Squared rubble masonry masonry will have a chisel dressing 2.5 mm wide all
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 1 around the edges and shall be roughly tooled between
Ans. (b) : Various type of ashlar masonry– the drafts.
1. Ashlar Fine Masonry- In this masonry the stones of Coursed Rubble Masonry– In this case, no portion of
the same height are used and the courses are also of the dressed surface should be more than 10 mm from
the same height. Ashlar fine masonry is the type of straight edge placed on it.
Construction of Superstructure 74 YCT
71. A ............ is a 45-degree bevel cut at an outside
Ans. (c) Rules for bonding–
corner of a building element, often seen in (i) The bricks should be uniform size and shape
wood, stone or brick. (ii) Use of brick bats should be minimum.
(a) Cornice (b) Chamfer (iii) The brick should be laid on a full bed mortar.
(c) Corinthian (d) Cupola (iv) The vertical joint, in the alternate courses should
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift I lie in the same perpend.
Ans. (b) A chamfer is a 450 bevel cut at an outside (v) All the joints should be properly filled with mortar
corner of a building element, often seen in wood, stone so that no cavity is left between.
or brick. 74. Which of the following statements is true
Note– Chamfered ashlar masonry – It is a special regarding the strength of brick masonry?
form of rock faced ashlar masonry in which the strip (a) Brick masonry is stronger than stone masonry
provided around the perimeter of the exposed face is (b) Brick masonry has the same strength as stone
chamfered or beveled at an angle of 450 employing a masonry
chisel to a depth of 25 mm. (c) Brick masonry is weaker than stone masonry
72. In the context of brick laying tool, ............... is a (d) None of the above
chisel having a blade slightly wider than an HSSC JE 18.02.2024
ordinary building brick. Ans. (c) : Comparison between stone masonry and
(a) brick hammer (b) brick trowel brick masonry-
(c) spirit level (d) bolster Stone Brick
MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-I Properties
masonry masonry
Ans. (d) : Brick laying tools– Strength and durability More Less
Bolster–Bolster is a chisel having a blade slightly wider Construction Slow Quick
than an ordinary building brick this makes it easy to cut
the bricks without too many blows. It may also be used Cost Costly Cheaper
for cutting chases or channels in bricks or walls to Ease of construction Difficult Easy
receive pipes or electrical conduit. Type of laborer Skilled Unskilled
Brick trowel–Brick trowel is usually about 30 cm long required
with a steel blade and wooden handle. The common or Plastering Not required Required
soft bricks are usualy cut by this tool. Fire-resistance Less More
DPC is used as, A 25 to 50 mm thick layer of cement 75. What is the purpose of a queen closer in brick
concrete M-15 serve the purpose under the normal masonry?
condition. (a) To provide a pleasing appearance
(b) To break the continuity of vertical joints
(c) To provide additional strength to the wall
(d) None of the above
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Ans. (b) : Queen closer– It is the portion of brick
obtained by cutting a brick length wise into two portion.
76. Which type of bond is useful for constructing
one brick thick walls?
(a) Stretcher bond (b) Header bond
(c) English bond (d) Flemish bond
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
Ans. (b) : Header bond– This type of bond is useful
for the construction of one brick thick walls.
English bond– English bond is commonly used bond
for the walls of all thickness.
77. In order to keep the unequal stresses created
on account of the expansion and contraction
joints provided in Hollow Block Masonry
under control, controlled joints are introduced
a\t definite intervals of
73. For good bonding in bricks uniform in size (a) 5 to 10 m (b) 10 to 15 m
(a) all bricks need not be uniform in size (c) 15 to 20 m (d) 6 to 12 m
(b) bats must be used in alternate course only (e) Answer not known
(c) the vertical joints in alternate course should TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
fall in plumb Ans. (a) : For the unequal stresses created on account
(d) cement mortar used must have surkhi as of the expansion and contraction joints provided in
additive Hollow Block Masonry under control, controlled joints
HPSSSC JE CIVIL 10.09.2022 are introduced at intervals of 5 to 10 m.
Construction of Superstructure 75 YCT
78. What is a groove provided on the underside of 82. ................... closer is obtained by cutting a
sill, cornice or coping for rainwater protection triangular portion of half the width but of full
called? length.
(a) Weathering (b) Grooving (a) King (b) Mitred
(c) Throating (d) Corbelling (c) Queen (d) Bevelled
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023 ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Ans. (c) : Random rubble masonry :- used of Ans. (d) : The type of closer used in masonry work
undressed, rough stone. In Random rubble masonry obtained by cutting a triangular portion of the brick
stones are laid without any regular courses. such that half a header and half a stretcher are obtained
Throating– A small groove is cut on the underside of on the adjoining cut faces is king closer.
projecting chhajjas, cornices, coping to discharge the
rain water without trickling down to the wall, is called
throating.
Weathering– A slope is provided to the top surface to
centre used for coping, cornice and sill to drain off the
water immediately. This is known as weathering. King Closer
79. Identify the wall bond which has 3 to 5 • The type of closer in a brick obtained by cutting the
stretcher courses to one header bond. brick longitudinally into two equal parts as shown in
(a) Flemish bond figure is called queen closer.
(b) English cross bond Bevelled closer : It is form of king closer in which the
(c) English bond whole length of the brick (stretcher face) is chamfered
(d) English garden wall bond or beveled in such way that half width is maintained at
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II one end and full width is maintained at the other end.
Ans. (d) : English Garden Wall Bond:- English
Garden wall bond constitutes three rows of stretchers
to one row of headers. It is very rarely found on
buildings outside the north of the UK, where it is
abundant and particularly prevalent on the east coast. It
was used from the late 18th Century onwards, and was
also used Occasionally for garden walls. It uses fewer Bevelled brick Queen closer
facing bricks than English bond.
80. Which of the following types of construction 83. The type of closer used in masonry work
offers comparatively better earthquake obtained by cutting a triangular portion of the
resistance based on its structural action? brick such that half a header and half a
Consider that the thickness and length of stretcher are obtained on the adjoining cut
member to be constructed is constant for any of faces is:
the following cases.
(a) Bevelled closer (b) King closer
(a) Brickwork with English bond
(c) Queen closer (d) Mitred closer
(b) Random rubble stone masonry
(c) Size stone masonry DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 29/06/2022 Shift-I
(d) Reinforced brickwork Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I 84. Which type of masonry brick bond has a
Ans. (d) : The reinforced brick masonry is totally course of headers followed by a course of
different from normal brick masonry which has steel stretchers?
reinforcement embedded in the mortar of cement and (a) Stack bond (b) English bond
coarse sand (in ratio 1:3, one part of cement and three (c) Flemish bond (d) Stretcher bond
parts of coarse sand). PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
• It offers comparatively better earthquake resistance Ans. (b) : English bond – In this type of bond alternate
based on its structural action. layers of headers & stretchers respectively which means
• Random rubble masonry in which stones are laid that one layer will be headers and other will be
either undressed or roughly dressed with suitable stretchers
mortar. It is suitable for the construction of walls of
low heights in common building.
81. In masonry, a projection built into the back of
the wall is ...............
(a) Corbel (b) Cornice
(c) Counterfort (d) Closer
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 85. Copings are provided to prevent
Ans. (c) : In masonry, a projection built into the back of (a) seepage of water
the wall is counterfort. (b) buckling in column
Construction of Superstructure 76 YCT
 (c) shrinkage of concrete 90. The termination of the wall in such a fashion
(d) cracks in wall that each alternate course at the end projects,
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 in order to provide adequate bond if the wall
Ans. (a) : Copings– It is a course of stone placed upon construction is continued at a later stage is
the exposed top of an external wall to prevent the generally termed as ..............
seepage of water. (a) Frog (b) Racking back
• Copings are provided to prevent seepage of water. (c) Toothing (d) Bevelled closer
86. In brick masonry, the short vertical joints in ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
the face of the wall that fall vertically over one Ans. (c) : Toothing– It is the termination of the wall in
another in the alternate courses are called: a such a fashion that each alternate course at the end
(a) arrises (b) reveals projects in order to provide adequate bond if the wall
(c) perpends (d) quoins construction is continued at a later stage is generally
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023 termed as toothing.
Ans. (c) : Perpends– The short vertical joints in the 91. .......... junction is formed when two walls meet
face of the wall that fall vertically over one another in each other at angles other than right angles.
the alternate course is called as perpends. Instead of (a) Squaint (b) Cross
perpends a practical term frequently used is cross joints. (c) Tee (d) Oblique
Arises–The edge of the brick where its surfaces ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
intersect. Ans. (a) : Squaint junction is formed when two walls
Quoins– The stones used at the corners are quoins. meet each other at angles other than right angles.
Bat– Any portion of a brick cut or broken across its width. 92. Which of the below bond will you prefer to
87. The portion of bricks cut across the width in construct a 10 cm thick partition wall?
half is called (a) Single flemish bond (b) Header bond
(a) half split (b) half closer (c) Stretcher bond (d) English bond
(c) half bed (d) half bat KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023
MH WRD CEA 31/12/2023 Shift-I Ans. (c) : Stretcher bond– The bond will be prefer to
Ans. (d) : Bat– The portion of a brick cut across the construct a 10 cm thick partition wall. It is laid with its
width is known as bat. Thus a bat is smaller in length length parallel to face of the wall generally used for
than the full brick. partition walls.
Header bond– All the bricks are laid as header or full
brick which is laid with it's width parallel to face the wall.
93. Minimum area for WC in a toilet according to
NBC:
(a) 1.1m2 (b) 1.3 m2
2
Half Bat (c) 1.5 m (d) 0.9 m2
Closer– The portion of a brick cut in such a way that its Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023
one long face remain uncut, is known as closer. Ans. (a) : As per NBC the minimum areas or sizes
88. Which type of bond gives a more pleasing for individual rooms and apartments are listed below.
appearance but is not a strong as English bond? Type of room Minimum area
(a) Stretcher bond (b) Head bond Kitchen only 4.8 m2 (min-width 1.8 m)
(c) English bond (d) Flemish bond Kitchen with store 5.5 m2 (min-width 1.8 m)
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 room
Ans. (d) : Flemish bond– Flemish bond also known as Bathroom 1.8 m2
Dutch bond is created by laying alternate headers and Water closet (wc) 2
1.1 m of floor area
stretchers in a single course. The next course of brick is
land such that header lies in middle of the stretcher in Bathroom & water 2.8 m2
the course below, ie. the alternate headers of each closet combined
course are centered on the stretcher of course below. 94. ___________is a large open space located
Every alternate course of Flemish bond starts with within a building. It is often used to light a
header at the corner. central circulation or public area by daylight
89. Using one brick placed on a ledge, the thickness admitted through a glass roof or wall.
of a brick wall should be measured in how (a) Atrium (b) Solarium
many centimetres? (c) Translucent walls (d) Skylights
(a) 7.5 cm (b) 12.5 cm JKSSB Draftsman 24.09.2023
(c) 25 cm (d) 37.5 cm Ans. (a) Atrium is a large open space located within a
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 building. It is often used to light a central circulation or
Ans. (a) : Conventional sized of brick- public area by daylight admitted through a glass roof or
22.4 cm × 11.4 cm × 7.6 cm well. Atrium provide some daylight to adjacent working
• If one brick placed on a ledge, the thickness of a brick areas, but the amount is often small and does not
wall should be measured in 7.6 ⇒7.5 cm penetrate very far.

Construction of Superstructure 77 YCT

95. Kitchen should have an aspect of • Burnt clay hollow brick at present are being used on a
(a) North limited scale for walls and partitions. These bricks are
(b) East or North-East light in weight and being hollow, impart thermal
(c) South-West insulation to the building.
(d) West 99. Into how many types are hollow concrete
Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022 bricks classified?
Ans. (b) : Aspect of various part of building- (a) Two (b) Five
Part Aspect (c) Three (d) Four
Kitchen, main entrance East or PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
north east
Ans (c) : Hollow concrete blocks (Open and closed
Dining room, overhead water tank West cavity types)– These blocks are classified by I.S. into
Porch, verndah, pooja place North-East the following three grades–
Balcony, living room North (i) Grade A– These blocks are used for load bearing
Toilets, staircase South walls. They should have a minimum density of
Note– For an ideal kitchen of all the aspects means 1500 kg/m3.
an ideal kitchen should be, faced towards east or (ii) Grade B– These are also used for load baring
north east easily get sunrays. walls and its density below 1500 kg/m3 but not less
96. In residential buildings, the height of all rooms than 1000 kg/m3.
for human habitation shall not be less than (iii) Grade C– These are used for non-load bearing
________ m measured from the surface of the walls and its density is not less than 1000 kg/m3.
floor to bottom of the ceiling slab.
100. What should be the quality of bricks used in
(a) 2.50 (b) 2.75
brick masonry construction?
(c) 3.00 (d) .30
(a) Bricks with non-uniform colour
Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023
(b) Bricks that are under-brunt
Ans. (b) : (c) Bricks that are over-sized
• For residential, business and mercantile buildings, (d) Bricks of good quality with uniform colour,
the height of all rooms for human habitation shall not
well burnt, with exact shape and size
be less than 2.75 m measured from the surface of the
floor to the lowest point of the ceiling (Bottom of HSSC JE 18.02.2024
slab) Ans. (d) : Property of Bricks–
• In case of Bathrooms, stores, water closet etc the • Bricks should be uniform in colour, shape and size.
height not less than 2.4 m measured from the surface Standard size of bricks should be maintained.
of the floor to lowest point of ceiling. • They should be sound and compact.
97. Minimum side of a kitchen in a residential • They should be free from cracks and other flows
building is such as air bubbles, stone nodules etc. with sharp and
(a) 0.8 m (b) 1.2 m square edges.
(c) 1.8 m (d) 2.4 m • Brick should neither over burnt nor under brunt.
Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022 101. What is the advantages of using bricks instead
Ans. (c) : Height of kitchen– 2.75 m, except for the of stones in masonry?
portion to accommodate floor trap of the upper floor. (a) Bricks are heavier than stones
Size– Area of kitchen shall not be less than 5.0 m2 with (b) Bricks have better fire and weather resistance
a minimum width of 1.8 m. (c) Bricks are more expensive than stones
• For separate stone it is reduced to 4.5 m2. (d) Bricks are only available in certain regions
Note– Minimum side of kitchen in a residential
HSSC JE 18.02.2024
building is 1.8.
Ans. (b) : Brick work is cheaper at places where stones
98. Burnt clay hollow blocks (IS : 3952), is also
are not available.
known as______
(a) chuffs blocks • Generally brick masonry can be constructed with
less skilled masons.
(b) spots blocks
(c) perforated blocks • Bricks are easy to handle, no special lifting
(d) cellular blocks equipment is required.
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I • Brick masonry can be constructed in any type of
mortar.
Ans. (d) : Burnt clay hollow blocks is also known as
cellular blocks. Cellular block are masonry units that • The dead load of brick is much less.
contain one or more formed voids that do not fully • Bricks masonry have better fire and weather
penetrate the block. resistance than stone masonry.
Construction of Superstructure 78 YCT
 FLOORS The rigidity of the granite flooring is higher as
compared to the other flooring materials.
Floors are the horizontal units of a building structure
which divide the building into different levels. Granite flooring can be used in damp regions as it
The division of vertical occupation is called floors offers resistance to moisture.
and the exposed top surfaces of floors are formed as Granite flooring is difficult to install as compared to
flooring. other flooring materials.
A floor consists of two components i.e. base and
flooring or floor finish.

FLOOR FINISH
Kota Floor Finish Ceramic Tiles and Vitrified Tiles
As Kota stones are locally available and possess
Ceramic tiles are composed of clay. The clay mixed
sufficient strength, it is used as flooring material
with water is baked at a high temperature to
widely.
These are fine-grained sedimentary stones consisting manufacture the ceramic tiles.
the silica and calcium carbonate. These types of The tiles that are prepared by mixing 40% clay and
flooring are shiny as well as durable. 60% silica through the process of verification are
This type of flooring provides flexibility during known as vitrified tiles.
finishing. The vitrified clay consists of clay, feldspar, quartz,
and silica.
Ceramic tiles give a natural earthen appearance
while vitrified tiles give an artificial glassy
appearance.
The breaking strength of the ceramic tiles varies
from 700 N to 1000 N while the vitrified tiles have a
breaking strength of more than 1100 N.
The flexural strength of ceramic tiles is lesser than
vitrified tile.
Marble Floor Finish
Marble stones are white in color however blue, pink,
yellow, and black shades may also exist due to the
impurities present in the marble.
Marble is a naturally available stone with a very
high ability to get finished. It gives a smooth and
elegant appearance.
Marble flooring is highly durable. The floor remains Paver Blocks
stain free if maintained properly. The paver blocks are prepared by mixing the cement
Marble stone is a good choice for flooring material and sand in different rations. These blocks are
but it may remain slippery under moisture. prefabricated in the factories.
Granite Floor Finish The paver blocks are very durable and can last up to
It is composed of minerals like feldspar and quartz. 20 years.
It is nonporous in nature and durable as a flooring These can be interlocked with each other. Hence,
material. these are easy to install.
Building Finishes 79 YCT
 The paver blocks are easy to remove and reinstall. If PLASTERING (IS 2402-1963)
one block is damaged, it can be replaced.
Plastering is the process of covering rough and
uneven surfaces with a plastic material or mortar to
obtain an even, smooth and durable surface is called
plaster.
It protects the external surface of the building from
environmental effects such as rain and wind.
Cement, lime and mud are used as binding material.
It helps in protecting building surfaces from bugs or
insects.
Sand controls, strength, adhesive property, porosity
Concrete Flooring and shrinkage etc. of plasters.
Concrete flooring is widely used in residential and Generally the plastering is done with two coat
public buildings. (thickness > 15 mm) and its total thickness is taken
The concrete floors are strong, durable, and 12 mm, 15 mm and 20 mm.
relatively economical. Plaster thickness for CC and RCC surfaces as beam,
lintel, slab are taken 6 mm.
Procedure of Plastering
Surface preparation:
All mortar joints have to be cleaned up to a depth of
10 mm in the brick mortar and 15 mm in the stone
mortar for better plastering.
If plastering is to be done on an old wall surface, all
After the preparation of the base, the area is divided dust, paints, oil, grease, etc. should
into rectangles or squares with the help of wooden be removed.
panels. The size of the sides of the squares or Groundwork before plastering:
rectangles should not be more than 1.5 m. To get plastering of uniform thickness, the wall
M15 or M20 concrete mix is used for the surface is marked with dots. Dots refer to plastering
construction of the concrete floor. a small patch of size 15mm x 15mm with a thickness
The concrete floors have sufficient strength. These of 10 mm.
are durable in nature. These dots are fixed horizontally and vertically at a
The concrete flooring offers good resistance to distance of 2 m between them from center to center.
dampness. Base coat application:
The concrete floors can be used for any loading The thickness of base coat plastering in brick
conditions. masonry is kept around 12 mm and in concrete
PROCESS OF LAYING masonry, it is 9 mm.
The construction of the wall must be completed In base coat, the ratio of cement to sand is 1:3 to 1:6
before the beginning of the construction of the floor. Finish coating application:
The area of the floor is cleaned. The roots, The finishing coat thickness varies from 2 to 3 mm.
vegetation, and any other irrelevant material is The ratio of cement to sand is 1:4 to 1:6.
removed properly. Application is done from top to bottom and in one
The reference marks above 15 cm of the floor level single operation so that no cracks can be developed.
are marked on the walls. These marks are used as a Curing after plastering:
reference while constructing the floor. After finishing the coat, the water sprinkling is done
The soil spread on the floor according to the for at least 7 days to gain proper strength and
required slope. The soil is properly compacted to hardness.
avoid settlements. Plaster of Paris (POP)
The layer of lime concrete or cement concrete of a Plaster of Paris is made by heating finely powered
depth of 10 cm to 15 cm is placed on the floor. The gypsum at 160°C - 170°C. It is white in color.
concrete is compacted and rammed properly. It starts to get settle within 3 - 4 minutes of adding
The curing by sprinkling the water on the concrete is water. So, retarders are added in POP to delay the
done after setting the concrete. setting time.
After setting, the base layer is cleaned and flooring POP is used in combination with lime for repairing
is provided. The base must be cleaned properly potholes and cracking on the surface finish and for
before providing the topping. ornamentals work.
Building Finishes 80 YCT
 It is very light in weight. It acts as a sound insulator. POINTING
Its setting time is less and there is no change in
volume after set, so there is no shrinkage on drying. Pointing is the finishing of mortar joint in brick or
stone masonry construction.
Types of plastering - Pointing is the implementry of the joints to a depth
1. Cement Plastering of 10-20 mm while mortar is still soft and filling it
2. Lime Plastering with better quality of mortar in desired shape.
3. Mud Plastering Mortar for pointing-
4. Stucco Plastering 1. Cement mortar (1:2 - 1:3) cement : Sand
5. Barium Plaster 2. Lime mortar, 1 : 2 (Fat lime : Sand/Surkhi)
Stucco plaster is made of aggregates, water, and Types of pointing-
binder. The binder can be lime or cement. In
conventional times, the stucco plaster is created
from lime while in modern times it is prepared with
cement.
Sponge Finish
The sponge finish is also called sand finish. This is
done in two coats.
In the first layer, the cement sand is taken in the
ratio of 1:4. The first layer is provided with a
thickness of 12 mm.
The sponge helps in getting a smooth render finish

Pebble Finish
In the pebble finishing, the small pieces of stones
having diameters from 10 mm to 20 mm are dashed
on the surface of the wall. The mortar used in the
plastering has a cement-sand ratio of 1:3. The
pebbles should be washed with water properly to
remove the impurities
The pebble finish offers a rough surface
A pebble finish is used for the exterior walls.

1. Flush pointing- It is formed by removing the excess

mortar from the joint. This is the simplest type of
pointing and widely used in brick and stone masonry
face. It does not give good appearance but it is more
durable.
Steps of cement plastering- 2. Struck pointing- This is modification flush pointing
(i) Rendering Coat- It is the first coat of plaster (12 in which the face of the pointing is kept inclined
mm). with its upper edge pressed inside the face of
masonry by 10 mm. This pointing drains water
(ii) Under/Floating Coats- It is the second coat of
easily.
plaster done under the finishing coat (6 - 9 mm)
3. Tuck pointing-
This coat provides smooth, uniform and sound When the pressed mortar is in green state top and
surface for the final coat. bottom edge of the joint are cut parallel (in rectangle
(iii) Finishing/Final Setting Coat-These are final coat form 5 mm × 3 mm) so as to have uniformly raised
of plastering (2-3mm). band outside about 3 - 6 mm.
Building Finishes 81 YCT
4. Keyed or grooved or rubbed pointing- Requirements of a roof :
It is the modification of flush pointing in which It should have adequate slope to drain the rain and
grooves is formed at its mid height by a pointing snow.
tools. It should be strong, stable and durable to take the
5. Weathered pointing- external loads.
In this type of pointing the projection in the form of It should also provide good architectural appearance.
a vee-shapp is formed with outside projection. ROOFING MATERIALS
6. Beaded pointing- Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
In the beaded pointing, a semi-circular strip extends RCC slabs are widely used as roofs in residential
beyond the wall. and public buildings.
PAINTING If the span of the roof is more than 3 m, beams can
also be provided to support the slab.
Painting may be defined as an oily coating that is
RCC slabs offer sufficient resistance to fire and
provided on the surface of wood, masonry, iron, etc.
dampness. The RCC slabs are durable and long-
A good paint should have sufficient covering
lasting.
capacity. It should be cheap and must dry quickly.
RCC slabs are laid in the following three steps-
Some of the common paints in use are oil paint, 1. At the initial stage, the concrete requires support
cement paint, synthetic rubber paint and emulsion after poring. So, the formwork is erected in the first
paint. step.
• Preparation of surface : 2. The concrete is strong in compression but weak in
It is the process by which the surface is clean to take tension. So, the reinforcement is designed for the
an optimum paint. concrete. The steel bars are provided at the designed
In wood work knot should be avoided as there is a spacing in the second step.
possibility of resinous material coming out of them. 3. The concrete mix is designed according to the codal
In case of iron and steel works, the surface free from provisions. M 15 or M 20 concrete mix can be used
rust, greeze and seals before application of primary in the construction of roofs.
coat.
The surface is washed with solution of size, soft
soap and water in the proportion of 2 : 1 : 18.
Methods of Application
Brush: Paintbrush is widely used for the application
of paint.
Roller: The painting by paintbrush takes time. So,
the roller can be used. It consists of a cylinder that
rolls while painting the surface. The paint rollers can
Thatch -
cover a large area of painting in relatively lesser These are cheapest roof covering material used in
time. village but these are combustible. It is made of
bundles of reeds or straw. Minimum thickness of
thatch should be 15 cm.
Tiles -
Tiles is the oldest roofing material that is still now a
days is using for residential building and country
houses.
Galvanized Iron Corrugated Sheets (G.I.
Sheet)-
G.I. sheets are made of iron sheets which are
Spray gun: The painting of the surfaces can be done galvanized with zinc to protect them from rusting.
by the spray guns too. The spray guns spray the This is corrugated because of it provide additional
paint on the surface through the air.
strength for that thickness.
ROOFS End lap ≮ 15 cm.
Roof is defined as the upper most part of the
building which is being provided as structural 1
Side lap - 1 to 2 corrugation.
covering to protect building from weather, rain, 2
snow, humidity, wind, sun etc. Slope of sheet is not flatter than 1 in 4.
Building Finishes 82 YCT
 Asbestos Cement Sheet (A.C. sheets)- External angle between the intersection of two roof
These sheets are made of Portland cement and 15% surface is less than 1800.
asbestos fibers. This is fire resisting sheets. 8. Hip-
Width - 1.05 m, A ridge or line of intersection of sloping roof surface
Length - 1.5 m, 1.75, 2.0, 2.25, 2.5, having an exterior angle greater than 1800.
2.75 and 3.0m
Thickness - 6 - 7 mm
CLASSIFICATION OF ROOFS
1. Flat Roof-
A roof laid at an angle of less than 100 with
horizontal is called flat roof. This roof can be
conveniently used as terrace for various purpose like
play, sleep etc.
It is best suitable for a small span.
It is suitable for high temperature, low rain fall and
provides better resistance against earthquake shocks.

9. Gable-
A triangular shaped end portion of a pitched roof is
called gable end.
10. Verge-
Edge of roofing materials like sheets, tiles etc.
2. Sloping or Pitched Roof- running between the eaves and ridge and projecting
A roof that slopes downward in two parts at an angle beyond the gable end of the pitched roof is termed as
from a ridge. Pitched roof is laid at any angle of verge.
more than 100. Pitched roof is used in area of heavy
11. Purlin-
rainfall, snowfall and in coastal region.
A horizontal member of wood or steel parallel to
Pitch of roof truss is the ratio of its vertical rise to its
horizontal span. ridge and above the principal rafter to support the
common rafter is known as purlin. Purlins are the
Technical term related to pitched/sloping flexural member.
roof It is spanning between two adjacent roof trusses.
1. Span- Clear distance between the support of truss.
12. Rafter-
1 1 Rafters are those timber timber or steel inclined
Economical spacing of roof truss = to of span.
3 5 members normal to the ridge that supports covering
2. Rise- Vertical distance between the wall plate and material of a sloping roof.
top of the ridge.
3. Slope or Pitch-
Types of sloping roofs-
Inclination of the rafter/sides of roof to the • King Post Roof Truss-
horizontal line.
tan θ = Rise / Half Span
4. Eaves-
Bottom edge of the pitched roof surface which is
projected beyond the wall.
5. Ridge-
It is the top most apex line of slopy roof where both
slopes meet each other. Ridge is parallel to length of
roof.
6. Ridge board, Ridge piece or Ridge Beam-
These are horizontal beam that supports the ends of A roof truss with a central post (king post) joining
the rafters at the ridge and transfer the roof load to the ridge point to the tie beam is called king post
the gable ends or post. roof truss. King post supports the ridge and holds
7. Valley- both the principal rafter together at the ridge.
It is a acute or internal angle or a gutter formed by It provides support to the main tie and prevents it
the intersection of two sloping roof planes. from sagging.
Building Finishes 83 YCT
 To prevents the bend of principal rafter from the Questions Asked in Previous Years
middle a strut is provided.
Span adopted ≤5 m 1. Identify the type of roof shown in below figure.
Use - Garage, porch, sheds etc.
• Queen Post Truss-

(a) Lean to roof (b) Coupled roof

Queen post truss has two vertical tension member (c) Collar beam roof (d) Truss roof
called queen post. It is placed at one third distance CRIS JE 19/02/2023
from support. In this truss a horizontal beam Ans. (b) : Couple roof– This type of roof is formed by
(straining beam) connects the upper ends of queen couple or pair of rafters which slope to both the sides of
post and maintain them in position. Straining beam the ridge of the roof. Couple roof is used when the span
receive the thrust from the head of the principal is limited to 3.6 metres.
rafter.
Head of queen post is made wider to receive the two
member.
It is suitable for the span of 8 - 12 m.
• Mansard Roof-

Collar beam roof– This roof is suitable for spans up to

It is defined as the roof with slopes in all four 5 metres.
direction, but each slope has a break. This truss has
two pitches.
Mansard roof has two slopes on every side.
• Hip Roof -

Lean-to-roof– This is the simplest type of slopping

A roof whose all sides are slopes towards wall in all roof, provided either for a room of small span, or for the
four direction without break is called hip roof. verandah. It has slope only one side.
• Gable Roof -

This is a common type of pitched roof in which

slope is provided in only two direction from ridge to
supporting wall without any break.
End face of this roof formed a vertical triangle.
Building Finishes 84 YCT
2. Identify the type of roof truss shown in the 5. In a 3-coat lime plastering, the second coat is
figure. called _____.
(a) base coat
(b) rendering coat
(c) floating coat
(a) Warren (b) Howe (d) finishing coat
(c) Fink (d) King Post DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Ans. (c) : Application of plaster coats–
Ans. (b) : 1. First coat–It is also called rough coat of plastering.
2. Second coat–It is also called floating coat of
plastering.
3. Third coat–It is also known as final or finishing coat.
6. Which of the following is used as a finishing
coat for surfaces of X-ray rooms?
(a) Parian cement
(b) Barium plaster
(c) Snowcrete
(d) Colorcrete
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Barium plaster–This is made from barium
sulphate. It is use to apply as final coat on walls of X-
ray rooms, since it absorbs, X-rays and hence ensure
safety of people working in X-ray rooms.
• Snow crete and colorcrete cements–White and
3. Identify the roof truss shown in the figure. colored cement are used in plastering to get good
appearance to the surface plastered. They are usually
applied on external mass.
7. Chemical emulsion for anti-termite treatment
of floor consists of application of diluted
(a) Pratt truss (b) Kingpost truss
emulsion in holes until refusal or up to a
(c) French truss (d) Howe truss
maximum of ............. litres per hole.
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-III (a) One-half (b) One
Ans. (c) See the above explanation. (c) Three (d) Two
4. The operation of racking out of masonry joints ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
for about 13 mm depth and then filling them Ans. (b) : Chemical emulsion shall be squirted into
up with rich (1 : 3) cement-sand mortar is these holes using a hand operated pressure pump untill
called
refusal or to a maximum of one litre per hole.
(a) Dressing (b) Pointing
• The holes shall be sealed.
(c) Hipping (d) Surfacing
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II 8. Depending upon the strength required and
importance of work, proportions of cement to
Ans. (b) The operation of racking out of masonry joints sand by volume varies from ........... or more.
for about 13 mm depth and then filling them up with (a) 1 : 1 to 1 : 6
rich (1 : 3) cement-sand mortar is called pointing.
(b) 1 : 3 to 1 : 6
Type of pointing–
(c) 1 : 2 to 1 : 6
• Struck pointing (d) None of the above
• Recessed pointing ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
• Beaded pointing
Ans. (c) : Cement mortar– Depends upon strength
• Tuck pointing requirement and importance of work, proportion of
• Weather pointing cement to sand by volume varies between 1:2 to 1 : 6 or
• Grooved pointing more.
• V-pointing • Surkhi and cinders should not be used to prepare
• Flush pointing cement mortar, only sand can be used.
Building Finishes 85 YCT
9. Which of the following materials can be used 12. A lower part of plastered wall where special
for damp proofing purpose in buildings? treatment is given to make it better resistant is
(a) Hot bitumen known as :
(b) Mastic asphalt (a) Dubbing coat
(c) Concrete (b) Finishing coat
(d) All of these (c) Under coat
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 (a) Dado
Ans. (d) : The following materials are commonly used UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023
for damp proofing– Ans. (d) : Dado– This is lower part of plastered wall,
• Flexible materials like hot bitumen, bituminous felts, where special treatment is given to make it better
plastic sheet of lead, copper etc. resistance.
• Semi rigid material like mastic asphalt and other 13. __________is the process of covering rough
combination of impervious material. walls and uneven surfaces in the construction
• Rigid materials like impervious brick, stones. of houses and other structures with a plastic
• Mortar with water proofing compounds. material,
• Cement concrete with water proofing compounds. (a) Taping (b) Masonry
10. The thickness of external plaster on brick (c) Plastering (d) Holstering
(boundary) wall is MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II
(a) 20 mm (b) 12 mm Ans. (c) : Plastering– It is the process of covering
(c) 10 mm (d) 8 m rough walls and uneven surfaces in the construction of
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023 houses and other structures with a plastic material.
Ans. (a) : Plastering– It gives smooth surface water Taping– Tapping is the process of cutting a thread
proofing, heat proofing, low cost smooth surface of inside a hole so that a cap screw or bolt can be threaded
interior wall and exterior wall. into the hole.
(i) Internal plastering– Thickness provided for Masonry– Masonry is the craft of building a structure
internal plastering is 10 mm to 15 mm and mixed with brick, stone or similar material, which are often
ratio is 1 : 6. laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry
(ii) External plastering– Its thickness = 15–20 mm can also refer to the building unit (stone, brick etc.)
(iii) Ceiling plaster– Thickness = 6 mm, mix ratio themselves.
=1:4 14. Which of the following materials is used for
11. The mortar for cement pointing is made by waterproofing during the construction of
mixing cement and sand in proportion ______. foundation and for protection of the structure
(a) 1 : 5 or 1 : 6 from seepage problems?
(b) 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 (a) Plaster of Paris
(c) 1 : 4 or 1 : 5 (b) Pitch
(d) 1 : 8 or 1 : 9 (c) Portland cement
TSPSC Architecture Engg.05/09/2023 Shift-II (d) Furnace slag
Ans. (b) The operation of racking out of masonry joints SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
for about 13 mm depth and then filling them up with Ans. (b) : Waterproofing building is the method of
rich (1 : 2 or 1 : 3) cement-sand mortar is called forming a barrier over surface of foundations, roofs,
pointing. walls and other structural members of building to
Type of pointing– prevent water penetrations through these surfaces.
The following types of waterproofing in building–
• Struck pointing
1. Cementitious waterproofing
• Recessed pointing
2. Bituminous coating waterproofing
• Beaded pointing
3. Bituminous membrane waterproofing
• Tuck pointing
4. Polyurethane membrane waterproofing
• Weather pointing 5. Liquid waterproofing membrane method.
• Grooved pointing • Pitch modified bitumen waterproofing systems utilize
• V-pointing bitumen as the primary material, modified with
• Flush pointing additives such as polymers and resins.

Building Finishes 86 YCT

15. Which of the following is the easiest method of Struck pointing– In struck pointing the face of
water proofing is construction? pointing is kept inclined, this joint dispose off water
(a) Bituminous Membrane easily.
(b) Cementitious Waterproofing Beaded pointing– This type of pointing is formed by a
(c) Bituminous Coating steel or iron rod with a concave edge. It is difficult to
(d) Liquid Waterproofing Membrane maintain.
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 V-pointing– In this pointing a V-shaped groove is
formed in the mortar joint.
Ans (b) : Cementitious Waterproofing– Cementitious
18. As per IS 1661 : 1972, the recommended
water proofing is a type of water proofing system that is
thickness of single-coat plaster for both
commonly used in construction to product structure
internal and external work situations is
from water damage. Cementations waterproofing
(a) 3 mm to 5 mm
materials involve applying a cement-based mixture to
(b) 8 mm to 10 mm
the surface of the building which acts as a barrier to
(c) 10 mm to 15 mm
present water from penetrating through the surface.
(d) 12 mm to 18 mm
16. The pointing done by pressing the mortar back Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
from the edges by 5 mm or more is called
Ans. (c) : As per the Indian standard 1661, the
(a) Recessed pointing following is the thickness required for internal walls-
(b) Flush pointing
No. of coats of plastic Thickness
(c) Tuck pointing
Single coat plaster (both 10 to 15 mm
(d) V-pointing
internal and external)
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
Two cost plaster
Ans. (a) : Recessed pointing– This pointing is done by Backing coat 10 to 12 mm
pressing the mortar back from the edge by 5 mm or
Finishing coat 3 to 8 mm
more. It gives a good appearance.
Three coat plaster (for very rough surface)
Weather pointing– It is V-shaped projection outside
Base coat 10 to 15 mm
the wall surface is provided, is called weather pointing.
Second coat 3 to 8 mm
Tuck pointing– This pointing is formed by first
pressing the mortar in the racked joint and finishing Finishing coat 3 to 5 mm
flush with the face. While the pressed mortar is green, 19. Which of the following expression is correct to
groove or narrow channel, having 5 mm width and 3 find out the pigment volume concentration
mm depth is cut in the centre of the groove. number of paint?
where
17. In which of the following type of pointing, a
A = volume of pigment in the paint and
groove is formed at the centre of the height by
B = volume of non-volatile or carrier in the
a pointer?
paint
(a) Struck pointing
(b) Beaded pointing A A+B
(a) (b)
(c) Keyed pointing A−B A−B
(d) Recessed pointing B A
(c) (d)
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023 A+B A+B
Ans. (c) : Pointing– Pointing is the finishing of mortar MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III
joints in the construction of brick masonry GAIL Sr. Assoc. 13.05.2023
It is classified as following types– Ans. (d) : Pigment volume concentration–
Recessed pointing– In this case the face of the pointing PVC– It is the ratio of volume of pigment to the volume
is kept vertical and it is pressed inside the wall surface of total non-volatile material present in a coating.
by a suitable tool to depth of 5 mm or more A
PVC =
Keyed or rubbed or grooved pointing– In this type A+B
pointing, a groove is formed by a pointer at the centre of Where,
height. It gives better appearance and is generally A = volume of pigment in the paint
adopted. B = volume of non-volatile or carrier in the paint

Building Finishes 87 YCT

 CRACKS GUNITING
Cracks in concrete developed due to use of unsound Guniting is the process of repairing concrete work
material, bad workmanship, use of high W/C ratio. which has been damaged due to inferior work or
other reasons. It is also used for providing an
• Causes of cracks in concrete :
impervious layer.
Cracks in concrete may be plastic shrinkage cracks,
Cement gun is used for this process under a pressure
settlement cracks, cracks due to bleeding, cracks due of 10 - 30 N/cm2.
to delayed concrete costing and cracks due to Repair work completed in a short time in any
construction effects. condition by this process.
Type of cracks : Guniting is the mixture of cement and sand with
1. Shrinkage cracks : proportion of 1 : 3.
They are common in freshly poured concrete and Guniting is extensively used to retaliate concrete
result from the natural drying and curing process. bridge, dam, spillways, buildings etc.
As water evaporates, the concrete shrinks, leading to Distance of spraying should be about 0.6 - 1.5 m and
small, often fine cracks on the surface. angle is perpendicular from treatment surface.
2. Overloading cracks : Gunite is usually used for applying mortar of lesser
thickness, and shotcrete is used for placing concrete
It form in concrete when excessive weight is put on
of larger thickness.
a concrete slab.
The materials used for gunite are cement, sand and
3. Hairline cracks : water and those used for shotcrete are cement, sand,
It form due to concrete settling while it's curing. small aggregate and water.
They are usually very thin cracks, but they can run
very deep in the slab, as well. SETTLEMENT
4. Foundation settlement cracks : The vertical downward movement of the base of a
structure.
It is usually found around the corners or perimeter of
Settlement effect upon the structure depends on its
building in the form of a stair-step pattern within the magnitude, its uniformity the length of the time over
wall. which it take place and nature of structure itself.
5. Structural cracks :
Cause of settlement :
They are more serious and can compromise the
Elastic compression of the foundation and the
integrity of a concrete structure. underlying soil.
6. Settlement cracks : In elastic (or plastic) compression of the underlying
If there is any obstruction to uniform settlement due soils, which is much layer than the elastic
to reinforcement or large size of aggregate, then it compression.
creates some voids or cracks. Such types of cracks is Ground water lowering, the lowering of water level
called settlement crack. in fine grained soils cause consolidation settlement.
Grouting of concrete structures and repair : Vibrations due to pile driving, blasting and
Grouting in concrete is an injection process to fill up oscillating machineries may cause settlement in
the cracks, voids and fissures with select grouting deposits of granular soils.
materials under specified controlled pressure to Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive clays.
strengthen the structure. Ground movement on earth slopes, such as surface
Grouting material will by plyable, plastic and non- erosion, slow creep or land slide.
shrink so that voids can be completely filled. Type of structure Allowable maximum
Repair of cracks by epoxy grouting : settlement (mm)
Epoxy is a polymer-based synthetic resin with Commercial and 25
balanced mechanical, chemical, and adhesive institutional building
strength properties. Industrial building 38
Epoxy is quick setting, experiences low shrinkage Warehouses 50
enjoys high strength and high adhesion, has a low Special machinery Less than 0.5 mm
viscosity and has good resistance to all chemicals. foundation

Building Maintenance 88 YCT

 Questions Asked in Previous Years Ans. (b) : The formation of cement paste at the top
surface of concrete when worked up with trowel and
1. Which of the following is not an ingredient of float is known as Laitance.
the Epoxy Mortar? 7. The type of floor preferred for maintaining
(a) Resin (b) Hardener 'clean room' condition is ............. flooring.
(c) Silica sand (d) Cement (a) Magnesite (b) IPS
GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022 (c) Linoleum (d) PVC vinyl
Ans. (d) : Cement is not an ingredient of the epoxy ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
mortar. Ans. (d) : The PVC vinyl flooring preferred for
• Preparation of epoxy mortar involves premixing maintaining 'clean room'.
proper quantities of epoxy resin and hardener and then
8. What is the thickness of the concrete base
mixing the resin system with sand to make the epoxy
course provided for ground floors?
mortar.
(a) 10 to 50 mm (b) 200 to 250 mm
2. Light plane is marked at an angle of (c) 150 to 200 mm (d) None of the above
(a) 30° (b) 45° HSSC JE 18.02.2024
(c) 60° (d) 90°
Ans. (c) : Preparation of base concrete– Usually over
GUJARAT RMC AE 15/05/2022 the sub-base a layer a layer of lime surkhi brick jelly
Ans. (c) : Light plane is marked at an angle of 600.
 1
3. In roof trusses, what is ridge line? concrete 1:1:3  or cement concrete (1 : 4 : 8 or 1 : 5 :
(a) A line drawn by meeting all points of same  2
pitch in the truss 10) with 38 mm aggregate is laid in one layer and
(b) A line drawn by meeting all the points of beaten down by wooden rammers to the required level
equal slope in truss and grade. The average depth of this layer should not be
(c) None of the given options less than 10 cm.
(d) A line drawn by meeting all the apex points • The thickness of concrete base course provided 100 to
of roof truss 150 mm.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I 9. What is the main reason for moisture rising
Ans. (d) : Ridge line – The ridge line is the line joining from the ground into the foundation, floor and
the vertices (apex point) of the trusses, special forms of walls?
ridges of roof covering material are usually available. (a) Rain water entering the building components
Rise – It is defined as the distance from the highest (b) Poor plaster coat on the external walls
point to the joining support. (c) Capillary action
Eaves – The bottom edge of the inclined roof surface is (d) Improper fixing of downtake pipes
called have. HSSC JE 18.02.2024
4. In a drawing__ are also known as pointer lines Ans. (c) : Rising damp from the Ground– The ground
(a) Leaders (b) Dimension lines around the foundations is always damp. Moisture rises
into the brick or stonework by capillary attraction and
(c) Extension lines (d) Break lines
unless a damp-proof.
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Course is provided above ground level the moisture will
Ans. (a) : In a drawing Dimension lines are also known rise causing considerable dampness to walls and floors.
as pointer lines.
10. The maximum size of the aggregate used in a
5. ________consists of a finishing coat of small damp proof course is about
pieces of broken tiles of China glazed or of (a) 6 mm (b) 10 mm
marble arranged in different patterns set in (c) 15 mm (d) 20 mm
lime-surkhi or cement mortar.
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
(a) Mosaic Flooring (b) Marble Flooring
(c) Tiles Flooring (d) Stone Flooring Ans. (b) : Damp proofing course in the form of 25-40
mm thick impervious concrete layer should be provided
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II
at the plinth level.
Ans. (a) : Mosaic flooring– It consist of a finishing
• This prevents the ingress of moisture from footing
coat of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of
and soil.
marble arranged in different pattern, set in lime-surkhi
or cement mortar. The base course is concrete flooring DPC concrete proportion should not be leaner than 1 :
and on it 30 to 40 mm mortar layer is provided. 1.5 : 3 (cement : sand : course agg.)
6. The formation of cement paste at the top • The maximum size of aggregate is 10–12.5 mm.
surface of concrete when worked up with 11. Which of the following is NOT the source of
trowel and float is known as : dampness?
(a) Shrinkage (b) Laitance (a) Penetration of rain-water through unprotected
(c) Spalling (d) Segregation tops
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 (b) Foundation wall
Building Maintenance 89 YCT
 (c) DPC (Damp proof course) Ans. (a) : Terrazzo flooring– Terrazo is a composite
(d) Wet soil material, poured in place or precast, which is used for
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-II floor and wall treatments. It consists of chips of marble,
Ans. (c) : Dampness in building, often referred as the quartz, granite, glass or other suitable material, poured
instruction of moisture into a structure through its walls, with a cementitious binder, polymeric or a combination
floors and other element. of both. It is constructed with the 4 to 6 mm marble
Sources of dampness– chips.
1. Leaking roof 16. Which of the following types of asphalt is
2. Plumbing leak commonly used for waterproofing and damp-
3. Rising damp proofing applications?
4. Penetration of rain water through unprotected tops (a) Cutback asphalt
5. Poor drainage
(b) Emulsified asphalt
6. Foundation wall
(c) Mastic asphalt
7. Wet soil.
(d) Modified asphalt
Note–Damp proof course is not the source of
dampness. MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
12. A type of flooring made with a special Ans. (c) : Mastic Asphalt- This is obtained by heating
aggregate of marble chips mixed wih white and the asphalt with sand and miner fillers. This is semi
coloured cement is called rigid material and forms an excellent impervious layer
(a) Granolithic flooring for damp proofing i.e. D.P.C.
(b) Terrazzo flooring A good mastic asphalt has many characteristic such as
(c) Mosaic flooring high durability, excellent water-proofing quality,
(d) Asphalt flooring reasonable elasticity etc.
JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023 17. Which property of tar makes it suitable for
Ans. (b) Terrazzo flooring– Terrazo is a composite waterproofing applications?
material, poured in place or precast, which is used for (a) Very low permeability
floor and wall treatments. It consists of chips of marble, (b) Low viscosity
quartz, granite, glass or other suitable material, poured (c) Low adhesion
with a cementitious binder, polymeric or a combination (d) High porosity
of both. MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
13. Which of the following is the composition of Ans. (a) : Tar:- It is dark (deep black) viscous liquid
Terrazo flooring? (very low permeability) produced by destructive
(a) Chips, powder, cement distillation of organic material such a coal, oil lignite and
(b) Chips, powder, concrete wool. Depending upon the source of origin it is classified
(c) Chips, cement as coal tar and mineral tar. Tar is resistant to petroleum
(d) Chips, concrete based solvents. It has very low bitumen content.
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-I
18. The addition of a small portion of granite
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. polishing waste in the design mix results in:
14. The most commonly used damp proofing (a) lighter concrete
material is (b) higher void ratio
(a) Bitumen (b) Cement concrete (c) decreased strength
(c) Paraffin way (d) Cement solution (d) improved packing density
WBPSC Sub Engg. 18/12/2022 SSC JE Civil 14/11/2022 Shift-I
Ans. (a) : DPC– Damp proofing course is provided to Ans. (d) : Granite polishing waste– It is the waste of
prevent the entry of damp or moisture in the building. granite stone generated during the cutting and polishing
• Common materials are used for damp proofing of granite stone in the production of stoneware.
include bitumen, polyethylene sheeting and plastic The granite polishing contribution mainly arises from
membrane. the resulting improvement in particle packing and also
• Bitumen is applied to the surface of concrete and improved packing density in the design mix.
masonry walls to create a water proof seal. 19. How much is the specified average minimum
15. A floor constructed with the 4 to 6 mm marble flexural strength of Class 3 flooring tile,
chips, is know as_______. according to IS 1478:1992?
(a) Terrazzo floor (a) 2.5 N/mm width
(b) Chips floor (b) 3 N/mm width
(c) Chips floor & Mortar floor (c) 3.5 N/mm width
(d) Mortar floor (d) 6 N/mm width
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18/11/2022 Shift-II CSPHCL JE 14.02.2022
Building Maintenance 90 YCT
Ans. (a) : Classification of flooring tiles, as per IS : Gable roof– It is the triangular portion of the end wall
1478-1992. of a sloped roof formed by continuing the end wall up
Class Class Class within the roof. Thus the gable has two slopes with
Characteristics ridge in between.
A B C
Water absorption percent (max.) 10 19 24 24. Choose the option that best describes 'Gable'.
Flexural strength kg/cm width (a) The triangular upper part of a wall formed at
the end of a pitched roof
(Minimum)
(b) The angle formed at the intersection of two
(a) Average 6 3.5 2.5 roof slopes is known as hip
(b) Individual 5 3.0 2.0 (c) The wooden pieces which are placed
Impact maximum height in mm horizontally on principal rafters to carry the
of drop of steel balt common rafters
(a) 15 mm thick 25 20 15 (d) The lower edge of a roof which are resting
(b) 20 mm thick 60 50 40 upon or projecting beyond the supporting
(c) 25 mm thick 75 65 50 walls
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
(d) 30 mm thick 80 70 60
Ans. (a) : Gable roof– The term gable roof can be
20. Which of the following repair method is used confusing because a gable is not an actual roof shape.
for stopping leakages in dams, basements, Gables are the triangular areas created in the upper part
swimming pools? of a wall because of the juncture of the sloping ends of a
(a) Plastering (b) Injection double pitched roof.
(c) Placing (d) Sealant
NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Injection repair method is used for stopping
leakages in dams, basements swimming pools.
• Sealants are substances used to seal, block, or close
gaps between building materials to prevent fluids, air
and pests from passing through.
21. In a composite roof truss, the tension members
are of .............. and compression member of 25. How many sides (sloping surface) in Hip Roof,
............... slides downward toward walls?
(a) Steel, timber (b) Timber, steel (a) Two (b) Four
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of (a) and (b) (c) Three (d) One
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
Ans. (a) : Due to combination of two materials, this Ans. (b) : Hipped roof– It has slopes on all four sides.
truss known as composite roof truss. The sides are all equal length and come together at the
• In this roof the tension members are made from steel top to form a ridge.
and compression members are made from timber. Gable end roof– It is also known as pitched or peaked
22. A Queen Post roof is Suitable for span which of roof and is recognized by triangular shape.
the following span? Gambrel roof– It is also known as a barn roof. It is
(a) 3-7 m (b) 5-9 m similar to mansard, the difference is that the Gambrel
(c) 8-12 m (d) 2-5 m only has two sides, while the mansard has four.
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023 26. The roof formed by four sloping surface in four
Ans. (c) : Various types of truss and its span– directions_______.
(a) Flat roof (b) Hip roof
Truss span
(c) Dutch roof (d) Cross roof
King post truss 5-8 m UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
Queen post truss 8-12 m Ans. (b) : Hip roof– This roof is formed by four
Howe truss 6-30 m sloping surfaces in four direction. At the end faces
Pratt truss 6-10 m sloped triangle are formed.
Combination of king and queen upto 18 m Flat roof– It is consideral suitable for building in plains
truss or, in hot regions, where rainfall is moderate, and where
23. A ............ roof is a single sloping surface or roof no snowfall occurs, flat roofs are equally applicable to
building of any size and shape.
plane angled in only one direction.
(a) oblique (b) gable 27. In roof trusses, pitch is defined as -
(a) None of the given options
(c) monopitched (d) saddle
(b) Difference between span and rise
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 (c) Span × rise
Ans (c) : Monopitched roof- The roofs that slope in (d) Ratio between span and rise
one direction only or a single sloping surface. MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I
Building Maintenance 91 YCT
 Ans. (d) : Pitch– For a symmetrical, it is defined as the (c) GI sheets are thin; AC sheets are not as thin
ratio of rise to span. It is 1/4 to 1/6 of its slope for as GI sheets.
symmetrical trusses = 1/2 slope @ 45° (d) Chances of breaking during handling is more
Slope– Slope of a symmetrical truss is defined as the with AC sheets when compared to GI sheets.
ratio of its rise to half the span. It is expressed as 1 in or CRIS JE 19/02/2023
as degree. It is thus numerically double the pitch.
Ans. (b) : Comparison between GI and AC sheets
28. In roof trusses, the value of pitch is taken as -
GI Sheets AC Sheets
(a) 1/3 to 1/6 (b) 1/2 to 1/3
(c) 1/2 to 1/5 (d) 1/3 to 1/5 • These sheets are thin • They are not as thin
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I as GI sheets.
Ans. (a) : In roof trusses the value of pitch is taken as • Chances of corrosion • Corrosion resistant
1/3 to 1/6. • They have low fire • They have good fire
• The spacing of roof trusses is kept 1/3 to 1/5 of the resistance resistance
span. • They are unbreakable • chances of Breaking
Note– For symmetrical trusses, the pitch is equal to half and easy to handle.
the inclination of the top chord. • Low resistance to • more resistance to
29. A sloping beam is called: Acid Acid.
(a) Joist (b) Purlin • Initial cost is high • Initial cost is low.
(c) Rafter (d) Girder
32. King post truss is suitable for the span of
GETCO VS JE 04/01/2022 Shift-III
(a) 5 to 8 m (b) 12 to 15 m
Ans. (c) : Rafter– A rafter is defined as one of a series (c) 18 to 21 m (d) 24 to 27 m
of sloped structural pieces (typically wooden beams)
that extend from the hip or ridge to eave, wall plate or GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
downslope perimeter. Ans. (a) : Various types of truss and its span–
Purlin– Purlin is a horizontal beam or bar used for Truss span
structural support in structure most often below the roof. King post truss 5-8 m
30. Which of the following is a disadvantage of a Queen post truss 8-12 m
flat roof compared to a pitched roof? Howe truss 6-30 m
(a) Wind resistance Pratt truss 6-10 m
(b) Initial cost
Combination of king and queen truss upto 18 m
(c) Insulating properties
(d) Overall economy 33. Cement mortar of fluid consistency used to fill
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I the voids and joints in masonry and to repair
the cracks is known as:
Ans. (b) : Comparison between flat roofs and
(a) Guniting and permeability
pitched roofs:–
Advantage of flat roofs over pitched roofs are as (b) Guniting
following (c) Grout
• Terrace of flat roof is useful for assembly whereas (d) Permeability
top of sloping roof has no utility. UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I
• Flat roof gives better thermal comfort to people Ans. (c) : Grout– Fluid consistency of cement mortar
living under is. used to fill the voids and joints in masonry and to repair
Flat roof has get the following disadvantages over the cracks is called as Grout. It is also used to increase
pitched roofs' the bearing capacity of soil by injection, Grouts finds
• Flat roofs are heavier. Hence their cost per unit area extensive use in dams to fill the cracks.
covered is more. The added weight makes column Guniting– Application of mortar or concrete under
and footings larger pneumatic pressure through a cement gun is known as
• It difficult to get large column-free areas under flat guniting. It is generally used for construction of thin
roofs whereas pitched roofs can be used to get over section like as lining of tunnels, swimming pools,
for large column free area. repairing of deteriorated concrete damaged by fire.
31. The comparison in the properties of • Thickness of gunite should not be less than 40 mm for
Galvanized Iron corrugated sheets (GI sheets) repairing structures.
and Asbestos Cement sheets (AC sheets) used 34. The application of mortar or concrete under
for roofing are given as answer options. Select pneumatic pressure through a cement gun is
the Incorrect one. known as_______.
(a) GI sheets are less fire resistant. Ac sheets are
(a) plastering (b) pointing
more fire resistant.
(c) guniting (d) moulding
(b) GI sheet are more resistant to acids and
fumes; Ac sheets are less resistant to acids SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
and fumes Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
Building Maintenance 92 YCT
 CONVENTIONS Dimension Lines :
Thin firm line is used in contrast with heavier visible
For building drawings, the BIS code IS 962-1967 is outlines to show dimension of the structure.
applicable. Conventions as per IS 962-1967 provide :
1. Scale of drawing and size of lettering.
2. Dimensioning methods, Symbols and abbreviations
3. Methods of Projections.
4. Units of measurements in drawings
The drawing of residential building and public Extension Line OR Light and thin lines :
building come under building drawing. These lines are drawn from the extremities of feature
TYPES OF LINES to which dimensions has to be given.
Visible Out Lines:
The visible out lines should be thick outlines Pointer Line :
according to the purpose, it can be 0.60,0.80, 1.00 or When space is insufficient to write a note or
1.30mm. dimension near the feature, pointer lines are drawn
These lines should be outstanding in appearance. from the note or dimension to show where it applies.
These lines are used to show wall thickness, plot
boundary, proposed structure etc.
Thickness may be 0.6mm to1.3mm.
Break Line OR Short break lines :
These are free hand drawn lines. To show continuity
Centre Lines : of the object, long break line or short break line is
These lines are marked on the drawings to show used.
centre of component it can be column, beam and
wall. Thickness 0.2mm to 0.3mm.

Arrow and Dots :

These are at the ends of dimension lines. The length
of the arrow is about 4 times the depth.

Hidden Lines :
These lines are shown when there is a hidden
surface or something is not visible on the surface
which is drawn.
These have to be shown in close and evenly spaced
dashes, thickness 0.4mm-0.5mm. Should be used to
represent hidden lines.
These lines in the drawings to show Loft, R.C.C
Chajja, Valley, Canopy etc.

Section Lines :
The plane on which the section has to be taken
section lines should be indicated in long dash and
two short dash alternately and evenly spaced out
also arrow to be shown in the direction of the section
to see and name of the section at the end in bold
letters.

Building Drawing 93 YCT

SYMBOLS
Different symbols are used for different construction
materials and fixtures as standards in BIS 962 like
different building components, water supply and its
fixtures, electrical appliances etc.
Materials Symbols
Brick work

Elevation Plan
Woodwork

Concrete

Earth work

Glass

Section Elevation
Stone work

Graphical Symbols for Doors and windows

Doors :
Symbols
Object Convention
Spot weld

Plug weld

Seem weld
(Continuous welding)
Ceiling fan
(Two blade)
Exhaust fan

Symbols for Sanitary Installations Regulator

Fuse

Building Drawing 94 YCT

 Conventional Representation of Breaks– Like to take maximum advantage of sunlight and
Object Convention wind, planning is required in positioning of windows
Rectangular and doors on the external walls different rooms in
section the building have different requirements and
function.
Round
section
Pipe

Tubing

Wood
rectangular
section
Rolled
section
Channel
section

Sizes of Various Standard Papers /Sheets

Sun path diagram
Prospect :
Prospect means one should take care of the
surroundings while designing the building and take
maximum advantage of the surroundings with
respect to views though openings in the building.
Openings can be windows, doors, balconies,
terraces. One can take advantage of natural
surroundings like sea, lake, garden, hill by giving
appropriate opening in the direction of these features
and if there are garbage dumping yard, slum area,
railway track cremation ground etc. which one does
not want to see from the opening can be hidden with
Designation Trimmed size Area, Sheet Name not providing any window in that particular
of Sheet (in mm) m2 direction.
A0 841×1189 1 Anti Quarian
A1 594×841 1/2 Double Elephant
A2 420×594 1/4 Imperial
A3 297×420 1/8 Half Imperial
A4 210×297 1/16 Quarter Imperial
A5 148×210 1/32 -

PLANNING OF BUILDING
Building planning is a rigorous planning process.
There are many aspects to be considered before
planning any building. Requirements of every
building is different. To plan any building like
residential, commercial or any public building
certain principles are followed, these are known as
principles of planning. Window position prospect
PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING Orientation :
Aspect : Orientation means to place the room or building
It is defined as the direction through which the room with respect to North direction.
receives natural light and ventilation from the Directions are very important aspect while planning
surrounding. any building. Like kitchen should have opening in

Building Drawing 95 YCT

 the east wall, to get the advantage of morning sun, Privacy means segregating one function from
same way the bedroom should face west or another. It can be external or internal.
southwest to get maximum advantage of wind or 1. External privacy :
breeze. • It means privacy from surrounding buildings as well
This aspect depends upon the movement of the sun, as privacy from noise and pollution from the road.
the wind, the rain, the climate, and the geographical • By good planning external privacy can be
position of the location. maintained like depending upon the location of the
Unit Aspect Remark opening, the heights of the sill can be decided.
Kitchen or E/NE/SE To take advantage of 2. Internal privacy :
Kitchen Morning sun • This aspect helps prevent direct view from other
cum room or passage.
Dining • Proper placement of door openings, placement or
Bedroom W/SW/NW Evening should door shutter or other screening like furniture
remove germs arrangements helps in maintaining internal privacy.
and dampness. Elegance :
Sunrays are cooler in Elegance is the aspect in the building which can be
the evening and to planned only by elevation like the front façade of the
take maximum building to make it appealing and pleasing.
advantage of wind.
Living SE/NE To take maximum
Room advantage of sunlight
for the whole day.
Study N Should have
room/ maximum natural
Storeroom light
Verandah N/S Should have Elegance in elevation
maximum natural Flexibility :
light and can be a In planning, if a space is planned for one function,
space to cut harsh and it can be converted to different function then
sunlight and rain for there is flexibility built in.
the outer walls of the In residential building planning flexibility aspect is
rooms not necessary however for some gatherings, one can
Toilet Can be located near convert small rooms into bigger by planning folding
kitchen and bedroom doors or partition as required.
Grouping : Circulation :
Grouping means arrangement of rooms and its Circulation means movement from one place to
relation to other space to run the function smoothly another it can be horizontal or vertical
and comfortable. 1. Horizontal circulation-
Planning of rooms with similar functions should be • It refers to movement of person from one room to
together as a group. another with the use of doors, corridors, passages,
This principle is more applicable in public buildings, etc. the ratio between circulation space to utilization
where the function of the space needs to be planned space should be around 1:4 for economic planning
according to their uses. for hostels, educational institutes, offices factories it
can be 1:3.
2. Vertical circulation-
• In multistory building, vertical circulation has to be
properly planned.
• It refers to movement of person from one floor to
another with the use staircase, lift, ramps, escalators,
etc.
• About 8-10 % of the floor area is adequate to plan
vertical circulation. For example, generally
staircases and lifts are provided in building for
Residential building groups vertical circulation.
Privacy : Furniture requirements :
Privacy is an important principle while planning all Furniture planning is one of the important
types of buildings whether public or residential. requirements while planning the space.
Building Drawing 96 YCT
 The room size can be decided on number of users, • Area, Minimum width, Ceiling heights
furniture requirement, equipment, arrangement of
furniture and space for circulation needs to be Room Minimum Minimum Minimum
planned efficiently. Area in width Height
2
Sanitation : m
Sanitation means to take care of light, ventilation, air Habitable 9.5m2 2.4m 2.75 m
conditioning, thermal comfort, facilities for general room (for single
cleaning and sanitary conveniences. Sanitary room)
conveniences include water closets (WC), Kitchen 5.5 m2 1.8 m 2.75 m
bathrooms, lavatories, latrines, urinals etc. Bathrooms, 1.1 m2 0.9 m 2.2 m
Water
Closets,
combined
Bath & WC
Assembly 3.6m 6.0m
halls,
residential
hotels of all
types,
institutional,
educational,
IT buildings, 2.75m 4.2m
office
buildings,

RULES AND BYELAWS

Building bye laws are the rules laid down for
construction and planning of different types of
buildings by municipal corporation, town planning
authorities or revenue authorities. These rules can be
different for different places.
Necessity of Building Bye laws
To reduce the haphazard growth of the city and
town, to control land development and to check the
Sanitary pipes arrangement un-authorized constructions.
To define the rules for new structures to be built.
SPACE REQUIREMENT AS PER IS 962 To specify the type of materials for construction to
be used.
For Residential Buildings
To provide for widening of roads and other
• Staircase
development for future.
Riser and Tread in Residential Building:
Riser : 175-185 mm, Tread : 250-270 mm By providing hygienic environment and also reduce
• Standard height the pollution by restricting population density in the
Plinth Height 0.60 – 0.75m town.
Windowsill 0.60m To provide for every citizen to get basic facilities
Windowsill for WC and 1.20m like water supply, drainage, electricity, proper light
Bath and ventilation etc.
Window height 1.5m To provide for open spaces, and safety against fire,
Door Height 2.1m noise, smoke etc.
Floor to ceiling height 3-3.5m
Head room for staircase 3.00m
DRAWING
Slab Thickness 100-120mm Engineering Drawing-
Kitchen platform 0.80m Language of an engineer by which he/she can represent
Riser of the steps and 150 -180mm his/her imagination on paper with proper dimensioning
staircase and precision is known as engineering drawing.
Building Drawing 97 YCT
Types of Engineering Drawing- Mostly imperial size (D2) drawing board is used in
1. Geometrical drawing • Plain geometrical engineering drawing.
Drawing. (plane - 2D) 2. T-Square-
• Solid geometrical Made of hard-quality wood such as teak or
Drawing. (solid - 3D)
mahogany etc.
2. Mechanical Engg. Drawing of parts of
drawing machine Stock and blade joined together at right angle.
3. Civil Engg. drawing Drawing of parts of It is used horizontal and parallel lines.
structure
4. Electrical Engg. Drawing of circuits,
drawing electrical parts etc.

DRAWING INSTRUMENT
Drawing instrument is used to prepare drawing
easily and accurately.
Following Instruments are used in engineering drawing-
1. Drawing Board 2. T-Square T-square is not used to draw inclined lines.
3.. Mini-Drafter (MD) 4. Protractor T-square is named by blade length.
5. Pencil 6. Set square Designation Length of Blade (in mm)
7. Scale 8. French curve T0 1500
9. Drawing Sheet 10. Eraser (Rubber) T1 1000
11. Divider 12. Compass T2 700
13. Drawing board pins, 14. Clinograph
Clips or Cello tape T3 500
15. Pencil cutter and sand T4 350
paper
1. Drawing Board
Drawing board is in rectangular shape and made of
well-seasoned softwood strip.
I-strip protect drawing board from warping.
One of the edges of the board is used as working
edge, on which the T-square is made to slide.

3. Mini-Drafter-
All the advantages of T-square, set-square, scale
and the protractor are available in mini-drafter.
Mini-drafter are used to draw horizontal, vertical
and inclined parallel lines on the sheet with saving
of time.
Sizes of drawing board-
• According to IS:1944-1989, drawing board is
represented by 'D'.
• According to IS:1946-1988, drawing board is
represented by 'B'.
Standard size and designation of drawing board-
Designation of Size (in mm) :
drawing board (Length × Width × Thickness)
D0 1500×1000×25
D1 1000×700×25 4. Protractor
D2 700×500×15 It is made of wood, transparent celluloid or plastic
D3 500×350×15 material.
D4 350×250×15 These are circular semi-circular or flat in shape.

Building Drawing 98 YCT

 Protractor are used to measure angles and to draw 6. Set-Square
angles with L.C. = 1o. Triangular in shape & are made of celluloid or
plastic materials.
It is used for drawing all straight lines except the
horizontal lines which are usually drawn with the
T-square.
Vertical lines can be drawn with the T-square and
set-square.
The angle which is divisible by 150 are made with
the help of set square.
Ex.-150, 300, 1050, 1200, 1650 etc.
They are following two type –
(a) 45o - 45o - 90o set square
(b) 30o - 60o - 90o set square

5. Pencil
Lead of pencil is made of graphite powder or
kaolin or clay.
Drawing pencils are graded according to increase in 7. Rule or Scale
relative hardness. Scales are made of wood, steel, celluloid or plastic.
Grades of pencil and its use- It is used to draw straight lines.
Grade of pencil Uses Edges of the scale are marked with division of
Hard grade Used to draw light and centimeters which are sub-divided into millimeters.
(9H, 8H, 7H, 6H, 5H, fine lines
4H)
Medium grade Used for lettering and
(3H, 2H, H, HB, B) dimensioning
Soft grade Used to draw thick and
(2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, shiny lines
7B)
9H Very hard grade pencil (Clay content↑)
8. French Curve
7B Very soft grade pencil (Graphite
French curves is a flexible curve consists of a lead
content↑) bar inside rubber which bends conveniently to
2H Use to draw thin line, outer lines, draw a smooth curve through any set of points.
dimension line, dotted line and arrow Used to draw curve which can not be drawn with
head. compass (for irregular curve)
HB Used to draw thick line.
3H or 4H Used to draw to center line and section
line.
Generally 20 grade of pencils are used.
9. Rubber or Eraser
It is made of rubber and used to erase extra or
wrong pencil work.

B = Black
HB = Mid grade
H = Hard
F = Fine
Building Drawing 99 YCT
10. Divider Layout of drawing sheets-
Divider is used to divide straight or curved lines
into desired number of equal parts.

(a) Margins or border lines-

Left side - 20 mm
Other three side - 5 mm
11. Compass
(b) Title block Location
It is used to draw circles and arcs of circles of
Right side & lower most of the drawing sheet.
required diameter.
Size - 185 mm × 65 mm
Title block-

12. Drawing clips or drawing pins

These are used to fix the drawing sheet firmly in
their position to the drawing board.

All dimensions in mm
Drawing of Framed Structure
PLAN

First floor plan

Building Drawing 100 YCT
 Ground floor plan

ELEVATION

Building Drawing 101 YCT

SECTION

SITE PLAN

Building Drawing 102 YCT

FOUNDATON PLAN OF FRAMED STRUCTURE

WORKING DRAWING OF STAIRCASE

Building Drawing 103 YCT

 PERSPECTIVE DRAWING TERMS USED IN MAKING PERSPECTIVE
Picture Plane :
Perspective is a three-dimensional view of any
It is a two-dimensional plane on which three-
object seen by an observer.
dimensional building is drawn. It is an imaginary,
Types of Perspective transparent vertical plane erected between the object
1. One Point Perspective : and the observer, very near to, or touching or cutting
In this perspective there is only one vanishing point. one corner of the object.
The perspective is also called as parallel perspective.
In this type of perspective two sets of lines i.e.,
horizontal, and vertical lines are parallel to picture
plane.

Eye Point or Station Point :

It is the position of the observer in the Plan. It is
station point S or Spectator Point in the Plan,
whereas in elevation it is eye level. It is a point from
which object is viewed.
2. Two Point Perspective: Eye Level :
In two-point perspective the object is inclined to the It is a horizontal line and plane at eye-level of the
picture plane. That is why only vertical lines remain observer and is represented by a straight line called
parallel to picture plane whereas other sets of two Horizon Line (HL).
lines are inclined to picture plane. Hence there are Ground Line :
two vanishing points one for each set of horizontal It is a straight horizontal line represents ground
lines. level. This is line a ground on which observer is
standing and visualizing.
Horizon Line :
It is a line represents eye level and drawn at observer
height above ground level. The objects convergence
occurs at a point on this line.

3. Three Point Perspective :

In three Point perspective there are three vanishing
points and all lines of one set converge to one
vanishing point. This is used to make tall buildings
or multi storied view because two point perspective
for tall buildings give a distorted perspective view.

Centre of vision :
Vertical sight lines and horizontal sight lines are
always at right angles to each other and the point
where they cross is the centre of vision (CV), the
point towards infinity which is dead in line with the
observer’s eye.

Building Drawing 104 YCT

 Angle of Vision : Types of pictorial projection-
One can see clearly only a certain portion. Angle (a) Oblique projection-
subtended by a horizontal plane and vertical One dimension of object is parallel to H.P. and
direction in which someone can visualize the things second is vertical to the horizontal or parallel to V.P.
clearly is called angle of vision. and the third is at an angle of 30º or 45º to the H.P.

Vanishing point and Vanishing Lines :

The main feature of the perspective drawing is Types of oblique projection-
vanishing of all parallel lines of object to a point to
Cavalier • Projection lines make an angle of
an infinite distance. The apparent convergence of the
projection 30º, 45º or 60º with the plane of
parallel lines is called vanish. The imaginary points
projection.
where all rays vanish are called vanishing point and
all imaginary lines which appear to be converging • Reading line are drawn to full
are called vanishing lines. size scale.

PROJECTION AND VIEW

Principle of Projection-
If straight lines are drawn from various points on
the contour of an object to meet a plane, the object
is said to be projected on that plane and that plane
are called plane of projection.
The image of object on the plane of projection is Cabinet • Projection lines make an angle
called projection of the object.
projection with the projection plane, it
becomes about ½ both the axes
by decreasing scale.
• Difference b/w cavalier and
cabinet projection is how the
depth of the object.

Classification of Projection-

Cliongraphic • In cavalier and cabinet

projection projections, the main face of the
object is made parallel to the
projection plane. In some cases,
when the object is rotated at an
angle, the plane of projection is
called cliongrahic plane.
(b) Perspective projection-
Linear projection where three dimensional objects
1. Pictorial Projection- are projected on a picture plane is known as
Pictorial view shows all three dimensions in one perspective projection.
view. In this projection the image of object is greater than
It provides a realistic view of a 3D object. the original object. Ex.- Projector.
Building Drawing 105 YCT
(c) Axonometric projection- Note-
Isometric All the three The line at which V.P. and H.P. intersect is called
projection faces of cube Reference line (XY).
make equal • Projection on the V.P. - Front view or elevation
angles with the • Projection on the H.P. - Top view or plan
plane. • Projection on the A.V.P. - Side view
Diametric Two faces of Quadrants system of orthographic projection-
projection cube make equal
angles with
plane.

Trimetric All three faces

projection of cube make
unequal angles
with plane.

Remember-
In Isometric view shape conversion
Quadrant Object position
Circle ⇒ Ellipse
First In front of V.P. and above the H.P.
Square ⇒ Rhombus
Second Behind the V.P. and above the H.P.
Rectangle ⇒ Parallelogram Third Behind the V.P. and below the H.P.
Methods of projection used in Engg. Drawing- Fourth In front of V.P. and below the H.P.
1. Orthographic projection 2. Isometric projection Difference between first angle and third angle
3. Oblique projection 4. Perspective projection projection-
2. Orthographic Projection- First angle projection Third angle projection
When the projectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane, the projection is called
orthographic projection.

● Object lies between the ● Plane of projection lies

observer and the plane of between observer and
projection. object.
● Plane of projection is ● Plane of projection is
assumed to be non- assumed to be
transparent. transparent.
● H.P. and V.P. is located ● H.P. and V.P. is
below and above the located respectively
In orthographic projection methods, an object is reference line (X-Y lines) above and below the
represented by two or three view on an respectively. reference line.
perpendicular projection planes. ● Projection is drawn ● Projection is drawn
Each projection view represents two dimension of apposite to the viewer same side to the viewer
an object. side
For the complete description of the three
dimensional object in this projection, at least two
or three views are required.
Planes of orthographic projection-
Two planes employed for purpose of orthographic
projection are called principal planes (i.e. H.P. and
V.P.)
They intersect each other at right angles (90º).

Building Drawing 106 YCT

 Front view- Front view- Types of auxiliary plane –
Above X-Y line Below X-Y line 1. Profile plane-
Top view- Top view- It is vertical to the H.P. and V.P. both.
Below X-Y line Above X-Y line
Right view- Right view-
Above X-Y line parallel Below X-Y line parallel
to V.P. and in left of to V.P. and in right of
elevation. elevation.
Left view- Left view-
Above X-Y line parallel Below X-Y line parallel
to V.P. and in right of to V.P. and in left of
elevation. elevation.
2. Auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P.)
This method of projection ● This method of 3. Auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P)
is used in India and projection is used in
Europe. U.S.A.

Difference between Perspective and Parallel

Projection (i.e. Orthographic Projection)–
Orthographic Perspective Projection
Projection
A.V.P. is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to
the V.P.
A.I.P. is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to
the H.P.
Projection of side view of the object is drawn on
auxiliary plane.
Miter line-
Miter line is used to construct side view.
• Observer is situated at • Observer is situated at
This line is drawn at 45o to the horizontal.
infinite distance from finite distance from the
the object. object.
• Projection rays (or • Projection rays are
projectors) are intersect at view point.
parallel.
• Projection has same • Objects appear smaller
size of original object. the farther away they
are.
Application– Application–
Architecture, computer Animation, visual
aided design etc. simulation etc.
3. Line perpendicular to one of the plane
Auxiliary plane -
i.Line perpendicular to Top view- A point
Sometimes two views of object (front view & top horizontal plane Front view-
view) are not sufficient to convey all information (H.P.) A line of true length
regarding the object. In this condition the perpendicular to XY-
additional view, called auxiliary view and line .
projected on that plane known as auxiliary plane.
Auxiliary view may also be used for determining–
(a) The true length of a line
(b) The point view of a line
(c) The edge view of a plane
(d) The true size and form of a plane.

Building Drawing 107 YCT

 ii. Line perpendicular Top view- 2. What is the another name for 'sub-divisional
to vertical plane A line of true length plan'?
(V.P.) perpendicular to XY (a) Sanctioned plan (b) Layout plan
line (c) Sanctioned plan (d) Approved plan
(e) Answer not known
Front view- A point
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
Ans. (b) : Sub-divisional or layout plan means division
of a plot or parcel of land, with or without
amalgamation of revenue plots into two or more final
plots after providing for streets, roads and drains as per
development plan, right of way for utilities, common
plot, open space etc. as per norms specified in these
4. Line inclined to both planes (H.P. and V.P.)– rules.
Top view- 3. The main aim of maintaining any structure is to
A line smaller than (a) improve its appearance
true length inclined to (b) utilise the funds provided
XY-line (c) stabilise the structure to enable it to carry the
Front view- functions for which it is constructed
A line smaller than (d) utilise services of incharge maintenance
true length inclined to PPSC JE 06/03/2022
XY-line. Ans. (c) : The main aim of maintaining any structure is
to stabilize the structure to enable it to carry the
function for which it is constructed.
4. A soft storey of multi-story building is an
example of
(a) Mass irregularity
(b) Geometric irregularity
(c) Stiffness irregularity
When a line is parallel to a plane , its projection on (d) None of the above
that plane will show its true length and true GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022
inclination with the other plane. Ans. (c) : The presence of masonry infill’s is the cause-
(i) Unequal distribution of lateral forces in the
Questions Asked in Previous Years difference frames of a building-over stripping of some
1. Which of the following components of a fire alarm frames.
system are the circuits which connect initiating (ii) Vertical irregularities in strength and stiffness-soft
devices such as smoke detectors, heat detectors. storey or weak storey as a result higher inter-story drifts
Manual pull stations and water flow alarms? and higher ductility diamonds of RC element of the soft
(a) Alarm Initiating Device Circuits storey in comparison to remaining stories.
(b) Alarm Indicating Appliance Circuits (iii) Horizontal irregularities– Significant amount of
(c) Primary Power Supply unexpected, torsional forces since the centre of rigidity
(d) Fire Alarm Control Panel is mould forwards the stiffer in filled frames of
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 increased stiffness and at a result occurrence of very
Ans. (a) : The circuits which connect initiating devices large rotation and large displacement, in the extreme
such as smoke detectors, heat detectors. Manual pull bare frames.
stations and water flow alarms are called alarm 5. Building orientation is the _______ of a
initiating device circuits. building on a site.
Additionally, many system monitor devices important (a) design (b) heating
to overall safety of the building also tie into initiating (c) positioning (d) none of these
circuits. RPSC ACF & FRO 24/02/2021
• Audible and visible alarm indicating appliances tie Ans. (c) : Building orientation is the positioning of a
into these circuits to provide warning to the building building on a site. It is means fixing the direction of
occupants devices which send a signal off premises building for maximum benefit from sun, air and nature.
also can be connected to these circuits. 6. Which one of the following is Not a land use
• The fire alarm control panel contains the electronics zone?
that supervise and monitor the fire alarm system. (a) Residential Zone (b) Commercial Zone
The initiating and indicating circuits or connected (c) Industrial Zone (d) Heritage Zone
directly into the panel. PPSC Building Inspector 27/11/2022
Building Drawing 108 YCT
Ans. (d) : In general, a comprehensive zoning program (ii) The life shall have a floor area of net less than
might consist of the following categories- 1.4 m2. It shall have loading capacity of not less
(i) Open land than 545 kg (8 persons lift) with automatic
(ii) Residential land closing doors of minimum 0.8 m width.
(iii) Commercial land (iii) Fire lift should be provided with a ceiling hatch for
use, in case of emergency, so that when the car
(iv) Industrial land gets stuck up, it shall be easily openable.
(v) Combined planned units
9. Identify the incorrect statement related to
7. According to the National Building Code trenchers.
(NBC) of India, which of the following is an (a) Work speed of trenchers is higher than
essential requirement for the design and manual work.
construction of exits in terms of fire safety and (b) Quantity of work done by trenchers per day is
protection? higher than manual work.
(a) All exit staircases must be enclosed with fire- (c) Trenchers are suitable for any type of soil.
resisting materials of a minimum 2- hour fire (d) Trenchers are more suitable for small works.
rating. Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021
(b) Only one means of egress (exit) is necessary Ans. (d) : Trenches are dug manually or with the help
for a building under 15 meters in height. of trenching machines (backhoes, excuvators or
(c) Every exit doorway shall open into an internal trenchers)
corridor open space. • The work speed of the trenchers is higher than
(d) The exits must be designed to accommodate manual work
all people within the building in 6 minutes. • Quantity of work done by trenchers per day is higher
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 than manual work.
Ans. (a) : According to the national building code • Trenchers are suitable for any type of soil.
(NBC) of India an essential requirement for the design • Trenchers are more suitable for large works.
and construction of exists in terms of fire safety and 10. Which of the following earth moving machine
protection following step are used- has the shortest cycle time?
C-1.1 All materials of construction in load bearing (a) Drag line (b) Hoe
elements, stairways, carridors and facades shall be non- (c) Calm shell (d) Dipper shovel
combustible. UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
C-1.2 The interior finish materials shall not have a Ans. (d) : A dipper shovel is a type of earth moving
flame spreadability rating exceeding class 1. machine that uses a bucket to dig and move material. It
C-1.3 The internal wall of staircase shall be of brick or has a short cycle time because the bucket can be quickly
reinforced concrete with a minimum of 2 hr. fire rating. raised and lowered and the machine can be easily
C-1.4 The staircase shall be ventilated to the maneuvered.
atmosphere at each landing with a vent at the top. The • A drag line is a type of earth moving machine that
vent opening shall be of 0.5 m2 in the external wall and uses a cable to drag a bucket along the ground. It has
the top. If the staircase cannot be ventilated, because of a longer cycle time than a dipper shovel.
location or other reasons, a positive pressure 50 Pa shall • A hoe is a type of earth moving machine that uses a
be maintained inside. blade to push material. It has a longer cycle time than
• The authority may insist on suitable protection a dipper shovel.
measures in a building 15 m in height or above. • A clam shell is a type of earth moving machine that
uses a pair of jaws to open and close. It has a longer
8. In the context of the National Building Code cycle time than a dipper shovel.
(NBC) for fire and safety, which of the
following statements accurately the 11. Which of the following is NOT a factor
requirements for provision of fire lifts in a affecting the planning and orientation of
multi-storeyed building? buildings?
(a) Topography of the site
(a) Fire lifts must have a minimum carrying
(b) Climate conditions
capacity of 8 persons or 545 kg.
(c) Cost of construction materials
(b) Fire lifts are not required in residential (d) Prevailing wind direction
buildings with a height less than 15 meters. PGCIL JE 05.12.2023
(c) All floors above ground level must be served
by at least two fire lifts for evacuation Ans. (c) : The factor affecting the planning and
purposes. orientation of buildings.
(d) If more than 1 lifts are installed the partition • Topography of the site.
wall should be of minimum 60 minutes fire • Climate conditions
resistance. • Prevailing wind direction
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 • Building bylaws.
Ans. (a): Following details shall apply for a fire lift- These factors influence decisions related to building
(i) To enable fire service personnel to reach the layout, design and orientation to optimize environment
upper floors with the minimum delay, one fire lift conditions, energy efficiency and comfort for
per 1200 m2 of floor area shall be provided. occupants.
Building Drawing 109 YCT
12. The plan which is sanctioned and approved by 16. What is the difference between gross floor area
the competent authority is called as: and net floor area in building measurement?
(a) Key plan (b) Site plan (a) Gross floor area includes all the enclosed
(c) Sanctioned plan (d) Approved plan spaces within the building, while net floor
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 area includes only the usable space.
Ans. (c) : Sanctioned plan– Before starting any (b) Gross floor area and net floor area are the
building construction, the building plan should be same thing.
submitted to the municipality or any other complement (c) Net floor area includes all enclosed space
authority of the area. The building plan should be within the building, while gross floor area
prepared by a licensed architect or consulting engineer, includes only the usable space.
who can prepare it without violating the bylaws. Once (d) Gross floor area includes only the exterior
the plan is approved, it becomes a sanctioned plan. The
dimensions of the building, while net floor
owner has to build the house as per the sanctioned plan.
area includes the interior dimensions.
13. General layout of a new colony or town PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
showing roads, market, hospital, river, etc is
called as ______. Ans. (a) : The gross floor area is the sum of the plan
(a) Index plan (b) Key plan area of all levels (without usable roof are, measured
(c) Site plan (d) Site map between the external dimensions of the surrounding
NWDA JE (Civil) 01/08/2021 building elements at flow hinge. It is included all the
Ans. (a): General layout of a new colony or town enclosed space.
showing roads, market, hospital, river, etc is called as • Net floor area is the usable floor area between the
index plan. building element measures at floor level. It is includes
Site plans- It is used to locate position of buildings in only the usable space.
relation to setting out points, means of access, the 17. Which of the following basic principles of a
general layout of the site. These plans may also contain building is the overall effect produced by elevation
information of services, drainage network etc. and general layout of the plan of a building?
14. In India, according to the classification of (a) Prospect (b) Grouping
buildings based on occupancy, the building or (c) Aspect (d) Elegance
part of a building, where groups of people Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 Shift II
congregate or gather for amusement,
Ans. (d) : Elegance–It is the overall effect produced by
recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil,
travel and similar purposes are known elevation and general layout of the plan of a building.
(a) Mercantile buildings To get good elegance of building it is better if elevation
(b) Business buildings is developed first and then the plan is adjusted
(c) Assembly buildings accordingly.
(d) Institutional buildings Prospect–It is dictated by surrounding peculiarities
DSSSB JE Tier-I 29/06/2022 Shift-III good or bad of the selected site like a flower garden or
garbage dumps.
Ans. (c) : Group D- Assembly building– These shall
include any building or part of a building where group Aspect–The positioning of rooms in building in such a
of people congregate or gather for amusement, way that natural comforts like sunshine and air can
recreation social, religion, patriotic, civil, travel and enter inside the building to the maximum possible
similar purpose, e.g. Theatres, assembly hall, audition, extent.
exhibition, hall, museums, staking rinks, dance hall, 18. Which of the following represents the
club rooms, etc. dimensions for an A2 drawing sheet?
15. All of the following are the features of a site (a) 42 × 59.4 cm
layout plan EXCEPT: (b) 29.7 × 42 cm
(a) cost of property (c) 59.4 × 84.1 cm
(b) north arrow (d) 21 × 29.7 cm
(c) property line and setback NHPC Supervisor Survey 2023
(d) easements Ans. (a) : Dimension in mm for different sizes of
MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-II drawing sheets area as follows–
Ans. (a) : Site layout plan– It is the plan drawn for a Paper size Dimension
particular construction showing its position with the (mm × mm)
wages of different categories of labour should be A0 841 × 1189
available for preparing an estimate.
A1 594 × 841
Features of a site plan–
(i) North arrow A2 420× 594 or
(ii) Property line and set back (42 cm × 59.4 cm)
(iii) Easement (transportation and service) A3 297 × 420
(iv) Weather (environment) A4 210× 297
(v) Legal constraints A5 148 × 210

Building Drawing 110 YCT

 CEMENT High lime content generally increases the setting
time and strength.
It is adhesive and cohesive material which are
It react with other ingredient and participate the
obtained by burning and grinding of calcareous and
argillaceous material at very high temperature and formation of Bogue compounds.
grinding the clinker. The presence of excess un-burnt or free lime is
Cement is commonly used as binding material. harmful since it results in delayed hydration causing
Range of cement particle size- 75-150µ. expansion (unsoundness) and deterioration of mortar
General ingredients of cement- and concrete.
(i) Calcareous rocks - 65%. Deficiency of lime in cement reduces it strength and
(ii) Argillaceous rocks- 35%. causes it to set quickly.
Chemical Composition of Cement- Silica (SiO2)-
It is responsible for strength.
Oxide/Composition Function
High silica content prolongs the setting time.
/Average
Responsible to make C3S and C2S compound.
composition
Alumina [Al2O3]-
Lime (CaO) Strength & soundness control,
It is responsible for quick setting.
60-65% ≈ 63% deficiency reduce strength
In excess quantity causes lower the strength.
Silica (SiO2) Due to excess reduces strength Iron Oxide [Fe2O3]-
17-25% ≈ 20% and slow setting It is responsible for colour.
Alumina (Al2O3) Responsible for quick setting if It act as flux.
3-8% » 6% in excess then lowers strength Magnesia (MgO)-
Iron oxide(Fe2O3) Used as flux It is responsible for colour and hardness.
0.5-6% ≈ 3% If present in excess quantity it causes unsoundness
Magnesia (MgO) Imparts colour & hardness Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)-
0.5- 4% ≈ 1% If SO3 is present in larger quantities it increases the
Gypsum Used as retarder setting time and causes of unsoundness.
2-5% ≈ 4% Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4 . 2H2O)-
Sulphur (SO3) Impart soundness It is added in the form of gypsum during grinding of
1-3% ≈ 1% clinker to increase the setting time of cement.
Alkalies Used as flux & It acts as a retarder.
0.2-1% ≈ < 1% Imparts efflorescence Alkalis-
The quantity of Sulphur trioxide (SO3) in OPC It causes Efflorescence.
cement should not be more than 3%. Alkalis accelerate setting of cement paste.
Function of Ingredients of Cement- Composition of Cement Clinker-
Lime [CaO]- It is also known as Bogue compound and formed
It is major ingredient of cement and act as binder. during clinkering Process.

Name of Compound Percentage Other Heat of Function

Name Hydration
Tri-calcium, Silicate 25 - 50% = 40% Alite 500 J/g 7 Days hardness and
[C3S] strength
Di-calcium Silicate [C2S] 25 - 40% = 32% Belite 260 J/g Ultimate strength
Tri-calcium Aluminate 5 - 11% = 10.5% Celite 865 J/g Flash set
[C3A]
Tetra-calcium Alumino 8 - 14% = 9% Felite 420 J/g Poorest cementing
Ferrite [C4AF] value

Concrete Technology 111 YCT

 Note- • No effect on setting time.
C3 A  • Rate of gain of strength increases.
L  Responsible for initial setting time (mainly C3A) • Value of shrinkage/contraction increases.
C 4 AF 
% Value of C3A is increases then-
C3S  • Initial setting time is decrease.
 Responsible for strength (mainly C3S) • Rate of hydration is increase.
C 2S 
• The value of total heat of hydration is increase.
Tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2)-
• There is no effect on strength.
It help (render) the clinker easier to grind, increases resistance to fre
If C3S content raising to beyond the specified limit If % value of C2S is increases and C3S is
increase the heat of hydration and solubility of decreases then-
cement in water. • Increase the ultimate strength.
Di-calcium Silicate (2CaO.SiO2)- • The value of 28 day's strength is decreases.
It hydrates and harden slowly and take long time to • Increase the capacity to resist chemical attack.
imparts strength. • Value of total heat of hydration is decreases.
It imparts resistance to chemical attack. • This type of cement is prefer in the construction of
It is responsible for ultimate strength. hydraulic structure.
Tri-calcium Aluminate [3CaO.Al2O3]- Hydration of cement-
C3A is responsible for higher heat of hydration, If water is added to cement a chemical reaction
initial setting, low resistance to sulphate attacks, heat between water and cement starts so that, heat
of hydration, and lowers the ultimate strength. produces, this is called heat of hydration and the
Tetra-calcium Alumino Ferrite process of reaction with water is called hydration of
[4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3]- cement.
As increase the C4AF content the strength reduces Water requirement for hydration of cement-
slightly. Bound water - 23% of cement weight
C3A is start the hydration but C4AF has highest rate Gel water- 15% of cement weight
of hydration. So minimum water required for complete hydration
Order of rate of hydration- is 38% of cement weight.
C 4 AF > C3 A > C3S > C 2S Chemical reaction of cement with water is an
exothermic process.
Order of rate of heat of
hydration/hardening-
Manufacture of cement-
1. Mixing 2. Burning 3. Grinding
C3 A > C3S > C 4 AF > C 2S ❖ Tools used in Production of Cement-
Name of Use
Order of strength- Tools
C3S > C 2S > C3 A > C 4 AF Rotary kiln It is used for burning of slurry.
Length It has following three chambers-
Reaction with water- 90 - 120 m (i) Drying Zone
C3 A > C 4 AF > C3S > C 2S Diameter Temp. 2500C to 5000C
The above sequence is valid when all compound are 1-2m In this chamber moisture of slurry
taken in equal quantity. is evaporate.
If quantity of C3S is increase and C2S is (ii) Calcinations Zone–
Temp. 7000C to 12000C.
decrease then- The calcinations of lime is
• Increase the rate of hardening. complete in this chamber.
• Increase the rate of heat of hydration. (iii) Clinker Zone-
• Increase the total heat of hydration. Temp. 15000C to 17000C.
• Increase 28 day's strength. Clinker (size- 5 to 10mm) is
• Decrease the ultimate strength. formed in this chamber.
• Decrease the capability to resist the chemical and Bogue compound are formed in
this chamber.
Sulphur attack.
Ball mill It is used for coarse grinding of clinker.
If fineness of cement is increases then- Tube mill It is used for fine grinding of clinker.
• Strength of cement is increases. Gypsum is added in cement during the grinding of
• Rate of hydration increases. cement.
• Rate of heat of hydration increases. The production cost of cement in dry process is
• No effect on total heat of hydration. more than that of wet process.
Concrete Technology 112 YCT
 The dry process is adopted when the raw material (c) Sedimentation Method or Wagner Turbidity
are quite hard. This process is slow and production Meter Method-
cost is high. In this method surface area one gram of cement is
measure. Reading are expressed in square cm per gram.
Quality of cement is good in wet process while poor
Factors affecting the fineness of Cement-
in dry process. • Chemical Composition.
TEST OF CEMENT • Degree of Calcinations.
• High Iron and silica content in clinker.
Lab test/physical test- • Time of grinding.
1. Fineness Test [IS : 4031 (Part-I)]- • Character of the pulverizing machine.
This is used to check proper grinding which has 2. Normal/Standard Consistency Test [IS:5513-
direct impact on rate of hydration, rate of gain of 1976, IS : 4031 (Part-4 1988)]-
strength and evolution of heat. The standard consistency of the cement paste is
There are three methods for testing fineness. defined as percentage of water added in 300 g
(a) Sieve Method- weight of cement which will permit a vicat plunger
to penetrate in cement paste to a depth of 33 to 35
• In this method particle size of cement is measured mm from the top of the mould or rest from bottom 5
• Size of sieve- 90 micron (Sieve No. 9) to 7 mm.
• Sieving time- 15 minutes
• Weight of cement sample - 100 gm
Result-
The residue should not exceed the limits specified
below (after sieving).
Types of cement Percentage of
Residue by weight
Ordinary Portland Cement 10
(OPC)
Rapid Hardening Cement 5
(RHC)
• Weight of cement 300 gm
Portland Puzzolana Cement 5 sample
(PPC)
• Size of mould Diameter - 80 mm,
(b) Air Permeability Method or Nurse & Blains Height - 40 mm
Method- • Size of plunger Diameter -10 mm,
Fineness is represented in terms of specific surface area (cm2/gm) Height - 50 mm
This test is based on relationship between flow of air • Depth of 33 to 35 mm from the top
through cement bed and surface area of cement penetration 5 to 7 mm from the bottom.
particles forming the bed. The value of normal consistency is depends upon the
In this method surface area of the cement is compound composition and fineness of cement.
measured. The water requirement for various test of cement
depend on the normal consistency of the cement, so
❖ Minimum specific surface area of cement- this test is perform before than other test of cement.
Types of cement Specific Surface area Normal consistency of OPC is - 26 to 33%
≮ cm2/gm
3. Initial and Final Setting Time [IS : 4031
Ordinary Portland 2250
(Part-5), IS : 5513-1976]-
Cement (OPC)
High Alumina Cement 2250 (a) Initial Setting Time (IST) Test-
(HAC) This test is perform by vicat apparatus with the help
of needle.
Portland Puzzolana 3000 I.S.T. is the time elapsed between the moment that
Cement (PPC) the water is added to the cement, to the time that
Low Heat Cement 3200 paste starts losing its plasticity.
(LHC) • Quantity of water 0.85 P
Rapid Hardening 3250 • Weight of Cement sample 400 gm
Cement (RHC) • Weight of movable rod 300 gm
Hydrophobic Cement 3500 • Diameter of needle 1 mm
(H.C.) • Penetration of needle 33 to 35 mm
Super Sulphate Cement 4000 (from top of the
(SSC) mould)
Concrete Technology 113 YCT
(b) Final setting Time (FST) Test– 1 - 2% SO3 makes cement soundness.
This test is done by vicat apparatus with the help of 5. Compressive Strength Test- [IS : 4031 (Part-
needle with collar. VII)]
F.S.T. is the time elapsed between the moment that No. of cube sample- 6 with cement mortar 1:3
the water is added to the cement and the time when (Cement : Ennore sand)
cement paste losses its plasticity completely and has
attain sufficient firmness to resist certain defined
Size of cube 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm
pressure at this time the mark of needle is left on the Surface Area 5000 mm2
surface of sample but the mark of the collar is not Water required P 
formed.  + 3.5  % weight of
4 
• Weight of cement sample - 400 gm cement and sand
• Quantity of water - 0.85 P Rate of loading 35 N/mm2/min or 350
4. Soundness Test [IS : 4031 (Part-III)]- kg/cm2/min.
Soundness means the ability to resist volume Strengths-
expansion. At 3 days - 50% (strength of 28 days)
This test is conducted to detect change in volume At 7 days - 2/3 (strength of 28 days)
after setting.
At 28 days - 33 N/mm2
This test is done with the help of Le - chatelier
apparatus and Autoclave test. ❖ Average Compressive Strength of Cement in
(i) Le - chatelier's Method (IS : 4031 Part 3-1988)- N/mm2 -
• Unsoundness of cement is due to free lime only. Types of Compressive Strength After in
• Weight of cement sample = 100 gm. cement day's (N/mm2)
• Quantity of water = 0.78 P. 1 3 7 28
• Result is given in 'mm'. O.P.C.
33 grade –– 16 22 33
• Temperature - 27 ± 2 C, humidity 65 ± 5%.
0
43 grade –– 23 23 43
53 grade –– 27 37 53
L.H.C. –– 10 16 35
R.H.C. 16 27.5 –– ––
H.A.C. 30 35 –– ––

6. Tensile Strength Test-

The tensile strength of cement may be determined by
briquette test method or by split tensile strength test.
Water required-
P 
 + 2.5  % weight of cement and sand.
5 
˜ Expansion of Le-chatelier indicator-
Max. expansion Type of cement • Rate of loading - 0.7 N/mm2/minute
10 mm OPC, PPC, RHC and LHC • Area of throat - 645 mm2
5 mm Quick Setting cement, High Tensile strength of OPC should not be less than–
Alumina cement and Super i). 2 N/mm2 after 3 days
sulphate cement ii). 2.5 N/mm2 after 7 days
(ii) Autoclave Test (IS : 4031 - Part 3-1988)- Required consistency for various cement test at
It is used to determine soundness of cement due to (27 ± 2°C)-
both free lime and free magnesia. Initial & final setting time test 0.85P
Internal mould dimension = 25 × 25 × 250 mm. Soundness test 0.78P
% expansion of the mould for OPC should not Compressive strength test P 
exceed 0.8%. After 3 days - 16 N/mm2  + 3.5  %
After 7 days - 22 N/mm2
4 
Note-
Tensile strength test P 
If gypsum content will be more than 3% then it will
After 3 days - 2 N/mm2  + 2.5  %
be cause of unsoundness. After 7 days - 2.5 N/mm2
5 

Concrete Technology 114 YCT

7. Specific Gravity Test (IS 2720- Part III)- (SiO 2 , Al 2 O3 , Fe 2 O3 )
Specific gravity of cement can be determined by
using Le– Chatelier flask with reference to petrol, CaO
LSF =
diesel or kerosene. 2.8 SiO 2 +1.2 Al 2 O3 + 0.65 Fe 2 O3
Specific gravity of cement - 3.15 Types of OPC LSF
If fineness of cement is increase then its specific 33 Grade 0.66 - 1.02
gravity will be decreased.
43 Grade 0.66 - 1.02
Weight of Cement 53 Grade 0.8 - 1.02
Specific gravity =
Displaced volume of liquid in ml. Specification for Ordinary Portland Cement as
8. Heat of Hydration test- per IS : 269-1976-
This test is perform with the help of calorimeter. • As per IS 8112 : 2013, loss of ignition for OPC-33
The heat of hydration of Low Heat cement- and OPC-43 ≯ 5%.
After 7 days ≯ 65 cal./gm. • As per IS 12269 : 2013, loss of ignition for OPC-53
After 28 days ≯ 75 cal./gm. ≯ 4%.
Chemical composition test- • Quantity of magnesia ≯ 6% .
Cementation index value is lie between 1.02 to 0.66 • Cement should not contain more than 1.5%
insoluble residue when dissolved in dilute HCl.
CaO − 0.7 SO3
CI = • The value of soundness should not be more than,
2.8 SiO 2 +1.2 Al2 O3 + 0.65 Fe 2 O3 10mm in Le-chatelier apparatus test and 0.8% in
Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)- Autoclave test.
It is the ratio of CaO to the other three main oxide
SETTING TIME & USE OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CEMENT
Type of Cement Ingredient Setting Time Use
Initial Final
Rapid C3S↑, C2S↓, CaCl2 30 min. 10 Hrs. Bridge, road maintenance or repairing
Hardening 2% work
cement Note-
(IS: 8041) • Form work removed quickly.
• Also known as CaCl2 cement.
• More curing required.
• Frost resistance capacity is more.
High Alumina 40% Bauxite, 30-180 min 600 min. Precast structure, refractory bricks, or
Cement 15% iron oxide, where chemical attacks are more and it is
(IS:6452) 40% lime not places where temperature exceeds
C3A, 35-55% 18oC.
Note-
• Heat of hydration is more.
• Strength of HAC > RHC
Quick Setting C3A↑ 5 Min. 30 Min. Foundation basement, under water
Cement Gypsum↓ structure,
Low Heat C3A decrease 60 Min. 600 Min. Mass concrete work such as dam, bridge
Cement C2S and C4AF and raft foundation
(IS: 12600) increase
Portland Add Pozzolana 30 Min. 600 Min. Running water structure foundation,
Pozzolana 10 – 25% in OPC by basement
Cement mass
(IS:1489 P -I)
Super Sulphate C3A < 3.5% 30 Min. 600 Min. RCC pipes, where sulphate attack is more
Portland Blast furnace slag hydraulic structure
Cement (IS:6909) </ 70%
Sulphate C3A & C4AF↓, 30 Min. 600 Min. Sea water works, lining of canals and
Resisting Add Slag, sewers
Cement (IS:12330) C3S & C2S↑
Portland Slag OPC clinkers 35% 30 Min. 600 Min. Mass concreting OPC,

Concrete Technology 115 YCT

 Cement Slag 65% Where sulphate attack possibility is more
(IS:455–1989) Note-
• Sulpho-Aluminates is the expansion
agent.
White Cement/ Fe 2 O3 ≃ 0 MgO ≃ 0 –– –– Plaster, ceiling Ornamental works Terrazzo
Coloured Liquid fuel are used flooring
Cement (IS:8042) • Colouring pigment
in coloured cement =
5-10%
Hydrophobic Boric Acid, Ollic –– –– Water tight structure in basement or where
Cement Acid, Steric Acid dampness is more
(IS:8043)
Masonry OPC Clinker 90 Min. 24 Hrs. Masonry Work
Cement (IS:3466) Dolomite and
Conglomerate
Grade- 33 30 Min. 600 Min. ––
(IS : 269 - 1989)
Ordinary Grade- 43 30 Min. 600 Min. ––
Portland cement (IS : 8112 - 1989)
Grade - 53 30 Min. 600 Min. ––
(IS : 12269 - 1987)
❖ According to IS : 10262-1982 Compressive ❖ Colouring pigment used to obtained colour in
strength for various grade of OPC- cement-
Grade Compressive strength in MPa Colouring pigment Colour
A 31.9 - 36.8 Cobalt oxide Blue
B 36.8 - 41.7 Chromium oxide Green
C 41.7 - 46.6 Titanium oxide White
D 46.6 - 51.5 Manganese oxide Brown
Iron oxide Red, Black
E 51.5 - 56.4
Composition of Blast Furnace Slag-
F 56.4 - 61.3
45% CaO and 35% Silica
❖ Reduction in compressive strength of cement due ❖ Maximum Quantity of water required per bag of
to aging for various grade of OPC– Cement for various grade of Concrete-
Time after Reduction Grade of Concrete Water (in Litres)
3 Month 20% M-5 60
6 Month 30% M - 7.5 45
12 Month 40% M - 10 34
24 Month 50% M - 15 32
Note- M - 20 30
C.S.H (Calcium silicate hydrate) gel which is also M - 25 28
known as tobermoraite are formed after hydration of Water required for per bag cement is-
cement.
28 kg or 22.5 Liters.
Pressure on the bottom surface of cement bag are
IS : 1661 is stand for-
known as- ware house pack.
Specification about cement plastering.
❖ The effect of adding Pozzolana in OPC- Blast furnace slag cement (BFSC) is suitable for-
• Shrinkage ↑ marine work.
• Initial Strength ↓ IRST 40 cement-
It is a special type of cement used to manufacture
• Heat of hydration ↓
sleeper in Indian Railway.
• Workability ↑ Diatomaceous clay has a pozzolanic properties.
• Curing period ↑ AGGREGATE
• Capacity of sulphate attack resistance ↑ It is an important chemically inert constituent of
concrete which give hardened body with the help of
• No effect on overall strength. binding material.
Concrete Technology 116 YCT
 It is used to increase the volume and reduce the cost 2. According to IS: 1498-1970-
of concrete. Sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand
It increase the strength and reduces shrinkage of Size 4.75 - 2 2 - 0.425 0.425 - 0.075
concrete. (in mm)
3. According to MIT-
Sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand
Size 2 - 0.6 0.6 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.06
(in mm)
Water cement ratio for fine sand is kept less
compared to coarse sand to make concrete.
Function of sand in concrete-
1. Increase the volume of concrete.
2. Reduce the shrinkage.
3. Reduce the consumption of cement.
4. Improve the strength of concrete.
5. Reduce the voids of concrete.
Bulking of sand IS: 2386 - 3
When dry sand comes into contact with moisture, a
thin film is formed around the particles, which
causes them to get apart from each other. This is
results in increasing the volume of sand. This
incensement of volume is called bulking of sand.
Surface tension is the basic cause of bulking of sand.
The maximum bulking of sand is 20 - 40% at 4 to
6% water content. At 12% water content regain its
original volume.
Moisture content less than 5% should be preferred
for construction purpose
Bulking of Sand is inversely proportional to the
fineness modulus.
Note- Size of particle ↑, Fineness modulus ↑,
Bulking ↓.
Effect of sugar in cement concrete-
FINE AGGREGATE Quantity of Effect
Sugar (by wt)
Aggregate in which more than 90% particle is passes
through 4.75 mm IS sieve is called as fine aggregate. 0.05% No effect
Ex - Sand. 0.15% Retard the setting time
0.20% Accelerator
Standard Sand (IS : 650 : 1991)-
0.25% Set more rapidly but loose strength
Standard sand using now a days in India is obtained
from Ennore (Madras). Note- Sugar is considered as retarder.
It should be free from organic matter. COARSE AGGREGATE
It is the fine particle of quartz (silica content 99%). Aggregate in which 90% part is retained on 4.75 mm
IS sieve is called coarse aggregate.
It should be 100% pass through 2 mm IS sieve and
The most common size of aggregate used in
100% retained on 90µ IS sieve. construction is 20 mm, while 40 mm is more
1. Classification of Sand According to IS : 650- common in mass concreting.
Zone Size of Agg. Type of Sand Use For RCC- 12 - 20 mm
Zone-I 4.75 - 2 Coarse sand Concrete All-in Aggregate-
Zone-II 2-0.425 Medium sand work This type of aggregate contains proportion of all size.
Zone-III 0.425-0.075 Fine sand Masonry Generally it contain 30 to 40% fine aggregate and 60
work to 70% coarse aggregate.
Zone-IV < 0.075 Very fine sand Plastering It provide, strength and reduce shrinkage.
It increase the bulk density of concrete.
Quantity of silt and clay in fine aggregate should ≯
Coarse aggregate is taken as main matrix form but
4-6%. fine aggregate is taken as filler matrix in concrete.
Concrete Technology 117 YCT
 Aggregate classification based on weight-
Type Aggregate Example and use
1. Ultra light weight Ex. Pumice, scoria,
(250 - 1450 kg/m3) vermiculite, ceramic
Use- For its insulating
properties
2. Light weight Ex. Expanded clay, shale, Apparatus- Length gauge.
< 1000 kg/m3 slate, crushed brick Note-
Use- Heat insulation layer The maximum percentage of elongated or flaky
below the roof and floor aggregate in concrete should ≯ 15 - 20%.
3. Normal weight Ex. Crushed lime stone,
(2300 - 2600 kg/m3) sand, gravel Flakiness and elongated test of aggregate are not
Use- Normal concrete work performed if aggregate size < 6.3 mm.
Ex. Magnetite, baryte, Iron Order of strength-
4. Heavy weight
(2800 - 2900 kg/m3)
Cubical > Crushed > Rounded > Flaky
shots.
Use- Making high density Aggregate Example
concrete for shielding against Rounded River gravel
nuclear radiation. Angular Crushed rock
Aggregate classification, based on shape Flaky Laminated rock
1. Rounded aggregate- Partially rounded/ Pit sand and gravel
If minimum air voids (32 - 33%) so provides more Irregular
workability. ❖ Surface Characteristics of Agg., As per IS : 383 ;
It has minimum surface area for a given volume so 1970-
minimum quantity of cement paste are required for Surface Texture Example
better workability.
Bond strength and interlocking property between the Glassy Black flint.
particles are very poor. So lower strength type of Granular Sand stone
concrete is formed. Crystalline Fine basalt, lime stone, dolomite
It is not suitable for concrete. granite, gabbro, syenite,
2. Partially Rounded Aggregate- dolerite.
Air voids - 35 - 38% Smooth Slate, marble, rhyolite.
It is not used for making concrete. It's interlocking Porous and honey Scoria, pumice.
property is better than rounded aggregate. combed
3. Angular Aggregate-
Air voids is maximum (38 - 45%) so its workability Classification of aggregate on the basis of
is minimum. available moisture content-
It has better interlocking property between the 1. Bone-dry Aggregate -
particle, so higher strength type of concrete is This types of aggregate is completely dry which has
formed. not any types of moisture on the surface or in voids.
4. Cubical Aggregate- It is obtain by drying aggregate in oven at 105 ± 5oC
It is an aggregate whose particles length, width and for 24 hours.
thickness are approximately equal. 2. Saturated surface dry aggregate (SSD)-
It has minimum voids so less quantity of cement It is an aggregate in which the surface of the
paste is required for better workability. aggregate are dry but the all pores filled by moisture
The strength of concrete which is made by cubical or saturated with water.
aggregate is more than that of other aggregate.
5. Flaky Aggregate- 3. Moist or wet aggregate-
An aggregate is said to be flaky, when its least All pores completely filled with water with a film on
the surface.
3
dimension is less than or 0.6 times of its mean ❑ TEST OF AGGREGATE [IS : 2386 (Part-IV)]-
5
dimension. 1. Crushing strength test-
Aim- To find the compressive strength of the
aggregate
Apparatus- Compression Testing Machine.

Apparatus- Thickness gauge. Size of sieve used - 12.5 mm, 10 mm, 2.36 mm
6. Elongated Aggregate - Rate of loading - 4 tonne per minute for 10 minutes.
An aggregate whose length is greater than 9/5 or 1.8
Wt. of agg. passing through 2.36 mm IS sieve
times of its mean dimension is called elongated C.V. = × 100
aggregate. Weight of sample

Concrete Technology 118 YCT

2. Impact test [IS : 2386 (part - 4) - 1963]- Percentage value of fine aggregate in All-in
Aim- To find the toughness of aggregate aggregate-
Apparatus- Page Impact Machine. A−C
• Test specimen taken passing through 12.5 mm sieve P= ×100
C−B
and retained on 10 mm sieve.
• Mould is filled in 3 layers tamping 25 times each layer. Note–-If we have to find percentage of fine agg.
• Hammer (13.5-14 kg) freely dropped from a height then
of 380 ± 5 mm for 15 blows. A−C
• Now crushed agg. sieved with 2.36 mm sieve and P= × 100
A−B
calculate impact value.
Where,
Wt. of agg. passing through 2.36 mm sieve
Impact value(I.V.) = × 100 P = Proportion of fine agg. to coarse agg.
Weight of Sample
A = Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate
❖ Aggregate Impact Value – B = Fineness modulus of fine aggregate
Purpose Max. Impact Value C = Fineness modulus of All-in aggregate
WBM Sub base course 50
CC base course or building 6. Soundness test (IS : 2386 Part-V)-
45
concrete Aim- To find out the durability or weather
Wearing surface like runway resistance of aggregate.
30
and road surface Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) or magnesium sulphate
3. Abrasion test (IS : 2386 : Part-IV)- (MgSO4) solution are used for this test.
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find Percentage of weight loss indicates the soundness of
the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action aggregate.
between aggregate and steel balls as abrasive action.
For pavement aggregate, loss of weight
Rotation speed and - 30-33 RPM, 500-1000
number revolution. (i) < 12% for sodium sulphate
Abrasive charge - Steel or cast iron balls with (ii) < 18% for magnesium sulphate
48φ (mm) and weight 390- 7. Specific gravity test-
445 gm. It is the unit weight of aggregate with respect to unit
Number of balls - 6 to 12 weight of water at 4oC temperature.
Cylinder dia. - 70 cm Note-Apparent specific gravity > Bulk Specific gravity.
Cylinder length - 50 cm 8. Shape test of aggregate-
Size of sieve used - 12.5 mm, 10 mm, 1.7 mm Aim- To determine, angularity number, flaky index
Wt. of agg. passing through 1.7 mm sieve and elongation index.
Abrasion value = × 100
Weight of Sample Angularity Number-
5. Fineness modulus- It is a number, which is used to determine the shape
Fineness modulus is obtained by adding the cumulative of aggregate.
% by mass retained on each of a specified series of Rounded aggregate particle has less angularity
sieve and dividing the sum by 100. number (zero) and vice versa.
Note- It varies from 0 - 11.
Higher F.M. shows coarser aggregate. W ×100
F.M. ∝ average size of particles. Angularity Number = 67 −
w×G
F.M. represents average size of particles of total
aggregate. Where, W = Weight of aggregate filled in cylinder
The grade of aggregate is determine with the help of w = Weight of water filled in cylinder
fineness modulus. G = Specific gravity of aggregate
Hole size of sieve- (1mm ×1mm ) Square 9. Flakiness index and elongation test-
Size of sieve- 150 micron to 80 mm Wt. of agg. passing through slot of thickness gauge
F.I. = × 100
∑ Cummulative Percentage Total weight of sample
Fineness modulus (F.M.) =
100 Wt. of agg. retained on the gauge
E.I. = × 100
Types of Aggregate Fineness Modulus Total weight of sample
Fine sand 2.2 - 2.6
Medium Sand 2.6 - 2.9 For general work F.I. ≯ 35%
Coarse Sand 2.9 - 3.2 For wearing course FI ≯ 15% (Runway and road)
Fine Aggregate 2 - 3.5 WATER
All- in Aggregate 3.5 - 6 Water is participate in chemical reaction and help to
Coarse Aggregate 6 - 8.5 provide the strength.
Concrete Technology 119 YCT
 Permissible limit of impurities in concrete Lower W/C ratio is the higher the final concrete
water as per IS : 456 - 2000 (IS : 3025)- strength.
Water-Cement ratio needs to be about 0.25 to
Material Permissible limit complete the hydration reaction.
Organic material 200 mg/l
984
Inorganic material 3000 mg/l 1. After 7 days curing, P7 = kg / cm 2
Sulphate 400 mg/l 7x
Chlorides (i) For RCC Work 500 mg/l 984
(ii) For PCC work 2000 mg/l 2. After 28 days curing, P28 = kg / cm 2
4x
Suspended solid 2000 mg/l
pH value 6-8 1
i.e. P ∝ Where, x = W/C ratio
Note- x
Effect of impurities in water on properties of Abram's law depend on time.
concrete - It should be noted that W/C ratio ≯ 0.50 from the
The pH value of water shall be not less than 6. points of strength view and ≮ 0.45 for the point of
The Sodium carbonate may cause the quick setting workability.
and bicarbonate may either accelerate or retard the 23% water required for its complete chemical
setting time. reaction. It is known as bond water.
The strength of concrete decreases due to the 15% water by weight is entrapped in the voids. It is
presence of salt in sea water. If sea water is to be known as gel water.
used, the concentration of salt in it should not be 0.35 - 0.45 ≈ 0.40 W/C ratio required to complete
exceed 3.5%. hydration of cement.
Presence of calcium chloride (CaCl2) in water the ❖ W/C ratio for various grade of concrete-
rate of setting and hardening is increase but it should Concrete Grade W/C Ratio
not be exceed 1.5% of weight of cement. M-7.5 0.40
The concentration of HCl, H2SO4 and other M-10 0.45
inorganic acids in water should not be exceed 1%. M-15 0.50
The quantity of NaOH should not be exceed 0.5% to
M-20 0.55
the weight of cement.
M-25 0.50
If the amount of oil in water exceeds 2 % to the
weight of cement, then the strength of concrete M-30 0.45
decreases by 20%. M-35 0.45
Zinc chloride retards the set of concrete and the 3 M-40 0.40
days strength test can not be performed. Important point related to W/C ratio law -
(i) Plasticity of concrete is in limit of workability
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE (ii) Concrete ingredients are unsound and
meritorious.
WATER CEMENT RATIO (iii) Compaction an curing of concrete has done in
Introduction- standard condition.
It is defined as the ratio of water to the cement by Relationship between water cement ratio
weight in a concrete mix. In the absences of and strength of concrete-
CRRI graphs are used to obtain a relationship
weighing machine it can be taken by volume.
between water cement ratio and strength of concrete.
Weight of water These graphs are very useful for obtaining W/C ratio
W/C ratio = for a trial mix of concrete.
Weight of cement
X-axis represents - W/C ratio
Y-axis represents - Crushing strength
1
Concrete strength ∝ CRRI has assumed the based of 7 days compressive
W / C ratio strength of cement.
Generally W/C ratio taken between 0.40 - 0.60.
❖ Strength gain of concrete with age -
Age % increase
Abram's W/C Ratio Law- 1 Days 16%
This law states that "the strength of workable 3 Days 40%
concrete is only depend upon water cement ratio". 7 Days 65%
Abram's law state that strength of fully compacted 14 Day 90%
28 Days 99%
concrete not affected by shape of aggregate, grading,
3 Month 110%
surface texture and workability etc. 6 Month 115%
W/C ratio most indicator of (Concrete) strength. 1 Year 120%

Concrete Technology 120 YCT

 Note- 2. Size of Aggregate- Smaller size aggregate has more
Strength of 15 cm cube is taken 90% of cube size 10 surface area as compared to larger size of aggregate
cm. hence it required more water as compared to coarser
Strength of 10 cm cube is more than 15 cm cube. aggregate.
Cube strength is more than cylinder (15 cm dia & 30 3. Admixture- Cementing material added in the
cm height) strength. concrete before or at the time of mixing to modify
Concrete cylinder strength ≮ 0.80 of cube strength. its properties is known as admixture.
Gel/space Ratio for complete hydration - Use of admixture -
Gel/Space ratio, (i) Increase workability without increasing water content.
(ii) Reduce segregation and bleeding.
Volume of gel 0.657 C (iii) To retard setting and hardening of concrete.
X= =
Space available 0.319 C + Wo (iv) To make water proof, acid proof and basic proof.
Gel/space ratio for partial hydration - 4. Temperature- Temperature↑, workability ↓
Gel/Space ratio, High temperature increase slump loss
5. Shape of aggregate -
Volume of gel 0.657C α Angular, rough, flaky and elongated aggregate
X= =
Space available 0.319C α + Wo reduce workability.
Where, Rounded and smooth aggregate increase workability
C = Weigh of cement in gm. and has low strength.
Wo = Volume of mixing water in ml. Decreasing order of workability, Rounded aggregate
α = Fraction of cement that has hydrated. → Angular aggregate → flaky or elongated
• A higher gel space ratio reduce the porosity and aggregate → Cubical aggregate.
therefore increase the strength of concrete. 6. Grading of aggregate-
When coarse and fine aggregate ratio is increase
Aggregate cement Ratio-
then workability increases.
It is the ratio of weight of aggregate to the weight of
cement. Workability ∝ Grading of aggregate
For a constant W/C ratio, 7. Time period -
1 1
1 Workability ∝ or
Aggregate cement ratio ∝ Time Time of transit
Workability
8. Air entraining agents-
For a satisfactory workable concrete, the cement
It increases the workability of fresh concrete.
content is enough to provide adhesion and maintain
workability in the mix so, as increase aggregate Workability test of concrete-
cement ratio, strength of concrete will increase. 1. Slump Test (IS: 1199-1959)-
❖ Quantity of Water required per 50 kg bag of cement. Simplest and commonly used method to measure
Grade of Concrete Required water/bag cement consistency (plasticity of concrete mix). Slump
value is the vertical distance or settlement of
M 25 28 Litres
concrete measured in mm from the top of cone.
M 20 30 Litres Slump test is done in field or lab both.
M 15 32 Litres Concrete are filled in slump cone in 3 equal layer
M 10 34 Litres (ASTM) by height and every layer is tamped 25
M 7.5 45 Litres times with the help of tamping rod (16 mm).
M5 60 Litres Frustum having top diameter 10 cm, bottom
dimension around 20 cm. height of 30 cm.
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
Workability
The ability of concrete to handle, transport and
placing between the formwork with minor
segregation is called the workability of concrete.
Water cement ratio has much affect the workability.
Workability ∝ W/C ratio.
Factors Affecting Workability-
1. Water content or W/C ratio- Water increase
workability but decrease strength.
1
While strength of conc. ∝ or ∝ C/W ratio
W/C ratio

Concrete Technology 121 YCT

 Types of Slump-

Note-
☞ Slump test is suitable only for the concrete of high
and medium workability. Note -
☞ Maximum aggregate size ≯ 38 mm for slump test. ☞
Compacting factor test is performed when size of
❖ Slump value for various types of work- aggregate ≯ 40 mm.
S.N. Types of work Slump in mm
☞
Concrete which have very low workability < 50 mm,
this test is not suitable.
1. Road work concrete 20 - 30 3.
Vee-Bee Consistometer test (IS: 1199-1959)-
2. Ordinary RCC work for beam and slab 50 - 100 This test is carried out the relative effort
3. Column, retaining wall and thin 75 - 150 measurement to change the mass of the concrete
from a definite shape to the other (conical shape to
vertical section cylindrical). Measurement of the effort is done in
4. Vibrated concrete 12 - 25 terms of time in second.
5. Mass concrete 25 - 50 Concrete are filled in conical mould in four equal
layer and every layer is tamped 25 times with
6. Canal Lining 70 - 80
tamping rod.
❖ Slump value for various workability of conc. as Vee - Bee consistometer test indirectly determine
per IS:456- the workability of concrete.
Most suitable for dry concrete having very low
Degree of workability Slump value workability.
Extremely low 0 This test is not suitable if slump value is > 50 mm.
Very low 0-25 ❖ Degree of workability in terms of Vee Bee
Low 25-50 second-
Medium 50-100 Time in second Consistency Degree of workability
High 100-150 <1 Fluid Very very high
Very high >150 1 - 3 Semi fluid Very high workable
3-7 Plastic High
Number of sample required for testing of 7 - 10 Dry medium
concrete.- 10 - 20 Very dry Low
Conc. quantity No. of Sample 20 - 40 Moist Very Low
1 m3 – 5 m3 1 sample 4. Flow test (IS: 1199 - 1959)-
6 m3 – 15 m3 2 sample This is lab test and suitable for very high workable
3 3 concrete.
16 m – 30 m 3 sample Max. size of aggregate less than 38 mm.
31 m3 – 50 m3 4 sample Diameter of spreading concrete − 25
> 50 m 3
4+1 for each 50m3 work Flow value% = × 100
25
☞ 1 Sample = 6 cube Flow test value should be between 0 - 150%.
2. Compaction Factor test (IS : 1199 - 1959)- It can not be used when the concrete is placed in thin
It measure the workability of concrete in terms of section.
Note- In flow test nominal size of coarse aggregate
internal energy required to compact the concrete fully. does not exceed 38 mm.
This method is suitable for less workable and harsh 5. Kelly Ball Test-
concrete and more accurate than slump test. It is also known as ball penetration test.
This test is most suitable for road pavement. Kelly ball test performed faster and provide accurate
It is more precise and sensitive than slump test. results with great precision than the slump test. It
required large amount of concrete compared with
Wt. of partially compacted Conc. slump test.
Compaction Factor = Permissible error in workability test-
Wt. of fully compacted conc.
Slump test ± 5 mm
Degree of workability Very low Low Medium High Compacting factor test ± 0.01 mm
Compacting factor 0.78 0.85 0.92 0.95 Vee - bee time ± 0.5 sec.

Concrete Technology 122 YCT

 VALUES OF WORKABILITY FOR DIFFERENT PLACING CONDITIONS
Degree of Consistency Slump Compacting Vee-Bee Uses
workability (mm) factor degree
(second)
Extremely Moist Earth - 0.65-0.7 > 20 Precast paving Slabs
Low
Very Low Very Dry See 7.1.1 0.75-0.8 10-20 Blinding concrete shallow sections,
pavements using pavers, Road
(Power Vibrator)
Low Dry 25-75 0.8-0.85 5-10 Mass concreting, lightly reinforced
sections in slabs, beam, walls,
columns, Floor, Hand Placed
Pavements canal lining strip
footing
Medium Plastic 50-100 0.85-0.92 2-5 Heavily reinforced sections in
Slabs, beams, walls, columns
Medium Plastic 75-100 0.85-0.92 2-5 Slipform work, Pumped concrete
High Semi fluid 100-150 0.92-above - Trench fill, in Situ Piling
Very High Fluid See 7.1.2 - - Tremie Concrete

SEGREGATION Bleeding cause formation of pores on the surface

and makes the concrete weak.
Property of concrete in which the coarse Formation of cement paste is known as laitance.
ingredients are separated from the concrete mix Bleeding can be control by-
while placing is called as segregation. 1. Using air entraining agent
It is the rough finishing property of concrete and 2. Increasing quantity of fine aggregate
caused improper proportioning, less compaction, 3. Adding more finely grained cement
low water content deficiency of sand and pouring 4. Lesser w/c ratio and proper mix design
of concrete from higher height. 5. Use of pozzolanic material
Segregation will be more if mix is very lean and 6. Rich mixes are less susceptible to bleeding than
aggregates are large size with rough texture. lean mix.
Ultimate effects of segregation is reduce the
strength of the hardened concrete. PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
Honey combing phenomenon occurs due to 1. Durability-
segregation. Durability is the property of concrete by virtue of
Segregation may be of three types- which it is capable to resist weathering action,
1. Coarse aggregate separating out or setting down chemical attack, abrasion or any other process, of
from the rest of the matrix. deterioration.
2. The paste or matrix separating away from coarse Wearing resistance of concrete is improve at lower
aggregate. W/C ratio and slump value.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material Factors affecting durability-
being a material of lowest specific gravity. (i) Use of unsound cement and less durable aggregate.
Minimization of Segregation- (ii) Shape and size of the member.
(i) Maximum height of placing of concrete should be 1.0 m. (iii) Entry of harmful gases and salt through pores and voids.
(iv) Freezing and thawing of water sucked through the
(ii) Adding air entraining admixture during mixing
cracks of concrete.
(iii) Restricting water quantity
(v) Cover provided to the embedded steel (life can be
(iv) Careful handling, transporting, placing and enhanced by providing extra cover to steel).
compacting.
Durability ∝ cement aggregate ratio.
BLEEDING 2. Imperviousness -
Process of rise of water along with cement particles It is defined as the resistance of the concrete to the
to the surface of freshly laid concrete or separation flow of water through the pores.
of water During concreting if there is excess water then
Water cement paste comes over the surface due to evaporation of surface water will leave a large
excessive quantity of water in mix and excess number of continuous pores making the concrete
compaction. relatively permeable.
Concrete Technology 123 YCT
 This will result in the reduction of durability of Various types of strength of concrete-
concrete. • Rich mix, low w/c ratio, better curing
If denseness of concrete is good then Compressive improves compressive strength.
impermeability of concrete is good. strength • It find out by universal testing
3. Dimensional stability- machine (U.T.M.)
It should have high volume stability or minimum 1 1
• It is 8-12% or − of
dimensional stability. Tensile strength 10 15
Fresh concrete shrinks on drying and the hardened compressive strength.
concrete expands on wetting, so contraction joints • fcr = 0.70 f ck
should be provided to avoid formation of cracks. Flexural strength
• Modulus of rupture can be increased
Dimensional stability of concrete depends upon by using angular agg.
following factors- Shear strength • 12-13% of compressive strength.
(i) Elasticity-
Elasticity (E) is affected by the amount, type and • Resistance offered by concrete
grading of aggregate. Bond strength against slipping of bar is called bond
(ii) Shrinkage- strength.
Shrinkage phenomenon occurs during chemical CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
reaction between water and cement due to volume
change of the member. Shrinkage in concrete cause
(IS : 10262 - 2009)-
Mix. design is the science of determining the
tension crack.
relative proportions of the ingredients of concrete to
Factors responsible for shrinkage-
achieve the desired properties in the most
• Higher water content and w/c ratio economical way.
• Higher cement content. This method of concrete mix proportioning is
• Shrinkage can be reduced by proper mix design, applicable only for ordinary and standard concrete
curing and less cement content. grades.
(iii) Creep- The air content in concrete is considered as nill.
Tendency of concrete by which it deformed Proportioning is carried out to achieve specified
continuously due to external load is known as creep. characteristic compressive strength at specified age,
It is a time dependent factor that increase with time. workability of fresh concrete and durability
Rich concrete have less creep while lean concrete requirements.
more. It is also known as plastic flow or plastic yield. Factors affecting the concrete mix-
Rate of creep decreases with time. 1. Compressive strength
Creep increases when- 2. Workability
• Aggregate content is low. 3. Durability
• Cement content is high. 4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate
• Water cement ratio is high. 5. Max. water cement ratio
• Air entrainment is high. 6. Quality control
• Temperature is high. 7. Type of cement and grade of concrete
• Relative humidity is low. ❖ Surface water w.r.t to the water present in the
Creep coefficient value based on age of concrete- aggregate -
Age of concrete Creep coefficient Aggregate Amount of water
> 7 days 2.2 deducted in litre/cum
> 28 days 1.6 Very wet sand 120
> 1 year 1.1 Moderately wet 80
(iv) Thermal Expansion- Moist sand 40
Concrete and steel have nearly equal thermal expansion
Moist gravel 20-40
(1.2 ×10–5) so bonding between them is good.
Thermal expansion in concrete is cause of Note -
compression stress. For lean concrete - No. of grade = 2 (M-5 & M-7.5)
4. Strength- In the designation of concrete mix M refers to the
External force resisting capacity of concrete is mix and the number refers to the specified
called as strength of concrete. Strength of concrete compressive strength of 150 mm size of cube at 28
is increased by better compaction. days in N/mm2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 124 YCT
❖ Grade of Concrete - Concrete mix proportioning-
Group Grade of Grade of Characteristi It is classified into two classes.
conc. IS : conc. IS : c comp. 1. Design mix concrete
456-2000 456 : 2000 strength of 2. Nominal mix concrete
(Modified in 150 mm cube Comparison between Nominal mix and
may 2013) at 28 days in Design mix Concretes-
N/mm2 Property Nominal mix Design mix
Ordinary M- 10 M-10 10 Concrete concrete
concrete M-15 M-15 15 Mixing Site level mixing Designed from
M-20 M-20 20 ready mix
concrete plant.
Standard M-25 M-25 25
Tests No lab test conducted Based on
concrete M-30 M-30 30 laboratory trial
M-35 M-35 35 and error
M- 40 M-40 40 experiment
M-45 M-45 45 method.
M-50 M-50 50 Attributes Does not consider & Need to check
M- 55 M-55 55 of check specific every property of
M-60 60 ingredients properties of ingredients.
individual ingredients, Cement - Cement
High M-60 M- 60 60 such as specific gravity grade,
strength M-65 M-65 65 of cement, silt content consistency,
concrete of sand & weight initial setting
M-70 M-70 70
properties etc. time, final setting
M-75 M-75 75 time, specific
M-80 M-80 80 gravity etc.
M-85 85 Sand &
M-90 90 Aggregate-
M-95 95 Density, bulking
M-100 100 of sand, specific
Characteristic strength- gravity, grading
As per IS : 456 : 2000 and IS : 1343-1980 the of aggregate,
characteristic strength is defined as the value below fineness modulus,
which not more than 5% of result are expected to water absorption,
fail. unit weight etc.
The characteristic load/ strength is the maximum Time Easy to make,it does Difficult, take
load act on a structure that has a 95% probability of not take more time more than 30 days
not being exceeded during the life of structures. time (IS code
Target mean strength of concrete - 20262)
Basis Based on passed More scientific
f m = f ck + 1.65σ experience & have no than the nominal
fck = Characteristic strength scientific approach. mix.
σ = Standard deviation Methods of proportioning of concrete mix-
❖ Standard deviation of concrete- • Arbitrary volumetric method
Concrete grade Standard deviation (σ) • Minimum voids method
N/mm2 • Maximum density method
M-10 • Fineness modulus method
3.5
M-15 • W/C ratio method
M-20 • Trial mix method
4.0 • Grading curve method (Road note no. 4)
M-25
M-30 • Department of environmental (DOE) design method
9. Indian road congress (IRC) 44 method
M-35
10. Indian standard recommended method IS : 10262 :
M-40 2009.
M-45 5.0 1. Arbitrary Volumetric Method-
M-50 This method is adopted only for work of small
M-55 magnitude or of moderate importance and also used
M-60 for ordinary concrete. By this method concrete
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 125 YCT
 mixes are arbitrarily chosen by volume and quantity Where,
of water required for mixing is determined D = Maximum aggregate size
according to the desired workability. P = Percentage of material (by weight) finer
W/C × P = 0.3P + 0.1Y + 0.01Z than diameter "d"
d = Maximum size of fine aggregate.
Where, This method is not so popular since grading cannot
P = Quantity of cement by weight. be accurately achieved in field and there is no
Y = Quantity of fine aggregate by weight. control over the strength.
Z = Quantity of coarse aggregate by weight. The proportion which gives heaviest weight is then
❖ Concrete mix for various work- adopted in this method.
4. Fineness Modulus method-
Types of work Mix ratio Permissible Fineness modulus is a numerical value that's
grade represent average size of whole aggregate's particle.
RCC water Tank post tensioning member- M-30
 A−C
Pre stressed concrete- M-40 F.M. =   × 100
Column, Arch, heavy beam. 1:1:2 M-25  A−B
Where,
Water tank, cantilever wall 1 M-20
1 : 1 : 3 A = F.M. of coarse aggregate
pre cast member, Bridge, 2 B = F.M. of fine aggregate
medium loaded column. C = F.M. of combined aggregate
Beam, Slab, Column, Lintel, 1 : 2 : 4 M-15 6. Water cement ratio method-
Silos, Storage tank, Road, As per IS : 456 : 2000, max water cement ratio and
Floor, Culvert etc. min. quantity of cement for various condition of
Mass concreting, coping 1 : 3 : 6 M-10 concrete structure is as given below.
pedestal. Nominal cover to reinforcement for
Mass concreting, Dam, 1 : 4 : 8 to M-7.5 to various exposure condition-
Foundation, base of floor and 1 : 5 : 10 M-5 Exposure Nominal Concrete cover in mm
road etc. not less than
2. Minimum voids method- Mild 20
Dense concrete is obtained by this method because Moderate 30
sand completely fill the voids of coarse aggregate Severe 45
and quantity of cement fill the voids of sand. Very Severe 50
In this method quantity of sand is kept 10% more Extreme 75
than the voids in coarse aggregate and cement Max. Water Content Per Cum of Conc.
quantity is kept 15% more than voids in the sand. For Nominal Max. Size of Aggregate-
It does not give satisfactory result. Nominal Max. Max. Water
3. Maximum density method- Size of Agg.(mm) Content (Kg)
It is the modified form of minimum voids method 10 208
given by Fuller and Thomson. According to Fuller's 20 186
1/ 2 40 165
d
P = 100   Note- Quantity of water = 30% by weight of cement
D or 5% by weight of aggregate
Exposure condition for various environment effect-
Environment Exposure Conditions
Mild Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions, except those situated in
coastal areas.
Moderate Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst wet. Concrete exposed to
condensation and rain. Concrete continuously under water. Concrete in contact or buried
under non-aggressive solid/ground water.
Severe Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting, and drying or occasional freezing
whilst wet or severe aggressive reaction. Concrete Completely immersed in Sea water.
Concrete exposed to coastal environment.
Very Severe Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes, or severe freezing, thawing
conditions whilst wet. Concrete in contact or buried under aggressive sub soil/ground water.
Extreme Surface of members in tidal zone, members is direct contact to liquid/solid aggressive
chemicals.

Civil Engineering Smart Scan 126 YCT

 Maximum W/C ratio and minimum cement content for various exposure condition of
concrete structure-
Sl. Exposure Plain Concrete Reinforced Concrete
No.
Minimum Maximum Free Minimum Minimum Maximum Minimum
cement contents W/C ratio Grade of cement content Free W/C ratio Grade of
(kg/m3) concrete kg/m3 concrete
1. Mild 220 0.60 - 300 0.55 M 20
2. Moderate 240 0.60 M 15 300 0.50 M 25
3. Severe 250 0.50 M 20 320 0.45 M 30
4. Very 260 0.45 M 20 340 0.45 M 35
Severe
5. Extreme 280 0.40 M 25 360 0.40 M 40

TEST FOR CONCRETE Note-

1. Preliminary Test- Compressive strength of 15 cm cube
It is defined as the test conducted in a laboratory on = 90% of 10 cm cube.
the trial mix of concrete produced in the laboratory = 125% of cylinder
for designing a concrete mix. Compressive strength of cylinder
It is done before actual concreting at the site to
verify the strength of concrete and determining the (dia. 15 cm, height, 30 cm)
adjustment required in the mix. if needed. = 80% of 15 cm cube
Preliminary test is repeated if the difference of Tensile strength = 10% of compressive strength
compressive strength of three test specimen, exceeds Bending strength = 15% of compressive strength
15 kg/cm2. Shear strength = 20% of compressive strength
2. Work Test-
Min. grade of concrete-
This test is performed on samples of concrete
actually being used at the construction site. These For, ordinary concrete M-10
test can be performed at the construction site or in For RCC work-
the laboratory. As per IS 456 : 2000 M -20
Types of concrete- As per IS 456 : 1978 M -15
(i) Controlled concrete
(ii) Ordinary concrete For PCC work M -15
(i) Controlled Concrete- (ii) Ordinary Concrete-
Type of concrete in which preliminary tests are When the concrete is produced by taking standard
performed for designing the mix and it is also used
for all the seven types grade of cement is known as arbitrary proportions of concrete ingredients, it is
controlled concrete. known as nominal mix concrete.
Strength of concrete etc is checked by preliminary Types of concrete-
test before actual use. 1. According of binding material-
Note- (a) Mud Concrete-
It is used for grade of concrete ≥ M-10 grade of Clay is used as a binding material.
concrete.
1
Quantity of cement and aggregate should be taken in Clay: brick ballast- 1 : 2 .
terms of weight while water is in volume. 2
❖ Compressive strength of controlled concrete- It is used in third class building foundation and
Concrete grade Strength in N/mm2 temporary construction work.
(b) Lime Concrete-
Preliminary Test Works test
Lime is used as binding material.
M-10 13.5 - 15.8 10 Lime : Surkhi : Brick Ballast - 16 : 32 : 100 or 18 :
M-15 18.5 - 20.8 15 36 : 100
M-20 24 - 26.6 20 It is used as base course in wall foundation and floor.
M-25 29 - 31.6 25 (c) Cement Concrete-
M-30 35 - 38.3 30 Cement is used as binding material.
M-35 40 - 43.3 35 Cement concrete are made in different grade on the
M-40 45 - 48.3 40 basis of requirement.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 127 YCT
 Types of Concrete Grade STORING
Lean Concrete M - 5 to M - 7.5 Storage of cement in warehouse-
Ordinary Concrete M -10 to M - 20 Building roof, walls and floor should be water proof.
Standard Concrete M - 25 to M -60 There should be minimum opening and windows.
High strength Concrete M - 65 to M -100 Surrounding area should be free from waterlogged.
2. According to Design- Godown floor should be height of min. 45 cm from
Types of concrete Density (kg/m3) ground level.
Plain or ordinary concrete 2400 A wooden platform of height 150-200 mm is
prepared above the floor to avoid direct contact b/w
Light weight concrete < 1920
floors and cement bags.
Heavy Weight concrete 3000 - 4000
Stack height should not be more than 15 bags (2.7
Reinforced concrete 2500 m) of cement for more than 15 bags. Causes'
Air entrained concrete - pressure and damage the cement bag.
Pre-cast concrete - Stack should be 30 cm away from the external wall.
Pre-stressed concrete - Each stack should be connected closely to avoid the
Plums Concrete- air circulation.
It is a mixture of wet concrete and a plum (size > 300 mm). Passage width of 90 cm to 12 cm is provided
Quantity of plums ≯ 20% to the volume of concrete. between the stacks.
Distance between plums and outer surface of Date of placing for each stack should be noted to
concrete ≮ 150 mm. know their storage period.
Maximum size of aggregate- First in first out rule should be adopted. The oldest
cement bags should be taken out firstly.
1
(i) Maximum size ≯ of minimum dimension of If the stacks of cement bag are to be stored for a
4 longer duration then it should be enclosed in a
concrete member. polythene sheet.
(ii) Maximum size ≯ Design of warehouse-
• C/C distance between main bar – 5 mm (i)Floor area covered by one bag cement = 0.30 m2
• Clear cover whichever is less (ii)Height of cement bag = 0.18 m, Volume = 0.054 m3
Generally 10-20 mm aggregate are used in R.C.C. work. (iii)
Stack height not exceed 2.70 m.
An aggregate, with size more than 75 mm is known
as cyclopean aggregate. (iv)30 cm space should be left all around the stack from
exterior wall.
QUALITY CONTROL OF CONCRETE (v) Shed height- 3.6m – 4.0 m.
Various stages for the production of ☞ Pressure compaction of the cement bag on lower
concrete- layers is known as "ware house pack" of cement.
Storage of aggregate-
All aggregate should be stored near the construction
site from which transportation expenditure can be
avoided.
Aggregate should be clean otherwise there will not
be proper bond with cement and strength will be
reduced.

BATCHING
Process of measuring the required quantities of all
the ingredients of concrete in order to obtain the
uniform proportion and grading of aggregate is
called batching.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 128 YCT
 Accurate measurement of ingredients gives more All ingredients in this method are mix during
strength and workability. transportation to the site. Water is added on site or
Methods of batching - during transportation depending the location of plant
and site.
1. Volume batching -
2. Central mix plant/wet concrete batching plant -
Volume batching is not good for the proportioning Ingredients are mixed in a mixture located at a central
the material because of volume of moist sand in a location in the plant and then concrete is poured into
loose condition weights much less than the same agitator truck, which transports it to the site.
volume of dry compacted sand.
In this method of batching a wooden or steel gauge FORMWORK
box is used whose volume is equal to one bag of Fresh concrete is in plastic state it required a
cement i.e. 35 litres. There is not easy to measure temporary structure to withstand its load and
the granular materials in terms of volume in volume maintain in the desired shape of concrete structure
batching method. until it becomes sufficiently strong. This temporary
In the method of volume batching cement is always supports is known as formwork or forms shuttering.
measured by weight and aggregates in volume. Cost of framework is 20-25% of the cost of structure
During filling for mass the material should be filled in building work.
loosely and no any compaction is done and after Parts of formwork-
filling the top surface of gauge box is leveled. 1. Shuttering-
In terms of easiness volume batching is done for It is a vertical temporary structure used as a mould
small projects. for a structure in which fresh concrete is poured only
to hardened subsequently.
Accuracy of volume batching is not good over the
Ex. Vertical plyboard used in column, slab side and
weight batching.
in beam.
Size of gauge box (35 Litre) Formwork for columns, footing and retaining walls
1. 27 cm × 27 cm × 48 cm are known as shuttering.
2. 30 cm × 30 cm × 39 cm Vertical formwork is known as shuttering.
2. Weight batching -
This method of batching is more accurate and all
ingredients are measured in terms of kg.
Mix. proportion are based on 50 kg bag of cement.
This methods are used for a large and all important
concreting works.
Volume batching is adopted in India for all
construction work.
Measurement accuracy-
(i) For cement - ± 2%
(i) For aggregate and water - ± 3%
Weighing machines-
(i) Spring Balance Shuttering
Useful for small project and its capacity is 100-200 kg. 2. Centering -
Centering is done during construction to support the
(ii) Platform weighing machine-
formwork for horizontal surfaces including flour
(iii) Wheel Barrow scale beams and slabs. It provide shape of horizontal
It is normally used for transporting concrete at surface.
ground level. It is done to support beams, slab bottom arches
(iv) Trolley type weighing batcher- vaults shell shaped structures etc.
It is a movable from one place to another that is Formwork for slab and floor beam is known as
mounted over a trolley. centering.
These are used in large construction work.
Batching plant-
Concrete batching plant is a machine in which
ingredients of concrete are mixed and blended
homogenously to obtain concrete of desired strength
and quality.
A. Classification of concrete batching plants based
on mixers-
1. Transit mix plant/dry concrete batching plant-
It is used manual or digital scale to weight the
ingredients.
All weighted ingredients are poured in a transit
mixture that is transported to the site. Centering
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3. Staging - 3. Wale - The components puts in the transverse
It is a temporary structure which is used to support direction of the studs to keep its in their own
formwork (Either it may be used for centering or position is called wale.
shuttering). 4. Tie - To maintain the uniform thickness of the
Staging is done by using props, jacks, wooden concrete components and to keep the sheeting, studs
ballies. and wells in their fixed position a steel rod is
Staging transfer the load over the centering or provided across them is called tie.
shuttering on the ground. 5. Clamp- Metal clamps are used to fasten the tie.
6. Props- Props are used to support the formwork at
the desired height and transfer the concrete load at
the ground.
7. Raking shore- It is a inclined member which
provide lateral support to the unsafe structure.

Staging

Stripping time/strike off-

Formwork shall not be struck until the concrete
Requirements of a good formwork- reaches a strength at least twice the stress to which
1. It should be enough strong to withstand all types of
the concrete may be subjected at the time striking.
dead and live load.
2. Deflections should be minimum.
3. Smooth surface and afford easy stripping. MIXING
4. Formwork should be light, water proof and rest on The process in which different ingredient of the
the firm base. concrete are mixed in a specified proportion for the
5. Joints should be tight/stiff so that lateral deformation production of homogenous concrete.
and leakage is minimum. Concrete mixing method
6. Swelling and shrinkage should be minimum. 1. Hand mixing-
7. Cheap and re-usable material. This method of mixing is done by manual labors. It
Material used for the formwork- is adopted for small and less importance projects.
1. Wood Hand mixing is done on the high raised platform of
2. Steel brick or cement concrete.
3. Combination of wood and steel 10% more cement is required than machine mixing
4. Battens and plywood for the same strength of concrete.
Form Lining- When shuttering of timber planks is Normally the mixing time is taken ≯ 3 minutes.
used then surface of concrete components is marks 2. Machine mixing-
or knots of timber emerge which are not good to see. For machine mixing various ingredients are mixed
Therefore in order to obtain flat and clean surface in with the help of machine. It is highly effective and
higher quality construction, lining is applied on the rapid method for fulfilling the demands of short
inner part of shuttering. mixing time optimum consistency and homogeneous
Lining is made of hard wall papers, metal sheets, quality of concrete.
(22-24 gauge) Plywood or plastic sheet. Machine mixing of concrete is most suitable in the
Components of a formwork- large projects where large masses of concrete are
1. Sheeting - It is the battens of timber thickness of 25 needed because it ensures the consistent
mm - 40 mm that is in the direct contact of concrete. homogeneity of the concrete.
2. Stud - The vertical components at appropriate Firstly materials are mixed in machine in dry state
intervals behind the sheeting that is used to keep it in for 1.5 to 2 minutes and then gradually add the
its position and to prevent deflects to outward is correct quantity of water while the machine is in
known as studs. motion.
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 It is economical in comparison to hand mixing since 2. Wheel Barrows hand cart-
10% cement is saved by machine mixing. Used for moderate distance.
W/C ratio can be kept less to obtain high strength Capacity - 70 to 80 liters.
concrete in machine mixing. Where mixing plants cannot be installed and the area
is very congested and most suitable for concreting in
water.
3. Pump and pipe line-
Very large quantity can be transported.
Concrete consistency should be medium and do not
segregate.
For transportation distance upto 400 m this method
is suitable.
• Vertical distance, upto 80 m.
• Pipe dia - 10-20 cm.
(a) Non-Tilting type mixers-
This types of mixers are not allowed to tilt and the • Slump value- 40-100 mm.
drum rotates about its horizontal axis. • Compacting factor 0.90 to 0.95.
The concrete which is being mixed in the drum falls 4. Belt conveyors-
into the inclined chute and get discharge out It is suitable for conveying concrete horizontal or
ingredients are charged from one end and prepared higher/lower level and for the large project like
concrete is delivered from the other end. gravity dam.
When a non-tilting mixers are used there is a Slump value ≯ 50 mm.
possibility of vulnerable to segregation. It is also very suitable for transporting roller
Used for small projects. compacted concrete.
Rapid discharge of concrete is not possible. 5. Crane, Bucket and Rope way-
Suitable for small materials < 75 mm. Crane and bucket is use for work above the ground
level.
Rope way and bucket used for concrete work in a
valley, construction of pier in river and for the dam.
6. Transit mixer-
Used for transporting the concrete over long
distance particularly in RMC plant.
7. Skip and hoist method-
This method is used to transport concrete vertically
up for high rise structure construction.
8. Truck mixers and dumpers-
It is most suitable and better method for long
B. Pan type mixers- distance.
Pan type concrete mixers consists a circular pan in Dump trucks are not suitable for an ordinary
which concrete is mixed. concrete because of segregation phenomenon occurs
Concrete mix is collected after mixing through due to jerk during transportation.
central hole provided in the pan. Air entrained concrete is more preferable for
Pan type mixers are more efficient among the all transportation by dump truck.
types of batch mixers. Air bubbles are generated in air entrained concrete
Concrete does not stick to the pan of this mixers. that's prevent segregation of concrete.
Continuous concrete mixers- Agitators should be used in case of ordinary
Loading, mixing and discharging of mix is concrete and if long distance is involve which
continuously done until work does not complete. prevents segregation and stiffening and it also helps
This methods is used for very large projects such as the mixing process at a slow speed.
dam, bridges, tall buildings etc. 9. By Chute-
It is usually used for concreting in deep location.
TRANSPORTATION OF CONCRETE This method is extensively used in the field and also
In this process concrete mix is transport from the best for basement concreting.
place of mixing to final position of deposition.
Various methods of concrete transporting is here
PLACING OF CONCRETE
discuss below- The process in which the concrete is deposited at a
1. Mortar Pan- desired/particular place is known as placing of
There is difficulty to access the site and for a very concrete.
small project. Free fall height of concrete during placing should be
It is a tedious and costly method. limited to 1 m.
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 Precaution during placing of concrete- Stiff mixes with low water cement ratio concrete are
The laitance should be removed before placing new used in this method. It gives high strength and
concrete. dimension stability.
Placing of concrete should starts widthwise and in Vibration are more suitable than hand compaction to
the wall concrete work should be proceed towards produce better quality concrete.
middle, starting from ends. Lower cement content (<15%) are required
Concrete should be placed in an uniform layer, compared to hand compaction.
thickness should be 15-30 cm for RCC but for mass Finishing are completed quickly.
concrete it should be not more than 30-45 cm.
Alignment of reinforcement and formwork should Classification of vibrators-
not be allowed for disturbed after placing concrete. (i) Internal/needle/poker vibrators-
Concrete should be laid continuously to prevent the This is also called immersion vibrator and most
irregular and unsightly lines. commonly used for compaction of concrete.
This vibration is immersed into a concrete mass
COMPACTION OF CONCRETE which are to be compacted.
It is defined as the process which eliminates Vibration Frequency- 3500 - 5000 cycle/minute
entrapped air from freshly placed concrete and Needle dia and length- 20-75 mm, and 25-90 cm.
achieve the maximum density of concrete. Spacing of needle penetration point
Purpose of compaction-
600 mm
1. To achieve high density. = min of 
2. To improve strength and durability. 10, times to the dia of needle
3. To remove entrapped air bubbles in concrete. Use- Column, Beams, mass concrete and for all
4. To eliminate honey comb and other defects. general work.
Methods for concrete compaction (ii) Form or External Vibrators-
Form vibrators are used for concreting columns, thin
1. Hand 2. Machine 3. By Spinning 4. By Pressure wall and the costing of pre-cast structure. Vibrators
Compaction Compaction and Jolting are clamped on the external wall surface of the
(i) Rodding (i) Internal vibrator (needle vibrator) or pokers formwork.
(ii) Ramming (ii) Form vibrator (external vibrator) Form vibrator is most suitable for the compaction of
(iii) Tamping (iii) Table vibrator
(iv) Plateform vibrator
thin and congested sections of concrete arches and
(v) Surface vibrator (screed vibrator) tunnel lining where the internal vibrator is
(vi) Vibratory Roller practically not feasible.
1. Hand Compaction- It produce a good finish to concrete work.
This method is adopted in case of unimportant Vibration is given to concrete work is indirectly
concrete work of small magnitude and places where way.
reinforcement is more and does not permit use of Efficiency-
vibrating equipment. External vibrators < Internal vibrators
Concrete should be more workable i.e. W/C ratio (iv) Platform Vibrator-
should be more for hand compaction. It is just like as table vibrator but its size is larger.
There should not be more compaction of concrete Use-
because of coarse aggregate settled on the bottom
Railway sleeper, electric poles, prefabricated roofing
and segregation phenomenon take place.
elements.
Slump value more than 120 mm.
(i) Rodding- (v) Surface screed vibrators-
Compaction for concrete placed in beam and column These are useful for the compaction of flat and thin
are done with the help of steel rod of 2 m long and concrete surfaces (< 15 cm) such as floor slab, roof
16 mm dia. slab, road surface.
(ii) Ramming- For vacuum dewatering technique or slip-form
It is used to compact plain concrete. paving technique, a double beam screed vibrator are
(iii) Tamping- often used.
Top surface is tamped by a wooden cross beam (10 (vi) Vibratory Roller-
cm × 10 cm) to expel out voids and to make the It is used to compaction of very dry and lean
surface plain. concrete (Roller compacted concrete).
Both compaction and leveling are achieved Use-
simultaneously. Dam and pavement
This method is useful for roof slab, floor slab and Note-
road pavement.
2. Machine compaction- ☞ Over vibration shall not be done at one place for a
Machine vibration is the most effective way of too long time because it may cause of excessive
compacting concrete. laitance to the surface.
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 Finishing operations- Methods of curing-
The last process of concreting operation adopted so 1. Shading of concrete work
that the concrete surface are obtained as a uniform 2. Water curing
and true concrete surface is known as finishing 3. By ponding
operation. 5. Steam curing
6. Covering concrete surface with hessian or gunny
bags.
1. Shading of concrete work -
Main object of shading concrete is to prevent the
evaporation of water from the concrete surface.
1. Screeding- It is used in dry weather condition to prevent the
It is the levelling operation of removing/striking direct contact of the sun's rays with the surface of
excess concrete humps and hollows of uniform concrete in cold weather condition.
concrete surface is called screeding. It prevents the freezing of concrete. Shading is done
It is done with the help of straight edge. with the help of big canvas which is stretched at the
There are two types of screed- construction site.
(i) Roller type 2. Water curing-
(ii) Vibrator type These are the best method of curing because it
2. Floating- satisfied all the requirement of curing as promotion
of hydration, elimination of shrinkage and
The process of removing irregularities from the
absorption of the heat of hydration.
surface of concrete left after screeding is known as
Water curing may be done in the following methods-
floating.
(i) Immersion-
Floating is done with the help of wooden float.
Concrete members are immersed into water.
Wooden float is 1.5m long and 20 cm wide.
Ex.- Precast concrete members.
Finishing is achieved by moving the wooden float in
(ii) Stagnating/Ponding-
the forward and backward direction.
It is the best method for curing of concrete for flat
3. Trowelling - surfaces.
It is the final operation of finishing. It is done to In this method water is filled in a small pond to cure
create smooth, hard and dense surfaces. Trowelling the concrete surface.
is done when water has evaporated from concrete Use- curing of pavement, slabs
surface. (iii) Spraying/Fogging -
Exterior concrete should not be trowelled because it Vertical surface such as retaining walls, concrete
can lead to a loss of entrained air, caused by column and plastered surface are cured by spraying
overworking the surface. water.
Trowel length is 25-50 cm and width is 8-12 cm. (iv) Wet covering -
❖ Loss of strength due to air voids in% In some cases wet covering such as wet gunny bags,
Air voids Loss of strength hessian cloths, jute matting, straw etc. are warped to
1% 5% vertical surface for keeping the concrete wet.
5% 30% 3. Membrane curing -
It is also known as dry method of concrete curing.
10% 50%
Freshly concrete surface are covered by the solid
CURING OPERATION and liquid membrane upto 7 days in order to
prevents the evaporation of water form concrete
Curing is the process to keep the surface of concrete
surface.
in moist state for a certain period of time and kept Membranes are the type of sealing compound.
within a reasonable temperature range. Some important membranes are given below -
The result of this process is increased strength and 1. Plastic film 2. Water proof papers
decreased permeability. Curing of concrete for long 3. Wax emulsion 4. Bituminous paper etc.
period ensures better volume stability, strength and Use- Used in arid zone where there is scarcity of
water resistance. water to be executed by ponding or spraying
Objects of curing- method.
(i) To increase impermeability and durability of 5. Steam Curing -
concrete. This method of curing is adopted for prefabricated
(ii) To achieve the required strength. or pre-cast concrete structure to develop the strength
of concrete very rapidly. Maximum temperature is
(iii) To reduce shrinkage and prevent the loss of water by
limited to 75°C.
evaporation.
W/C ratio is limited to 0.3-0.7.
(iv) It increase wearing resistance and the weather Steam curing is not used for high alumina cement
resistance to the concrete surface. concrete.
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 It reduces shear strength of concrete. 5. Concrete surface should be covered to maintain
It increased resistance against sulphate action, constant temperature and to protect the concrete
freezing and thawing. from frost.
6. Curing of concrete surface with hessian or gunny 6. Curing and formwork stripping time should be kept
bags- for longer period.
These method are used for vertical and sloppy 7. Frozen aggregate should not be used for concreting.
surface. 8. Low pressure wet steam provides the best means of
Curing period and temperature- both heating the enclosures and for moist curing to
Strength of concrete is depend on curing period and the concrete.
temperature both. According to B.I.S. temperature is Hot weather concreting -
recommended for curing is 27 ±2°C and humidity is Concrete placed at an atmospheric temperature greater
90%. than 400C is termed as hot weather concreting.
❖ Strength of ordinary Portland cement with Effects of hot weather on concrete -
different period of curing - Reduction in strength and relative humidity.
Curing period Strength in% Rapid rate of hydration of cement and evaporation
of mixing water.
1 days 16
Less finishing time and greater plastic shrinkage.
3 days 40 Evaporation of curing water and water absorption
7 days 67 from the formwork.
28 days 100 Precaution while concreting in hot weather -
3 month 122 1. Aggregate temperature can be maintained by
6 month 146 watering or keeping them covered.
1 year 155 2. For hot weather concreting moist the formwork
before concreting to reduce water absorption from
EXTREME WEATHER CONCRETING concrete mix.
Cold weather concreting- 3. Low heat cement should be prefer for hot weather
concreting.
Cold weather method of concreting is used when the
4. Retarding admixture should be used to reduced the
temperature is low or below the freezing point. setting of fresh mix for hot weather concreting.
As per Indian standard temperature for cold weather 5. Complete the concreting operation like transporting,
concreting should be less than 50C. placing and finishing of concrete as fast as is
Problem of slow reaction of concrete is to be faced possible.
when concreting in cold weather. 6. When the day temperature is very high then it is
Most suitable temperature for concreting is 100C to better to do concreting in the evening time.
270C. Underwater concreting-
Effects of Cold Weather in Concreting- The underwater concreting techniques designed
1. Delay in setting and hardening- mostly to prevent cement washout.
Hydration time depends upon temperature. Since the Underwater concreting needs not be compacted as
temperature in cold weather is very low and so there concrete gets automatically compacted by the
occurs the delayed in setting and hardening of hydrostatic pressure of water.
cement. Concreting in water-
2. Freezing of concrete at early stage - If the water depth is shallow then there should be
Freezing of water prevents the hydration of cement used coffer dam around the construction site.
and makes the concrete to expand. For underwater concreting 10% extra cement should
Expansion causes disruption of concrete due to be used to fulfill the losses of cement solution in
which there occurs the loss of strength and quality in water. There are several methods to carry out
concrete. underwater concreting such as -
3. Freezing and thawing - 1. Tremie method.
Freezing and thawing exert fatigue in the concrete. 2. By grouting (Generally adopted for plugging the
Precaution while concreting in cold weather- well foundation).
1. After placing and compacting, the temperature 3. Pumping technique.
should be kept at 20C until it becomes hardened. 4. Hydro valve method.
2. Hot, water (600C) and aggregates (150C) should be 5. Pneumatic value method.
mixed before adding cement content in the mix. 6. By skips method.
3. Calcium chloride (Accelerating admixture≯ 1.5%) 7. Bagged concrete method.
can be used to increase the internal temperature and 8. Toggle bags method.
rate of hardening of concrete. Tremie method-
4. Formwork should be cleaned and free of snow or ice A tremie pipe is a pipe having diameter of 20-30 cm.
and also damaged concrete due to frost action should Capable of easy coupling for increase or decrease of
be eliminated. length.
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 To avoid intermixing water and concrete in the pipe The most commonly used accelerator is - CaCl2
a wooden plug or thick polythene sheet or other but it is harmful for Pre-stressed concrete and
material is used to seal the end of pipe. R.C.C. work.
At all the stage tremie pipe remains inside the Ex.-Sodium Thiocyanates, Soluble carbonates,
concrete, so that no water inters into the pipe from Triethenolamine, NaCl, Al2Cl3, Sodium Sulphate
the bottom.
(Na2SO4) Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3), Sodium
W/C ratio for tremie method ≤ 0.30
Hydroxide (NaOH).
M-20 grade of concrete should be used.
Sulphate resisting and high alumina cement should Note-
be prefer. CaCl2 add up to 2% acts as accelerators.
Precast unit of plain concrete should be used in sea CaCl2 ≤ 2% act as retarders.
water. CaCl2 and NaOH, allow concreting in very cold
weather (–230C).
CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES Aluminium chloride is also a accelerators and it is
It is used in concrete to modify the property of used to prevent leakage due to pressure
concrete. Function of accelerators-
It is used before batching or during the mixing. 1. To reduce the curing time
2. Early removal of formwork
3. Quicker early strength
4. Reduce bleeding
5. Improved initial protection against freezing.
6. Concreting in cold places.
In present situation the commonly used accelerator
are-
(a) Soluble Carbonate
(b) Silicate Fluorosilicates
Note- (c) Triethenolamine
Mineral admixture are finely divided siliceous (iv) Retarders -
materials which are added to concrete in large Retarders slow down the rate of hydration of cement
amount range of 20 - 70% by mass of the total in concrete or slow the rate of setting of concrete.
cementitious material. Retarder is mainly used to make ready mix concrete
Dosage of retarders, plasticizers and super (R.M.C.) and where temperature is high. It decreases
plasticizers shall be restricted to 0.5, 0.1 and 2.0% the rate of gain of strength.
respectively by weight of cementitious material. The retarders help in overcoming the accelerating
Chemical Admixture - effect of the temperature over the setting of the
(i) Plasticizer (water reducer)- concrete in hot weather condition.
Plasticizer increase the workability and strength of Its normal dose varies between 0.5 to 0.1% .
concrete at the same water content. Ex.-Gypsum, Sugars, Starches, Cellulose products,
Allow water reduction for a given workability. salts of acids, NH4Cl, ferric chloride (FeCl3).
Normal does of plasticizer varies between 0.1 to Sugar quantity is limited up to 0.2%
0.4% that allow the reduction in water content by 10 (v) Air Entertainers -
to 15%.
Air entraining agents introduce in the form of
Ex.-Ligno Sulphonic acid, polyglycol ester,
hydroxylated carboxylic Calcium, Sodium and million air bubbles (dia. < 0.05 mm) of non-
Ammonium acid. coalescing air bubbles and distributed uniformly in
(ii) Super Plasticizer (Extra water reducer) - concrete.
It is the improve form of plasticizer used in making Effect of air entraining agents on properties of
high strength concrete. concrete-
Impart high workability by reducing friction 1. Reduce the strength of concrete
between concrete particles and reducing the amount 2. Increase the workability & durability.
of water to be added. 3. Increase the resistance against to freezing and
These are the modified versions of plasticizers that thawing.
allow the reduction of water content up to 30% unlike 4. Decrease permeability.
plasticizers which allow the reduction up to 15% only. 5. Reduce the bleeding, segregation and laitance.
Ex.-Acrylic polymer, modified lignosulphonates, 6. Reduce unit weight.
sulphonated melamine formaldehydes (SMF). 7. Quantity ≯ 0.005 - 1% by the weight of cement.
(iii) Accelerators -
Manipur PSC AE 2013, GPSC AM 2020, GSPHCL AE 2020 8. Air- entraining concrete can be pumped easily.
This is added in concrete to increase the rate of early Ex.- Resins, water soluble soap, steric acid,
strength of the concrete. It increase the rate of Sulphonic acid.
hydration. It is used where temperature is low and Vinsol resin and durex are the most important
for reducing the initial setting time. market product used in world.
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(vi) Corrosion inhibiting admixture- 2. Heavy weight concrete/High density concrete-
When RCC structure is exposed to saline water, Its specific gravity is more than 3.5.
industrial fumes, chlorides etc. main causes of Aggregate used-
corrosion in steel. Magnetite, Hematite, Baryte.
It is used to prevent or slow down the process of Artificial aggregate-
corrosion. Steel shots, Iron punching
Ex.-Sodium benzoate, NaNO3, NaNO2. Use- Radiation Shielding
Note:- Granite is used to obtained very high strength
PROPERITIES OF SPECIAL CONCRETE concrete in very fine grained form.
Various special types of concrete- 3. Plum Concrete-
1. Light weight concrete Plum concrete is made for mass concrete using a
2. Heavy weight concrete large aggregate of a maximum size of 300 mm.
3. Plum concrete Plum concrete is also called cyclopean concrete.
4. Fiber reinforced concrete 4. Fiber Reinforced concrete (F.R.C.)-
A special types of concrete whose tensile strength is
5. Pre-stressed concrete
improved by providing some additional fibers that is
6. Polymer concrete steel fibers, glass fibers, asbestos fibers,
7. Precast concrete polypropylene, nylon etc.
8. Controlled concrete
9. Self healing/Bacterial concrete Length of Fiber
Aspect Ratio =
10. Fly ash concrete Diameter
11. Silica fume concrete Generally Aspect ratio = 30 - 150
12. Roller compact concrete Increase in flexural, impact and fatigue strength of
13. Self compacted concrete concrete.
14. Aerated or cellular concrete Use-
15. No fines concrete Highways, upper surface of runways, floors of
16. Green concrete industrial buildings, bridge deck, canal and tunnel
lining, gutter cover etc.
17. Ferro-Cement
Its tensile strength is doubled and kinetic and shock
1. Light Weight Concrete (L.W.C.) - resistance is more.
This concrete have less weight and less density If size of coarse aggregate exceeds, 10 mm the
compare to other concrete. strength of concrete decreases.
EX. Cellular/ porous concrete, foam concrete, Gas 5. Pre-stressed concrete-
concrete, Aerated and no- fines concrete. These types of concrete made with a high tensile
L.W.C. can be prepared by three method. strength steel wires (Tendons) insert into concrete
(i) By using light weight aggregate. and pulling them through a jack arrangement to
(ii) By entraining gas or air bubbles (Aerated concrete). produce tension.
(iii) By omitting fine aggregate (No-fines concrete). Use -
Aggregates used for light weight concrete - Long spans, Arches, Tanks, Poles, Railway sleepers,
Natural light weight Artificial light weight Beams etc.
aggregate aggregate It requires high grade concrete.
Pumice Artificial cinders Types of pre-stressing-
(i) Pre-Tensioning
Scoria Expanded shale
Cables are tied by pulling at both ends then
Volcanic Cinders Sintered fly ash concreting is done.
(Pulverized Fuel Ash) Min. grade- M-40
Sawdust Foamed slag Min. concrete cover - 20mm
Rice husk Coke breeze (ii) Post-Tensioning-
Diatomite Bloated clay High strength steels tendons are positioned in ducts
Properties of light weight concrete- before concreting. Once concrete has gained
Tensile strength • 15 - 20% of compressive strength, tension is then applied, pulling the tendons
strength and anchoring them against the outer edge of the
concrete before service load are applied.
Thermal Insulation • More isolative to normal Min. grade- M-30
concrete.
Min. concrete cover - 30mm
Fire Resistance • It has very good fire 7. Precast concrete-
Reparability Durability resistance. It can be easily Various components of concrete are cast in factory
broken, cut, and repaired before being used in the structure, this types of
less durable. concrete is called pre-cast concrete.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 136 YCT
 Pre-cast concrete unit generally used for that Questions Asked in Previous Years
member which is limited in size and whose handling
and transporting is not possible easily. 1. Which of the following physical inspection test
Various mixes are prepared and tested in the apparatus is used for determining the Cement
Initial and final setting times?
laboratory before using.
(a) Blain apparatus
13. Self Compacted Concrete - (b) Le-Chatelier apparatus
These Concrete flow under its own weight and fill (c) Vicat apparatus
space of formwork without need of mechanical (d) Flow cone apparatus
vibration. It is not required any external vibrations ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024
Its other name is flowing concrete. Ans. (c) :
Use - Test apparatus Determination
Where concrete compaction is not easy by Vicat apparatus Initial and final setting.
mechanical vibration machine. Blain apparatus Fineness test.
A concrete can be classified as self compacting Le-chatelier apparatus Soundness test
concrete if it has-
Flow cone apparatus Flow properties of mortar.
(i) Filling ability
2. Which of the following apparatus is used to test
(ii) Passing ability
Soundness of cement?
(iii) Segregation resistance (a) Le Chatelier apparatus
SCC is placed by the method of pumping. (b) Permeabilty apparatus
It have better workability, pumpability and flow (c) Los Angeles apparatus
ability. (d) Impact Test apparatus
14. Aerated or Cellular Concrete- GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
It is also known as foamed concrete. It is made by Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
using air or gas into slurry. 3. The fineness of a cement sample is determined
Aerated concrete can be manufactured by following by using ______ method.
ways- (a) Blane's air permeability
(i) By the formation of gas. (b) slump cone
(ii) By mixing performed stable foam with the slurry. (c) universal testing
(iii) Using finely powdered metal (Aluminum powder, (d) Le Chatelier
powdered zinc) with slurry (0.2% by the weight of SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
cement). Ans. (a) The degree of fineness of cement is the
It is known by various trade name such as, siporex measure the mean size of the grains in it. There are
Celecrete, Vayuthan. three methods for testing fineness–
Use- 1. Sieve method
Divider wall, insulating lining, and pre-cast building 2. Air permeability method–
(a) Nurse method
section, extreme cold climate.
(b) Blain's method
16. Green (Fresh) concrete- 3. Sedimentation method–
The concrete which is eco-friendly to the (a) Wagner turbidimeter method
environment. It is made by adding waste materials Soundness test– Le-Chatelier/Auto clave test
as a partial or complete replacement for cement or Consistency test– Vicat apparatus
coarse or fine aggregate. Strength– Compressive strength test
Waste material- slag, saw dust, waste glass 4. Which of the following IS sieve size is used, to
recycled concrete, burnt clay etc. check the fineness of cement by sieve test?
• Blast furnace slag, iron oxide, and fly ash are (a) 37.5 µm (b) 90 µm
common ingredient of green concrete. (c) 15 µm (d) 20 µm
Chromium oxide is used to make green concrete. JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023
Uses- Ans. (b) : Sieve method–100 gm of cement sample
Road construction, building construction, bridges, is taken and air-set lumps, if any, in the sample are
dames, retaining walls, columns etc. broken with fingers. The sample is placed on a 90
µ sieve and continuously sieved for 15 minutes. The
Advantage of green concrete- residue should not exceed the limits specified
Low cost as compared to the conventional concrete. below–
Its heat of hydration is lower than traditional Type of % of residue Sp. surface
concrete. cement by weight area m2/kg
Reduction in shrinkage and creep. not less than
It is in easier handling, finishing and better OPC 10 225
consistency. RHC 5 325
It is thermal and acid resistance. PPC 5 300
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 137 YCT
5. The result of the soundness test of 53-grade Ans. (c) : As per IS code 12269-2013- Chemical
Portland cement conducted by using Le requirements for ordinary portland cement, 53 grade–
Chatelier's apparatus shall NOT exceed Characteristics Requirements
________ mm. Insoluble residue 4
(a) 15 (b) 12 Magnesia 6
(c) 10 (d) 5 Loss on ignition 4
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
Chloride content 0.1
Ans. (c) : Soundness test (By Le-Chatelier Alkali content 0.05
indicator)–
Ratio of percentage of silica,
Max. Type of cement alumina and iron oxide, when 0.80-1.02
expansion calculated by the formula
10 mm OPC - 33 grade, 43 grade, 53 Ratio of percentage of alumina to
grade, PPC, RHC and LHC 0.66
that of iron oxide
5 mm Quick setting cement, high 11. According to IS 12269:2013, loss on ignition for
alumina cement and super ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade cement
sulphate cement shall NOT be greater than_______per cent by
6. The maximum value of expansion allowed in mass.
the Soundness Test of cement is- (a) 1.5 (b) 2
(a) 5 mm (b) 10 mm (c) 3 (d) 4
(c) 20 mm (d) 25 mm JSSC JE (Civil) 23/10/2022
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022 Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
Ans. (b) See the above explanation. 12. What is the minimum ratio of the percentage of
7. Which of the following compounds gives rapid alumina to that of iron oxide in ordinary
hardening with an early gain in strength with a portland cement?
higher heat of hydration in OPC Cement? (a) 0.11 (b) 0.66
(a) C3S (b) C3A (c) 1.42 (d) 0.34
(c) C2S (d) C4AF MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
Ans. (a) : It has high lime content can be obtained by 13. In the Fineness test of cement of the following
increasing the C3S content but is normally obtained quantity is measured?
from OPC clincker by finer grinding. (a) Specific surface area (b) Setting time
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) [25-50%]– It increase the (c) Mass Density (d) Specific gravity
resistance to freezing and thawing. MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
• It is responsible for early strength and hardness. Ans. (a) : Fineness test –
• The heat of hydration is 500 J/g.
• Degree of fineness of cement is the measure the
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) [5-11%]– mean size of the grain in it and it is measure
• It rapidly leads with water and is responsible for specific surface area of cement.
flash set to finely grounded clinker. • Fineness of cement is measured in the units of
• C3A is responsible for the initial setting. area/mass.
• The heat of hydration of 865 J/g. OPC : 2250 cm2/g
8. Which of the following compound causes rapid RHC : 3250 cm2/g
setting of cement? LHC : 3200 cm2/g
(a) C3S (b) C3A PPC : 3000 cm2/g
(c) C4AF (d) C2S 14. In how many grades is Ordinary Portland
KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023 Cement (OPC) available?
Ans. (b) See the above expalnation. (a) Five (b) Three
9. The "flash setting" of cement paste is due to (c) Two (d) Four
the hydration of PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
(a) C2S (b) C4AF Ans. (b) :
(c) C3A (d) CaSO4.2H2O Grade of IS Code Specific Initial FST Unsoundn
(Gypsum) OPC cement surface setting (min) ess Le-
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-I area time Chatelier
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation (cm2/gm) (min) (mm)
10. According to IS 12269:2013, insoluble residues OPC-33
IS-269
Grade
in OPC 53 grade cement shall not be greater
than ____ by mass. OPC-43 IS-
2250 30 600 10
(a) 1.5% (b) 2% Grade 8112
(c) 4% (d) 3% OPC-53 IS-
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 Grade 12269
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 138 YCT
15. _____ is obtained by mixing Portland cement Dicalcium Belite 32% Ultimate strength
clinker, gypsum and granulated blast furnace silicate (C2S) (1 year strength)
slag in suitable proportions. (2CaO.SiO2) (Resistance to
(a) High alumina cement chemical attack)
25-40%
(b) Portland pozzolona cement
(c) Ordinary Portland cement Tricalcium Celite 10% Flash-set, initial
(d) Portland slag cement aluminate (C3A) setting
MH Latur MNC JE (Water supply) 23.02.2024 (3CaO.Al2O3)
Ans. (d) : Portland slag cement – 5-11%
• This cement is produced by inter grinding cement Tetra calcium Felite 8% Poorest
clinkers, hard burnt gypsum and granulated blast alumina ferrite (C4AF) cementing value
furnace slag in specified proportion. (4CaO.Al2O3.
This cement offers – Fe2O3)
(a) Higher resistance against the attack of sulphur and 8-14%
chloride
18. 'Autoclave' method of testing ordinary
(b) Better refinement of pore structure.
(c) Low heat of hydration. Portland cement is to determine :
(d) Low cost (a) setting time of cement
• The chemical requirement of this cement is same as (b) soundness of cement
that of 33 grade of cement. (c) fineness of cement
• SSA is 2250 cm2/gm, expansion is limited to 10 (d) Compressive strength of cement
mm or 0.8% respectively. BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
• This cement find Ans. (b) : Soundness test– It is a very important test
16. Which type of cement is produced by grinding to assure the quality of cement since an unsound cement
clinkers of cement with about 60 to 65 percent produces cracks, distortion ultimately leading to failure.
of slag? Determination of soundness–
(a) Rapid hardening cement
(i) Le-Chatellier Method
(b) Coloured cement
(c) High alumina cement (ii) Autoclave test
(d) Blast furnace cement Le-Chatelier Auto clave test
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 material
Ans. (d) : Blast furnace slag cement– Measure unsoundness Sensitive to both lime and
• Blast furnace slag cement has been developed (free lime only) magnesia
primarily to utilize blast furnace slag, a waste 100 gm of cement + Internal mould dimension
product from blast furnaces. The quantity of 0.78P water (25×25×282) mm
granulated slag mixed with clinker will range from Result in given in 'mm' Result in given in %
60 to 65%.
19. Which of the following test is done to determine
• Portland blast furnace cement is similar to ordinary
the fineness of cement?
portland cement with respect to finers, setting time,
soundness and strength. (a) Conduction calorimeter
• This cement process high resistance against the (b) Wagner turbidimeter test
attack of chloride and sulphates. (c) Blaine water-permeability test
17. ........... bogue compound will undergo reaction (d) Gillmore needle or vicat's apparatus
slowly and it is responsible for progression BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
strength of concrete. Ans. (b) : Fineness of cement is tested–
(a) C3S (b) C2S 1. By sieving
(c) C3A (d) C4AF 2. By determination of specific surface (total surface
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 area of all the particles in one gram of cement) by air
Ans. (b) : permeability apparatus. Expressed as cm2/gm or m2/kg.
Principal Bogue Avg. Function Generally Blaine air permeability apparatus is used.
mineral name 3. Wagner turbidimeter test.
Tricalcium Alite 40% 7 day strength
20. According to IS 8112:1989, the specification for
silicate (C3S) (responsible for
early strength) and fineness of ordinary Portland cement – 43
(3CaO.SiO2)
25-50% hardness, test Grade, expressed as specific surface (in m2/kg
cementing units) is:
material (a) 430 (b) 500
(resistance to (c) 225 (d) 325
freezing, thawing) ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 139 YCT
 Ans. (c) Minimum specific surface of cements– 24. Which of the following compounds is
Specific responsible for slow hardening, less heat of
hydration, and greater resistance to the
surface not chemical attack in OPC Cement?
Type of cement
less than (a) C3S (b) C3A (c) C4AF (d) C2S
m2/kg SSC JE Pre. 11/10/2023 (Morning)
Ordinary portland cement (OPC) 225 Ans. (d) : Dicalcium silicate (C2S)–It is about 25-40%
(All grade 33, 43, 53) of cement. It hydrates and hardens slowly and takes
Rapid hardening cement (RHC) 325 long time to add to the strength (after a year or more). It
Low heat cement (LHC) 320 imparts resistance to chemical attack. Raising of C2S
Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) 300 content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early
strength, decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at
High alumina cement (HAC) 225 early ages and decreases heat of hydration. The heat of
Super sulphate cement (SSC) 400 hydration is 260 J/g.
21. One bag of cement is equal to______. 25. Which of the following chemical compounds is
(a) 0.1247 cu m (b) 0.2147 cu m a Bogue's compound present in cement and is
(c) 0.034722 cu m (d) 1.0214 cu m responsible for the strength of cement?
MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-III (a) 5 CaO.Al2O3.K2O (b) 2CaO.Sio2.Fe2O3
(c) 2CaO.SiO3 (d) 3CaO.SiO2
Ans. (c) : One bag weighing 50 kg and occupies 34.7 MH WRD JE 12/08/2022 Shift-II
litres or 0.035 m3.
Ans. (d) Tricalcium silicate (C3S)– It is responsible
• Density 1440 kg/m3. for initial strength.
w Dicalcium silicate (C2S)– It is responsible for
γ=
v progressive strength by slow hardening and releasing
less heat of hydration.
50
∴ v= = 0.0347 cum. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)– It is responsible for
1440 flash set. It is generate high heat.
22. Soundness test of cement is carried out to Tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF)– It is
determine responsible for flash set but generates less heat.
(a) free lime content 26. Which of the following compound in Portland
(b) durability under sea water cement is responsible for flash set but generates
less heat and also has the poorest cementing value?
(c) alumina content
(a) Dicalcium silicate
(d) iron oxide content (b) Tetracalcim alumino ferrite
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023 (c) Tricalcium silicate
Ans. (a) Soundness test– It is essential that the cement (d) Tricalcium aluminate
concrete does that undergo large change in volume after BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
setting. Ans. (b) : See the explanation of the above question.
• Soundness of cement may be tested by Le-Chatelier 27. What are dimensions of a mould of Vicat's
method or by autoclave method. Apparatus in which cement paste is filled?
• For OPC, RHC, LHC and PPC it is limited to 10 mm (a) 90 mm diameter and 40 mm height
whereas for HAC and SSC it should not exceed 5 mm. (b) 80 mm diameter and 50 mm height
• The soundness test of cement by Le-Chatelier's (c) 90 mm diameter and 50 mm height
apparatus gives unsoundness due to free lime only. (d) 80 mm diameter and 40 mm height
UPRVNL JE (Civil) 23/12/2022
23. Cement can be manufactured by:
Ans. (d) : Vicat apparatus– The standard consistency of
(a) Dry Process (b) Wet Process cement paste test is carried out by the vicat apparatus.
(c) Both of these (d) None of these Dimension– Weight of plunger = 300 g
CGPSC AE (Civil) 28/08/2022 Diameter = 10 mm, length = 50 mm
Ans. (c) : The method of manufacturing can be Penetration depth = 33 to 35 mm
classified into two categories– (from the top)
(i) Wet method–the materials are crushed and mixed Mould size, depth = 40 mm
with water and the charge placed in the kiln contains Diameter = 80 mm
approximately 35% water. This process generally used • It is used for determine the setting time of cement.
when raw materials are soft because complete mixing is 28. In conducting a standard consistency test of
not possible unless water is added by this process Ordinary Portland cement using Vicat apparatus
cement production cost and quality is high. as per IS : 4031-1988, what is the penetration
depth of the needle from the top of Vicat mould,
(ii) Dry method–The materials are crushed and mixed for the paste to have normal consistency?
after drying and the dry mixture is placed in the kiln. (a) 43 to 47 mm (b) 13 to 17 mm
• Grinding and mixing were more difficult in the dry (c) 33 to 35 mm (d) 23 to 27 mm
process than in wet process. In dry process fuel JSSC JDLCCE JE 05/10/2023 (Civil)
consumption is lower as compared to the wet process. Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 140 YCT
29. Cement that has _____is the most suitable for Ans. (b) : Gypsum consist of CaSO4 and H2O. Gypsum
achieving higher ultimate strength in a given is a white or grey coloured inorganic compound that is
application. made up of hydrated calcium and sulphate ions.
(a) a high C3A content (b) a high C3S content 34. The most common used retarder in cement is
(c) very little gypsum (d) a high C2S content (a) Gypsum (b) Calcium Chloride
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II (c) Calcium Carbonate (d) None of these
Ans. (d) : Cement that has a high C2S content is the CHB JE (Civil) 28/01/2023
most suitable for achieving higher ultimate strength in
a given application. Ans. (a)
Tricalcium silicate (C3S)– It is responsible for initial Admixture Uses
7 days strength. Plasticizer Reduce water content improve
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)– It is responsible for workability for a given water
flash set. It is generate high heat. cement.
Tetracalcium alumino ferrite (C4AF)– It is Air entrainers Improved resistance to damage
responsible for flash set but generates less heat. from freezing and thawing
30. Which of the following is the Bogue compound Retarders Longer setting time and slower
in Ordinary Portland Cement? initial strength gain.
(a) Allite (b) Monosulphate Ex-Calcium sulphate (Gypsum),
(c) Calcium hyroxide (d) Ettringite Sugar, Starch.
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I Accelerator's Rapid setting and high early
Ans. (a) : strength
Bogue's Na Chemical Perce Avg. Super Workability greatly enhanced.
compounds me formula nt-age Percent plasticizers
age 35. Which of the following oxides is present in
Tri-Calcium Alit 3CaO.SiO2 25- 40% highest proportion in Ordinary Portland
Silicate e 50% cement?
(C3S) (a) NaO (b) MgO
Di-calcium Beli 2CaO.SiO2 25- 32% (c) SiO2 (d) CaO
Silicate(C2S) te 40% MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I
Tricalcium Celi 3CaO.Al2 8-12% 11% Ans. (d) : See the above explanation
Aluminate te O3
36. What is the primary ingredient in the
(C3A)
production of portland cement?
Tetra- Felit 4CaO.Al2 6-10% 9% (a) Gypsum (b) Lime
Calcium e O3
(c) Silica (d) Clinker
Alumino Fe2O3
Ferrite RITES AM 05/05/2024
(C4AF) Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
31. In the context of composition of cement clinker, 37. What is the range of Iron oxide present in
what is the formula of tricalcium silicate? ordinary Portland cement?
(a) 4CaO. Al2,O3. FezO3 (b) 3CaO. SiO2 (a) 0.5 – 6 % (b) 8 – 15 %
(c) 2CaO. Sio2 (d) 3CaO. Al2O3 (c) 17 – 25 % (d) 0.5 – 1.3 %
GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023 PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
Ans. (b) : See the explanation of the above question. Ans. (a) See the above Explanation
32. Normal Consistency of cement is determined 38. In the context of chemical composition of raw
by: material of cement, which of the following is
(a) Le Chatelier Apparatus responsible for quick setting?
(b) Vicat's Needle (a) Fe2O3 (b) SiO2
(c) Rebound Hammer (c) Al2O3 (d) CaO
(d) None of these MH PWD CEA 16/12/2023 Shift-III
CRIS JE 19/02/2023 Ans. (c) : See the above Explanation.
Ans. (b) The standard consistency of cement test should 39. Which is the major component in cement
be performed as per IS code 4031 Part 4 specifications manufacturing?
by the Vicat apparatus mentioned in IS code 5513. (a) limestone (b) silica
• The required water for making cement paste can be (c) gypsum (d) fly ash
found by the plunger of the vicat apparatus penetrating CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023
the cement past about 5 mm to 7 mm bottom from the Ans. (a) See the above explanation.
Vicat mould. 40. Specific surface of super sulphate cement
33. Gypsum consist of should be not be less than ______ cm2/g
(a) H2O and CO2 (b) CaSO4 and H2O (a) 3000 (b) 3250
(c) Lime and H2O (d) CO2 and calcium (c) 2250 (d) 4000
JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023 MHADA JE 01/02/2022, Shift-II
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 141 YCT
 Ans. (d) Minimum specific surface of cements– 44. The minimum and maximum setting time of
Specific Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is-
Type of cement surface not less (a) 30 and 600 minutes respectively
than m2/kg (b) 30 and 60 minutes respectively
Ordinary portland cement (OPC) 225 (c) 300 and 600 minutes respectively
(All grade 33, 43, 53) (d) 300 and 60 minutes respectively
Rapid hardening cement (RHC) 325 GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
Low heat cement (LHC) 320 Ans. (a) : Types of ordinary portland cement–
(i) OPC - 33(IS : 269-2015)
Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) 300 (ii) OPC - 43 (IS : 8112-1989)
High alumina cement (HAC) 225 (iii) OPC - 53 (IS : 12269-1987)
Super sulphate cement (SSC) 400 • Initial setting time (1st) of OPC is 30 min and final
• Specific surface of super sulphate cement should be setting time of OPC is 600 min.
not be less than 400 m2/kg or 4000 cm2/g. 45. If ‘P’ is the standard consistency of cement,
41. Which of the following compound is amount of water required for soundness test of
responsible to control strength and soundness cement is -
of cement? (a) P (b) 0.85P
(a) SiO2 (b) CaO
P 
(c) MgO (d) HNO3 (c) 0.78P (d)  + 3  %
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift 2 4 
Ans. (b) Chemical compaction- Chhattisgarh Vyapam 22/06/2023
Compositi Ans. (c) :
Oxide Function Amount of water
on (%) Test performed
Lime (CaO) Control strength and 60-65 required
soundness Initial setting time test 0.85 P
Silica (SiO2) Give strength 17-25 Soundness test 0.78 P
Alumina Responsible for quick 3-8 Compressive strength test P
(Al2O3) setting +3
4
Fe2O3 Give colour and helps 0.5-6 Tensile strength test P
in fusion of different + 2.5
ingredients 5
MgO Impart colour and 0.5-4 46. What consistency of cement paste is required to
hardness calculate the initial setting time?
42. Which of the following cement is used when (a) 0.90 P (b) 0.75 P
concrete is to be laid under water of in running (c) 0.50 P (d) 0.85 P
water? JKSSB JE 28/10/2021 Shift-II
(a) Low heat Portland cement Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
(b) White Portland cement 47. Vicat’s apparatus is used to determine the
(c) Masonry cement (a) Initial setting time of cement
(d) Quick setting Portland cement (b) Final setting time of cement
MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-I (c) Normal consistency of cement
Ans. (d) : Quick setting cement– The quantity of (d) All of the above
gypsum is reduced and small percentage aluminium ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
sulphate is added, it is ground much finer than ordinary Ans. (d) : Vicat apparatus for different test-
portland cement. Types of test Dia or size shape
Properties– Initial setting time = 5 minutes Consistency 10 mm Solid circular
Final setting time = 30 minutes
Final setting 5 mm Annular ring
Use– It is used when concrete is to be laid under water time
or in running water.
Initial setting 1 mm square Square
43. Which of the following materials possesses a time needle or 1.13 needle
specific gravity value equal to 3.14? mm circular
(a) Ordinary Portland cement
48. According to IS 12269: 2013, the minimum
(b) Water compressive strength of ordinary Portland
(c) Lead cement (grade 53) at the age 168 +/-2 hours
(d) Pure bitumen shall be_____.
DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-II (a) 25 N/mm2 (b) 37 N/mm2
2
Ans. (a) : Properties of OPC– (c) 15 N/mm (d) 53 N/mm2
Specific gravity of cement = 3.14 MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II
Bulk density of cement = 1440 kg/m3 Ans. (b) As per IS 12269 : 1987 page-3 Cl-5-4 For 53-5
Specific surface area of OPC = 2250 cm2/gm grade cement, compressive strength at 168 ± 2 h shall
Weight of 1 bag cement = 50 kg. not be less than 37.5 MPa.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 142 YCT
49. Which of the following is the effect of lumps Flow diagram of the wet process for the
present in cement? manufacturing of cement
(a) Decreased setting time of cement
(b) Enhanced durability of concrete
(c) Decreased strength in concrete
(d) Flash set of concrete
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (c) : If the lumps present in cement, it is decrease
strength of concrete.
Lump inspection–Upon opening the cement bag
carefully examine its contents for any lump. The
presence of lumps suggests that the cement has come
into contact with moisture.
• A bag with lumps should be rejected as it might
compromise the constructions integrity.
50. Which of the following type of cement is
preferred for concrete making which is used in
construction of sewage treatment plants located
where, soil is infested with sulphates?
(a) Portland Pozzolona
(b) Low heat and Ordinary Portland cement
(c) Sulphate resisting cement
(d) None of the above
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III Flow diagram of the dry process for the
Ans. (c) : Sulphate resisting cement (IS : 12330)– manufacturing of cement
• In this cement the amount of C3A is restricted low
value (<5%).
• Expansion of cement = 0.8% and 10 mm.
• This cement can be used as an alternative to ordinary
portland cement or portland pozzolana cement or
portland slag cement under normal conditions. Its use
however is restricted where the prevailing temperature
is below 400C and also used where the concrete is
exposed to the risk of deterioration due to sulphate
attack, concrete in contact with soils or ground waters
containing excessive sulphate as well as concrete in sea
water or exposed directly to sea coast.
51. In which of the processes of manufacturing of
cement is the limestone brought from the
quarries first crushed into smaller fragments?
(a) Wet process
(b) Moist process 52. Which of the following is NOT a field of
(c) Grinding process application of rapid-hardening cement?
(d) Dry process (a) Road repair works
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I (b) Cold weather concreting
Ans. (d) : Dry process–The dry process is adopted (c) Massive dams
when the raw materials are quite hard. The process is (d) Pre-fabricated concrete production
slow and the product is costly. Limestone and clay are SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
ground to fine powder separately and are mixed. Water Ans. (c) : Rapid-hardening cement–It has high lime
is added to make a thick paste. The cakes of this paste, content and can be obtained by increasing the C3S
content but is normally obtained from OPC clinker by
which contain about 14% of moisture, are dried and are finer grinding (450 m2/kg).
charged into rotary kiln. • The basis of application of rapid hardening cement is
• In the wet process, water is added in the properly hardening properties and heat emission rather than
proportioned, crushed raw materials for thoroughly setting rate.
mixing the very fine raw materials, which is called Use–Road repair work, cold weather concreting, pre-
slurry. The slurry is then fed into the rotary kiln. fabricated concrete production, repair of bridge.

Civil Engineering Smart Scan 143 YCT

53. Pozzolanas are materials that react with Ans. (d) : Vicat apparatus used to find normal
(a) Calcium hydroxide consistency of cement.
(b) Tricalcium aluminate
(c) Aluminium hydroxide
(d) Sodium oxalate
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Ans. (a) : Pozzolanic reactions– A pozzolanic may be
defined by its ability to react with calcium hydroxide.
Therefore, pozzolanic activity can be assessed by the
extent and rate of the pozzolanic reaction.
Addition to fat lime– In the presence of water,
pozzolana reacts with fat lime and produces cementing
compounds. This converts fat lime into hydraulic lime.
54. The use of Rapid hardening cement is • The standard consistency of cement paste is defined
recommended in : as the consistency which will permit the vicat
(a) Cold weather concrete works plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to 7 mm from the
(b) Mass concrete works bottom of the vicat mould.
(c) Foundation concrete where soil is infested • Vicat mould is in the form of a frustum of a cone
with sulphates with an internal diameter of 70 mm at the lower end
(d) All the above and 80 mm at the upper end with a height of 40 mm.
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 57. Which of the following apparatus is used to
Ans. (a) : Rapid hardening cement– find the percentage of water required to
• This is a type of cement which develops higher rate produce a cement paste of standard
of gain of strength than OPC must not be confused consistency?
with quick setting cement which only sets quickly. (a) Kelly ball apparatus
(b) Vicat apparatus
• Cement attain the strength at the age of 3 day
(c) Compacting factor apparatus
equivalent to that attain by OPC in 7 days.
(d) Slump cone
• This higher strength in initial stage is attributed to MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
the higher fineness of the cement and increase the
proportion of C3S (specific surface area should not Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
be less than 3250 cm2/gm and C3S is approximately 58. Which of the following is NOT a field of
56%). application of sulphate-resisting cement?
Application– (a) Sewage treatment works
(1) Cold weather concreting (b) Foundation and basement
(2) Emergency repair work (c) Marine structures
(3) Pavement construction (d) Dams
(4) Pre fabricated construction etc. SSC JE Pre. 09/10/2023 (Morning)
55. Which of the following Indian Standard (IS) Ans. (d) : The use of SRC is recommended for
mentions the fineness test (dry sieving) of following applications–
cement? • Foundations piles
(a) IS 4031 (Part IV) (b) IS 4031 (Part II) • Basements and underground structures.
(c) IS 4031 (Part I) (d) IS 4031 (Part III) • Sewage and water treatment plants
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 • Chemical, fertilizers and sugar factories
Ans (c) : Fineness test (IS 4031 (Part I))– Fineness • Food processing industries and petrochemical projects
test on cement is carried out to check, proper grinding • Marine structure
of cement. Fineness test for cement particles may be • Construction of building along the coastal area within
determined by following methods– 50 km from sea.
(i) Sieve test : This test is obsolete in practice. In 59. Which of the following is a main constituent of
this cement sample of 100 gm is passed plaster of paris?
continuously for 15min through standard BIS (a) Silica (b) Gypsum
sieve number 9. (c) Iron (d) Magnesium
(ii) Air permeability method : In this specific PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
surface area of cement particle is calculated. Ans (b) : Plaster of paris is obtained by heating gypsum.
(iii) Wagner turbidimeter: It measures specific At [373 K or 120 to 200oC] this temperature gypsum loses
surface area. water molecules and forms plaster of paris.
56. What is the shape of the vicat mould used in 1 1
the vicat apparatus? CaSO 4 .2H 2 O 
373K
Heat
→ CaSO 4 . H 2 O + 1 H 2 O
2 2
(a) Cube (b) Split-cylinder
Gypsum Plaster of paris
(c) Sphere (d) Cone
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 • It is also used for plastering fractured bones.

Civil Engineering Smart Scan 144 YCT

60. The permissible range of fly ash constituent in Ans. (a) : As per IS 456:2000, clause 19.5.1, In
PPC as per IS 1489 (part -1) is ordinary building such as low rise dwellings whose
(a) 5% - 10% (b) 10% - 20% lateral dimension do not exceed 45 m, the effect due to
(c) 15% -35% (d) 25%-50% temperature fluctuations and shrinkage and creep can be
JKPSC AE 14-05-2023 ignored in design calculation.
Ans. (c) 64. Which of the following type of coarse aggregate
Portland pozzolana cement (IS : 1489 Part-I) is preferred in road construction, so that
• Range of fly ash in PPC is 10% to 30% which is greatest density of road layer is achieved?
mostly used in marine work. (a) All-in aggregates
• Free lime is removed, hence, resistant to chemical (b) Single-size aggregates
attack increases. (c) porous aggregates
• Pozzolana increase impermeability and water (d) Any type of aggregates
retaining capacity of concrete. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
• Pozzolana has no cementing property in itself but Ans. (a) : All-in aggregates, which refer to a mixture of
when it combines with lime, it produces a stable lime fine and coarse aggregates such as sand and gravels and
pozzolana compound, which has cementious are used as base material for under foundations and roads
property. construction; have also traditionally been used for the
61. Which of the following type of cement consists production of concrete in low cost housing in Ghana.
greater quantity of tricalcium silicate to The used of All-in aggregates, so that greatest density
perform its intended application? of road layer is achieved.
(a) Rapid Hardening Cement 65. Which application of fine aggregates requires a
(b) Blast Furnace slag Cement high level of fineness modulus?
(c) Ordinary Portland Cement (a) Plastering
(d) Portland Pozzolana Cement (b) Concrete pavements
Kerala PSC Asst. Prof. 12/06/2023 (c) Roofing
Ans. (a) Rapid hardening cement (IS : 8041)– (d) Structural concrete
This cement is similar to OPC, except that it has MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
more C3S and less C2S and it is around more finely. Ans. (a) : Fineness Modulus- It is a numerical index of
Compound content– fineness, giving some idea about the mean size of the
Compound Normal Rapid Low particles in the aggregates. The object of finding F.M. is
percent (OPC) hardening heat to grade the given aggregate for the required strength
C 3S 40 50 25 and workability of concrete mix with minimum cement
higher F.M. aggregate result in harsh concrete mixes
C 2S 30 21 4.5 and lower F.M result in uneconomical concrete mixes
C3 A 11 9 6 plastering is application of fine aggregate required a
C4AF 12 9 14 high level of fineness modulus
62. During the manufacturing of cement what is 66. As per IS 383:2016, the maximum crushing
the temperature required for mixing the value of coarse aggregates used for runways
different ingredients of cement? and other wearing surfaces shall be______
(a) 800°C (b) 1500°C percentage.
(c) 5000°C (d) 2100°C (a) 10 (b) 30
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 (c) 50 (d) 12
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (b) Wet process– The operations in the wet
process of cement manufacture are mixing burning and Ans. (b) : Aggregate crushing value–As per IS
grinding. 383:2016, the maximum crushing value of coarse
aggregates used for runways and other wearing surfaces
• The crushed raw materials are fed into ball mill and a shall be 30 percentage.
little water is added.
For aggregates to be used in concrete other than for
• The corrected slurry having about 10% moisture wearing course is 45%.
content, is then fed into rotary kiln where it loses 2. Aggregate abrasion value–
moisture and forms into lumps or nodules. • For aggregate to be used in concrete for wearing
• These are finally burned at 1500-16000C. surfaces is 30%.
• The nodules change to clinker at this temperature. • Other than for wearing surfaces is 50%.
63. As per IS 456:2000, a building having lateral 67. In the accelerated curing test, the oven
dimension above .............. should be checked temperature is brought to ________ in about
for the effect of temperature fluctuation, creep an hour.
and shrinkage. (a) 63ºC (b) 73ºC
(a) 45 m (b) 60 m (c) 83ºC (d) 93ºC
(c) 30 m (d) 15 m (e) Answer not known
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 145 YCT
Ans. (d) : Curing- Curing can be also accomplished by Ans. (d) : A prestressed concrete member is
artificial heat while the concrete is maintained in most preferred because-
condition, both of these conditions can be fulfilled by (i) Its dimensions are not decided from the diagonal
the use of steam curing. This method of curing is also tensile stress
known as accelerated curing since an in increased rate (ii) Removal of cracks in the members due to
of strength development can be achieved. shrinkage
The concrete members are heated by steam at 93°C (iii) As dead load moments are neutralized and the
either at low pressure or high pressure. In low pressure shear stresses are reduced, the sections required
steam curing about 70 percent of the 28 day are much smaller than those of reinforced
compressive strength of concrete can be obtained in concrete. This reduced the dead weight of
about 16-24 hours. structure.
68. The least dimension of flaky aggregate _____. (iv) It is widely used for construction of precast units
(a) Should be greater than 0.9 times the mean such as beams, floors, roofing systems, bridges,
dimension folded plate roofs, marine structure, towers and
(b) Should be less than 0.6 times the mean railway sleepers.
dimension 71. Which of the following is NOT a main activity
(c) Should be greater than 0.6 times the mean involved in the manufacture of precast
dimension concrete?
(d) Should be greater than 0.8 times the mean (a) Providing and assembling the mold
dimension (b) Taking on the job of finishing the precast
MH Solapur M.C JE Class2, 17.02.2024 products
Ans. (b) : When the least dimension is less than 0.6 of (c) Vibrating the concrete and finishing
them mean dimension is in flakiness index test (d) Placing the concrete in the molds
w PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Flakiness Index (FI) = 1 × 100
w2 Ans (b) : Precast construction satisfy all aspects of
design, performance, safety and quality, composition
w1 = weight of aggregate particle pass from 0.6 ×
and mix proportions of concrete mix can be changed in
size mean
precast construction as per the requirement.
w2 = total weight of aggregate.
Manufacture of precast concrete-
• Range (FI) used in the road construction should be
• Providing and assembling the mold.
less than 15% and not greater than 25%.
• Placing the concrete in the molds.
69. Which of the following method to used for
• Vibrating the concrete and finishing.
measurement of workability of concrete?
(a) Air permeability test 72. A water cement ratio of .......... is used for good
(b) Rebound hammer test workable concrete without the use of any
(c) Pullout test admixture.
(d) Compaction factor test (a) 0.15 to 0.3 (b) 0.25 to 0.4
MH Solapur M.C JE Class2, 17.02.2024 (c) 0.45 to 0.6 (d) 0.35 to 0.5
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Ans. (d) : Workability test is done by-
(i) Slump test Ans (c) : A water cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.6 is used for
good workable concrete without the use of any
(ii) Compaction test
admixture.
(iii) Vee-bee consistometer test
Abram Law–Abram's water cement ratio states the
(iv) Flow test
strength of a concrete mix is inversely related to the mass
(v) Kelly ball test ratio of water to cement. As the water content increase,
Non- destructive testing machine method for the strength of concrete decreases.
concrete-
(i) Rebounded method 984 kg 984 kg
P7 = P28 =
(ii) Pull- out testing 7 x cm 2 4 x cm 2
(iii) Ultra- sonic pulse velocity etc. P7 = Cylinder crushing strength after 7 days
70. A pre-stressed concrete member is preferred P28 = Cylinder crushing strength after 28 days
because: x = Water cement ratio by volume
(a) Its dimensions are not decided from the 73. Which of the following is NOT a cause of
diagonal tensile stress segregation in concrete?
(b) Large size of long beams carrying large shear (a) Similarity in the specific gravity of
force need not be adopted aggregates
(c) Removal of cracks in the members due to (b) Long time mixing of concrete
shrinkage (c) Improper mixing of concrete ingredients
(d) All of the above (d) Excess use of water
RITES AM 05/05/2024 PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 146 YCT
Ans (a) : Some of the conditions which are conducive • Sieve used is 2.36 mm.
mix to segregate. w2
(i) Use of poor- quality constituent materials • Aggregate impact value = ×100
(ii) Poorly proportioned concrete mix. w1
(iii) Insufficiently mixed concrete. w1 10 mm passing,
(iv) Careless transportation. w2 weight of aggregate after 2.36 mm passing
(v) Too high drop 78. If the fineness modulus of sand is 3, then the
(vi) Excessive wafting on concrete. sand is graded as
(vii) Improper compaction (a) Very Fine Sand (b) Fine Sand
74. The degree of workability required in mix (c) Medium Sand (d) Coarse Sand
proportioning depends on ............. factors. GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
(a) Three (b) Six Ans. (d) Fineness modulus of sand is an index number
(c) Four (d) Five which represents the mean size of the particles in sand.
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 Fine sand 2.2–2.6
Ans (a) : The degree of workability required depends Medium sand 2.6–2.9
on three factors. These are the size of the section to be Coarse sand 2.9–3.2
concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method Coarse aggregate 6.5-8.5
of compaction to be used. All in aggregate 4.7-7.0
75. The shrinkage of concrete is due to change in 79. Concrete mix design is intended to
(a) Length (a) achieve specified characteristic strength
(b) Cross-sectional area (b) achieve required workability
(c) Volume (c) achieve impermeability
(d) Surface area (d) Both (a) and (b)
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
Ans. (c) : Concrete shrinks because of a loss in concrete Ans. (d) : Concrete mix Design : Concrete mix design
volume and leads to cracking when base friction or is the process of determining the proportions of the
other restraints occur it also causes curling and warping, various components that need to be combined to create
which can lead to decreased load carrying capacity of a concrete mix with the desired properties. concrete mix
the structural element. design is intended to achieve specified characteristic
76. What should be the maximum aggregate strength, durability and required workability.
crushing value used in concrete roads and 80. The type of aggregate surface texture/
pavements as per IS : 383-1970? characteristic carried by Pumice and trass is:
(a) 40% (b) 20% (a) glassy
(c) 50% (d) 30% (b) crystalline
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 (c) honeycombed and porous
Ans. (d) : As per IS 383:1970. clause 3.3 (d) granular
Aggregate crushing value:– The aggregate crushing JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 23/10/2022
value shall not exceed 45% for aggregate used for Ans. (c) : As per IS 383 -1970 Table –7
concrete other than wearing surfaces and 30% for Surface characteristics of aggregates:
concrete for wearing surfaces such as runways, roads Group Surface Example
and pavement. Texture
77. The aggregate impact testing machine consists 1. Glassy Black flint
of a metal base and a cylindrical steel cup of 2. Smooth Chert, slate, marble, some
internal diameter .............. and depth ............. rhyolite
in which the aggregate specimen is placed. 3. Granular Sandstone iolite
(a) 120 mm, 50 mm (b) 102 mm, 50 mm 4. Crystalline Fine : Basalt, trachyte,
(c) 50 mm, 120 mm (d) 110 mm, 80 mm keratophyre
HPCL Officer 23/12/2023 Medium: Dolerite,
Ans. (b) : granophyres, granulites
microgranite, limestone.
• The impact test is carried out to evaluate the Coarse: Gabbro, gneiss,
toughness. granite, syenite
• Aggregate passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 5. Honeycom Scoriae, pumice, trass.
mm sieve are filled in a cylindrical steel cup of bed and
internal dia 102 mm (10.2 cm) and depth 50 mm (5 Porous
cm). 81. Choose an aggregate whose surface texture is
• The sample is filled in 3 layers where each layer is smooth?
tamped for 25 blows. Metal hammer of weight 13.5 (a) Chert and slate (b) Pumice
to 14 kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 (c) Black flint (d) Trachyte
cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is MHADA JE 01/02/2022, Shift-I
subjected to 15 blows. Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 147 YCT
82. According to IS 383, sand can be divided into • The use of finer sand, for the same water content,
how many grading zones? decrease workability.
(a) Seven (b) Four (c) Six (d) One • The use of coarse aggregate of large size and/or
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-II rounded aggregate, for the same volume of aggregate
Ans. (b) : According to IS 383– in concrete, gives higher workability because of
• Depending upon the particle size, fine aggregates are reduction in total specific surface area and particle
described as fine, medium and coarse sands. interference.
• On the basis of particle size distribution, the fine 87. Which of the following parts of a rebound test
aggregate's are classified into four zones; the grading apparatus moves with the mass attached to the
zones being progressively finer from grading zone (I) spring after bouncing back?
to grading zone (IV). (a) Rider (b) Plunger
83. Which of the following standards will be used (c) Release button (d) Scale
to determine the criterion for both coarse and SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
fine aggregates? Ans. (a) : Rebound test–The rebound hammer test
(a) IS 1893 (b) IS 800 measures the elastic rebound of concrete and is
(c) IS 383 (d) IS 456 primarily used for estimation of concrete strength and
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 for comparative investigation.
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. • Components-
84. What is the particle size of medium sand? Release Button- This does not move with the mass. it
(a) 0.25 to 0.5 mm (b) 0.6 to 0.8 mm is only used to trigger the release of the spring.
(c) 8 to 16 mm (d) 1.2 to 1.8 mm Rider:- This is the component that actually moves with
ISRO Tech. Asst. 04/07/2022 the mass. After the mass impact the surface and
Ans.(a) : Particle size of distribution specified by rebounds, the rider moves along the scale to show the
USGA:– rebound distance.
Plunger:- This also does not move with the mass after
Class. Particle size (mm) it rebounds. The plunger is pushed inwards by the initial
Fine gravel 2 – 3.4 force but remains in place during the rebound.
Very coarse sand 1 – 2.0 88. The Los Angeles testing machine is commonly
coarse sand 0.50 – 1.0 used to determine which property of the coarse
Medium sand 0.25 – 0.50 aggregate?
Fine sand 0.15 – 0.25 (a) Density (b) Water absorption
Very fine sand 0.05 – 0.15 (c) Abrasion resistance (d) Specific gravity
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
Silt 0.002 – 0.05
Ans. (c) : Aggregate abrasion test– Apart from test
Clay < 0.0002 aggregate with respect to its crushing value, impact
85. According to IS 10262:2019, the approximate resistance, testing the aggregate with respect to its
amount of entrapped air to be expected in normal resistance to wear is an important test for aggregate to
(non-air-entrained) concrete is_____ percent of be used for road constructions, ware house floors and
volume of concrete, if the nominal maximum size pavement construction.
of aggregate used in concrete is 10 mm. • Three test are in common use to test aggregate for its
(a) 0.60 (b) 2.00 abrasion resistance.
(c) 1.00 (d) 1.50 (i) Devel attrition test
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I (ii) Dorry abrasion test
Ans. (d) : As per IS 10262 : 2019 table 3 (iii) Los Angeles test.
Approximate Air content– 89. In the context of hardened concrete, what does
Sl. Nominal max Entrapped Air, as the Schmidt hammer test (rebound hammer
No. size of aggregate percentage of volume of test) measure?
(mm) concrete. (a) Tensile strength
(i) 10 1.5 (b) Compressive strength
(ii) 20 1.0 (c) Flexural strength
(iii) 40 0.8 (d) Shear strength
86. Which characteristic of fine aggregates indicates BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
their ability to retain water and affects the Ans. (b) : The Schmidt hammer provides an
workability of concrete or mortar mix? inexpensive, simple and quick method of obtaining an
(a) Particle size distribution indication of compressive strength concrete but
(b) Specific gravity accuracy of ±15 to ±20% is possible only for specimens
(c) Fineness modulus cast cured and tested under condition for which
(d) Water absorption calibration curves have been established.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I 90. What is the primary function of air-entraining
Ans. (d) : Water absorption of fine aggregates indicates admixtures in concrete?.
their ability to retain water and affects the workability (a) Increase strength
of concrete or mortar mix. (b) Improve workability
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 148 YCT
 (c) Reduce shrinkage Ans. (b) : As per IS 10262 Table-5
(d) Enhance durability in freezing conditions S. Nominal Volume of coarse aggregate
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 N. maximum per unit volume of total
Ans. (d) : Air-entraining agents– size of aggregate for different zones
• Increases workability and resistance of concrete to aggregate of fine aggregate
weathering. Zone IV III II I
(1) 10 mm 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
• The possibility of bleeding, segregation and laitance
(2) 20 mm 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
is also reduced.
(3) 40 mm 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
• It causes loss in the strength of concrete.
95. What is the minimum weight of aggregate
• The air content should be from 4 to 7% by volume, sample to be taken for sieve analysis for 12.5
according to the maximum size of aggregate used. mm maximum size present in substantial
• Enhance durability in freezing conditions is the primary proportions?
function of air-entraining admixtures in concrete. (a) 11 kg (b) 12 kg
91. Which type of special concrete is best suited for (c) 6 kg (d) 3 kg
construction in areas exposed to the freeze- PCMC JE CIVIL 28/05/2023
thaw cycle? Ans. (b) : As per IS 2386 (Part-I) – 1963. Table II
(a) Lightweight concrete Minimum weights for sampling –
(b) High-Density concrete Max size, present in Minimum weight of
(c) Air-Entrained concrete substantial proportion sample
(d) Pervious concrete 63 mm 100 kg
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 50 mm 100 kg
Ans. (c) : See the explanation of the above question. 40 mm 50 kg
25 mm 50 kg
92. Based on coarse aggregate’s shape, what shape
20 mm 25 kg
is mostly recommended for good bonding and
high strength in concrete? 16 mm 25 kg
(a) Elongated aggregates 12.5 mm 12 kg
(b) Angular aggregates 10.0 mm 6 kg
(c) Rounded aggregates 96. As per IS : 383-1970, what is the size for the
(d) Flaky aggregates very large coarse aggregate used for mass
concrete?
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
(a) 150 to 80 mm (b) 80 to 40 mm
Ans. (b) : Based on coarse aggregate's shape, Angular (c) 40 to 20 mm (d) 20 to 4.75 mm
Shape is mostly recommended for good bonding and TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023
high strength in concrete due to greater interlocking Ans. (a) : As per IS 383:1970 Table 3 size of
between particles. coarse aggregates for mass concrete.
93. Lime mortar for structural purpose is IS sieve Percentage
generally made with: Class and size
Designation passing
(a) fat lime (b) hydraulic lime Very large 150-80 160 mm 90-100%
(c) quick lime (d) white lime mm 80 mm 0-10%
DSSSB JE TIER-2, 27/09/2023 Large 80-40 mm 80 mm 90-100%
Ans. (b) : Lime mortar for structural purpose is 40 mm 0-10%
generally made with hydraulic lime. Hydraulic lime is a Medium, 40-20 40 mm 90-100%
product obtained by moderate burning (900°-1100°C) mm 20 mm 0-10%
of raw limestone which contains small proportion of Small 20-4.75 mm 20 mm 90-100%
clay 5-30% and iron oxide in chemical combination 4.75 mm 0-10%
with the calcium oxide content (CaO + MgO). 2.36 mm 0-2%
Type:- 97. Which one of the following statements is NOT
• Feebly hydraulic lime correct with respect to mix design?
• Moderately hydraulic lime (a) The mix must be workable so that it can be
• Eminently hydraulic lime placed and finished easily
94. As per IS 10262, the volume of the coarse (b) The cement is the most costly ingredient in
aggregate per unit volume of the total the concrete mix
aggregate for water to cementitious materials (c) The strength and water tightness increase
ratio of 0.50 ranges from when the nominal size with the density of the mix
of the coarse aggregate is 20 mm. (d) Increasing the water content beyond that
(a) 0.66 to 0.72 (b) 0.6 to 0.66 required for plasticity causes the strength to
(c) 0.69 to 0.73 (d) 0.48 to 0.54 increase constantly
DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 149 YCT
Ans. (d) Mix design can be defined as the process of 102. According to IS standards, the grading of Fine
selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and aggregate is divided into
determining their relative proportions with the object of A. 2 zones B. 4 zones
producing concrete of certain minimum strength and C. 3 zones D. 6 zones
durability as economically as possible. (a) A (b) B
• The mix must be workable so that it can be placed (c) C (d) D
and finished easily without extra effort. SSC JE Civil 15/11/2022 Shift-I
• High cement content improves strength Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
impermeability density and workability. 103. As per IS : 2386 (part - III) - 1963, the
• With cement content, ingredients and workability following formula of aggregate is given for :
remain constant, strength and impermeability of Net weight of aggregate in kg
concrete increase with the density of mix. _______ =
Capacity of container in litre
• Water cement ratio is inversely proportional to the
strength of concrete, if the water-cement ratio (a) Bulk Density (b) Density
increases, then the strength decreases and vice versa. (c) Specific Gravity (d) Absorption capacity
SSC JE Civil 15/11/2022 Shift-I
98. As per IS (383-1970), the percentage passing of
fine aggregates under a 2.36 mm IS sieve Ans. (a) :
during the grading Zone 1 is_____. Net weight of aggregate in kg
• Bulk density =
(a) 25-40% (b) 95-100% capacity of container in liter
(c) 0-10% (d) 60-95% Mass
SSC JE (Civil) 15/11/2022 • Density = .kg / m3
Ans. (d) : As per IS 383 -1970 Table 4 fine aggregate Volume
Percentage passing for grading. • Specific gravity =
IS Sieve Density of fluid
Zone Zone Zone Zone Density of corresponding standard fluid
Designati
on I II III IV
104. Water-cement ratio in concrete is the ratio of:
10 mm 100 100 100 100 (a) the weight of water to the volume of cement
4.75 mm 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100 (b) the volume of water to the volume of cement
2.36mm 60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100 (c) the volume of water to the weight of cement
1.18mm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100 (d) the weight of water to the weight of cement
600µm 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100 MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
300µm 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50 Ans. (d) : Water cement ratio: It is the ratio of the
0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15 weight of water of the weight of cement.
150µm
99. As per IS 383 (1970), the passing percentage of W/C Ratio = W water
fine aggregates under the Zone IV from an IS Wcement
600 microns sieve is ______. Water-cement ratio is an important parameter that
(a) 15-34% (b) 8-30% governs the strength of concrete.
(c) 60-79% (d) 80-100% 105. Assuming full compaction, strength of concrete
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023 is inversely proportional to
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. (a) Water - cement ratio
100. As per IS 383:1970, the percentage of fine (b) Water - sand ratio
aggregates (FA) passing through 2.36 mm shall (c) Water - coarse aggregate ratio
be in the range of ____for Zone II FA. (d) Water - plasticizer ratio
(a) 85-100 (b) 100 SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
(c) 75-100 (d) 90-100 Ans. (a) : As per Abram's law, Assuming full
DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-II compaction and at a given age and normal compaction,
Ans.(c): See the above explanation the strength of concrete can be taken to be inversely
101. As per IS 383 (1970), the grading limit proportional to the water cement ratio.
percentage of fine aggregates in Zone II which w/c ratio ∝ 1
are passing through a 4.75 mm IS sieve is strength
_______. 106. How does the age of concrete affect its
SSC JE (Civil) 15/11/2022 compressive strength?, consider the age limit as
Or 28 days with continued curing.
As per IS 383:1970 the percentage of fine (a) Compressive strength increases as the age of
aggregates (FA) passing through 4.75 mm shall concrete increases
be in the range of _____ for Zone II FA. (b) Compressive strength increases upto an age
(a) 85-100 (b) 95-100 14 days and continues to decrease on further
(c) 75-100 (d) 90-100 curing
DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III (c) Age of concrete does not affect the
Ans.(d): See the above explanation. compressive strength of concrete
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 150 YCT
 (d) Compressive strength decreases upto an age 7 • Higher aggregate cement ratio reduces the workability.
days and continues to decrease on further • Admixture increase workability without increasing
curing water content.
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I • Angular, rough, flaky and elongated aggregate
Ans. (a) : Concrete develops strength with age due to reduce workability.
continued hydration. Initially rate of gain of strength is • Super plasticizers increase the workability of concrete.
fast which reduces as time increases.
Compressive strength of concrete depends upon grade, 111. High Strength Concrete (Grade M70 and
type of cement, curing environmental conditions. The above) has several distinguishing properties
design based on 28 days strength. that separate it from normal strength
107. A concrete at a given age and under normal concretes. Which of the following is NOT a
temperature its compressive strength primarily characteristic of High Strength Concrete?
depends on: (a) Increased shrinkage
(a) type of vibrator (b) Reduced permeability
(b) water cement ratio (c) Lower cement content
(c) temperature at the time of mixing (d) High durability
(d) curing period BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-I Ans. (c) : The following are the characteristic of high
Ans. (b) : As per Abram's law, Assuming full strength concrete–
compaction and at a given age and normal compaction, 1. Increase shrinkage
the strength of concrete can be taken to be inversely 2. Reduced permeability
proportional to the water cement ratio. 3. High cement content
1 4. High durability
w/c ratio ∝
strength 5. High modulus of elasticity etc.
108. The presence of excess water in concrete mix 112. Bleeding of concrete is highly observed in
adversely affects: (a) Highly wet mix
(a) flexural strength (b) Insufficiently mixed concrete
(b) bond strength (c) Good proportioning
(c) shear strength (d) Both (a) and (b)
(d) compressive strength (e) Answer not known
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation Ans. (d) : Bleeding- Defined as an autogenerous flow
109. Assuming full compaction, and at a given age of mixing water within or emergence to the surface
and normal compaction, the strength of form freshly placed concrete is usually due to excessive
concrete can be taken to be inversely vibrations imported to concrete to achieve full
proportional to the water cement ratio. compaction.
Identify the law given by the above statement.
The causes of bleeding are highly wet mix, insufficient
(a) Le Chatelier's law (b) Kelly's law
mixing, and thin section (slabs) cost in sunny weather
(c) Abram's law (d) Mayer's law
being more in blackly aggregate and more in the first
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-I
hours of concerting.
Ans. (c) : As per Abram's law, Assuming full
compaction and at a given age and normal compaction, 113. Which of the following tests is NOT used to
the strength of concrete can be taken to be inversely measure the workability of fresh concrete?
proportional to the water cement ratio. (a) Compacting factor test
1 (b) Flow test
w/c ratio ∝ (c) Vee-Bee consistency test
strength
(d) Le chatelier test
110. Which of the following conditions followed in GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
making concrete reduces the workability of
concrete? Ans. (d) : Test used to measure the workability of
(a) Use of super plasticisers fresh concrete –
(b) Higher aggregate-cement ratio in concrete (i) Slump cone test
(c) Use of round aggregates (ii) Compaction factor test
(d) Higher water-cement ratio in concrete (iii) Vee-Bee Consistometer test
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III (iv) Flow table test
Ans. (b) : Workability–The ability of concrete to (v) Kelly ball test.
handle, transport and placing between the formwork Test used to measure the soundness of cement
with minor segregation is called the workability of (i) Le- Chatelier test : Soundness due to free lime
concrete. only.
• Water cement ratio increases workability but (ii) Auto clave test : Soundness due to free lime and
decreases strength. magnesia
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 151 YCT
114. For a slump value of 150 mm to 175 mm, the 117. Recommended Slump of normal RCC work
compaction factor value of concrete may be about– (a) 20 to 40 mm (b) 80 to 150 mm
(a) 0.6 – 0.7 (b) 0.7 – 0.8 (c) 40 to 50 mm (d) 90 to 100 mm
(c) 0.8 to 0.9 (d) above 0.9 Kerala PSC (PWD) Overseer 14/07/2023
OSSC JE Civil Mains 16.07.2023 Ans. (b) : Recommended slump for concrete
Ans. (d) : The High degree of workability is defined works–
as 150 - 175 mm slump – Nature of concrete Recommended
Degree of Consistency Slump Vee-Bee Com- construction slump
workabilit (mm) value pacting Concrete to be vibrated 10-25 mm
y (Sec) factor
Concrete for road construction 20-40 mm
Extremely Moist earth 0 > 20 0.65-0.7
Mass concrete 25-50 mm
Very low Very dry 0-25 12-20 0.7-0.8
Concrete for horizontal tops of 40-50 mm
Low Dry 25-75 6-12 0.8-0.85 kerbs parapets piers, slabs and
Medium Plastic 50-100 3-6 0.85- walls
0.95
Concrete for canal lining 70-80 mm
High Semi fluid 100- 0-3 0.95-1
175 Normal RCC work 80-150 mm
Very high Fluid - - - Concrete for arch and side walls 90-100 mm
of tunnels
115. If the compacting factor for fresh concrete with
10 mm maximum size of aggregate is 0.75. then 118. Following test is performed for workability on
the sample indicates a mix of ____ . fresh concrete
(a) high workability (a) Compacting factor test
(b) medium workability (b) Flow test
(c) low workability (c) Vee Bee consistometer test
(d) very low workability (d) All of the above
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023 GUJARAT RMC AE 15/05/2022
Ans. (d) : Ans. (d) : Test used to measure the workability of
Degree of workability Compacting factor fresh concrete:
Extremely low – 0.65 – 0.70 (i) Slump cone test
Very low – 0.70 – 0.80 (ii) Compaction factor test
Low – 0.80 – 0.85 (iii) Vee-Bee Consistometer test
Medium – 0.85 – 0.95 (iv) Flow table test
High – 0.95 – 100 (v) Kelly ball test.
116. The placing of mass concrete in lightly 119. The slump test apparatus is used for the
reinforced sections in beams, columns and (a) determination of fineness of cement
slabs with a low degree of workability, the (b) determination of plastic limit
slump of such concrete as per IS 456-2000 is- (c) determination of strength of aggregate
(a) 10-25 mm (b) 25-75 mm (d) determination of the consistency of freshly
(c) 100-150 mm (d) 75-100 mm mixed concrete
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-I
Ans. (b) : As per IS 456 : 2000 clause-7 workability Ans. (d) : This test is performed for determining the
of concrete. consistency of concrete where the nominal maximum
Degree of Slump size of the aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.
Placing condition The stump test apparatus having internal dimensions are
workability mm
Pavement using pavers Very low < 25 as following-
Mass concrete : lightly (i) Top diameter – 100mm
reinforced sections in (ii) Bottom diameter – 200mm
slabs, beams, walls, (iii) Height – 300mm]
Low 25-75
columns floors, hand
placed of pavements
canal lining.
Heavily reinforced
50-100
section in slabs
Heavily reinforced Medium
section in beams, walls,
75-100
columns slip form
work, pumped concrete Procedure: The mould is filled with fresh concrete in
Trench fill, in situ four layers and each layer is temped with 25 strokes of
High 100-150
piling the rod.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 152 YCT
120. The process of removing excess water from (a) Bottom diameter : 20 cm; Top diameter : 30
freshly placed concrete is called cm; Height : 50 cm
(a) Creeping (b) Bleeding (b) Bottom diameter : 10 cm; Top diameter : 20
(c) Segregation (d) Poor mix cm; Height : 15 cm
UPSC ESIC JE 8 October 2023 (c) Bottom diameter : 15 cm; Top diameter : 20
Ans. (b) : Bleeding: Separation of water or water sand cm; Height : 30 cm
cement from a freshly prepared concrete is known as (d) Bottom diameter : 20 cm; Top diameter : 10
bleeding. cm; Height : 30 cm
Creep: Permanent deformation in structure due to UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II
sustain loading is called as creep. Ans. (d) :
Segregation: Separation of ingredients from concrete is (i) Slump test:- It is used to measure workability of
known as segregation. concrete in vertical direction and represents the degree
Poor mix/Rich mix: A concrete mix with less amount of of workability/consistency of concrete. It gives the
cement as compared to aggregate is known as poor mix value of workability in terms of height (cm or mm).
otherwise rich mix if sufficient amount of cement is used. Other methods of workability measurement.
Laitance:– A layer of weak, non-durable material that (ii) Vee-Bee consistometer
forms on the surface of fresh concrete due to (iii) Compacting factor test
accumulation of excess water and cement particles.
(iv) Flow table test
121. Which of the following tests on workability, (v) Kelly ball test
measures the subsidence of concrete in vertical The stump test apparatus having internal
direction to express the degree of workability
dimensions are as following-
of concrete?
(a) Vee Bee Consistometer test (i) Top diameter – 100mm
(b) Slump test (ii) Bottom diameter – 200mm
(c) Compacting factor test (iii) Height – 300mm
(d) Flow test
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
Ans. (b) : Slump test:- It is used to measure
workability of concrete in vertical direction and
represents the degree of workability/consistency of
concrete. It gives the value of workability in terms of
height (cm or mm). Procedure: The mould is filled with fresh concrete in
122. .......... means the separation of constituents four layers and each layer is temped with 25 strokes of
from concrete like coarse aggregate, cement the rod.
paste or even water. 125. Which of the following test to measure
(a) Laitance (b) Segregation workability is the most commonly used method of
(c) Scaling (d) Fineness measuring consistency of concrete which can be
MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-I employed either in laboratory or at site of work?
Ans. (b) : Segregation:– The separation of constituents (a) Compacting factor test (b) Slump test
from concrete like coarse aggregate. Cement paste or (c) Kelly ball test (d) Flow test
even water. MPPGCL JE 29/04/2023 Shift-I
Scaling:– The flaking or peeling of a hardened concrete
surface. typically due to repeated exposure of freezing Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
and thawing. 126. The recommended slump range (mm) as per IS
Laitance:– A layer of weak, non-durable material that 456:2000, for hand placed pavement quality
forms on the surface of fresh concrete due to concrete is:
accumulation of excess water and cement particles. (a) 50 - 100 (b) 100-150
123. To avoid the segregation in concrete, it should (c) 75-100 (d) 25-75
not be dropped from a height of more than UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
.......... while placing. Ans. (d) : As per IS 456 : 2000 clause-7 workability
(a) 1 m (b) 0.5 m of concrete.
(c) 1.5 m (d) 2 m Degree of Slump
Placing condition
DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023 workability mm
Ans. (c) : AS Per 456 : 2000 Clause. 13.2 • Pavement using Very low < 25
To avoid displacement of reinforcement or movement pavers
of form work. As a general guidance the maximum • Mass concrete :
permissible free fall of concrete may be taken as 1.5m. lightly reinforced
Note: Free fall greater than 1.5 leads to segregation of sections in slabs,
concrete. beams, walls, Low 25-75
124. The apparatus for conducting the slump test columns floors,
essentially consists of a metallic mould in the hand placed of
form of a frustum of a cone having the internal pavements canal
dimensions as: lining.

Civil Engineering Smart Scan 153 YCT

 (a) Heavily reinforced (c) Does not affect (d) Is independent of
section in slabs, AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
50-100
beams, walls, Ans. (a) : Compaction of the concrete is the process to
columns Medium
get rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of
(b) Slip form work, segregation occurred and to form a homogeneous dense
75-100
pumped concrete. mass.
• Trench fill, in situ High 100-150 • It has been found that 5% voids in hardened
piling concrete reduce the strength by over 30% and 10%
127. As per IS 10262:2019 what is the assumed voids reduce the strength by over 50%.
value of standard deviation (S) for M 55 grade • Insufficient compaction increase permeability
of concrete? of concrete.
(a) 2 N/mm2 (b) 5 N/mm2 131. A faster method to achieve concrete strength is
2
(c) 4 N/mm (d) 3 N/mm2 through adaptation of:
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III (a) Steam curing (b) water curing
Ars. (b) : Standard deviation:– The standard (c) Chemical curing (d) membrane curing
deviation for each grade of concrete shall be UPSC ESIC JE 08.10.2023
calculated separately
Ans. (a) :
Sr. Grade of concrete Standard deviation Method of curing Suitability
No. (N/mm2)
(i) Shading of concrete For large concrete
1. M 10 3.5 work/stagnating surfaces such as
M 15 water road slab
2. M 20 4.0 (ii) Gunny bag For structural
M 25 concrete
3. M 30 5.0 (iii) Sprinkling of water For vertical surface
M 35 (iv) Membrane curing At places of scarcity
M 40 of water
M 45
(v) Steam (accelerated) For precast concrete
M 50
curing
M 55
M 60 Note : Steam curing is the fastest method which is
not suitable for high alumina cement.
4. M 65 6.0 132. Which of the following equipment is more
M 70 suitable for transportation of concrete over a
M 75 long distance (like 10 to 15 kms)?
M 80 (a) Transit mixer (b) Skip and hoist
128. What is the compressive strength of M-25 (c) Pumps and pipeline (d) Belt conveyor
concrete? DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 29/06/2022 Shift-II
(a) 25 kg/sqm (b) 25 N/sq.mm Ans. (a) : Methods of transporting concrete are-
(c) 250 N/sqm (d) 25 N/sqm (1) Transit mixer:- Equipment is more suitable for
CHB Asst. Architect 05.02.2023 transportation of concrete over a long distance (10 to 15
Ans. (b) : The compressive strength of M-25 concrete kms).
is 25 N/sq.mm or 25 MPa. (2) Mortar pan:- The most common labour intensive
129. Which is the weakest concrete mix? method. It is slow and expensive method for very small
(a) 1 : 2 : 4 (b) 1 : 3 : 6 work.
(c) 1 : 4 : 8 (d) 1 : 5 : 10 (3) Wheel Barrow: These are used for transporting
SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 23/10/2021 concrete to be placed at ground level. These are used for
Ans. (d) : The proportion of Cement, Sand, and concreting rigid pavement. The avg capacity of a wheel
Aggregates in different grades of concrete are : barrow is 35 litres (80 kg)
M5 → 1 : 5 : 10 (4) Chutes: These are used to transport concrete below
M 7.5 → 1:4:8 the ground level and are made with metal sheets having
slope 1V : 2.5H.
M 10 → 1:3:6
(5) Skip and Hoist: The most useful and advantageous
M 15 → 1:2:4 method transporting concrete for multistory building
1 (6) Pumping: Method is suitable in multistory building
M 20 → 1:1 :3
2 tunnels and Bridges with the help of pumps.
M 25 → 1:1:2 Properties of pumping methods:-
Note– The grades of concretes M 25 and above are (i) Pipes are made of steel, aluminium or plastic of size
known as design mix and up to M 20 are known as ranging from 80 to 200 mm.
nominal mix concrete. (ii) The capacity of pumps available are (15-150)m3 /hr
130. Insufficient compaction, _______ the (iii) Compacting factor (0.9-0.95) and slump of (50-
permeability of concrete. 100)mm are desirable.
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (iv) Air entraining admixture content should be 3–5%
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 154 YCT
133. Which of the following method is more suitable 137. Which of the following is a limitation of
for transportation of concrete in high-rise lightweight concrete when compared to
construction projects and fast too? conventional type concrete?
(a) Belt conveyors (a) Increased permeability
(b) Dumpers (b) Reduced density
(c) Crane with bucket and rope (c) Enhanced thermal property
(d) Chute (d) Higher fire resistance
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 29/06/2022 Shift-I SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (c) : Ans. (a) : Lightweight concrete is a special type of
• Crane with bucket and rope: This method is more concrete that weights lighter than conventional or
suitable for transportation of concrete in high-rise normal concrete.
construction projects and fast too. • The density of lightweight concrete is conventionally
• Dumper: Dumpers, lorries or trucks are used low. Generally 300 kg/m3 to 1200 kg/m3 and thus
economically for hauls up to 5km. Dumpers are normal concrete has a density between 2200 kg/m3 to
usually of capacity 2 to 3 cum where as trucks are 2600 kg/m3.
of 4 cum capacity • Lightweight concrete has a lower thermal conductivity.
134. What may be the result of over vibrating of • Good resistance to freezing and thawing action when
concrete? compared to conventional concrete.
(a) Rupture (b) Creeping • It offers great fire resistance
(c) Bleeding (d) Segregation • Lightweight concrete is generally very sensitive to
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II water content in the mixture (increased permeability).
Ans. (c) : 138. Due to segregation of well-mixed concrete,
• Bleeding : It is a form of segregation in which water ______.
present in the concrete mix comes at the surface of (a) the workability of concrete decreases
concrete with cement. It is due to over vibrating the (b) the durability of concrete increases
concrete or more water cement ratio.
(c) the strength of concrete increases
• Segregation: The phenomena in which coarser
particle get separated from concrete constituents due (d) the permeability of concrete decreases
to high free drop during placing of concrete or over SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
compaction. Ans. (a) : Segregation can be defined as the separation
• Creep: The permanent deformation due to sustain of constituent materials of concrete.
loading is called as creep. • Due to segregation of well-mixed concrete, the
135. The application of curing on the prepared workability of concrete decreases.
concrete results in_____ • The durability of concrete decrease.
(a) decrease in compressive strength • The strength of concrete decrease.
(b) increase in air entrainment • The permeability of concrete increase.
(c) no change in strength 139. Ultrasonic pulse velocity method is used in
(d) increase in compressive strength concrete to determine
SSC JE (Civil) 16/11/2022 (a) Impact resistance of concrete
Ans. (d) : Curing of concrete:- Cement gains strength and (b) tensile strength of concrete
hardness because of the chemical action between cement (c) quality of concrete and strength of hardened
and water. The process of keeping sufficient water concrete
available to concrete to allow it to gain its full strength is (d) compressive strength of concrete
known as curing of concrete. As per IS code practice (e) Answer not known
concrete should be cured at 27°C ± 2°C (IS: 516). TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
136. What is an ideal curing time for cement and Ans. (c) : Ultrasonic Pulse-Velocity test–
lime plaster finish, where the coat is required • It is a non-destructive test.
to be damp for a certain period of time?
(a) 3 days (b) 4 days • It measure the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse
(c) 6 days (d) 7 days passing through the concrete, does not measure
GPSC AE Class-2, R & B.Dept. 02/04/2023 strength of wet concrete.
Ans. (d) : As per IS 2394 : 1984 clause 14.1 • It is used to obtain estimate of concrete strength of
An ideal curing time required for cement and lime finished concrete cement i.e quality of concrete and
plaster finish in order to keep the coat damp for a strength of hardened concrete.
period of 7 days. Note–This test is based on the theory that the speed of
Type of work 1st coat 2nd 3rd the ultrasonic pulse depends on its density, modulus of
coat coat elasticity and poison ratio.
Brick masonry 140. The creep strains are
(a) Single coat work 15 mm - - (a) caused due to Dead loads only
(b) Double coat work 10 mm 10 mm - (b) caused due to Live loads only
Stone masonry 15 mm 10 mm - (c) caused due to Cyclic loads only
Stone masonry very 15 mm 10 mm 10 mm (d) Independent of loads
rough surface KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 155 YCT
Ans. (a) : Creep :- It is the plastic permanent Ans. (b) : Polymers:– A polymer could be naturally
deformation of a structure under constant load for a very occurring or could be synthesized artificially. There are
long period of time. It occurs due to dead load only. numerous examples of naturally occurring polymers,
Factors affecting creep - and there included proteins, plyaccharides like cellulose
• Type of loading and starch, silk, and natural rubber.
• Magnitude of load 144. Which chemical admixture is primarily used in
• Time concrete to decrease the setting time in cold
• Temperature weather conditions?
385. What is the correct unit of 'maturity' of concrete? (a) Accelerators
(a) degree centigrade hours (b) Retarders
(b) degree centigrade minutes (c) Air-entraining agents
(c) degree centigrade second (d) Water reducers
(d) degree Fahrenheit minutes BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III Ans. (a) : Accelerators–It reduces the setting time of
the concrete in cold weather.
Ans. (a) : Maturity:- The strength of concrete depends
upon both the time as well as temperature during the Example–CaCl2 when added up to 2% by weight of
early period of gain in strength. The maturity of cement acts as accelerator.
concrete is defined as the summation of product of time • Triethanolamine →< 0.06% by weight of cement.
and temperature. Note–CaCl2 and NaCl are very useful to permit
Maturity = ∑ (time × temperature) °C hour or °C concreting in very cold weather (–23ºC).
days 145. Which of the following accelerators is harmful
and should not be used for reinforced concrete
141. The modulus of rupture of concrete gives and prestressed concrete?
(a) the direct tensile strength of the concrete (a) Calcium chloride
(b) the direct compressive strength of the (b) Triethanolamine
concrete (c) Fluosilicate
(c) the tensile strength of the concrete under (d) Calcium sulphate
bending
CRPF Assistant Commandant 2023
(d) the characteristic compressive strength of the
concrete Ans. (a) : Calcium chloride causes corrosion of
CHB JE 28/01/2023 Shift-I reinforcement.
CaCl2 and Nacl are very useful to permit concreting in
Ans. (c) : Modulus of rupture of concrete :- It gives very cold weather (–23°C). These lower the temperature
the tensile strength of concrete under flexural or at which freezing takes place.
bending in terms of characteristic compressive strength
in MPa. 146. Identify the commonly used accelerator type
admixture in concrete work.
f cr = 0.7 f ck MPa (a) Carbohydrate derivatives
142. Which of the following is NOT a desirable (b) Calcium Chloride
property of structural concrete that is expected (c) Soluble zinc salts
to provide good compressive strength? (d) Sugar
(a) Greater permeability DDA JE 28/03/2023 Shift-III
(b) Greater compacted density Ans. (b) : Accelerators : Normally, reduces the setting
(c) Reduced porosity time, accelerate the rate of hydration of cement and
(d) Reduced segregation and bleeding consequently the rate of gain of strength.
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III Ex- Calcium chloride, sodium chloride potassium
Ans. (a) : Greater permeability of structural concrete hydroxides, etc.
makes concrete weak and prone to chemical attack Retarders: Normally, accelerate the setting time,
easily and movement of water through concrete takes reduce the rate of hydration of cement.
place. Ex- Calcium sulphate, sugar, starch, cellulose,
Desirable property of concrete. ammonium etc.
(i) Greater compacted density 147. Which of the following admixtures help to
(ii) Greater strength advance the setting time of concrete?
(iii) Lesser permeability and porosity. (a) Accelerators
(iv) Reduced segregation and bleeding. (b) Retarding plasticizers
(v) Durability against weather or climatic condition etc. (c) Air entraining agents
143. Which of the following is an example of a (d) Water reducing admixtures
naturally occurring polymer? RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
(a) PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
(b) Starch 148. One Super plasticizer is added in a concrete
(c) Polystyrene mix to
(d) Polyethylene (a) Reduce the water-cement ratio for given
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I workability
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 156 YCT
 (b) Increase the water-cement ratio for a given Consist of ceramic matrices reinforces with
workability ceramic fibers such as silicon carbide, alumina or
(c) Reduce the flow rate silicon nitride. They are mainly effective for high
(d) Reduce the coarse aggregate quantity temperature applications. Matrix used are silicon
Andaman PWD Arch. Asst. 18/02/2023 Shift-III carbide, alumina, glass-ceramic and silicon nitride.
Ans. (a) : Use of super plasticizers as admixtures 153. Addition of air-entraining admixtures to
greatly enhance the workability of concrete. concrete will :
• These are hydrodynamic lubricants which impart high (a) decrease the workability of concrete
workability by reducing friction between the grains or (b) increase the density of concrete
by reducing the amount of water to be added. (c) increase the resistance of concrete to freezing
Example: Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde and thawing effects
condensates, naphthalene sulphonate modified
lignosulphonate. (d) cause segregation and bleeding in concrete
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I
149. Without affecting the compressive strength of
concrete, its workability can be increased by- Ans. (c) : Air-entraining Agents:- It reduces the
(a) Increasing the quantity of water surface tension and are commonly known as surface
(b) Decreasing the quantity of water active agents.
(c) Increasing cement content Effect of air entraining admixtures –
(d) Adding superplasticizer • It increases the workability, permeability. resistance
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022 of concrete to weathering etc.
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. • Increases the resistance of concrete to freezing and
150. Air entraining agents mixed in the concrete: thawing effects.
(a) decrease workability • Reduces the possibility of bleeding, segregation and
(b) do not affect workability laitance.
(c) increase workability Examples – Wood resins, vinsol resin, vegetable
(d) may increase or decrease workability oils etc.
JSSC JE (Civil) 04/11/2022 154. Which of the following admixtures is NOT
Ans. (c) : Effect of air entraining admixtures – matched with respective chemicals?
• It increases the workability, permeability. resistance (a) Plasticizers: Acrylic polymer
of concrete to weathering etc. (b) Retarders: Calcium sulphate
• Increases the resistance of concrete to freezing and (c) Accelerators: Silica Fume
thawing effects. (d) Air entraining admixtures: Animal and
• Reduces the possibility of bleeding, segregation and vegetable fats and oils
laitance. DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-III
151. Which of the following is the purpose of Ans. (c) :
plasticisers in polymer processing? • Plasticizers → Acrylic polymer
(a) To decrease the melting point of the polymer
(b) To improve the flexibility of the polymer • Retarders → Calcium sulphate
(c) To increase the strength of the polymer • Accelerator → Calcium chloride
(d) To increase the viscosity of the polymer melt • Air entraining admixture → Animal and
DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III vegetable fat
Ans. (b) : Plasticizer :- 155. UPV method of non-destructive testing for
• Chemicals that are added to other polymeric concrete is used to determine:
substances, to improve the flexibility of the polymer (a) compressive strength
or to aid in processing the polymer. (b) dynamic modulus of concrete
• The main role of the plasticizer is to improve (c) static modulus of concrete
mechanical properties of the polymers by increasing (d) tensile strength
flexibility, decreasing tensile strength and lowering GSECL VS JE 07/09/2022 Shift-I
the second order transition temperature. Ans. (b) : Ultrasonic pulse velocity method (UPV
152. Which of the following types of composites are Method):
formed by embedding ceramic particles in a It consists of measuring the time of traveller of an
polymer matrix? ultrasonic pulse. Passing through the concrete to be
(a) Polymer-matrix composites tested. The pulse generator circuit consists of electronic
(b) Particle-reinforced composites circuit for generating pulse and a transducer for
(c) Ceramic-matrix composites transforming these electronic pulse into mechanical
(d) Metal-matrix composites energy having vibration frequencies in the range of 15-
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II 50 RHz. The tie of travel between initial onset and the
Ans. (c) : Ceramic-matrix composites–Properties on reception of the pulse in measured electronically and the
ceramic matrix composite material system for which path length between transducer divided by time of travel
data meeting the specific. gives the average velocity of pulse.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 157 YCT
Velocity criteria for concrete Quality (IS : 13311) Ans. (b) : Construction joint–These are provided
SL.No. Velocity Quality grading whenever the construction work stops temporarily. The
1. >4.5 km/sec Excellent joint direction could be either along the transverse or
2. 3.5-4.5 km/sec Good longitudinal direction, their position should be pre-
3. 3.0-3.5 km/sec Medium planned before concreting is started.
4. < 3.0 km/sec Doubtful. 160. Into how many types can joints provided in
• UPV method of NDT for concrete is used to concrete be classified?
determine the dynamic modulus of concrete. (a) Three (b) Four
156. ............ is an in-situ non-destructive test to (c) Five (d) Two
check the quality of concrete and natural rock. SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
(a) Split tension test Ans. (b) : Joints in RCC construction–Joints provided
(b) Maturity test in reinforced concrete construction can be classified as
(c) Ultrasonic pulse velocity test follows–
(d) Compression test 1. Construction joints
MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-II 2. Expansion joints
Ans. (c) : Non-destructive test:– 3. Contraction or control joints (dummy joints)
• These methods are quick and can be performed both 4. Sliding or slip joints.
in laboratory and in-situ with convenience. 161. What is the interval at which expansion and
• These non-destructive methods may be categorized as contraction joints are provided in India for
penetration tests, rebound test, pull out techniques, smooth interface laid in winter?
dynamic tests, radioactive tests and maturity concept. (a) 80 to 90 meters (b) 50 to 60 meters
• The ultrasonic pulse velocity method is the only one (c) 90 to 120 meters (d) 120 to 140 meters
of dynamic test that shows potential concrete SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
strength in-situ.
Ans. (b) : Expansion joints in India are provided at
157. Identify the effect of hot weather on concrete? interval at 50 to 60 m smooth interface laid in winter
(a) Rapid evaporation during curing. and 90 to 120 m smooth interface laid in summer.
(b) Decreased tendency to cracking.
(c) Enhancement in strength. 162. According to IS : 6509-1985, for reinforced
(d) Easiness in controlling the air content. concrete slabs of thickness 25 cm, with
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 expansion joints and dummy contraction joints,
the recommended maximum spacing of
Ans. (a) : As per IS 7861 (Part I) : 1975 clause-3
expansion (E) and contraction (C) joints are :
Effects of hot weather on concrete–
(codes E and C used to indicate type of joints in
(a) Accelerated setting
answer options)
(b) Reduction in strength
(c) Increased tendency to crack (a) E – 51 m ; C – 17 m
(d) Rapid Evaporation of water during curing period (b) E – 30 m ; C – 7.5 m
(e) Difficulty in control of air content in Air - Entrained (c) E – 27 m ; C – 4.5 m
concrete. (d) E – 36 m ; C – 4 m
158. Which of the following is NOT an effect of hot DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 27/06/2022 Shift-II
weather concreting? Ans. (a) : As per 6509 - 1985 Table - 1
(a) Plastic shrinkage cracking Recommended spacing of expansion and contraction
(b) Loss of entrained air joints
(c) Delayed set time SL. Type of Thickness Expansion contraction
(d) Accelerated slump loss No. slab joint joint (C)
JSSC JDLCCE JE 10/10/2023 (Civil) (E)
Ans. (c) : Delayed set time is not an effect of hot i) RCC slab 25 cm 45 m –
weather concreting. with 20 cm 36 m –
As per IS 7861 (Part I) : 1975 clause-3 expansion 15 cm 25m –
Effects of hot weather on concrete – joint only 10 cm 12.5m –
(a) Accelerated setting ii) RCC slab 25 cm 51 m 17
(b) Reduction in strength with 20 cm 45 m 14
(c) Increased tendency to crack expansion 15 cm 36 m 13
(d) Rapid Evaporation of water during curing period and 10 cm 30 m 7.5
(e) Difficulty in control of air content in Air - Entrained dummy
concrete. contraction
159. Which of the following types of joints is a joint
temporary joint left between subsequent
iii) Unreinforce 20 cm & 36 m 4.5
concreting operations?
(a) Isolation joint (b) Construction joint d concrete above 27 m 4.5
(c) Contraction joint (d) Expansion joint slabs 15 cm 27 m 4.5
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I 10 cm
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 158 YCT
 TYPES OF SURVEY Primary division of surveying-
1. Survey Based on the Earth's Shape- It is classified
Introduction- into two types. It is also known as accuracy based
Surveying is the art of determining the relative or survey.
dimensional positions of objects on, above or below (i) Plane surveying
the earth surface by measuring horizontal and (ii) Geodetic surveying- Geodetic survey of India
vertical distances and angles. done by using triangulation.
"The main objective of surveying is the preparation Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
of a plan or map." • Mean surface of the earth • Actual or curve
Headquarter of Survey of India - Dehradoon (1767) is considered as plane. surface of the earth is
Principal of surveying- • Used for small area < taken into account.
1. To work from whole to part. 195.5 km2. (In some • Used for large area >
2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements. exam, it is 260 km2 as per 195.5 km2
(Linear or angular) from the fixed reference point. option.) • It is an arc.
Plan-
• Line joining two points is • It is more accurate.
The geographical representation of the features on
a straight line. • It is used to
the earth surface at large scales is called plan.
Plan provides limited data about a certain small region. • It is less accurate. establishing control
It is drawn to a large the scale. • Used in engineering points for plane
Map– projects on large scale survey.
A visual or geographical representation of an whole like, bridge, dam. • All plumb lines are
area, typically represented on flat surface is called map. • All plumb lines are radial.
Scale of map is smaller than scale of plan. parallel. • Property of spherical
• Property of plane triangle. triangle.
1cm = Lesser value ⇒ Scale = 1
Lesser Value The difference in length of an arc and its subtended
chord on the earth's surface.
⇒ Scale↑ ⇒ R.F.↑ Map will large ⇒ Plan i. For 12 km, difference = 10 mm
ii. For 18.2 km, difference = 15.2 mm
1cm = Lesser value ⇒ Scale = 1
1
Lesser Value Note:- Formula Distance in km = cm
12
⇒ Scale ↓ ⇒ R.F.↓ Map will small ⇒ Map The difference between the sum of the angle in plane
Details of earth– triangle and the sum of those in spherical triangle is
Shape of earth- ellipsoid or oblate spheroid. only 1 second having an area of 195.5 sq. km.
Length of polar axis = 12713.80 km 2. Survey Based on Objective-
Length of equatorial axis = 12756.75 km It is classified into following types
Note: Equatorial axis is greater than polar axis by (i) Engineering survey-
42.95 km and in case of relative to the diameter of It is deal with planning, design, construction,
the earth this is greater than 0.34%. maintenance of engineering projects.
Ex.– Highway, Railway, Bridge etc.
(ii) Mine Survey-
It is related to the exploring of mineral wealth.
(iii) Geological Survey-
It is related with the study of composition, origin,
age and bedding formation of rocks.
(iv) Hydrological Survey-
In this type of the survey availability, property and
expansion of the surface or ground water is
determined.
3. Land Based Survey-
(i) Topographical Survey- The surveying performed
to determine the natural features like hills, lakes,
springs etc.
Surveying 159 YCT
(ii) Cadastral Survey- Plane Scale-
The survey performed to determine the additional There is possible to measure two dimensions, only
details of fields boundaries and areas of and other such as unit and tenth.
property is called cadastral survey. It is also known Diagonal scale-
as property survey or boundary survey. In this type The scale in which three successive dimensions can
of survey measurement is done by Revenue chain. be measured at a time is known as diagonal scale.
(iii) City Survey- "Diagonal scale is based on principle of similarity of
Survey performed for the town planning like water triangle".
supply, sewer lines, road, electricity etc. is called Vernier scale-
city survey. Vernier scales are used on certain precision
(iv) Marine or Hydrographic Survey- instruments to increase accuracy in measurement.
It is deals with the large water bodies like pond, If the graduations of the main scale are numbered in
river, sea etc. single direction then it is called single vernier and
It is also called bathymetric surveying. extending one direction.
(v) Astronomical Survey- If graduation of the main scale are numbered both
directions then it is called double vernier.
Relative positions of celestial bodies such as sun,
A vernier can primarily be divided into the
stars etc. are determined in astronomical surveys.
following-
4. Method of Surveying-
(i) Direct vernier-
(i) Triangulation Survey- Calibration in same direction as of main scale.
Triangulation is survey the process of determining Greater accuracy in linear measurements, is obtained
the location of a point by measuring only angles by direct vernier.
from known points. For direct vernier,
(ii) Traverse Survey-
 Traverse is survey to locate the unknown points n ⋅ v = ( n − 1) s
relative to each other and to locate all points within
s
the traverse relative to a common grid. Least Count = s − v = v<s
Principle of different types of surveying work- n
Surveying Types Principal Where,
Chain Survey Triangulation s = Value of one smallest division on main scale.
Compass Survey Traversing v = Value of smallest division on vernier scale.
n = Number of divisions on the vernier scale.
Plane table Survey Parallelism
(ii) Retrograde Vernier-
Optical square Double reflection If the smallest division of a vernier is longer than the
Scales- smallest division of its primary/main scale, the
A scale is the ratio of distance marked on the plan to vernier is called as retrograde vernier.
the corresponding distance marked on the ground. Here, n division of the vernier scale are equal to the
Large scale : 1 cm ≤ 10 m (n + 1) division on the main scale .
Medium scale : 1 cm = 10 m - 100 m nv = (n +1)s
Small scale : 1 cm ≥ 100 m
Representation of scale- s
Least Count = v − s = v>s
1. Engineer's Scale- 1 cm = x m. n
Representative Fraction- iii). Extended Vernier–
The ratio of map distance to the corresponding Extended vernier is similar to the direct vernier scale
ground distance independent of units of except that every second division is omitted.
measurement is called Representative Fraction (RF). here, n division of the vernier scale are equal to the
Map distance (2n – 1) division on the main scale .
R.F. =
Ground distance nv = (2n − 1)s
2. Graphical Scale-
(n − 1).s
Graphic scale is the most useful scale if the map will Least Count = s − v = v>s
be reproduced and changed in size. Graphical scale n
does not affects due to shrinkage of map. Double Vernier-
It consist of two simple vernier placed end to end
forming one scale with zero at the centre.
It is the combination of both direct and retrograde
verniers. Graduations on the main scale are
numbered in both directions in its.
Double folded vernier–
Its length is half of the corresponding double
vernier.
Surveying 160 YCT
 Micro scale– Units of measurements–
It is a device which enables a measurement to be There are four types of measurements used in plane
taken to a still finer degree of accuracy. surveying-
Shrunk Scale– Horizontal By chain, tape, tacheometer,
Shrunk Scale = Original scale × Shrinkage factor Distance total station
Shrunk Scale Shrunk length Vertical Level, total station, tacheometer,
Shrinkage Factor = or Distance sextant, abney level
Original Scale Original length
Horizontal Theodolite, compass,
Comparative scale– Angle clinometer, total station
A scale which has a common representative fraction Vertical Angle Theodolite, sextant, total station
but read the different measures, is called a
comparative scale.
CHAIN
Principles of chain surveying-
Error due to use of wrong scale– Principles of chain surveying is "Triangulation"
If the length of a line existing on a plan or a map is As a triangle is a only simple plane geometrical
determined by means measurement with a wrong figure which can be plotted from the length of the
scale then, three sides even if the angles are not known. There is
R.F. of wrong scale no angular measurements are taken.
Correct length = × Measured length Accuracy of chain survey is greater than plane table
R.F. of correct scale
survey.
 R.F. of wrong scale 
2 Well conditioned triangle–
Correct area =   × Measured area A triangle is said to be well conditioned triangle
R.F. of correct scale  when any angle should not be less than 30° nor
Sequence of temporary adjustment for various greater than 120°.
survey instrument- Most accurate triangle is formed at 56°14'
Instrument Sequence Procedure of chain surveying-
Compass Centering→ Leveling→ Focusing Reconnaissance
of prism ↓
Leveling Centering→ Leveling→ Focusing Selection of stations and their marking
Plane table Fixing → Leveling → Centering ↓
→ Orientation Location of stations
Theodolite Initial setting up on tripod→ ↓
Centering→Leveling→Focusing Ranging between the stations
of eyepiece ↓
Least Count of Surveying Instrument- Chaining,
Instrument Least Count ↓
Vernier Theodolite 20" Offsetting
Electronic Theodolite 1" ↓
Prismatic compass 30' Field books
Surveyor compass 15' ↓
Levelling staff 5 mm or 0.005 m Plotting
Dumpy level 5 mm Reconnaissance-
Theodolite- Process of primary investigation of the land area to
Main Scale 20' be surveyed.
Vernier Scale 20" Types of Chain and its length-
Total Station- Types of Chain Length No. of Links
Angle 1" Engineers Chain 100 ft 100
Distance 5 mm Gunter's chain/surveyor 66 ft 100
Meteric chain 20 cm chain
Linear and angular measurement- Revenue chain 33 ft 16
Instrument Application (use in cadastral survey)
Chain and compass Linear and angular measurements Metric Chain 30m, 20m 150, 100
Chain and level Linear measurements • Length of each links - 20 cm
Plane table Plot plans of field observation for • Brass ring provided - every meter except tallies place
small scale in plane surface • Invar tape - 36% Ni + 64% steel.
Tacheometry To measure horizontal and vertical Note-
angle in hilly regions Chain surveying is recommended when the area to
be surveyed small in extent and on less undulating.
Surveying 161 YCT
 Tapes Cross section- 25 mm × 25 mm or 30 mm × 30 mm.
Tapes are used in surveying to measure the offset Length - 150 mm.
length, horizontal, vertical and slope distances.
Classification of Tapes–
1. Cloth or Linen Tape–
Linen tape is a varnished strip made of closely
woven linen. These tapes may shrunk when exposed
to moisture and also elongated when pulled.
Width of the strip- 12 - 15 mm.
Available lengths - 10m, 20m and 30m.
2. Metallic Tape–
It is made of waterproof cloth in which brass or
copper wires are used as reinforcement. It is more
durable than normal linen tape.
Width - 10 - 15 mm. RANGING
Lengths of 2m, 10m, 15m, 20m, 30m and 50m. To locating intermediate point on survey line b/w two
These tapes are used normal accuracy work. fixed end point.
A varnish coating has done over the tape. (a) Direct Ranging -
3. Steel tape (IS : 1270)- • Minimum ranging rod required- 3
Steel tape is made of steel or stainless steel. • Possible when stations are intervisible.
Strip width - 6 to 10 mm • It is done by Eye or Line Ranger
Lengths - 1m, 2m, 10m, 20m, 30m and 50m. (b) Indirect/reciprocal ranging-
Thickness - 0.15mm, 0.2mm, 0.4 mm. • Minimum ranging rod required- 4
• It is done if stations are invisible due to elevated area
or long sight distance
Ranging Rod–
It is used to ranging between two station point. It is
also known as flag pole, lining rod.
It is painted with 20 cm wide bands of red and white
alternate.

4. Invar tape–
Invar tapes are made of an alloy which consists of
36% of nickel and 64% of steel.
Its thermal expansion co-efficient is very less
(12×10–3/°C). It is not affected by changes in
temperature hence, these tapes are used for high
precision works in surveying.
Width - 6mm
Length - 20m, 30m, 50m and 100m.
Note -
It is used in most precision work like measuring base
line.
Effect of creep is very less.
It is very costly so it is not used in general work. According to IS : 2288 – 1963-
Order of tapes accuracy– Length- 2-3 m
Invar tape > Steel tape > Metallic tape > Linen tape Dia. - 30mm
5. Fiber Tape– Visible up to - 200m.
Fiber tape is generally used in electrical works Ranging Poles–
because of its insulation properties. Ranging poles constructed from steel and wood are
ideal for marking out lines, alignment or indicating
Pegs- boundary areas. Ranging poles are used in high
Pegs are used to mark the position of main station or irregular topographical region.
terminal point of a survey line on the ground. Length- 4 - 8 m
Its 2/3 length should be under the surface and rest Dia - 6 to 10 cm
over the surface. Visible up to - 400 - 500 m
Surveying 162 YCT
 Arrows or marking pin– CHAINING ERRORS
Arrows are made of galvanized mild steel used to (i) Instrumental error–
mark the end point of chain or intermediate station. Error may arise due to faulty or imperfection
Loop dia. - 50 mm adjustment of the instrument by which measurement
Length- 400 ± 5 mm. is being taken.
Main survey stations– Ex. a tape may be too long or short.
Main stations are the ends of the lines which (ii) Personal error–
command the boundary of the survey. The lines Errors arise due to want of perfection of human sight
joining the main stations are called main survey line. observing and of touch in manipulating instruments.
(iii) Natural error–
Error may also be due to variations in natural
phenomenon such as temperature, humidity, gravity,
wind, refraction and magnetic declination.
Classification of errors–
In case of linear measurement errors may be
classified in to three types-
(i) Compensative/Accidental Error–
Subsidiary or Tie Station - When error not occurs in same direction in chain
surveying is called as compensative error.
An additional point selected on the main survey line
to run tie line for dividing the area into triangle for Compensative error ∝ l
checking the accuracy of triangles and for locating (ii) Mistakes–
interior angle. Mistakes are errors which arise from inattention,
Tie station is a point to provide additional rays to unexperience, carelessness and confusion in the
intersected point. mind of the observer.
Subsidiary/Auxiliary/Tie line– (iii) Cumulative/Systematic Error-
The line joining the tie stations for taking offsets It occurs in same or one direction and tends to
from it, is known as tie line. Main object of tie line accumulate in chaining.
is, to take the details of the nearby objects in order to Cumulative error ∝ Length of line (l)
avoid long offset. Types of error occurred during surveying in
Tie line join the some fixed station on main survey different cases–
line. Cases Errors
Base line– Incorrect length of tape Cumulative
Longest survey line run through the centre of the +ve or –ve
area to be surveyed is known as base line. Invar Bad ranging Cumulative +ve
tapes are used for measurement with very high Tape not stretched horizontally Cumulative +ve
degree of precision. Tape not stretched tight and Cumulative +ve
Check or Proof lines– straight, but both ends in line
The line joining the apex of triangle to some fixed points Error due to temperature Cumulative
on any two sides of a triangle is called check line. +ve or –ve
A check line is measured to check the accuracy of Variation in pull Compensating
the framework of triangle. +ve or –ve
Obstacles in chain surveying and their remedies– Error due to sag Cumulative +ve
1. Obstacles in Ranging– Error in marking tape lengths Compensating
In this type of obstacles the ends of the lines are not +ve or –ve
intervisible due to rising ground, hill or jungle Disturbing arrows after they are set Blunder
intervening. Here two cases may arise. Errors in reading the tape Mistake
(a) Both ends may be visible from any intermediate Incorrect counting of tape length Blunder
point lying on the line such as in the case of hill. Careless holding and marking Compensating
(b) Both ends may not be visible from any +ve or –ve
intermediate point such as in the case of jungle. Correction in Length–
This types of obstacle may be crossed over by
''Random line method''. Incorrect chain length
Correct length = × measured length
2. Obstacle in Chaining– Standard chain length
Ends of lines are visible but obstruction in chaining. Correction in Area–
two cases may arise. 2
(a) When the obstacle can be chained around, e.g. Incorrect length
Correct Area = × Incorrect Area
pond. Correct length
(b) When the obstacle can not be chained around Correction in Volume–
e.g. a river. 3
 Incorrect length 
3. Obstacles both in Ranging and Chaining– Correct Volume =   × Incorrect Volume
The problem in this case consists both in prolonging  Correct length 
the line beyond the obstacle and finding the distance Note-
across it. True Error = Measured value – True value
Ex. Building Correction = True value – Measured value
Surveying 163 YCT
 Tape Correction-
S.N. Correction Condition Error Correction Formula

1. Length (a) Increases –Ve +Ve  L'

(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve L = l ' 
 l 
2. Temperature (a) Increases –Ve +Ve Ct = α ( Tm − T0 ) L
(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve
3. Pull/Tension (a) Increases –Ve +Ve ( Pm − P0 )
(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve Cp = ×L
AE
4. Sag – Always +Ve Always –Ve w 2l 3 W 2l
Cs = 2
or
24Pm 24n 2 P 2
5. Slope – Always +Ve Always –Ve CSL = h 2 / 2L or
C v = 2Lsin 2 θ / 2
6. Bad Ranging – Always +Ve Always –Ve Ch = d2/2L
Permissible error– 2. Hypotenusal allowance method–
The limit of accuracy of an instrument causes error
in the measurement are called as permissible error.
Degree of accuracy in chaining–
Description Permissible error in
chaining
Rough or hilly ground 1 in 250 50
If, θ = 1/ n then AA ′ =
Ordinary chain survey 1 in 1000 n2
For greater accuracy 1 in 2000 CROSS STAFF SURVEY
where steel tape or steel 90º Angle measuring device-
band are used 1. Cross staff–
When standardized 1 in 5000 Cross staff is used to set out the perpendicular
directions for offset. There are three types of cross-
steel or invar tape is
staff-
used and corrections for (i) Open cross staff–
pull, temperature, sag, It is the simplest types of cross staff, used for setting
slope etc. are applied out 90° or right angle only.
Chaining on uneven or sloping ground– There is two line of sight in open cross staff.
There are two methods for getting the horizontal
distance between two points.
1. Indirect method–
The distance along the slope is measured and then
the angle of slope θ –

(ii) French or Octagonal cross staff–

It consists of a hollow octagonal box with slit cut in
each face.
It is used to set out angles 45°, 90° and 135°.
The accuracy of French cross staff is less than open
cross staff.
Total number of line of sight - 4.
Sloping or vertical distance between two points–

Surveying 164 YCT

(iii) Adjustable cross staff– Length- 2.0 m
It is used to set out any angle of any magnitude. Classification of Offset -
1. Length Based Offset–
(i) Short Offset–
Length of offset ≤ 15 m.
Accuracy is better than long offset.
(ii) Long offset–
Length of offset > 15 m.
2. Offset based on direction–
(i) Perpendicular offset–
2. Optical square– The distances measured at right angles to the chain
line from the objects are known as perpendicular or
An optical square is a hand instrument used to rectangular or right offsets.
setting/checking out right angle.
The construction of optical square is based on the
principal of double reflection of light. The angle
between the reflecting surfaces is kept 45°.
Angle between incident rays and reflected rays - 2θ
Angle of intersection between Horizontal and Index (ii) Oblique offsets–
glass 45°. All the offsets which are not taken at the right angle
to the chain line are known as oblique offsets.
Horizontal glass 'H'- half silvered.
Index glass I - full silvered.
Accuracy of optical square is more than cross staff.

Limiting Length of the Offsets–

Errors in length and direction –
Sometimes the error in measuring the length of the
Horizontal angle in clockwise direction between true
north and survey line is called bearing.

3. Prism square–

It is based on same principal as that of optical square

used for setting out a line at 90°. offset also occurs.
Not required and adjustment for it
It is precise and modern instrument.

4. Site square–
It is used only for setting out 90°. Where,
OFFSET Length of error on ground = l sin θ (meter)
It is the lateral measurements from the survey line to Let scale of drawing 1 cm = s (meter)
fix the positions of various objects.
l sin θ
Offset Rod– Length of error on drawing = cm
An offset rod is similar to ranging rod with the s
exception that instead of a flag, a recessed hook or 0.025 s
stout open ring is provided at the upper end to pull Limiting length of the offset l =
the chain. sin θ

Surveying 165 YCT

 COMPASS SURVEYING 4. Grid Bearing–
Principle of compass survey- Traversing. It is horizontal angle of a line from grid
meridian.
BEARING OF LINE
Bearing system-
Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B.) System-
Bearing of a line is measured in clockwise
direction with magnetic north. Value of
bearing may vary from 0°–360°.

Quadrant or Reduced Bearing System-

Relation between F.B. and B.B.– Bearing of a line is measured eastward or
Back Bearing = Fore Bearing ± 180° westward from north or south direction
B.B. = F.B. ± 180 0
whichever is nearer.
0
Take +ve, if F.B. < 180 It can be clockwise or anticlockwise.
0 0 0
and –ve, if F.B. > 180 In can be from 0 –90
In reduced bearing system for back bearing the
value of angle is not change but direction
(N ↽ ⇀ S and E ↽ ⇀ W) changes.
Classification of Bearing -
1. Azimuth/True Bearing–
It is the bearing of a line with reference to
the horizontal north and true north
(meridian).
2. Magnetic Bearing–
Horizontal angle b/w the magnetic meridian
and the survey line is termed as magnetic
bearing.
3. Arbitrary bearing– Conversion Of Q.B./R.B. to W.C.B.–
Q.B. Quadrant W.C.B. Angle
The horizontal bearing b/w arbitrary Nθ1E Ist W.C.B.= Q.B. 0°–90°
meridian and the survey line is called Sθ2E IInd 180° – Q.B. 90°-180°
arbitrary bearing. Sθ3W IIIrd 180° + Q.B. 180°-270°
Nθ4W IVth 360° – Q.B. 270°-360°
Conversion of W.C.B. to Q.B.–

W.C.B. Quadrant Q.B. RB/QB

0°–90° Ist QB=WCB Nθ1E
90°–180° IInd 180°–WCB Sθ2E
180°–270° IIIrd WCB-180° Sθ3W
270°–360° IVth 360°–WCB Nθ4W

Surveying 166 YCT

 Meridian– (2n 4) 900 ∑ θ′ = (2n + 4) × 900
Meridian is that real or imaginary fixed line with
respect to which the direction of the line is (all interior (all exterior
determined. It is classified in following types- angle is correct) angle is correct)
(i) True Meridian/True North– Variation in Magnetic Declination-
A line passing through the geographical north and
south pole at any point on the earth's surface is Secular Due to over a long period of time due to
known as true meridian. variation gradual shift in earth's magnetic field
(ii) Magnetic Meridian/Magnetic North– Annual Due to revolution of earth around the sun.
It is the direction indicated by freely suspended and variation (Yearly)
properly balanced magnetic needle. Diurnal Due to rotation of earth about its own
(iii) Grid Meridian– variation axis. It's more at pole and less at equator.
Grid meridian is the meridian of a country centre Considerably more in summer than in
place which taken as reference meridian. winter.
(iv) Arbitrary Meridian– • It is more in day and less in night.
It is a assumed convenient direction as a meridian. • The rate of variation during 24 hours is
Included Angle- variable.
Included angle measured in the clockwise direction Irregular Due to magnetic disturbances in earth's
from the proceeding line of a traverse to the forward variation magnetic field.
line. Included angle can be an interior or exterior
angle. Magnetic Dip/Angle of Dip–
Case-1:If bearing of two lines are from a common Inclination angle of magnetic needle from the
point horizontal Plane is known as magnetic dip.
At equator = 0°
At magnetic poles = 90°
Note - Line of earth's magnetic field run from north
to south.
Important term related to line–
Type of lines The line joining
Isoclinic lines Points of equal dip
Aclinic lines Points of zero dip
Included angle θ = θ2 – θ1 Isogonic lines Points of equal declination
0
If, θ2 – θ1 > 180 - excluded interior angle. Agonic lines Points of zero declination
So, included angle = 360 – (θ2 – θ1)
0
If, θ2 – θ1 < 180 - included angle. Magnetic Declination (M.D.)-
Case-2: Bearing of the lines from a different It is the horizontal angle between the true north and
point magnetic north.
It may be due to -
(i) Due to local attraction.
(ii) Due to annual variation.
(iii) Due to place changes.
M.D. = True Meridian − Magnetic Meridian.

Include angle (ABC)

= B.B. of Preceding line– F.B. of Succeeding line
= B.B. of B.A. – F.B. of B.C.
= θ3 – θ2
0
If included angle ABC > 180
0
Then, for actual value = 360 – calculated value Where,
T.N. → True North
M.N. → Magnetic North
θE → Declination Easting, +ve
θw → Declination Westing, –ve
True bearing = Magnetic bearing ± Declination

Surveying 167 YCT

LOCAL ATTRACTION
Problem of declination of magnetic needle from its
normal or reference pole (N–S) under the influence
of magnetic substance is called local attraction.
If, B.B. − F.B. = 1800
both station is free from local attraction.
If, B.B. − F.B. ≠ 1800
One or both station may be affected by local
attraction. Surveyor's Compass-
PRISMATIC COMPASS Surveyor compass is mainly used in mine surveying
ring is divided into 4 quadrants and graduation are
Prismatic compass is a portable and sensitive made from 0-90° in each quadrant.
instrument made of non-metal box of size 8-10 cm.
It consist a sharply pin (pivot) above which agate is 0° is marked at the north and south point and 90°
fitted. magnetic needle is supported at the top of marked at east and west points.
agate. Graduated ring is also attached with magnetic Important point regarding to Surveyor Compass–
needle and can freely rotate with it. In case of surveyor compass graduation is done in
Break pin- quadrantal or reduced bearing system.
It is used to slow down the motion of the ring.
Spring break-
Used to dampen (Quick rest) the oscillation before a
reading is taken.
Graduation are engraved in the inverted form.
Readings are taken diametrically opposite ends of
the object.
Important point regarding Prismatic Compass–
Needle of prismatic compass is supported on Jewel
bearing.
Agate cap is fitted with the prismatic compass.
The most useful compass in compass survey is Rider-
prismatic compass. Rider is a part of surveyor compass and used as a
counter weight to balance the needle.
Difference between Prismatic and Surveyor's Compass–
Parameter Prismatic Compass Surveyor Compass
Magnetic Needle • The needle is of 'broad needle' type and it • Edge bar type needle is used and it
does not act as index/pointer. acts as an index/pointer.
• The graduations are in Whole Circle • The graduations are in Quadrantal
Bearing system (0° - 360°). Bearing system with 0° in N and S and
Graduated Ring 90° in E and W.

• Graduated ring is attached to the box

• Graduated ring attached to the magnetic
and rotates with box/line of sight.
needle and do not move with the box.
• Zero marked at north and south end.
• Zero are marked at south end.
• Readings are taken with the help of a • Readings are taken by directly seeing
prism provided at the eye slit. through the top cover of glass.
Reading system • Sighting and reading are done • Sighting and reading are not be done
simultaneous from single position of the simultaneously from single position of
observer. observer.

Surveying 168 YCT

 • The eye vane consist of a metal vane • The eye vane consist of a metal vane
Sighting Vanes with a slit. with fine slit.
• The object vane consist of a metal vane • The object vane consist of a metal
with a vertical hair. vane with a vertical hair.
Tripod may or may not be provided. Tripod cannot be used without a tripod.
Tripod Instrument may be used even by holding it
in hand
Least Count Least count of prismatic compass is 30′. Least count of surveyor compass is 15'.
Transit or level compass– Closing Error in the traverse,
It is an optical instrument mounted on a tripod along e = PP' = ( ∑ L ) + ( ∑ D )
2 2

with a built-in sprit level.

It is used for determine the relative position of Direction of closing error-
points, lines and objects with combination of tape, ∑D
rules and calibrated roads. tanθ =
∑L
Adjustment of prismatic compass– Check for close traverse by included angle-
To take an accurate reading of the bearings Sum of included angle = (2N – 4) × 90°
of a survey line. Sum of external angle = (2N + 4) × 90°
Temporary adjustment– Method of Traversing-
i). Fixing the compass over tripod. It is a method in the field of surveying to establish
ii). Centering control points. Following types of method is used-
(i) Chain traversing
iii). Leveling (ii) Chain and compass traversing (Loose needle method)
iv). Sighting the object (iii) Transit tape traversing.
v). Observation of bearings (a) By fast needle method
Azimuth Angle– (b) By measurement of angles b/w the lines.
It is the angle b/w observers meridian and Balancing of Traverse-
the vertical circle passing through the 1. Bowditch/compass rule-
celestial body. Used where Angle and Distance are measured with
same precision.
TRAVERSE SURVEYING
Used in closed traverse
Traversing-
Traversing is defined as the type of survey in which Assumption-
a number of connected survey lines form the Error in linear measurement ∝ ℓ
framework and the directions & lengths of the 1
survey lines are measured with the help of an angle Error in angular measurement ∝
ℓ
(or direction) measuring instrument and a tape (or
chain) respectively. 2. Transit method-
A traverse may be two types- Used where angular measurement are more precise
than linear measurement.
(i) Closed Traverse-
When the lines of a circuit, ends at the starting point L D
CL = C L = ∑ L × ,C D = ∑ D ×
then it is known as a closed traverse. Lr Dr
(ii) Open Traverse– 3. Axis Method-
When the lines of a circuit ends elsewhere except Corrections are applied only to length and angles
starting point is known as open traverse. are measured very precisely.
Closing errors- 1
The actual distance by which the traverse fails to Closing error
close in a traverse survey. Correction of any length = That length × 2
Length of Axis
i.e., ∑ L ≠ 0, ∑ D ≠ 0 Angular measurement required more precision than
linear measurement.
Traverse computations-
Latitude-
It is defined as its co-ordinate length measured
parallel to an assumed meridian direction.
Latitude, L = ± l cosθ
Departure-
It defined as its co-ordinate length measured at right
angles to the meridian direction.

Surveying 169 YCT

 Telescope-
Used to provide an imaginary horizontal line of
sight. It is rigidly fixed to the leveling head.
Surveyor telescope is the adaptation of kepler's
telescope.

W.C.B. Quadrant Latitude Departure Remark

0-90 I + + North +Ve

Latitude
90-180 II – + South –Ve

180-270 III – – East +Ve Surveying telescope has two convex lenses. One

Departure
270-360 IV + – West –Ve nearest to the object is objective lens and other is
near the eyes is known as eyepiece.
Degree of accuracy in traversing- Component of Telescope-
Order of traversing Accuracy
Ist order of traversing 6" N
nd
2 order of traversing 15" N
3rd order of traversing 30" N
Minor theodolite traverse for 1' N
detailing
Compass traversing (i) Objective lens-
15' N
N = Number of angle measured
LEVELLING
DUMPY LEVEL
In dumpy level, telescope and spindle are cast at one
piece.
Under proper adjustment, axis of bubble tube should Combination of both lens is called achromatic lens.
be perpendicular to vertical axis of instrument. Chromatic aberration, distortion, curvature or
Dumpy level is most suitable for levelling surface of spherical aberration etc. defects removed by using
flat terrain. achromatic lens.
(ii) Eye piece-
It is used to magnificate the cross hairs and object
image formed on cross hairs.
Ramsdon, eye-piece is generally used in surveying
telescope.
Double plano-convex lens used in it.

Parts of level-
1. Telescope 2. Level tube
3. Levelling head 4. Tripod

(iii) Diaphragm:- Diaphragm is provided in front of the

eye piece and nearer to objective. It contains cross
hairs made of dark metal arranged in perpendicular.
Cross Hairs-
Cross hairs are fitted in front of eye piece. During
observation, image formed by objective lens should
lie in the plane of crass hair.
Surveying 170 YCT
 Reciprocal This method is done when the
levelling instrument cannot be set up
b/w the two points because of
an obstruction like valley,
river etc.
TILTING LEVEL

Vertical Hair- It is used to check the verticality of the staff.

Horizontal Hair- It is used for note down the staff
reading.
Cross hairs are made of-
(i) Platinum wire
(ii) Silk filament
(iii) Cocoon of spider
TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL
1. Telescope 2. Eye-piece
(i) Setting up 3. Ray shade 4. Objective end
(ii) Levelling 5. Level tube 6. Focusing screw
(iii) Elimination of parallax. 7. Foot screws 8. Tribrach
It is done by two steps- 9. Diaphragm adjusting screw 10. Bubble tube adjusting
(a) Focussing of eyepiece 11. Tilting screws 12. Spring loaded plunger
(b) Focussing of objective lens 13. Trivet stage
Note-
Types of level line
During the levelling of level instrument it should be
kept in mind that two foot screw should be rotate
simultaneously either inward or outward direction
with both hand.

CLASSIFICATION OF LEVELLING Level line Line laying on level surface

Differential/ It is used when difference of (curved line) normal to the plumb line or a line
Compound elevation b/w two points is parallel to the mean spherical
levelling large (hill), obstacles b/w surface of the earth.
the points. Horizontal line It is tangential to the level line
Check levelling Its purpose is checking of lying in the horizontal plane.
elevations which have already Level surface Parallel to the mean spheroid
taken. surface of the earth.
Fly Levelling It is useful for linear structure It is water level surface of still
as roads, canal, railways etc. lake
• Observation taken only B.S. Horizontal A surface tangential to the level
and F.S. Surface surface at any point.
Profile levelling It is used to determine the Datum The surface to which elevations are
elevations along the central referred.
line of the ground surface like Bench mark It is a fixed reference point of
road, canal etc. known elevation.
Cross levelling It is done to obtain the It is establish by spirit levelling.
elevations perpendicular to Reduced level It is height of any point w.r.t. either
aligned surface like road and M.S.L. on any bench mark of
canal. known R.L.
Surveying 171 YCT
 Objective of Levelling- By moving this focussing lens, image formed by
(a) Find out the elevation of the given points with respect objective is formed in cross hair plane of diaphragm.
to the given/assumed datum or reference line.
(b) To locate the points at a provided elevation or at
various elevations with respect to a given or
assumed datum.
Classification of benchmark-
1. G.T.S. (Great Trigonometrical Survey) Benchmark-
It is established by the national agency, all over the Optical defects of a single lens-
country with a highest precision survey, where the Astigmation- Due to this defect blurred and
datum being mean sea level (MSL). distorted image formed. Light
Note:- rays are focused on two or more
Mean sea level adopted by the survey of India for points in this types of defects.
the reference is located at Mumbai. • Cylindrical lens is used to erects
R.L. of mean sea level is assumed zero astigmatism.
2. Permanent Benchmark- Spherical A lens with spherical aberration
Established with reference to GTS benchmark by the aberration focused different rays to different
govt. agencies. points along the optic axis.
3. Temporary Benchmark-
Reference point established during levelling work in Distortion Changes in the shape of an
field is known as temporary benchmark. image rather than the sharpness
4. Arbitrary Benchmark- or color spectrum.
The reference point whose R.L. is assumed is the • Real image formed in the shrunk
field during survey is called arbitrary benchmark. form.
Station- Chromatic It causes different wavelength of
The point where levelling staff is held and reading aberration light to have differing focal
are taken with levelling instrument. length
Focussing- Coma Image points near the edges of
Operation of forming the sharp and clear image of the film appear as irregular,
the object in the plane of cross hairs is known unsharpe shapes
focussing. Curvature of The sharpest image is formed
Rotate eyepiece to give a sharp image of the cross field on a curved surface not on a flat
hair. plane.
Focusing screw is used to give a sharp clear image
of the object being observed.
Optical Characteristics of the Telescope -
Achromatism Achromation is the absence of
Types of Telescope based upon focussing- lense chromatic aberration.Compound
(1) External Focussing Telescope lens free from aberration is called
(2) Internal Focussing Telescope achromatic combination.
1. External Focussing Telescope- Achromatism is desirable quality
Eye-piece and objective are mounted on two in good surveyor's telescope.
different tube so that one can slide inside the other. Resolving power Power of a telescope to form
Rack and pinion arrangement operated by the distinguishable image of objects
focussing screw provided on upper tube. separated by small angular
Objective is moved inward or outward with the help distance.
of focussing screw. • It totally depends upon definition
Focussing is completed when object image is clear Aplanatic A compound lens free from
formed in the cross hairs plane. combination spherical aberration.
• Aplanation is the absence of
spherical aberration
Definition It is the capability of a telescope
to produce sharp image.
Illumination or It depend upon the magnifying
brightness- power and the number and
quality of the lenses.
2. Internal Focusing Telescope- 1 1
Objective is fixed in their position and additional • Illumination ∝ ∝
Magnification Number of lens
double concave lens (fitted with rack and pinion
arrangement) mounted on small tube to move Note:- Achromatic lens is free from spherical
between the diaphragm and objective. aberration.
Surveying 172 YCT
 Bubble Tube- Classification of Staff-
Bubble tube incompletely filled with a liquid mostly A. Self reading staff (mostly used)-
alcohol, because of low viscosity and surface Reading directly taken by level/instrument man
tension. looking through the telescope
It is used for shorter distance
Least count - 5 mm
Each meter have - 200 division
Black and white division (each 5 mm) alternately.
Level man should be more efficient compared to
staff man.
Visibility -200m
Types of self reading staff-
1. Solid/Straight/Roorkee Pattern Staff -
It is in single piece length of 3.0 m.
Very suitable for precise leveling.
Sensitivity (α) of bubble tube- 2. Folding or Hinged Staff-
Sensitivity is the change of angle to required move Made of two pieces of well seasoned timber with
the bubble by a set distance (usually 2 mm and each length of 2.0 m. These are folded one over
sensitiveness is 20") another.
Sensitivity of level tube is designated by radius of 3. Telescopic or Sop with Staff -
level tube. It is made of 3 pieces.
Lower parts of staff length = 2.0 m
Sensitivity of bubble tube α = S × 206265 (In second).
n.D
While upper both length = 1.0 m each
4. Invar precision staff-
n = Number of division on bubble This type of levelling staff are used for first order
S = Staff intercept levelling and for challenging work on large scale
D = Distance b/w level and staff construction site ex. tunnels, roads, dams or power
Factors Affecting Sensitivity- plants.
Factors Sensitivity B. Target Staff-
(α) Reading is taken by staff man/target man.
Used for larger distance and very precise work.
Internal radius/radius of curvature ↑ ↑ Vernier is provided on target staff for accurate
Diameter of tube ↑ ↑ reading.
Length of bubble ↑ ↑ Experienced staff man is required.
Temperature ↑ ↓ Permanent adjustment of level-
(i) Line of collimation or line of sight should be
Roughness of the wall ↓ ↑
parallel to the the bubble axis.
Viscosity of liquid ↓ ↑ Peg test is performed to insure this.
S.G. and surface tension ↓ ↑ (ii) Line of collimation or line of sight should coincide
Levelling staff- with the axis of the telescope.
(iii) Axis of bubble tube should be perpendicular to the
Levelling staff is a graduated wooden or aluminium vertical axis.
vertical pole used for measuring vertical distance Two peg test is performed to insure this.
b/w points or height of points on the ground and the
Important Terms used in levelling-
line of collimation.
Vertical axis Axis about which telescope can
be rotate in horizontal plane.
Horizontal/ Axis about which telescope can
Triunion axis be rotate in vertical plane.
Back Sight (B.S) It is the first reading taken after
setting up the instrument.
Fore Sight (F.S.) It is the last reading taken from
instrument station.
It indicate the shifting of
instrument.
Intermediate All reading excepts B.S. and F.S.
Sight (I.S.)
Change Point The point where F.S. and B.S.
(C.P.) both readings are taken.
Note:- If B.S. and F.S. distance are kept equal during
levelling observation, then the effect of both
refraction and earth's curvature will be zero.
Surveying 173 YCT
 Principle of levelling- • More useful if there are where there is no any I.S.
"To obtain horizontal line of sight w.r.t. which many reading to be • Useful where less
vertical distance of the points above or below this taken by the single readings to be taken after
line of sight are found. setting of level. single setting of level.
Ex.-Profile levelling and Ex.- In check or fly
cross levelling. levelling.
Curvature and refection correction-
Types of correction Correction to staff reading
1. Curvature correction-
d2
• Always –ve • Cc = − or − 0.0785d 2
• Staff reading increases 2R
due to curvature Cc - in m
2. Refraction correction- d - in km
• Always +ve
1 d2 1
If the point (station) is lower, staff reading will be • Staff reading decreased CR = or × Cc = 0.01121d 2
7 2R 7
greater. due to refraction
3. Combined correction- CR - in m
H.I. = Elevation of B.M. + B.S.
• Always –ve 6 d2
Cc = − × = −0.06728d 2
H.I. = (100 + x) m 7 2R
Elevation of point = H.I. – Staff reading at that
Cc - in m
point.
Error in levelling due to refraction is compensating.
or R.L. = H.I − B.S./ I.S. Distance of visible horizon-
Height of Instrument (H.I.)-
It is the elevation or reduced level of the line of H = 0.06728D 2 m or D = 3.8553 H km
collimation from mean sea level (M.S.L.) or w.r.t. Where,
datum. H = Height of light house/tower in, m
M.S.L. is taken in India is Mumbai. D = Distance b/w lighthouse and objects in, km
Calculation of elevation of reduced level- Note-
1. Height of Instrument or Line of Collimation If height of tower is H1 (m) and object height is H2
Method- (m) then,
(i) This method consist to find H.I for every set up of
level and determine the R.L. of every points. Horizon distance, D = 3.8553 H1 + H 2 km( )
(ii) H.I. = B.M. or R.L. + B.S.or I.S.
or R.L. = H.I. − B.S or I.S
Arithmetic check-
∑ B.S. − ∑ F.S. = Last R.L. − First R.L.
Total number of check points = 2. Reciprocal Levelling-
2. Rise and Fall Method- If it is not possible to set up the level between two
This method consist of determining the difference of points as in case of levelling across river, ponds,
level between consecutive points by comparing each lakes etc. The reciprocal levelling is employed to
point with immediate preceding point. carry forward the level on the other side of
If staff reading is more it represents fall and if less it obstruction.
Error due to collimation, curvature and partially
represent rise at that point.
refraction are eliminated by this method.
Arithmetic check-
∑ B.S. − ∑ F.S. = ∑ Rise − ∑ Fall = Last R.L. − First R.L.
Total number of check points = 3.
Comparison b/w H.I. and Rise & Fall
Method-
H.I. method Rise and Fall method
• It is less laborious rapid • More tedious/laborious
and easy method. method and have involve
• Check provides only for several calculation.
B.S. and F.S. not at I.S. • Provides complete check
• It have more error. on B.S., F.S. and I.S.
• Suitable for longitudinal • Less error occurred
Average level difference, h =
(b − a ) + (c − d )
leveling. • Suitable for fly levelling 2
Surveying 174 YCT
 Types of survey and purpose Error in feet Error in mm
Rough levelling for reconnaissance survey ± 0.4 M ± 100 K
Ordinary levelling for location and construction survey ± 0.1 M ± 24 K
Accurate levelling for principal bench marks or for extensive survey ± 0.05 M ± 12 K
Precise levelling for bench marks of widely distributed points ± 0.017 M ±4 K
Very precise levelling - ±1 K

CONTOURING Methods of contouring and its suitability-

Contour Line It is an imaginary line joining point Methods Suitability
of equal elevation on ground. 1. Direct method • Regular ground surface for
Contour Vertical distance b/w two contour large scale maps and small
Interval lines. area.
Horizontal Horizontal distance b/w two • It is very slow, tedious and
equivalent contour lines. costly.
Some suitable values of contour interval
2. Indirect
Purpose of survey Scale Interval (m)
method
Building site 1 cm = 10 m 0.2 to 0.5
(Mostly used) • For road, canal, railway or
or less (i) Method of cross alignment survey.
Town planning scheme, 1 cm = 50 to 0.5 to 2 section • For small open area where
reservoir etc 100 m (ii) Method of close vertical interval
Location survey 1 cm = 50 to 2 to 3 square contours required
200 m • For hilly areas.
Characteristics of contour lines- (iii) Tacheometric
• Two contour lines are not meet at point nor cut each method
other. Method of interpolation-
Ex-Overhanging cliff, Vertical cliff (i) Estimation method- This is very crude method and
• Closed contour lines with higher value inside centre is usually adopted where the ground forms are
indicate hill or rising ground. irregular.
• Closed contour lines with lower value towards (ii) Arithmetic/computation method- This method is
centre indicate depression, pond or lake. used when high accuracy required.
• Contour lines cut the ridge or watershed line and (iii) Graphical method
valley or drainage line at right angles (900). 25
Note- Contour interval = m
• If in a loop elevation of contour lines increase No. of cm per km
towards inside it indicates ridge.
• And if this value decreases towards inside of loop, it AREA & VOLUME MEASUREMENT
indicate a valley line. Area-
• V-shaped contours with convexity towards higher Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a
ground represent hills/valley. region on the plane or on a curved surface.
• U-shaped contours with convexity towards lower Note-
ground represents ridge. Measurement of area is the main object of land
• Contour line close together indicate steep slope. surveying.
• Equally spaced contour line indicate uniform slope. Units of area measurements-
• A series straight, parallel and equally spaced contour (i) British unit/English unit ( sq. ft or acres)
represent a plane surface. (ii) Metric unit ( sq. meters or hectares)
Surveying 175 YCT
 Method of calculation of area- O1 + O 2 + O3 + .............O n
A= ×L
1. By computation based directly on field n
measurement. n
It include following method- L × ∑ Oi n
(a) By dividing the area into a number of triangle A= i =1
A = d × ∑ Oi
(b) By offsets to base line- n i =1

It include following method- Where,

(i) Mid - ordinate rule n = Number of division
(ii) Average ordinate rule d = Distance of each division
(iii) Trapezoidal rule L = Length of base line
(iv) Simpson's one - third rule ΣOi = Sum of mid-ordinate
(c) By Latitudes and Departure method - Average ordinate rule (A.O.R.)-
Used for closed traverse. It include following The method is same as the mid-ordinate rule, but
method- offset are measured each point of the division.
(i) Double meridian distance (D.M.D.) method O + O 2 + O n +1
A= 1 ×L
(ii) Double parallel distance (D.P.D.) method n +1
(d) By Co-ordinate method.
L n
2. By computation based on measurement scaled from A= ∑ Oi
(n + 1) i=0
a map.
3. By mechanical method (Planimeter method)- Trapezoidal rule-
Area computed by sub-division into In this method it is assumed that, shape of each
triangle- division is trapezoids.
It is more accurate than A.O.R. & M.O.R. method
 O + O n  
A =  0  + O1 + O 2 + O3 + ..........O n −1  × d
 2  
Simpson's one-third rule-
In this method, it is assumed that the short length
of boundary between the ordinates are parabolic
arcs.
In this method the area is divided into a number of This method is more useful when the boundary line
triangle, and the area of each triangle is calculated. departs considerably from the straight line.
(i) Area of triangle when two sides and one included
angle is measured-
1 1 1
A1 = ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B
2 2 2
(ii) When three sides of triangle are measured-
A1 = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
Where, s = half perimeter d
a+b+c
Area of segment ABCD = [O1 + 4O2 + O3 ]
s= 3
2 d
Area of segment BEDF = [ O3 + 4O 4 + O5 ]
Mid ordinate rule (M.O.R.)- 3
Assumption- d
(i) Base line is divided into a number of division. Area of segment EGFH = [ O5 + 4O6 + O 7 ]
3
(ii) Ordinate are measured at the mid point of each Total area-
division.
(iii) Boundaries between the extremities of the ordinate A = d ( O1 + On ) + 2 ( O3 + O5 + ....) + 4 ( O2 + O4 + ......) 
are straight line. 3 
Note:- The results obtain by simpson's rule is more
accurate than other rule.
Calculation of area from Co-ordinate
squares-
The area of plan is divided into a number of
squares of unit area.
Each of such square is counted and part of square is
estimated.
Surveying 176 YCT
 In order to ease out the procedure, a tracing sheet is (i) Plain Alidade-
used with squares marked on it. It consists of a metal (brass) or a wooden ruler (50 -
This tracing paper is placed on the plan and number 60 cm length) with two vanes at the ends. Eye vane
of squares is counted. has a narrow slit while objective vane is in open
This method of computing the area is very easy and form and carries a hair or thin wire.
rapid and quite suitable where approximate result
are acceptable.

PLANE TABLE
Introduction-
Principle- Plane table surveying is based on
parallelism.
It is a graphical method of surveying in which field
work and plotting are done simultaneously in the
field. It is most suitable for small and medium scale
survey.
It is the fast and cheap method of surveying. (ii) Telescopic Alidade-
It is simple and easy to perform but its accuracy is These are used when it is required to take inclined
very less. sight. It essentially consists of a small telescope
The omission of observation is eliminated, as the with a level tube and graduated ring on the
surveyor directly plots the detail in the field. horizontal axis. It provides quick and accurate
result.
It gives higher accuracy and more range of sights.
For undulating areas it can be used very efficiently.
Stadia telescope or tacheometric telescope are used
to exact sighting and to measure directly horizontal
and vertical distance.
The inclination of the line of sight can be read on
the vertical circle.
Purpose of plane table surveying-
To located the topographic detail.
Preparation of small scale maps.
To carry out small scale surveying rapidly.
To survey industrial area, developed city, covering
area where compass surveying is not feasible.
To run the survey line b/w stations that have been
previously fixed by other method of surveying.
Instrument used in plane table
surveying-
1. Plane Table- There are three types of plane table.
(i) Traverse Table- Small size of plane table used for
rough work.
(ii) Johnson Table- Size, 45 × 60 cm or 60 × 75 cm. It 3. Plumbing fork or U-fork-
is joint by tripod with ball and socket joint and Used for centering the plane table over the station
vertical spindle with two thumb screw on the point. Plotted point on the sheet and ground station
underside. are in the same vertical line.
(iii) Coast Survey Table- Used for most accuracy. Plumb-bob is suspends from the end of the lower
arms of U-fork.
Shifting of its tripod is not required.
Telescopic alidade is used for sighting in this table.
2. Alidade-
It is used to bisect the object, draw rays, direction
lines etc. There is one side of alidade is in bevelled
form that is used to draw the line of sight on the
sheet. This edge or side is known as fiducial edge
or working edge.
Fiducial edge is graduated in mm and cm.
4. Trough Compass-
An ideal position of alidade to keep the left side of
Trough compass is used for the orientation of plane
station pin
table to magnetic north and to show north direction
There is two types of alidade- on drawing sheet.
Surveying 177 YCT
 This method is rapid but precision is not good.
It is used to approximate orientation or first
establishment.
In this method of orientation, compass is placed on
the upper right corner of the plane table so that the
needle floats centrally and a line is drawn against
the long side of the box.
At any other station, where table is to be oriented,
compass is placed against this line and table is
5. Drawing Sheet, Pencil, Rubber, Board Pin, oriented by turning it until the needle floats
centrally and then table is clamped in this position.
Working operation of plane table- 2. Orientation by back sighting method-
This method is accurate and always preferred.
Orientation can be done precisely by sighting the
points already plotted on the sheet.
This methods is most suitable when surveying area
is affected by magnetic substance.
METHODS OF PLANE TABLE SURVEY
Fixing- 1. Radiation method
Process of fixing plane table with tripod. 2. Intersection method
Plane table is mounted above the levelling head of 3. Traversing method
tripod with the help of fly nut or wing nut. 4. Resection method
SETTING 1. Radiation method-
Setting is done in three steps as following This method is suitable for locating the object from
(i) Levelling- a single station. In this method rays are drawn from
It is that process in which plane table is set in the station point towards object and distance from the
horizontal plane over the station point with the help station to object are measured with the help of
of bubble tube. tape/chain and plotted to any suitable scale along
the respective rays.
Levelling of plane table is done with the help of
This method is more suitable when the distance
sprit level.
between the target and station point are small
(within one tape length) and one single instrument
can control the point to be detailed.
Maximum number of ground measurement are
taken in this method.

For more precise work, Johnson table or coast

survey table are used.
(ii) Centering-
The operation in which the plane table placed over
the station situated on the ground that plotted on
the sheet corresponding to the station occupied,
should be exactly over the station on the ground is
known as centering. 2. Intersection method-
Centering is done by using plumbing fork/U-fork. This method is the most commonly used when the
(iii) Orientation- distance between the stations is too large or the
Operation of rotating plane table about its vertical stations are inaccessible or the ground is
axis so that all the lines on the sheet becomes undulating.
parallel to the corresponding lines on the ground is Its example is survey across river, broken
known as orientation. Orientation must be carried boundaries or where it is difficult to measure
out in plane table surveying. horizontal distance.
Methods of orientation- In this method two stations are selected so that all
1. Trough compass or magnetic meridian method. the other stations to be plotted are visible from
2. Back sighting method. these stations.
1. Trough compass/magnetic meridian method- The line joining these stations are known as base
This method is suitable when a local attraction is line and base line length is measured very
not suspected in an area. accurately.
Surveying 178 YCT
 To locate any point in this method it is essential to Note-
have at least two instrument station. Traversing and resection method is used to locate
This method is also known as graphical the plane table station.
triangulation. Two point and three point problem are the method
This method is more accurate and useful hilly of orientation and resection.
region. Resection method is more accurate compared to
intersection method.
Note- Radiation and intersection are the method to
locate the point.
Two point problem-
The process of determine, location of instrument
station with two reference point that's are already
drawn on the sheet is known as two point problem.
Aim of two point problem is to resume the
unfinished job from any unknown station.
Two point problem method is adopted to orient a
plane table at a point with two inaccessible points.

3. Traversing method-
This method of plane table surveying is used to
plot a traverse in case of stations have not been
plotted previously by some other method.
It is widely used to lay down survey line between
instrument stations of a closed or open traverse.
This method is used to plot a close or open
traverse.
Radiation and intersection method can be used in
combination with this method to obtain details.

Three point problem-

The three point problem is, to establish the position
of the instrument station on the plan by making
sights towards plane table by means of observation
to three well defined point whose positions have
already been plotted on the plan.
It requires less time, labor and is more accurate and
simple.
Methods to solve three point problem-
1. Mechanical/Tracing paper method
2. Bessel's/Graphical method –
Note- This is the most suitable method
In this method orientation is done by back sighting 3. Lehman's/Trial and Error method
method. 4. Analytical method
4. Resection method-
Resection is the process of determining the plotted
THEODOLITE SURVEY
position of the station occupied by the plane table, Introduction-
by means of sights taken towards known points, Theodolite is a surveying instrument used for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles,
locations of which have been plotted.
consisting of a small tripod mounted telescope that
or is free to move with horizontal and vertical planes.
It is the process of determining location of Use-
instrument station with respect to already plotted 1. Distance, horizontal and vertical angle
station. measurement
This method requires only one linear measurement. 2. Layout of curve
Methods of Resection- 3. Locating points on a line
1. Two point problem 4. To measure deflection angle
2. Three point problem 5. Prolonging survey lines
3. By compass 6. Setting out horizontal angles
4. By back sighting 7. Tacheometric surveying
Surveying 179 YCT
 Classification of theodolite- For control the lower plate, a lower clamp screw
1. Based on (i) Transit Theodolite- and slow motion screw or tangent screw are used.
Transition Telescope can be revolved through 2. Upper Plate/Vernier plate -
1800 about its horizontal axis in the It is the horizontal circular plate monolithically
vertical plane. constructed with inner spindle.
(ii) Non-Transit Theodolite- At upper plate two vernier is attach in opposite
Line of sight can't be revolve by direction.
revolving the telescope 1800 in the Note-
vertical plane. If lower clamp screw tightened and upper clamped
Ex.-Y-Theodolite and Everest theodolite screw is unclamped then lower plate does not
2. Based on (i) Precise Optical Theodolite- moves but upper plate moves.
method of Mostly used for astronomical works. Upper clamped screw is clamped but lower
obtaining clamped screw is unclamped then both plate moves
Least count- 1"
reading together in same direction for that condition it
(ii) Vernier Theodolite- measure horizontal angle.
It consists two vernier scale for
Both upper and lower plate screw is clamped then
measuring angle more precisely
there is no movement between plates.
upper plate of a transit theodolite has
3. Leveling Head-
two verniers, which are diametrically
It consists of two parallel plates that are separated
opposite to each other.
by three leveling screw. Upper parallel plate is
3. Based on (i) 8 - 12 cm known as tribrach and lower plate is called trivet.
size of plate Used for ordinary work. Leveling head provide a balanced level to the
(ii) 12 - 25 cm instrument.
Used for high precision work like It support the upper part of instrument.
triangulation. 4. Shifting Head-
Least Count- Shifting head allowed slight movement of
(i) Vernier Theodolite - 20" instrument in horizontal direction remains the
(ii) Electronic Theodolite - 1" tripod station.
(iii) Micrometer Theodolite - 2" After completion of leveling, it is used to exact
Micrometer is used to take reading in microscopic centering of the instrument.
theodolite 5. Index Frame-
MAIN PARTS OF THEODOLITE It is the T-shaped frame carrying the vernier of the
vertical circle.
It's vertical arm is known as clipping arm and
horizontal arm is index or vernier arm.
6. Altitude Bubble-
It is placed on the vernier frame and used to make
the horizontal axis truly horizontal.
7. Vertical Circle-
Vertical circle is attached to the trunnion axis.
It provides the main scale reading for the vertical
angles.
Slow motion screw is used to accurate target of an
object.
Some basic definition-
Centering-
Process of setting up the instrument exactly over
the ground station marked.
A plumb bob is used for precise centering.
Optical plummet is used in windy condition to
centering theodolite.
Transiting/ Reversing/Plunging-
1. Lower plate/Scale plate-
The process of turning the telescope about
Lower plate monolithically constructed with outer
spindle. It provide main scale reading of a horizontal axis through 1800 in vertical plane.
horizontal angle. Swinging-
It is also known as scale plate, main plate or Turning of the telescope in horizontal plane about
horizontal plate. its vertical axis.
It is graduated in degree from 0° – 360° with least Right Swing-
count 20". Swinging the telescope into clockwise direction.
Surveying 180 YCT
 Left Swing- 1. Axis of plate level must be perpendicular to
Swinging the telescope into anticlockwise vertical axis.
direction. 2. Axis of telescope must be parallel to the line of
Changing Face- collimation.
3. The line of collimation must be perpendicular to
Changing face means the operation of bringing the the horizontal axis.
telescope from face left to face right or face right to Vertical circle should read zero, when the line of
left. collimation is horizontal.
The face is changed by plunging the telescope and 4. Horizontal axis must be perpendicular to vertical
swinging it by 1800. axis.
Note:- The errors that are eliminated by changing the 5. Line of collimation should coincide with the
face are- optical axis of the telescope and should also be
(i) Error due to horizontal axis does not being perpendicular to the vertical axis.
perpendicular to vertical axis.
ADJUSTMENT OF THEODOLITE
(ii) Error due to line of collimation
1. Temporary Adjustment-
Right Face- (i) Setting up and centering
Vertical circle is in right hand side to the observer (ii) Levelling
during observation. (iii) Elimination of parallax (focussing)
Left Face- (a) By focussing of eye-piece
Vertical circle is in left hand side to the observer (b) By focussing of objective lens
during observation. Note-
Left swing is not favored because reading is Parallax-
increase in clockwise. It is defined as the error occurs, when image
Telescope Normal or Direct Telescope- formed by objective lens is not in the same plane
Telescope is said to be normal or direct, if vertical with cross hairs of the telescope.
circle is in left hand side to the observer and bubble Parallax bar is used to measure parallax difference.
of the telescope is above it. 2. Permanent adjustment-
These are made to establish the relationship b/w the
Telescope Inverted- fundamental line/axis of theodolite.
The telescope is said to be inverted when vertical Axis relation/permanent adjustment of
circle is in right hand side to the observer and theodolite and their test-
bubble tube is downward to it. Axis Relation Test Conducted
Fundamental axis of theodolite and 1. Horizontal axis should be Spire test
relation between them- perpendicular to vertical axis.
Horizontal /Trunnion or Transverse axis- 2. Vertical axis should be Plate level test
It is defined as the axis about which telescope and perpendicular to the axis of level
tube.
vertical circle both rotates in vertical plane.
3. Line of collimation should be Azimuth test
Vertical Axis- perpendicular to horizontal axis
Axis about which telescope rotates in horizontal 4. Axis of bubble tube should be Vertical arc index
plane. parallel to line of collimation. test
It is also called "azimuth axis". Horizontal angle measurement method-
This is the axis about which the lower and upper 1. General method-
plates rotate. Theodolite is turned clockwise from the back
Line of Sight or Line of Collimation- station to the forward station.
It is defined as the line passing through the 2. Repetition method-
intersection of cross hairs of diaphragm and optical This method is used to measure horizontal angle
centre of objective lens and its continuation. very accurately. This method is preferred for the
If line of sight is horizontal then it is called as line measurement of single angle.
In this method angle is measured several times and
of collimation. average angle value is taken i.e.
Axis of Plate Level or Bubble Axis-
It is the axis which tangential to the longitudinal
curve of the level tube at the center of the tube.
Axis of telescope-
The line joining the optical center of the object
glass to the center of eye-piece is called axis of
telescope.
Relation-
Sum of total angle
These axis relation is also known as the permanent Angle =
adjustment of the theodolite. No. of observation taken

Surveying 181 YCT

 Errors eliminated by repetition method– It is rapid and more convenient, specially in hard
(i) By changing face of theodolite terrains such as broken grounds, deep ravines or
a. When line of collimation not being undulation exists, swampy areas etc.
perpendicular to the horizontal axis. Types of telescope used in stadia surveying-
b. Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the 1. Simple external focusing telescope.
vertical axis. (It is also known as stadia theodolite).
c. Line of collimation not coinciding with the axis 2. External focusing anallactic or Porro's telescope.
of the telescope. (It is known as tacheometer).
(ii) By reading both verniers and averaging the 3. Internal focusing telescope.
readings. • Additive constant of the tacheometer is zero so it
a. When vernier plate not coinciding with the axis have more advantage over than other two types.
of the main scale plate. • The stadia diaphragm generally consists of two hairs,
b. Unequal graduations. and equidistant from a central horizontal hair.
(iii) Measuring the angle on the different parts of circle.
3. Reiteration or Series Method-
Method of reiteration is used when the many angle
are to be measured from the single setting at a
point.

Essential Features of Tachecometer-

Telescope should have truly anallactic lens to make
Note- the additive constant zero.
By reading both the verniers, any identical errors Axial horizontal line exactly midway between the
due to eccentricity of verniers is counteracted. other two lines.
To measure the magnetic bearing of line compass Multiplying constant should have 100.
is used in modern theodolite. Magnification of powerful telescope is in 20 to 30
Error due to the equidistant lines not being diameters.
perpendicular to the horizontal axis, can be The aperture of the objective should be 35 to 45 mm
eliminated by taking the both face observation. in diameter to have a sufficiently bright image.
System of tacheometery-
TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING
Introduction-
Tacheometric surveying is defined as a method of
angular surveying in which a tachometer is used to
determine the horizontal and vertical distance
between two points.
A transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is 1. Stadia system-
generally used for tacheometric survey.
(a) Fixed hair method-
Uses of Tacheometry- In this method interval between two stadia hair is
• Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways etc. fixed and the staff interval or intercept on the
• Preparation of topographic maps which require both levelling staff varies with the distance.
elevations and horizontal distances. It is the most common method in tacheometry.
• Hydrographic surveys.
• Checking of measured distances.
• Survey work in difficult terrain (Hilly and undulating
ground)
• Establishing the secondary control points.
Objective of Tacheometry Survey-
The primary object of tacheometry is the preparation
of contour maps or plans requiring both for the
horizontal as well as vertical control. Distance between the stations and staff is obtained
Tacheometric surveying is preferred over chain or by multiplying the stadia constant to the staff
tape surveying. intercept. D = K.S + C Where, S = S3 – S1
Surveying 182 YCT
 (b) Movable Hair Method or Substense Method- Stadia Rod/Vertical stave-
The staff interval is kept constant by changing the It is a graduated rod used with an instrument having
distance between the stadia hairs i.e. here stadia stadia hairs to measure the distance from the
interval is variable and staff intercept is kept fixed. observation point to the place where the rod is
It is a slow method. positioned.
2. Tangential method- Principle of stadia method-
In this method, the readings are taken against the It is based on the principle "the ratio of the
horizontal cross hair. perpendicular to the base is constant in similar
The stadia hair is not used in tangential method. isosceles triangles."
There is two observations are required from the
staff station to the instrument station.
Generally this method is not used.
Three type of tangential method–
A. When both of the observed angle are elevated-

D = K.S + C
Where,
D = Horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical
axis of the instrument.
Focal Length (f )
Multiplying constant, K=
Stadia Interval (i)
S S.tan α 2 Additive constant, C = f +d
D= , V = D tan α 2 =
tan α1 − tan α 2 tan α1 − tan α 2 d = Distance of the vertical axis of the instrument
B. When both the observed angles are in depression- from O point
S = Staff intercept.
Note-Multiplying constant depends upon the magnitude
of the angle, if angle is made equal to 34'22" then the
multiplying constant is obtained 100.
Distance and elevation for staff held vertical
and inclined sight-

S S.tan α 2
D= , V = D tan α 2 =
tan α 2 − tan α1 tan α 2 − tan α1
C. When one of the observed angles is an angle of
elevation and the other an angle of depression-

Horizontal distance-
D = K.S.cos 2 θ + C cos θ
Vertical intercept-
sin 2θ
V = K.S. + C.sin θ
2
S S.tan α 2 r = Central hair reading
D= , V=
tan α1 + tan α 2 tan α1 + tan α 2 Distance and elevation formulae for staff
Subtense bar/horizontal stave- normal-
Subtense bar can measure horizontal and vertical D = (K.S + C)cos θ ± r sin θ
distance in places where chaining is impossible
because of undulations and rough topography. V = (K.S + C) sinθ
It can measure short distance upto 200 m. +ve when θ is upward
Length - 2 - 3m –ve when θ is depressed downward
Surveying 183 YCT
 Fergusson's percentage unit system-
In this system a, circle inscribed in a square is
divided into eight equal parts.
Each octants is of length equal to the radius of the
circle and is divided into 100 equal parts as shown
above figure.

3. Reverse Curve-
It is the types of curve which consists of two
circular arc or simple curve of same or different
radii having their centre's on the opposite sides of a
common tangent.
These are also known as serpentine curve or S-
curve
If two line meets at a very small angles, reverse
curve is the better option to connect them.
4. Transition Curve-
A curve of varying radius is called as transition
curve. It is also called spiral curve or easement
curve.
Types of Transition Curve-
1. Spiral/Clothoid curve
(It fulfill the condition of an ideal transition curve)
2. Cubic Parabola
3. Bernoullis Lemniscate curve
(This is the ideal shape of transition curve)
CURVES
TYPES OF CURVES
Curve is defined as the arc with some finite radius
provided between intersecting straights to gradually
negotiate a change in direction.

Summit Curve-
Types of vertical curve in which two grades meet at
the summit having convexity upward side is termed
as summit curve.
• Parabola is the ideal shape of summit curve.
Valley/ Sag curve-
It meets at valley and convexity have downward
side.
Elements of a simple circular curve-
1. Simple curve-
A curve which consists of a single arc of a circle
connecting two straights.

2. Compound Curve-
It consist two or more arc of different radii
deflecting in the same direction and laying on the
same side of common tangent.
Surveying 184 YCT
Back tangent or first The tangent previous to the Designation of Curve-
tangent curve. (i) By Radius of curvature
Forward Tangent or The tangent following the curve. (ii) By degree of Curvature
second tangent Degree of curvature is defined as the angle
Point of Intersection The point where back and subtended by arc or angle subtended by a chord of
(P.I) forward tangent intersect. 30 m or 20 m length of chain at the centre of the
Point of curve (P.C.) The point where the curve curve.
changes its alignment from 1chain length × 180
straights to a curve. Radius, R =
π×8
• It is the beginning of the curve.
1719
Point of tangency The point at which the curve = For 30 m chain
(P.T) changes its alignment from curve θ
to a straight. 1146
R= For 20 m chain
• It is the end of curve. θ
Intersection angle (θ) It is the interior angle between Chord definition is used in case of railway.
the back and forward tangent. Arc definition is used in case of highways. s
Degree of railway curve 1° – 6°
Deflection angle (∆) Exterior angle between the two
tangent (forward and rear Degree of highway curve 1° – 20°
tangent). Radius and versine relation of curve-
Tangent Length Distance b/w P.C./point of C2
V= V,C and R in m
tangency and the point of BR
intersection. 125C2
V= C and R in m and V in cm.
External/Apex Distance between mid point of R
distance curve and point of intersection. 1.5C2
Length of curve (l) Curved distance b/w P.C. and V= C. and R in feet, V in inch.
R
P.T.
Length of chord It is the straight distance b/w SETTING OUT OF CURVE
P.C. and P.T. A. Linear Method
Mid-ordinate (M) Vertical distance b/w mid point In this method, only tape or chain is used.
of curve and mid point of long It is used when-
chord. (a) High degree of accuracy is not required.
Normal chord Horizontal distance between two (b) Curve is short.
successive regular station on the Linear Method of Setting out of Curve-
curve. 1. By Offset/Ordinates from long chord-
Sub-chord It is an any chord shorter than O x = (R 2 − x 2 ) − (R − O o )
the normal chord.
2. By Successive bisection of chord-
Right hand curve If the curve deflects to the right
hand side of the progress of Offset = R(1 – cos θ/2)
survey work. 3. By Offsets from tangent-
Left hand curve Curve deflects to left hand side O x = R − R 2 − x 2 Perpendicular offset
of the progress of survey work.
Important formula related to elements of O x = R 2 + x 2 − R Radial offset
simple circular curve- 4. By offsets from chord produced or deflection
distance-
1. Length of Curve πR∆
l= C
1800 O n = n ( Cn −1 + Cn )
2R
2. Tangent Length ∆
T = R tan B. Angular method-
2 In this method, an instrument such as theodolite with
3. Length of Long chord ∆ or without tape or chain used.
L = 2R sin
2 It is used when-
4. Apex distance ∆  (a) High degree of accuracy is required.

E = R  sec − 1 (b) Curve is long.
 2  Angular method of setting out curve-
5. Mid ordinate  ∆ 1. Two theodolite method-
M = R 1 − cos  This is the most suitable method, based on the
 2
principle that the deflection angle between a tangent
∆ and a chord is equal to the angle which the chord
= 2R sin 2
4 subtends in the alternate segment.
Surveying 185 YCT
 One theodolite is kept at the point of curve and Methods of measuring distance b/w two
another is at the point of tangency (P.T.). points-
2. Tachometric method- DDM ODM EDM
In this method a point on the curve is fixed by the
It is done by By tacheometer, Geodimeter,
defection angle from the rear tangent and measuring Chaining or Horizontal substance tellurometer,
tacheometrically the distance of that point from taping method or telemetric distomat etc.
point of curve (P.C.). method
3. Rankine's method of tangential (or deflecting) - Up to 100 km
angle- Range- 100-150m
• Unsuitable Accuracy- 1 in 100 to 1 1 in 105
In this method, the curve is set out by the tangential in difficult In 10000
angles with a theodolite and a chain (or tape). terrain It is carried out by means
It is also called as chain and theodolite method. - of optical wedge
This method is accurate than tachometry method. attachment.
TOTAL STATION (T.S.)
ADVANCED SURVEYING
A total station also known as electronic tacheometer,
EQUIPMENT is an optical instrument that is designed as a
EDM combination of an electronic theodolite and an
EDM (Electromagnetic Distance Measurement) is electronic distance meter (EDM) and software that
the method of determining distance b/w two points, runs on a computer which is referred to as the data
using phase change that occurs due to collector.
electromagnetic energy waves traveling from one A microprocessor inbuilt in to the instrument takes
end of the line to another end. care of recording, reading and necessary
computations.
Principle-
Microprocessor transfer the data to the computer
Determination of time required for electromagnetic where it can be used to generate a map.
waves to travel between two stations. T.S. store the data in a electronic book (memory
Note- card) that can be unloaded to the computer.
There should be good intervisibility between the
stations.
This method is avoided in case of large amount of
inconsistency in the terrain or large obstruction.
Classification of EDM Instrument-
1. On the basis of carrier wave used-
Property Instrument
Microwave Visible Infrared
Range Long, Medium, Short
< 100 km < 25 km 2 - 5 km
Frequency 3 - 30 GHz 5 × 1014 Hz 3 × 1014
range Hz
Example Tellurometer Geodimeter Distomat
2. On the Basis of Reflector Type-
(i) Active reflector- Power is required for it
Ex.- Tellurometer
(ii) Passive reflector- Prism reflector
Ex.- Geodimeter, Distomate
(iii) No- reflector-

Note-
Distance is measured by the phase difference b/w
the transmitted and reflected signals.
Surveying 186 YCT
 Working principle-
These instruments measure the distances of prism
poles mounted with prism with the help of laser
beam or infrared rays.
A signal is emitted by the EDM and reflected back
to EDM by the prism mounted on the prism pole.
Then,
Total time taken b/w emission and reflected back to EDM
Distance = × Velocity
2

t
or, D = ×V
2

Use of T.S.- Note-

Size of theodolite is represented by the size of
(i) Civil engineering works
main scale plate.
(ii) Land surveying and alignment surveying
Greater the size of plate represents greater
(iii) Mining accuracy.
(iv) Coordinate determination
(v) To track ceiling balloons to determine the height of GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
cloud layers. (G.P.S.)
6. Angle, slope and distance measurement. GPS is a space based all weather radio navigation
Advantage- system that provides quickly, accurately and
Quick collection of information. inexpensively the time, position and velocity of the
Quick and efficient layout of construction site object anywhere on the globe at any time.
Setting up of T.S. is also easier due to use of laser Current GPS is based on accurate ephemeris data on
plummet. the real time location on each satellite and on a
It helps to contouring and map preparation. precisely kept time.
Greater accuracy in area computation. It uses the satellite signals, accurate time and
sophisticated algorithms to generate distances in
MICRO-OPTIC THEODOLITE order to triangulate positions anywhere on earth.
This is the most accurate instrument and it is used Total 24 satellites are used in GPS survey in 6
in geodetic survey and military survey. A orbits.
micrometer is used to measure the reading in this Min. 4 satellites are required for the GPS to
theodolite. determine precise position of object.

Surveying 187 YCT

 There is three segments comprised in GPS- Zenith point-
1. Satellite constellations or space segment- An imaginary point at which plumb lines appears to
It consists of the nominal 24- satellite constellation. intersect upward the observers in celestial sphere is
2. Ground control or monitoring network called zenith point.
(operational control segment)-
It is responsible for maintaining the satellite and
their proper functioning.
3. User receiving equipment or user segment-
It receives and process the L-band signals
transmitted from the satellite to determine users
position, velocity and time.
Types of GPS- REMOTE SENSING
1. Differential GPS- Introduction-
It is a system in which differences b/w observed and Remote sensing is the science and art of collecting
computed co-ordinates or ranges called differential information about object, area without physical
corrections, at a particular known point called the contact with them.
reference station are transmitted to users to improve
the accuracy of the user's receiver position.
2. Kinematic GPS or Real Time Kinematic (RTK)-
It is used to enhance the precision of position data
derived from satellite based positioning systems
being unable in conjunction with GPS, GLONASS
and Galileo.
Glonass-
Electromagnetic remote sensing process
It is the satellite navigation system, providing real Note-
time position and velocity determination for military Remote elevation measurement is the process of
and civilian users. finding the height of an object without going to the
Galileo- top.
It is used to provide a high precision positioning Aerial photography is the first remote sensing
system. technique.
Sources of errors in GPS- Types of remote sensing base on the source
(i) Ephemeris error of energy-
(ii) Multipath error 1.
Active Remote Sensing-
(iii) Clock drift error A system in which energy collected by sensors is
actively generated by a man made device for the
(iv) Atmospheric conditions error
collection of data is called active remote sensing.
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM In this system, waves are propagated near the sensor
(GIS) and are bounced on the earth's surface to be recorded
GIS is a computer aided system for storing on their return.
managing, manipulating geographical data to solve Ex.- Radar
special problems of real world. 2. Passive Remote Sensing–
It has five component- A system that uses an existing source of energy (like
(i) Hardware sun rays) is called passive remote sensing.
(ii) Software Advantage of R.S.-
(iii) Data Provide synoptic overview of the earth surface.
(iv) Procedure Data generated by this technique is multi spectral
(v) Users and have repetitive coverage.
Representation symbol in GIS- It collect the images and explain the intensity of the
Point It is used to denote survey control points. disaster and its Aerial expansion.
Ex.-Village, building, city is represented AERIAL SURVEY
by point based on scale of map. Photogrammetric survey is the science and art of
Line Ex.- Roadway, Railway, river, Canal, Pipe obtaining accurate measurements by use of
Line, boundary etc. photographs for various purpose such as the
Polygon It is used to depict an area i.e. construction of planimetric and topographic maps,
Forest, cultivated land, water body etc. soil classification, interpretation of geology and the
Nadir point- preparation of composite pictures of the ground etc.
It is an imaginary point just vertically below the Objects are measured without being touched, in this
observer's position in celestial sphere. method.
Surveying 188 YCT
1. Ground or Terrestrial Photogrammetry- Comparison between vertical and oblique
Photographs are taken from the fixed position on or photographs-
near the ground. Attributes Vertical Oblique
2. Aerial Photogrammetry- Low Oblique High Oblique
Photographs are taken by a camera mounted in an Optical Axis Tilt < 3° i.e. Deviation < Deviates by
exactly or 30° from the axis > 30°
aircraft flying over the area is called Aerial nearly vertical axis from vertical
photogrammetry. coincides axis
Mapping by this means is the best mapping with the
procedure for developed large project. vertical axis
This method is suitable for inaccessible area and Characteristics Horizon does Horizon does Horizon
not appear not appear appears
mountainous region. Coverage Small area Relatively Largest area
It is rapid, economical and best for large area larger area
mapping. Shape of the Square Trapezoidal Trapezoidal
Types of aerial photographs on the basis area
Photographed Uniform, if Decreases from Decreases
of orientation of camera axis- scale the terrain is far ground to from the fore
1. Vertical photograph- flat background ground to the
Optical axis of the camera is truly vertical at the background
moment of exposure to the surface of the earth. Difference in Least Relatively Greatest
comparison to greater
It closely resembles a map. the map
Advantages Useful in Reconnaissance Illustrative
topographical Survey
and thematic
mapping
Some important terminology-

2. Tilted photograph-
Camera axis is unintentionally inclined to the
vertical by < 3°
3. Oblique photograph-
Optical axis is intentionally inclined to the vertical
Where, f = Focal length of camera
axis at a large angle. It is used to get a more familiar N = Ground Nadir point
view of the terrain. (H – g) = Altitude
It is further two types- h = Height of G.L. from datum
(a) Low oblique photograph- H = Flying height
Intentional deviation is 15° - 30° Camera Body-
Photographs do not shows horizon. Camera body is the part of camera provided at the
It is often used in reconnaissance survey. top of the cone of camera.
(b) High oblique photograph- Camera Axis-
It is obtained when camera axis is intentionally It is passing through the centre of camera lens
perpendicular to camera plate (–ve) and picture
inclined about 60° from the vertical axis. plane (photograph).
It shows the horizon. Exposure station (O)-
It is also used in reconnaissance surveys. The point from where pictures are taken is known as
exposure station.

Surveying 189 YCT

 Principal point (p)- If Vertical Photograph Taken Over Variable
The point where the perpendicular projected through Terrain-
the centre of the lens intersect the photo image.
Ground Nadir point (N)-
Ground point vertically beneath the exposure station
is called ground nadir point.
Nadir point or photo Nadir point (n)-
It is the point where plumb line intersects the
photograph.
Isocenter (i)-
The point on photo that falls on a line half-way b/w
the principal point and the Nadir point is known as
Isocenter.
Tilt (t)-
Vertical angle defined by the intersection at the
exposure station.
A tilt in an Aerial photograph is radial from the f
isocentric point. Then, SA =
H − hA
Terrestrial Photogrammetry-
(Horizontal photograph) f
SB =
H − hb

x f
Then, Average scale, Savg = =
X H − h avg

 h + hB 
h avg =  A 
 2 
Ground Coordinates and Their Distance-

Object distance on photo x

Scale, S = =
Object distance on ground X
From similarity of triangle-
f x
= =S
D X
Scale of Aerial/Vertical Photograph-

If coordinates of a photo point (x, y) and ground

coordinates are (X, Y)
Scale of vertical photograph-
then from scale of photograph,
x f
S= = Flat terrain x f H−h x
X H−h = or X = .x =
If object is directly over the ground level then- X H−h f S
x f If there is two points A and B on the ground with
SD = = Datum scale
X H elevation hA and hB then their ground coordinates.

Surveying 190 YCT

 H − hA x Flight planning for aerial survey-
XA = .x A = A
f SA 1. Longitudinal overlap-
The overlap by two successive photo taken by
H − hA y camera in the longitudinal direction of flight is
YA = × yA = A
f SA called longitudinal or end overlap.
It is carried out to prevent gaps due to tilt, crib,
H − hB x terrain and flying height variation etc.
XB = .x B = B
f SB 2. Lateral overlap-
It is the area overlapped by two camera in the lateral
H − hB y or side direction of flight.
YB = × yB = B
f SB
So, distance between two point by coordinate
geometry

( X A − X B ) + ( YA − YB )
2 2
D=

Relief Displacement-

Note-
Optimum flight planning for a photogrammetric
survey is done by taking side lap and end lap both.
Longitudinal/end overlap-
G−w
le % = ×100
G
Distance on a photograph, from the image of any Where,
ground point to its fictitious image projected to a G = Ground covered by single photograph.
datum plane is the image displacement caused by w = Distance b/w two successive exposure.
topographic relief is known as relief displacement. Transverse/lateral or side lap-
Relief displacement is always radial from the G−b
ls % = ×100
principal point in case of vertical photograph. G
Relief displacement, Note-
d = (r – r0) le = 55-65% ≃ 60%
f.R.h ls = 25-35% ≃ 30%
= by similar triangle law-
H(H − h)
Let-
r.h  f .R   f.R  L = Ground length to be Surveyed
d= ro =  , r = 
H  H  H−h B = Ground width
And if datum height (h') is given, then l = Length of photograph
w = Width of photograph
r.h
d= S = Scale of photograph
H − h' le = Longitudinal/End overlap
Surveying 191 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years 5. The sum of interior angles of a closed traverse
is _____, where n is the number of sides of
1. Which of the following quadrant is correct for traverse.
the value of WCB (whole circle bearing) (a) (2n–4)×90º (b) (n–4)×90º
between 90° to 180°? (c) (n+4)×90º (d) (2n+4)×90º
(a) NW (b) SW JKSSB JE 29/10/2021 Shift-II
(c) NE (d) SE Ans. (a) :Sum of interior angle of closed traverse.
DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023 θ= (2N – 4) × 90°
Ans. (d) : Conversion of WCB into RB • Sum of exterior angles of closed traverse.
Rule for θ = (2N + 4) × 90°
Case WCB Quadrantal
RB 6. The meridians that are parallel to the
0 0
I 0 and 90 Same as NE directions taken by freely moving magnetized
WCB needles, as in a compass are called as :
II 900 and 1800– SE (a) geographic meridians
0
180 WCB (b) dynamic meridians
III 1800 and WCB– SW (c) magnetic meridians
2700 1800 (d) grid meridians
IV 2700 and 3600– NW Panvel Municipal Corp. Surveyor (Civil) 10/12/2023
0
360 WCB Ans. (c) : Magnetic meridian– Magnetic meridian
•In surveyor's compass, the graduations are in Q.B. through a point is the direction shown by a freely
system, having 00at N and S and 900at E and W floating and balanced magnetic needle free from all
2. If whole circle bearing of a line lies between the other attractive forces.
180° and 270°, what will be the quadrant of • The direction of magnetic meridian can be established
line? with the help of a magnetic compass.
(a) NE (b) SE True meridian– True meridian through a point is the
(c) SW (d) NW line in which a plane, passing that point and the north
and south poles, intersects with surface of the earth. It
MH PWD CEA 16/12/2023 Shift-III
thus, passes through the true north and south the
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation. direction of true meridian through a point can be
3. If reduced bearing of a line AB is NE, then established by astronomical observations.
whole circle bearing of a line AB lies 7. Azimuth is the angle between :
between___. (a) Magnetic meridian and a line
(a) 180° and 270° (b) 0° and 90° (b) grid meridian and a line
(c) 270° and 360° (d) 90° and 180° (c) true meridian and a line
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I (d) arbitrary meridian and a line
Ans. (b) :See the above explanation. JKSPDCL JE (Civil) 20/06/2022
4. If the whole circle bearing (WCB) is between Ans. (c) : Azimuth– The smaller horizontal angle
1800 and 2700, then the Reduced bearing (RB) between the true meridian and the survey line is called
is : azimuth.
(a) RB = 1800 – WCB (b) RB = WCB The principal methods of determining the azimuth
(c) RB = WCB - 180 (d) RB = 3600 - WCB or direction of the true meridian-
MPPGCL JE 29/04/2023 Shift I • By observation on star at equal altitudes.
Ans. (c) : In (WCB) are measured clockwise from • By observation on a circular star at elongation.
north of reference meridian. • By hour angle of star or the sum.
• In (RB) are measured either clockwise or • By observation of polaris
anticlockwise from north/south whichever is close to • By ex-meridian observation on sum or star.
the line. 8. The smaller horizontal angle between a line
If WCB is between 180° and 270° then RB is:– and the true meridian is called:
(a) Arbitrary bearing (b) Azimuth
R.B = WCB − 180
(c) reduced bearing (d) magnetic bearing
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
Ans. (b) :See the above explanation
9. The zero or 360 degree graduation in the
graduated ring of a prismatic compass is
marked in the :
(a) South end of the circle
(b) North end of the circle
(c) West end of the circle
(d) East end of the circle
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Surveying 192 YCT
Ans. (a) : Prismatic compass– The graduations on the 12. The difference between magnetic north and
aluminium ring increase clockwise from 00 to 3600, geographic north is
with the zero of the graduation coinciding with the (a) Dip (b) Strike
south end of the needle, 900 graduation is at the west, (c) Declination (d) Bearing
1800 graduation at the north and 2700 graduation at the MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
east. Ans. (c) : Magnetic declination-At any place
horizontal angle between true median and magnetic
meridian is called Magnetic declination.
• The difference between magnetic north and
geographic north is Declination.
TB = MB ± declination
• For eastern declination is positive
• For western declination is negative
Bearing Angle-Direction of a line w.r.t. fixed meridian
is called bearing
• The prismatic compass is used for the determination Magnetic bearing- Line joining magnetic north pole,
of the whole circle bearings (WCB) of the lines. magnetic south pole and point of reference is called
10. _________line passes through true north and magnetic Meridian. Bearing taken w.r.t. magnetic
true south meridian is called Magnetic bearing.
(a) Arbitrary Meridian 13. _____ of a line is the horizontal angle which it
(b) True Meridian makes with any arbitrary meridian passing
(c) Magnetic Meridian through one of the extremities.
(d) None of the given option (a) True bearing (b) Magnetic bearing
APWD Draughtsman (Civil) 19/02/2023 Shift-II (c) Whole circle bearing (d) Arbitrary bearing
Ans. (b) : Bearing– Bearing of a line is its direction MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-II
relative to a given meridian.
Ans. (d) : Arbitrary meridian– Arbitrary meridian is
A meridian is any direction· such as– any, convenient direction towards a permanent and
(1) True Meridian–The direction of true meridian prominent mark or signal, such as a church spire or top
through a point can be established by astronomical of a chimney. Such meridian are use to determine the
observations. The line passing through geographical
north, south and the point on earth is called True relative positions of lines in a small area.
Meridian. Arbitrary bearing– Arbitrary bearing of a line is the
True bearing of a line– It is the horizontal angle which horizontal angle which it makes with any arbitrary
it makes with the true meridian through one of the meridian. Passing through one of the extremities. A
extremities of the line. Since the direction of true theodolite or sextant is used to measure it.
meridian through a point remains fixed, the true bearing 14. The graduated ring being attached to the
of a line is a constant quantity. magnetic needle remains stationary in
(2) Magnetic Meridian– Magnetic meridian through a (a) Surveyor's compass (b) Prismatic compass
point is the direction shown by a freely floating and (c) Trough compass (d) None of these
balanced magnetic needle free from all other attractive Kerala PSC Surveyor GR-II 24/05/2023
forces. The direction of magnetic meridian can be Ans. (b) :Differences between prismatic compass
established with the help of a magnetic compass. and surveyor's compass–
Magnetic Bearing– It is the horizontal angle which it Prismatic compass Surveying compass
makes with the magnetic meridian passing through one
Graduation circle is fixed Graduation circle is
of the extremities of the line. A magnetic compass is
used to measure it. to broad needle type fixed to the box. Hence,
needle. Hence, it will not it rotates with the line of
(3) Arbitrary Meridian– Arbitrary meridian is any
convenient direction towards a permanent and rotate with the line of sight.
prominent mark or signal, such as a church spire or top sight.
of a chimney. Such meridians are used to determine the There is a prism at At viewing end there is
relative positions of lines in a small area. viewing end. no prism. There is only
Arbitrary Bearing– It is the horizontal angle which it a silt.
makes with any arbitrary meridian passing through one Sighting and reading can Sighting and reading
of the extremities. A theodolite or sextant is used to be done simultaneously. cannot be done
measure it. simultaneously
11. A line which makes a horizontal angle with the The magnetic needle do Magnetic needle acts as
true meridian is called__________ not act as an index index while reading.
(a) Arbitrary bearing The graduations are in The graduations are in
(b) Magnetic bearing whole circle bearing quadrantal system.
(c) None of the given options Graduations are marked Graduations are marked
(d) True bearing inverted since its directly. They are not
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II reflection is read through inverted
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation prism.
Surveying 193 YCT
 The reading is taken The reading is taken by 19. The following are different factors that affect
through a prism. directly viewing from the diurnal variation in magnetic declination.
top glass. The condition which may result in the
Tripod may or may not Tripod is essential for a maximum variation is _______________.
be used. It can be held on using it. (a) at the Equator during summer
a stretched hand also. (b) at the Equator during winter
(c) at the Magnetic Poles during winter
(d) at the Magnetic Poles during summer
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
Ans. (d) : • Diurnal variation due to rotation of earth
about its own axis.
• Diurnal variation more at pole and less at equator
considerably more in summer than in winter.
• It is more in day and less in night.
• The rate of variation during 24 hours is variable.
20. Which type of compass is the most convenient
portable magnetic compass?
15. What is measure by prismatic compass?
(a) Surveyor's compass (b) Trough compass
(a) bearing of lines will be less
(c) Prismatic compass (d) Compass and level
(b) whole circle bearing of lines
(c) Quardental bearing of lines HSSC JE 18.02.2024
(d) included angle of lines Ans. (c) :Prismatic Compass:- Prismatic compass is
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022 the most convenient and portable form of magnetic
compass which can either be used as a hand instrument
Ans. (b) :See the above explanation.
or can be fitted on a tripod.
16. Which of the following statements regarding
• The magnetic needle is attached to the circular
the surveyor's compass, when compared to the
prismatic compass, is incorrect? ring or compass card made up of aluminium, a non-
(a) The magnetic needle is of edge bar type. magnetic. substance.
(b) The object vane consists of a metal vane with • When the needle is on the pivot, it will orient itself in
a vertical hair the magnetic meridian and, therefore, the N and S ends
(c) The graduations engraved are inverted of the ring will be in this direction.
(d) The magnetic needle acts as an index • The line of sight is defined by the object vane and the
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-II eye slit, both attached to the compass box.
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation. • The object vane consists of a vertical hair
17. Least count of prismatic compass and attached to a suitable frame while the eye slit consists of
surveyor’s compass is a vertical slit cut into the upper assembly of the prism
(a) 15 minutes & 30 minutes unit, both being hinged to the box.
(b) 30 minutes & 30 minutes 21. Which of the following is not a natural error in
(c) 15 minutes & 15 minutes compass surveying?
(d) 30 minutes & 15 minutes (a) Due to proximity of local attraction forces
UKPSC JE Civil 24.12.2023 Paper-I (b) Pivot being bent
Ans. (d) : Important Points: (c) Variation in declination
Instrument Least Count (d) None of the above
Prismatic Compass 30 Minute ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024
Surveyor Compass 15 Minute Ans. (b) : Error's in compass survey– Errors can arise
Vernier Theodolite 20 Second due to various reasons during survey, they are classified
Optical Theodolite 1 Second as :
18. The Prismatic Compass is used for measuring Instrument errors–
which of the following? • The needle not being perfectly straight
(a) Magnetic bearings (b) Distance • Pivot being bent
(c) Horizontal angles (d) Altitude • Sluggish needle
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 10/10/2023 • Blunt pivot point
Ans. (a) :The prismatic compass is used by surveyors • Improper balancing weight
for the following purpose:- • Plane of sight not being vertical
• To read magnetic bearings Personal errors–
• To find the direction of the base line with reference • Inaccurate levelling
to north and south, so that the plan may be oriented. • Inaccurate reading
• To find the direction of any other survey line with • Inaccurate centering
reference to north and south. • Carelessness in reading and recording

Surveying 194 YCT

Natural errors– Ans. (d) : Differential levelling–It is the method of
• Variation in declination. levelling to determine the elevation of points located at
• Local attraction due to proximity of local attraction some distance part or to determine the elevation
forces. difference between two points or to establish
• Magnetic changes in the atmosphere due to clouds and benchmarks. The method is used in order to find the
storms. difference in elevation between two points:
• Irregular variations due to magnetic storms etc. 1. If they are far apart
22. When the whole circle bearing of a traverse 2. The difference in elevation between two points is too
line is between 0º to 90 º, then: great and
(a) the latitude and departure both are negative 3. If there are obstacles interviewing.
(b) the latitude and departure both are positive
(c) the latitude is positive and departure is 25. In surveying, profile levelling uses the principle
negative of _________.
(d) the latitude is negative and departure is (a) reciprocal levelling
positive (b) block levelling
UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I (c) differential levelling
Ans. (b) : The latitude of a survey line may be defined (d) tachometric levelling
as its co-ordinate length measured parallel to an DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
assumed meridian direction (i.e. true north or magnetic Ans. (c) : Profile leveling:– Profile leveling is a type of
north or any other reference direction). The departure of differential leveling this profile shows the changes in
survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length
elevation along the line can be used to design the
measured at right angles to the meridian direction. The
latitude (L) of the line is positive when measured construction of roads, railways, pipe lines and other
northward (or upward) and is termed as northing ; the linear infrastructure.
latitude is negative when measured southward (or 26. When the staff reading increases between two
downward) and is termed as southing. Similarly, the consecutive points, the difference between the
departure (D) of the line is positive when measured readings shall be recorded in ____column in
eastward and is termed as easting ; the departure is case of levelling by rise and fall method.
negative when measured westward and is termed as (a) Rise (b) H.I.
westing.
(c) Fall (d) R.L.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (c) When the staff reading increases between two
consecutive points, the difference between the readings
shall be recorded in fall column in case of levelling by
rise and fall method.
27. The method to calculate fall is :
(a) fall (F) = foresight (F.S.) + backsight (B.S.)
(b) fall (F) = foresight (F.S.)/backsight (B.S.)
(c) fall (F) = foresight (F.S.) × backsight (B.S.)
(d) fall (F) = foresight (F.S) – backsight (B.S.)
23. The whole circle bearing of a traverse line is PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
between 180 degree to 270 degree, then ______. Ans (d) :Fall calculation formula–
(a) Both latitude and departure are negative Fall (F) = Foresight (FS) – Backsight (BS)
(b) The latitude as positive and departure is The difference between their staff readings indicates a
negative rise or fall according as the staff reading of the point is
(c) The latitude is negative and departure is
smaller or greater than that at preceding point.
positive
(d) Both latitude and departure are positive 28. Sensitivity of a level tube is expressed by
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift I (a) length of bubble tube
Ans. (a) :See the above explanation. (b) length of level tube
24. Which type of levelling is best suitable when we (c) radius of level tube
have to determine the difference in elevation (d) height of level tube
between two points that are far apart and no AMC Asst. Surveyor 26/02/2023
obstacles for chaining between them? Ans. (c) : Sensitivity of bubble tube :-
(a) Profile levelling Sensitivity of the bubble tube is defined as Angular
(b) Reciprocal levelling rotation of bubble tube to move bubble by one division.
(c) Check levelling A tube is said to be more sensitive if the bubble moves
(d) Differential levelling
by more divisions for a given change in angle.
DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III
Surveying 195 YCT
• Sensitivity of bubble tube is designated by Radius of 32. What is the advantage of dumpy level over the
level tube. wye level?
S (a) Vertical angles are easily quantifiable
• Sensitivity of bubble tube α = 206265 second (b) Simple construction with fewer movable parts
n.D
n = Number of division on bubble (c) They are convenient to use in dust places
S = Staff intercept (d) They can also be used in bad lighting
D = Distance b/w level and staff conditions
The sensitivity of the bubble tube can be increased by– JSSC (Civil Engg.) 28/09/2023
• Increasing the length of level tube. Ans. (b) :See the above explanation.
• Increasing the diameter of the level tube. 33. Which of the following is NOT an advantages
• Increasing the internal radius of the tube. of Dumpy Level Survey?
• Decreasing the viscosity of the liquid used in tube (a) Price of dumpy level is cheap when compared
• Decreasing the roughness of the walls of the level tube. to other instruments
(b) Optical power is low for dumpy level
29. What is the primary purpose of a dumpy level
in civil engineering? (c) Adjustments can be made as per the
(a) Estimating material costs requirement on any type of ground
(b) Measuring soil composition (d) Dumpy level easy to use
(c) Establishing horizontal sightlines UPRVNL JE (Civil) 23/12/2022
(d) Calculating wind speed Ans. (b) : Advantage of dumping level–
DDA JE 18/10/2023 (Shift-III) • The dumpy level is very simple to use.
Ans. (c) : Level– • In comparison to theodolite and total stations, the cost
• The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of the dumpy level is very low.
of sight, essentially, a level consist of the following • The dumpy level has high optical power.
four parts. • It provides on extremely accurate level of reading.
• A telescope to provide line of sight 34. In a dumpy level, the levelling head consists of
• A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal two parallel plates the upper plate is known
• A levelling head to bring the bubble in its centre of as____and the lower______.
run. (a) tribrach, trivet (b) Outer cone, trivet
• A tripod to support the instrument. (c) inner cone, tribrach (d) trivet, tribrach
There are the following chief types of levels– MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-III
(i) Dumpy level Ans. (a) : The levelling head consists of two parallel
(ii) Wye (or y) level plates held apart by three or four levelling screws. The
(iii) Reversible level upper parallel plate is called tribach and lower plate is
(iv) Tilting level known as trivet stage.
30. What is the advantage of dumpy level over the 35. In the case of levelling across a river or lake.
wye level? The levelling is used
(a) Longer life of the adjustments. (a) Reciprocal levelling (b) Check levelling
(b) Vertical angles are easily quantifiable. (c) Cross sectioning (d) Simple levelling
(c) They are convenient to use in dust places. (d) Answer not known
(d) They can also be used in bad lighting
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
conditions.
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 03/10/2023 Ans. (a) :Reciprocal levelling : Levelling between two
widely separated point (Ex, river, valleys) in which
Ans. (a) :The advantage of the dumpy level over the
observation are made in both direction to eliminate the
wye level are–
effect of atmospheric refraction and the curvature of the
• Simpler construction with fewer movable parts. earth called reciprocal levelling.
• Fewer adjustments to be made.
• Longer life of the adjustment.
• The dumpy level a has high optical power.
• It provides an extremely accurate level of reading.
• Simplicity and robustness.
31. One of the primary advantages of a dumpy
level is its:
(a) Digital data storage
(b) Use for long-range vertical angles
(c) Simplicity and robustness
(d) Electronic automation
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 30/09/2023 Where, x = error due to inclined line of sight, and
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. e = error due to curvature and refraction
Surveying 196 YCT
 (b) Are quite close and where it is not possible to
set up the instrument midway between the
points.
(c) Have a very large difference in level and two
instrument settings are required to determine
the difference in level
(d) Are at the almost same elevation
DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-II
Ans. (a) :Reciprocal leveling–
h A − h B = h 'A − h 'B If instrument is correct. • Reciprocal leveling is employed to determine the
accurate difference in the level of two points which
( h B − h A ) + ( h 'B − h 'A ) are quite apart and where it is not possible to set up
H= the instrument midway between the points.
2
• In this surveying to eliminate the effects of
Where 'H' is the true difference of R.L. between A.B.
atmospheric refraction and the curvature of the
36. Which of the following expression is correct to earth.
calculate the correction for curvature (cc) in
leveling? Where d is the distance sighted 40. What benchmark is established for short
measured in km. duration such as at the end of a day's work?
(a) Cc= 0.05658d2m (b) Cc= 0.01121d2m (a) Arbitrary benchmark
2 (b) Temporary benchmark
(c) Cc= 0.07849d m (d) Cc= 0.06728d2m
(c) Permanent benchmark
DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-I
(d) G.T.S. benchmark
Ans. (c) :
Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023
 −d 2  Ans. (b) : Temporary benchmark– This type of
Curvature correction (CC) = 
 2R  benchmark is established at the end of the day work, so
 
that the next day work may be continued from that
Where R = 6370 km point. Such point should be on a permanent object so
Cc = −0.07849d 2 m (subtractive) that next day it is easily identified.
Refraction correction (CR) - Permanent benchmark- These are the benchmarks
1 d2 established by state government agencies like PWD.
(CR) = × They are established with reference to GTS
7 2R benchmarks.
CR = 0.01121 d2 m (Additive)
41. The method of carrying levels and establishing
Combined correction due to curvature and the RL of a new point from a known BM is
refraction- (a) Establishment of benchmark
6 d2 (b) Fly levelling
C= − ×
7 2R (c) Level setting
C = −0.06728d 2 m (subtractive) (d) None of the above
ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024
37. If R is horizontal distance and d is the diameter
Ans. (b) : Fly levelling– It is a type of differential
of the earth, then usually the correction due to
levelling done for the purpose of determination of
curvature in levelling is given by appropriate elevations of the different points.
(a) d2/2R (b) d3/2R
4 • Fly levelling is generally used for the reconnaissance
(c) d /R (d) d2/4R
of the area or for approximate checking of the levels.
SSC JE Civil 15/11/2022 Shift-I
• The fly levelling is done where rapidly, but low
Ans. (a) :See the above explanation. precision is required.
38. The combined correction due to refraction and • Fly levellingis carrying levels and establishing the
earth's curvature is RL of a new point from a BM.
(a) zero (b) additive (+ve) 42. ........... is the method of direct leveling the
(c) subtractive (-ve) (d) progressive object of which is to determine the elevations of
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift 2 point at measured intervals along a given line
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation in order to obtain a profile of the surface along
39. Reciprocal levelling is employed to determine that line.
the accurate difference in the level of two (a) Different tile leveling
points which (b) Cross leveling
(a) Are quite apart and where it is not possible to (c) Profile leveling
set up the instrument midway between the (d) Precise leveling
points MHADA JE 01/02/2022, Shift-II
Surveying 197 YCT
Ans. (c) :Profile levelling– It is the method of direct (a)Neither Method 1 nor Method 2
levelling the object of which is to determine the (b)Method 2 only
elevation of points at measured intervals along a given (c)Both Method 1 and Method 2
line in order to obtain a profile of the surface along that (d)Method 1 only
line. SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning)
Reciprocal levelling– It is the method of levelling in Ans. (b) :While surveying to establish any point or line.
which the difference in elevation between two points is We need at least two other reference points. To plot
accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal point O.
observations when it is not possible to set up the level (i) Measured MO and NO reference lines can be used.
between the two points. Note- This principle is similar to chain surveying not
43. In levelling station may be a trigonometrical levelling as asked in the question.
(a) point where staff is held
(b) point where level instrument is set up
(c) benchmark
(d) Both (a) and (c)
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023 (ii) By using the angle OMN and ONM.
Ans. (a) : Station–A station is that point where the
leveling staff is held and not where the level is set up. It
is the point where the elevation is to be ascertained
44. During the alignment of a road by using direct
ranging, the surveyor raises both the hands
above his head and then, brings them down as (iii) By using angle OMN and line MO.
a signal for his assistant. The correct action
taken by his assistant would be __________.
(a) considering that the ranging rod is at correct
position
(b) moving the ranging rod forward along the
same line So, the plotting of O can be done by method 2 only with
(c) moving the ranging rod backward along the the principle of trigonometric levelling
same line
46. The height of instrument (HI) in levelling is
(d) Lift the ranging rod above the knee level computed using the equation:
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I (a) HI = Fore sight + Elevation of Bench mark
Ans. (a) : Code of signals of ranging:– (b) HI = Back sight + elevation of Bench mark
Signal given by the Action by the assistant (c) HI = Fore sight + Back sight
surveyor (d) HI = Elevation of Bench Mark + (back sight –
Rapid sweep with right Move considerably in that Fore sight)
hand direction (to your left) TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
Slow sweep with right Move slowly to your left Ans. (b) : Height of instrument method– In this
Right arm extended Continue to move to method, the height of the instrument (H.I.) is calculated
your left for each setting of the instrument by adding back sight
Both hands above head Ranging is correct (plus sight) to the elevation of the BM (first point). The
and then brought down elevation of reduced level of the turning point is then
calculated by subtracting from H.I. the fore sight (minus
Both arm extended Fix the ranging rod sight).
forward horizontally Arithmetic check– The difference between the sum of
and the hands brought back sights and the sum of fore sights should be equal
down quickly to the difference between the R.L. of last and first point.
45. Consider following methods used to establish a ∑ BS − ∑ FS = Last RL − First RL
point in the field. (Refer to the figure below.)
47. In levelling, line of collimation is known as
___________.
(a) tangential line of sight
(b) line perpendicular to the longitudinal curve of
the bubble tube at its midpoint
Method 1: Point O is plotted by measuring only (c) line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs
the distance MO and NO. to the optical centre of the objective and its
Method 2: Point O is plotted by measuring only continuation
the angle NMO and MNO. (d) line joining the optical centre of objective and
Which of these method also represents the plumb line
principle of trigonometrical leveling? DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
Surveying 198 YCT
Ans. (c) : Line of collimation:– The imaginary straight Non-transit theodolite– A theodolite is said to be a
line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs at non-transit one when its telescope cannot be rotated
diaphragm to the optical centre of the object glass and through 1800 in a vertical plane above its horizontal
its continuation is called of collimation. axis.
• Axis of a telescope– It is an imaginary line joining the 52. A theodolite is called a transit theodolite, when
centre of the eye-piece and optical centre of the object its telescope can be revolved through a
glass. complete revolution about its
48. On account of the action of gravity on the (a) Vertical axis in an inclined plane
liquid, the axis of the bubble tube _______ (b) Horizontal axis in an inclined plane
when the bubble is central in a theodolite. (c) Vertical axis in a horizontal plane
(a) may be horizontal or tangential (d) Horizontal axis in a vertical plane
(b) is horizontal (e) Answer not known
(c) is vertical TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
(d) is inclined
Ans. (d) :See the above explanation.
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : For centering an instrument underneath a 53. The theodolite in which the telescope can be
mark of altitude bubble is attached to index arm. Hence revolved through a complete revolution in a
to make the index arm truly horizontal during temporary vertical plane is called _____.
adjustment. Altitude bubble is used (a) transit theodolite
Note:– In some theodolites, the altitude bubble tube is (b) non-transit theodolite
attached to the telescope. (c) dumpy level
49. Face right and face left observations are taken (d) titling theodolite
using a theodolite, in order to control Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
(a) Gross errors (b) Accidental errors Ans. (a) :See the above explanation
(c) Natural errors (d) Systematic errors 54. In transit theodolite, the line of sight can be
(e) Answer not known reversed by revolving the telescope through
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 1800 in the:
Ans. (e) : Face right and face left observations are taken (a) Neutral plane
using a theodolite, in order to control instrumental error. (b) Horizontal plane
• Error due to line of collimation not being (c) Vertical plane
perpendicular to the horizontal axis that by taking both
face observations the error can be eliminated. (d) Both horizontal and vertical plane
NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-I
50. Altitude bubble adjustment in a theodolite
survey is one of the ............. adjustments. Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
(a) Permanent (b) Temporary 55. In the context of theodolite, which of the
(c) Line of collimation (d) None following is process of turning the telescope in
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 vertical plane through 180º about the trunnion
Ans. (a) :Permanent adjustment in theodolite– axis?
• Adjustment of the horizontal plate level. (a) Changing face (b) Transiting
• Cross hair ring test. (c) Swinging (d) Centering
• Collimation adjustment. Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023
• Horizontal Axis adjustment (spire test) Ans. (b) : Transiting – It is the process of turning the
• Adjustment of the Telescope level or the bubble telescope in vertical plane theory 1800 about the
tube level or altitude bubble. trunnion axis. Since the line of sight is reversed in this
• Vertical circle Index adjustment (Vertical arc test) operation it is also known as plunging or reversing.
51. Which of the following options best describes a Swinging the telescope– It is the process of turning the
transit theodolite? telescope in horizontal plane about to vertical axis.
(a) The telescope can be rotated through a 56. The process of turning the telescope about the
horizontal plane. vertical axis in horizontal plane is known as
(b) The telescope can be revolved through 180° (a) transiting (b) reversing
in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis. (c) plunging (d) swinging
(c) The telescope can be revolved through 90° in Gujarat AMC Asst. Surveyor 26/02/2023
a vertical plane about its horizontal axis. Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
(d) The telescope can be revolved through 180° 57. In surveying, theodolite is used for which of the
in a horizontal plane about its vertical axis. following recording purposes
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-III (a) Linear measurement
Ans. (b) : Transit theodolite– A theodolite is said to (b) Angular measurement
be a transit one when its telescope can be rotated (c) Magnetic meridian
through 1800 in a vertical plane about its horizontal (d) Magnetic dip
axis. CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023
Surveying 199 YCT
Ans. (b) : Theodolite–The theodolite is the most 61. In a fixed hair method of Techeometry the
precise instrument designed for the measurement of distance D is calculated as
horizontal and vertical angle and has wide applicability f  f 
in surveying such as laying of horizontal angles, (a)   + (f + d) (b)   + s + (f + d)
i i
locating points on the line, prolonging survey lines,
f  f 
establishing grades, determining difference in elevation, (c)   s + (f + d) (d)   + (f + d)s
setting out curves etc. i i
58. Identify the major function of theodolite from (e) Answer not known
the options given below ? TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
(a) It is used to measure both horizontal & Ans. (c) :See the above explanation.
vertical angles 62. In the fixed hair method of the tacheometer
(b) It is used to measure the expansion due to survey, what is the value of multiplying
temperature change constant and additive constant when the line of
(c) It is used to measure the vertical depth from sight is horizontal and staff is held vertical?
the earth's topmost point (a) 0 and 100 (b) 0 and 1
(d) It is used to measure the changes caused due (c) 100 and 0 (d) 1 and 0
to the change in wind speed CSEB JE 03.03.2024
UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022 Ans. (c) :See the above explanation. .
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. 63. What is the exact value of additive constant (f +
59. What is the most accurate tool made for d) ?
calculating horizontal and vertical angles? (a) 100 (b) 180
(a) Survey chain (b) Telescope (c) 0 (d) 270
(c) Dumpy level (d) Theodolite TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
RITES AM 05/05/2024
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation.
Ans. (d) :See the above explanation.
64. The multiplying constant (f/i) should have a
60. Which of the following is the stadia interval
normal value of ..............
factor?
(a) i/f (b) f + d (a) 1000 (b) 10
(c) f - d (d) f /i (c) 100 (d) 10000
Kerala PSC Surveyor GR-II 24/05/2023 PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Ans. (d) :In fixed hair method observation is made with Ans (c) :See the above explanation.
the help of a stadia diaphragm having stadia wires at 65. The multiplying and additive constants
fixed or constant distance apart. The readings on the respectively for a tachometer is given by :
staff corresponding to all the three wires are taken. (Where symbols have their usual meaning)
The horizontal distance between the axis and the staff. i f
f  (a) ,f + d (b) ,f + d
D =   .S + ( f + d ) f i
i f d
D = KS+C (c) , f − d (d) ,f − d
d i
f 
• The constant K =   is known as the multiplying TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
i Ans. (b) :See the above explanation.
constant or stadia interval factor.
66. The distance formula for finding distances
• The constant C = f + d is known as the additive using a theodolite, for a horizontal line of sight
constant of the instrument.
is (K is multiplying constant, s is the intercept
Where,
and C is additive constant)
f = Focal length of object
(a) Ks + C (b) K + Cs
i = Stadia interval
(c) K/s + C (d) K + C/s
d = distance between objective and the vertical axis of
the tacheometer TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
• In techeomtery the value of multiplying constant Ans. (a) :D = Ks + C
Where,
 f
 K =  is 100 and the value of additive constant {C K = Multiplying constant
 i s = Stadia intercept
= (f+d)}is 0 taken. C = Additive constant
• Additive and multiplying constants are functions of 67. What is the typical least count unit of a modern
the focal length of the object lens. theodolite?
• The stadia constant (s), used in tacheometric (a) Hour (b) Seconds
surveying, is responsible forTranslating the stadia rod (c) Minutes (d) Degree
reading to a slope distance. JSSC JE (General Engg.) 03/10/2023
Surveying 200 YCT
Ans. (b) : Least count of an instrument is minimum Ans. (d) : Theodolites may be classified as –
reading that can be measured by instrument. (i) Transit theodolite (or simply 'transit')– It is one in
Accuracy is more for instruments having less value which the line of sight can be reversed by revolving the
of least count. telescope through 180" in the vertical plane.
Instrument Least count (ii) Non-transit theodolite– The non-transit theodolites
Theodolite 20 seconds are either plain theodolites or Y-theodolites in which the
Total station 1 seconds telescope cannot be transited.
Surveyors compass 15 minute 73. A substense bar in a tachometric survey is used
Prismatic compass 30 minute to measure the ––––
68. What is the least count of theodolite? (a) elevation of a point with respect to mean sea
(a) 1 second (b) 20 seconds level
(c) 30 minutes (d) 15 minutes (b) slope of terrain
SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning) (c) bearing of a point with respect to North
Ans. (b) :See the above explanation; (d) horizontal distance between two points
69. What is expressed as the axis about which the TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
telescope rotates in vertical plane? Ans. (d) : Substense bar–The bar is centrally
(a) The vertical axis (b) The transiting supported on a levelling head for accurate centering and
(c) The horizontal axis (d) The centring levelling. A clamp and slow motion screw is also
DDA JE 19/10/2023 (Shift-III) provided to rotate the bar about its vertical axis.
Ans. (c) : The horizontal axis– The horizontal or • Asubstense bar in a tachometric survey is used to
trunnion axis is the axis about which the telescope and measure the horizontal distance between two points.
the vertical circle rotate in vertical plane. • Substense bar can measure horizontal and vertical
The vertical axis– The vertical axis is the axis about distance in places where chaining is impossible
which the instrument can be rotated in a horizontal because of undulations and rough topography.
plane.
• The measurement of distance by measuring the
• This is the axis about which the lower and upper
plates rotate. horizontal angle subtended by the substense bar
targets is calledsubstense tacheometry survey.
70. .............. is the process of setting the theodolite
exactly over the station mark. 74. Which of the following instruments is used for
(a) Swinging (b) Changing measuring both horizontal and vertical
(c) Transiting (d) Centering distances in a highly undulating ground where
JSSC JE (Civil) 04/11/2022 chaining is impossible?
Ans. (d) : Centering– The process of setting the (a) Tape (b) Line ranger
theodolite exactly over the station mark is known as (c) Substense bar (d) Clinometer
centering. DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I
71. Horizontal axis is also known as ______ Ans. (c) :See the above explanation.
(a) Line of sight (b) Outer axis 75. What is the common instrument size used in
(c) Trunnion axis (d) Inner axis theodolite surveying?
GAIL JA (Tech) 13.05.2023 (a) 8 cm to 12 cm (b) 14 cm to 25 cm
Ans. (c) :Horizontal /Trunnion or Transverse axis- It (c) 15 cm to 24 cm (d) 17 cm to 23 cm
is defined as the axis about which telescope and vertical NWDA JE 27/06/2023
circle both rotates in vertical plane. Ans. (a) : Size of theodolite– A theodolite is
Vertical Axis- Axis about which telescope rotates in designated by diameter of the graduated circle on the
horizontal plane. It is also called "azimuth axis". This is lower plate.
the axis about which the lower and upper plates rotate. • The common sizes are 8 cm to 12 cm while 14 cm to
Line of Sight or Line of Collimation- It is defined 25 cm are used for triangulation work.
asthe line passing through the intersection of cross hairs
of diaphragm and optical centre of objective lens and its 76. Which instrument is used to determine the
continuation. If line of sight is horizontal then it is horizontal and vertical distances by taking
called as line of collimation. angular observation in surveying?
Axis of Plate Level or Bubble Axis- It is the axis (a) Alidade (b) Tacheometer
which tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level (c) Geodimeter (d) Graphometer
tube at the center of the tube. KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023
Axis of telescope- The line joining the optical center of Ans. (b) : Tacheometric surveying– Tacheometric is
the object glass to the center of eye-piece is called axis branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical
of telescope. distances are determined by taking angular observation
72. How many types of theodolites? with an instrument known as a tacheometer
(a) 3 (b) 5 tacheometric surveying is adopted and difficult terrain
(c) 4 (d) 2 where direct levelling and chaining are either not
APWD Draughtsman (Civil) 19/02/2023 Shift-II possible or very tedious.

Surveying 201 YCT

77. Which of the following statements regarding • The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the
the vertical circle of a theodolite is correct? line of collimation is horizontal. If the conditions the
(a) The graduation circle is fixed, but the Vernier vertical angles will be free from index error due to
scale moves with the telescope. displacement of the vernier.
(b) Both the graduation circle and the Vernier • The axis of the striding level (if provided) to the
scale move with the telescope. horizontal axis.
(c) Both the graduation circle and the Vernier 80. Which of the following options represents an
scale are fixed, while the telescope moves. INCORRECT relation between the
(d) The Vernier scale is fixed, but the graduation fundamental axis of a theodolite?
circle moves with the telescope. (a) The axis of the altitude level must be parallel
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III to the line of collimation.
Ans. (d) :Vertical circle–Circular plate supported an (b) The axis of the plate level must be
horizontal axis of the instrument between the A-frame. perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Vertical circle has graduation 0-90 in four quadrants. (c) The axis of the striding level must be
• Vertical circle moves with the telescope when it is perpendicular to the transit axis.
rotated in the vertical plane. (d) The trunnion axis must be perpendicular to
• Vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line of the line of sight.
collimation is horizontal. SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning)
78. Which of the following statements is true Ans. (c) :See the above explanation.
regarding the compensator used in an 81. What is the value of the additive constant's
electronic theodolite? range?
(a) It compensates for the effect of tilt of the axis (a) 0.5 to 0.6 m (b) 0.2 to 0.45 m
of the bubble tube. (c) 0.3 to 0.45 m (d) 0.6 to 0.7 m
(b) It compensates for the effect of horizontal TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
axis tilt. Ans. (c) : The additive constant (C) is the sum of the
(c) It compensates for the effect of tilt of the line focal length of the objective lens and the distancing
of sight. from the centre of the objective lens to the centre of the
(d) It compensates for the effect of vertical axis instrument.
tilt. • The value of the additive constant is in the range of 30
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I cm to 45 cm (0.3 to 0.45 m).
Ans. (d) :The theodolite has practice tested automatic 82. What is an alternate name for the Stadia
index. A well damped pendulum compensator with 1" method?
setting accuracy provides the reference for T-1000 (a) Movable hair method
vertical circle readings. In electronic theodolite, the (b) Substense method
compensator used for compensates for the effect of (c) Tangential method
vertical axis tilt. (d) Fixed hair method
79. The desired relationship between the APWD Draughtsman (Civil) 19/02/2023 Shift-II
fundamental lines of a theodolite are given as Ans. (d) : The various systems of tacheometric survey
options. Identify the INCORRECT one. may be classified as follows–
(a) Line of collimation must be at right angles to (i) The stadia system
the horizontal axis (a) Fixed hair method or stadia method
(b) Axis of altitude level must be perpendicular (b) Movable hair method or substense method
to the line of collimation (ii) The tangential system
(c) Axis of plate level must be perpendicular to (iii) Measurements by means of special instruments
the vertical axis Note– The principle common to all systems is to
(d) Horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the calculate the horizontal distance between two point.
vertical axis 83. Parallax bar is used to measure
CRIS JE 19/02/2023 A. Parallax
Ans. (b) : Fundamental line of theodolite– B. Parallax difference
• Line of collimation must be at right angles to the C. Difference in elevation
horizontal axis D. Relief displacement
• Axis of plate level must be perpendicular to the (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
vertical axis. ISRO Tech. Asst. 04/06/2022
• Horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical Ans. (b) : Parallax bar is used to measure parallax
axis. difference.
• The axis of the altitude level (or telescope level) A parallax bar consist of a rod supporting a mark etched
must be parallel to the line of collimation. If the onto a glass tablet at one end and with a micrometer,
condition exists, the vertical angles will be free from supporting a second glass tablet with etched mark at the
index error due to lack of parallelism. other end.
Surveying 202 YCT
84. Which of the following errors cannot be f
eliminated by taking both face observations?
(a) S tan 2 θ + ( f + d ) tan θ
i
(a) error due to horizontal axis not being f
perpendicular to the vertical axis (b) Scot 2 θ + ( f + d ) cot θ
(b) index error i
f
(c) error due to non-parallelism of the axis of (c) Scos 2 θ + ( f + d ) cos θ
telescope level and line of collimation i
(d) none of the above f
(d) Ssin 2 θ + ( f + d ) sin θ
AMC Asst. Surveyor 26/02/2023 i
Ans. (d) : Error eliminated by both face NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-II
observations– Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
• Error due to line of collimation not being 87. Which of the following can be used to described
perpendicular to the horizontal axis. the formula for determining vertical distance
• Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular when the staff is vertical and the line of sight is
to the vertical axis. inclined:
• Error due to imperfect adjustment of the vertical (a) V = Cs sin2θ/2 + K cos θ
circle vernier. (b) V = Ks sin 2θ+ C cos θ
• Error due to non-parallelism of the axis of telescope (c) V = Ks cos2θ + C cos θ
level and line of collimation. (d) V = Ks sin 2θ/2+ C sin θ
Error can be eleminated by mean both face MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 07/11/2022 Shift-II
observation– Ans. (d) :See the above explanation.
• Error due to eccentricity of vernier 88. If θ be the reduced bearing of a line of length
• Error in vernier graduation L, then the departure is given by:
(a) L × tan θ (b) L × cosec θ
• Error due to imperfect centering
(c) L × sin θ (d) L × cos θ
Note– Error due to imperfect adjustment of plate
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
levels can not be eliminated by double sighting. It is
eliminated by only careful leveling with respect to the Ans. (c) : Consecutive co-ordinates- Latitude and
altitude bubble if it is in adjustment. departure are consecutive co-ordinates.
• The departure of survey line may be defined as its co-
85. What is the formula to measure vertical ordinate length measured at right angles to the meridian
distance (H) in Tacheometic surveying, Where, direction.
S = staff intercept •Line AB length  and reduce bearing θ –
K = Multiplying Constant Departure 'D' = l sin θ
θ = Vertical angle on the theodolite Latitude 'L' = l cos θ
(a) K.scos2θ (b) K.ssin2θ
(c) Htanθ (d) K.ssin2θ
NWDA JE 27/06/2023
Ans. (c) : When the line of sight in inclined and staff is
held vertical then–
Horizontal Distance-
f
KS cos2θ + C cosθ = .Scos2 θ + ( f + d ) cos θ
i
(Where, K = f/i and C = f+d )
89.The latitude of a traverse leg is obtained by
Vertical Distance (V) = KSsin 2θ/2 + C sin θ multiplying its length by _____
(a) Cosine of its reduced bearing
V = H tan θ (b) Tangent of its reduced bearing
S = Staff intercept (c) Sine of its reduced bearing
K = Multiplying (d) Cosecant of its reduced bearing
C = Additive constant JSSC JE (Civil) 03/07/2022
θ = Vertical angle on the theodolite Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
86. In Tacheometer, when the line of sight is 90. The check for traversing by deflection angle
inclined and the staff is held vertically, the method in a closed traverse of n sides is.
horizontal distance is given by ____, where f - (a) the sum of angles must be equal to (2n – 4)°
focal length of object glass; d -distance between (b) the sum of angles must be equal to (2n + 4)°
optical centre and vertical axis of instrument; (c) the sum of angles must be equal to 180°
S- staff intercept; I - length of image; θ - angle (d) the sum of angles must be equal to 360°
of elevation. SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
Surveying 203 YCT
Ans. (d) : Traverse survey–It is the process of Ans. (d) : Close traverse– A closed traverse is a series
measuring the length and direction of a survey line in of connected lines whose lengths and bearings are
the field. The field work in theodolite traverse includes measured off these lines (or sides), which enclose an
reconnaissance, selection and marking of survey area.
stations, measuring traverse line angular measurement. • Close traverse surveying is most suitable for ponds,
Open traverse–Start point of station known but the sports grounds, forests
traverse is complete is not known, defined open traverse. If the survey work is correct, then–
It is used for roads, railways, canals, tunnels. • The algebraic sum of latitudes should be equal to zero,
Close traverse–A traverse starts and end or complete on • The algebric sum of departures should be equal to zero
the same station is known as closed traverse. • The sum of northings should be equal to the sum of
Checks in closed traverse– southings.
(i) Traverse by included angels– 95. Balancing of co-ordinates may be done by
• If the interior angles are measured, sum of interior, which of the following?
angles = (2N–4) × 900 or (N–2) × 1800 (a) Bowditch's rule (b) Graphical rule
• If the exterior angles are measured, sum of exterior. (c) Transit rule (d) All of the above
angles = (2N+4) × 900or (N+2) × 1800 KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023
(N = no. of side) Ans. (d) :Balancing the traverse or co-ordinate-
(ii) Traverse by deflection angles– The algebraic sum • The following common methods of adjusting a
of the deflection angles should be equal to 3600, taking traverse-
the right-hand deflection angles as positive and left-hand (i) Bowditch's method or compass rule-In this method
angles as negative. linear and angular measurement in equal precision
91. In compass travers, the sum of interior angles Linear measurement ∝ ℓ
of a closed traverse is: 1
(where N is the number of sides of the traverse) Angular measurement ∝
ℓ
(a) (2N + 4) × 900 (b) (N + 4) × 900 (ii) Transit method– This method may be employed
0
(c) (2N – 4) × 90 (d) (N – 4) × 900 where angular measurements are more precise that the
PCMC JE Civil 27/05/2023 Shift-I linear measurements.
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation. • According to this rule, the total error in latitudes and
92. The checks applied in a closed traverse by in departures is distributed in proportion to the latitude
included angles with 'N' sides is and departures of the sides. It is claimed that the angles
(a) Sum of included angles = (N – 4) × 90º are less affected by corrections applied by transit
(b) Sum of included angles = (2N – 4) × 90º method than by these by Bowditch's method.
(c) Sum of included angles = (2N – 4) × 45º (iii)Graphical method– It is based on Bowditch rule
(d) Sum of included angles = (3N – 5) × 90º and generally used for compass surveying.
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 (iv)Axis method– Mainly it is used when angular
measurement is more precise and correction is applied
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation only in length.
93. If N is the number of sides of traverse survey, (v) Arbitrary method– It is based on survey's
the checks on closure of error based on experience.
included angles is :
96. Which method of adjusting a traverse is based
(a) the sum of measured exterior angles should
on assumption that the errors in linear
be equal to (4N – 2) right angles
measurements are proportional to √l where l is
(b) the sum of measured exterior angles should
the length of a line?
be equal to (2N – 4) right angles
(a) Axis method (b) Graphical method
(c) the sum of measured interior angles should be
equal to (2N + 4) right angles (c) Transit method (d) Bowditch's method
(d) the sum of measured interior angles should be BSF SI (Works) 06.08.2023
equal to (2N – 4) right angles Ans. (d) : See the above explanation
CHB JE (Building) 05/02/2023 97. Which method is preferred for balancing the
Ans. (d) :See the above explanation traverse, when angular measurements are
more precise than the linear measurements?
94. In any closed traverse, if the survey work is
correct, then (a) Transit Rule (b) Compas Rule
(a) The algebraic sum of latitudes should be (c) Bowditch Rule (d) Graphical Method
equal to zero NBCC Sr. Project Executive Civil 25-09-2023
(b) The algebraic sum of departures should be Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
equal to zero 98. The compass rule distributes the errors in
(c) The sum of northings should be equal to the latitude and departure for each traverse course
sum of southings in
(d) All of the above (a) the same proportion
Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021 (b) double proportion
Surveying 204 YCT
 (c) half proportion Thus, when a plane table is properly oriented, the lines
(d) one-fourth proportion on the board are parallel to the lines on ground which
UPSC ESIC JE 08.10.2023 they represent.
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation • There are two methods of orientation–
99. The departure and latitude of a forward point (i)Orientation by trough compass:– Orientation by
with respect to the preceding point is known as trough compass is less accurate and used for
the: approximate orientation of plane table prior to the final
(a) reference coordinates adjustment. It is applied, when only one point available
(b) consecutive coordinates for the orientation.
(c) meridian • A trough compass is placed on the top right side
(d) quadrant corner of the plane table in such a way that the magnetic
Kerala PSC Surveyor GR-II 24/05/2023 needle points exactly towards the N-S directions.
(ii)Orientation by back sighting–Orientation can be
Ans. (b) :Latitude and departure co-ordinates of any done precisely by sighting the points already plotted on
point with reference to the preceding point are equal to the sheet. Two cases may arise–
the latitude and departure of the line joining the (a) When it is possible to set the plane table on the
preceding point to the point under consideration. Such point already plotted on the sheet by way of observation
co-ordinates are also known as consecutive co-ordinates from previous station.
or dependent co-ordinates.
(b) When it is not possible to set the plane table on the
100. Reduced bearing of any line is 'θ' and length is point.
'l', then what will be the latitude of line? 103. How many ways are there to orient a plane
(a) L = –l tan θ (b) L = +l sin θ table?
(c) L = +l cos θ (d) L = –l cot θ (a) 1 (b) 3
HPCL Officer 23/12/2023 (c) 2 (d) 4
Ans. (c) : Latitude– The latitude of a line is its UKPSC JE Civil 24.12.2023 Paper-I
projection on the north-south meridian and is equal to TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
the length of the line times the cosine of its bearing. Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
Departure– The departure of a line is its projection on
104. Which instrument is commonly used to orient
the East-West meridian and is equal to the length of the
the plane table with respect to magnetic north?
line times the sine of its bearing.
(a) Abney level (b) Trough compass
(c) Alidade (d) Plumb bob
DDA Surveyor 26-08- 2023
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
105. Which of the following is one of the case of
orientation for plane tabling by means of back -
sighting?
(a) For approximate orientation prior to final
•Bearing in Ist Quadrant. adjustment
Latitude = L cos θ (b) When it is not possible to set the plane table
Departure = L sin θ on the point.
101. How many types of problem solved by (c) When speed is more important than accuracy.
resection method? (d) In certain resection problems.
(a) 4 (b) 3 MHADA JE 01/02/2022, Shift-I
(c) 2 (d) 1 Ans. (b) :See the above explanation
(e) Answer not known 106. When only one point is available for
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022 orientation, orientation is done by:
Ans. (c) : Two types of problem solved by resection (a) fore-sighting (b) back-sighting
method– (c) intersection (d) trough compass
1. Two point problem SSC JE (Civil) 16/11/2022
2. Three point problem. Ans. (d) : See the above explanation
102. Orientation at every station is done by _______ 107. In plane table surveys, the orientation of the
table only by back sighting is preferred
on the previous stations.
when_______ .
(a) Traversing (b) Back sighting (a) the traverse is too long
(c) Magnetic needle (d) Radiation (b) speed is more important than accuracy
(e) Answer not known (c) the plane table can be set on a point already
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022 plotted on the sheet
Ans. (b) : Orientation– The process by which the (d) there is no second point for orientation
positions occupied by the board at various survey SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning)
stations are kept parallel is known as the orientation. Ans. (c) :See the above explanation
Surveying 205 YCT
108. Orientation by back sighting is done by using 114. Which of the below is not the method of
(a) Trough compass (b) Alidade orientation of drawing sheet in the site during
(c) Spirit level (d) Prismatic compass plane table traversing?
Kerala PSC (PWD) Overseer 14/07/2023 (a) Identification of direction using trough
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation compass
109. The method of surveying in which field work (b) Observation made using two well-defined
and plotting are done simultaneously is called points
(a) Compass surveying (b) Levelling (c) Observation made using three well-defined points
(c) Plane tabling (d) Chain surveying (d) Radiation rays from the station point
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023 BMRCL 2023
Ans. (c) : Plane tabling is a graphical method of survey Ans. (d) : See the above explanation
in which the field observations and plotting proceed 115. Which of the following in NOT a resection
simultaneously.
method in plane table surveying?
This type of survey cannot be done in dense wooded
areas. (a) Resection after orientation by back sighting
• It is means of making a manuscript map in the field (b) Resection after orientation three point
while the ground can be seen by the topographer and problem
without intermediate steps of recording and (c) Resection after orientation by plumbing fork
transcribing field notes. (d) Resection after orientation two point problem
• In plane table survey requires minimum calculations Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023
after completion of the field survey work. Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
110. Which type of surveys has low accuracy, 116. Two-point problem and three-point problem
however it has the advantage that the are method of
measurements and plotting’s are done (a) Resection
simultaneously in the field? (b) Orientation
(a) Levelling (b) Plane table surveys (c) Orientation and resection
(c) Compass surveying (d) Chain surveying (d) None of these
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
Kerala PSC (PWD) Draftsman 15/06/2023
Ans. (b) :See the above explanation
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
111. Which of the following surveys requires
minimum calculations after completion of the 117. What is plane table surveying?
field survey work ? (a) A method of surveing that uses a plane table
(a) Theodolite survey (b) Plane table survey and a level
(c) Total station survey (d) Compass survey (b) A method of surveying that uses a plane table
DLB Senior Draftsman 2021 and a theodolite
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation (c) A method of surveying that uses a plane
mirror and a telescope
112. Which type of survey cannot be done in dense (d) A method of surveying that uses a plane table
wooded areas? and a compass
(a) Chain survey (b) Compass survey
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
(c) Plane table survey (d) Theodolite survey
Kerala PSC Surveyor GR-II 24/05/2023 Ans. (d) :The following instruments are used in
plane table survey–
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
• Plane table
113. To which type of plane table method does the
• Compass
given problem belong?
Establishing a new station point using two - point • Alidade for sighting
at a place in order to locate missing details • Plumbing fork and plumb bob
(a) Radiation (b) Resection • Spirit level
(c) Intersection (d) Traversing • Drawing paper with a rainproof cover
MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024 118. Which of the following is not the Equipment
Ans. (b) : Resection– Resection is the process of for plane table Survey?
determining the plotted position of the station occupied (a) Plumbing (b) Spirit level
by the plane table, by means of sights taken known (c) Compass (d) All of these
points, locations of which have been plotted. JKSSSB JE 06.12.2022 Shift II
The problem- therefore, lies in orienting table at the Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
stations and can be solved by the following four method 119. Which of the following is a part of the plane
of orientation. table survey?
(i) Resection after orientation by compass. (a) Stadia lens (b) Foot screws
(ii) Resection after orientation by backsighting. (c) Plumbing fork (d) Telescope
(iii) Resection after orientation by three point problem. DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III
(iv) Resection after orientation by two-point problem. Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
Surveying 206 YCT
120. An alidade used with the plane table is used for 125. What is an alidade?
(a) Centering the plane table (a) An instrument used to hold the chain in place
(b) Sighting objects during the survey
(c) Levelling the plane table (b) An instrument used to measure vertical angles
(d) Determining distances of objects (c) An instrument used for sighting the point in
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022 plane table surveying
(d) An instrument used to measure distrances
Ans. (b) :Alidade– It is used to bisect the object, draw
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
rays, direction lines etc. There is one side of alidade is
in bevelled form that is used to draw the line of sight on Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
the sheet. This edge or side is known as fiducial edge or 126. The instrument used for centering the table
working edge. over the station occupied by the plane table
Alidades are two types– when the plotted position of that point is
already known on the drawing sheet is :
Plane Alidade– It consists of a brass or wooden ruler of
(a) Plain Alidade (b) Compass
length about 50 cm. One of its edges is bevelled, and is
(c) Spirit level (d) Plumbing fork
known as the fiducial edge.
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
Ans. (d) :See the above explanation
127. In plane table surveying, the table is centered
over the station accurately with the help of
a_______.
(a) alidade (b) U frame
(c) spirit level (d) magnetic compass
Telescopic Alidade– It consists of a telescope meant MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I
for inclined sight or sighting distant objects clearly. Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
This alidade has no vanes at the ends, but is provided 128. Which surveying method is NOT associated
with fiducial edge. with plane table surveying ?
(a) Radiation (b) Resection
(c) Traversing (d) Rise and fall method
UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022
Ans. (d) :Plane table surveying– It is a graphical
method of surveying in which field work and plotting
are done simultaneously in the field. It is most suitable
for small and medium scale survey.
121. _____ edge of the Alidade should be straight. Methods of plane tabling-
(a) Fiducial edge (b) Ebney edge (i) Radiation method– In this method, a ray is drawn
(c) Straight edge (d) Cross edge from the instrument station towards the point, the
(e) Answer not known distance is measured between the instrument station and
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022 that point and the point is located by plotting to some
Ans. (a) :See the above explanation. scale the distance so measured.
122. ............. is a straight edge with some form of • Evidently, the method is more suitable when the
sighting device, it can be plain or telescope and distances are small and one single instrument can
it is kept on plane table. control the point to be detailed.
(a) Compass (b) U-frame (ii) Intersection method– The location of an object is
determined by sighting at the object from two plane
(c) Alidade (d) Plumbing fork
table stations and drawing the rays. The intersection of
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2 these rays will give the position of the object.
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation • This method is preferred to radiation which the
123. In a Plane Table survey Alidade is used ground is uneven and hilly and it is very difficult to
(a) For measuring the distance measure horizontal distances on the ground.
(b) For marking north direction (iii).Traversing method
(c) For bisecting the object drawing rays (iv) Resectionmethod– This method of orientation is
(d) Orientation of plane table employed when the plane table occupies a position not
yet plotted on the drawing sheet.
(e) Answer not known
• Resection can be defined as the process of locating
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022 the instrument station occupied by the plane table by
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation drawing rays from the stations whose positions are
124. The alidades in plane table survey are used to already plotted on the drawing sheet.
determine____ • The point representing the research the resection of
(a) angle of the object (b) height of object two rays will be the station to be located, provided the
(c) distance of object (d) direction of object orientation at the station to be plotted is correct which is
seldom achieved.
DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-II
Rise and fall method–This method is used in levelling
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation survey.
Surveying 207 YCT
129. How many methods are there in plane table 135. Detailed plotting is generally done by
surveying? (a) Radiation (b) Traversing
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) Resection (d) All of the above
(c) 3 (d) 4 APSC PWRD 23/07/2023 Paper-I
(e) Answer not known
UKPSC JE Civil 24.12.2023 Paper-I Ans. (a) : Methods of plane tabling can be divided into
four distinct heads-
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
(i) Radiation
130. In ______ of plane table survey, a ray is drawn
(ii) Intersection
from the instrument station towards the point,
the distance is measured between the (iii)Traversing
instrument station and that point. (iv) Resection
(a) Resection method (b) Traversing method The first two methods are generally employed for
(c) intersection method (d) Radiation method locating the details while the other two methods are
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-II used for locating the plane table stations.
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. 136. The following one of the method is not related
131. Which among the following is the methods of to three-point problem.
Plane Table Surveying? (a) Tracing paper method
(a) Resection (b) Radiation (b) Bessel's graphical method
(c) All of the above (d) Intersection (c) Lehmann's method
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 (d) Rankine's method
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation (e) Answer not known
132. Which type of survey involves radiation, TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
intersection, traversing and resection methods?
Ans. (d) : Resection after orientation by three
(a) Tacheometer survey (b) Aerial survey
points– The three point problem consists in locating the
(c) Plane table survey (d) Chain survey
UPPCL JE 22/06/2022 Shift-I position of plane table station on the drawing sheet by
means of observation of three well-defined points,
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation
whose positions are already been plotted on plan.
133. ______ is the method of locating the station •Three point problem can be solved by several
occupied by the plane table when the position
methods–
of that station had not been previously plotted
from other station. (i) Mechanical method (tracing paper method)
(a) Resection (b) Intersection (ii) Lehmann's method (trial and error method)
(c) Radiation (d) Traversing (iii) Graphical method (Bessel's method)
TSPSC Architecture Engg.05/09/2023 Shift-II 137. Which of the following method does not relate
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation three point problem in plane table survey?
134. In regard to the resection method of plane table (a) Bessel's method
survey, the term 'resector' refers to the (b) Tracing paper method
_______ (c) Lehmann's method
(a) rays drawn from the known location of the (d) Concyclic method
station to the un-plotted location of the points (d) Answer not known d
(b) rays drawn from the un-plotted location of the TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
station to the known location of the points Ans. (d) :See the above explanation.
(c) rays drawn from the known location of the 138. Mechanical method in Plane Table Surveying is
station to the known location of the points also known as _______
(d) rays drawn from the un-plotted location of the (a) Graphical method
station to the un-plotted location of the points (b) Axis method
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I (c) Trial and error method
Ans. (b) :Resection–The principle of this method is just (d) Tracing paper method
opposite to that of the method of intersection. The rays TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
drawn from the un-plotted position of a station to the
points of known location are called resector. This Ans. (d) : See the above explanation
method is used to locate the plotted position of survey 139. .............. method is very commonly used in field
station by drawing resectors from plotted position of the measurements as it is very accurate and the
objects. position of a plane table is estimated by
Resection can be done after orientation of table by any judgment.
one of the following methods– (a) Lehmann's trial and error
• by compass (b) Mechanical
• by back sighting (c) Tracing paper
• by solving two point problems (d) Bassel's graphical
• by solving three point problems Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift 2
Surveying 208 YCT
Ans. (a) : Trial and error method or Lehmann's 144. What is the purpose of a contour interval on a
method– contour map ?
• This method is very commonly used in field (a) To represent the curvature of the Earth's
surface .
measurement as it is very accurate the position of a
(b) To show the elevation difference between
plane table is estimated by judgment. This triangle is successive contour lines.
reduced to point by trial and error. (c) To indicate the horizontal distance between
• The terms 'triangle of error', 'great circle', 'great contour lines.
triangle' are related to Lehmann method (d) To mark the geographic coordinates of the
• This is the quickest and most accurate method to map.
solve three-point problem in resection of plane MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I
tabling. Ans. (b) : Contour interval– The vertical distance
140. This is quick and accurate method in three between any two consecutive contours is called contour
point problem. interval.
(a) Bassel's Method Contour interval depends on–
(i) The nature of ground
(b) Graphical Method
(ii) The scale of the map
(c) Mechanical Method (iii) The purpose and extent of the survey
(d) Trial and Error Method (iv) Time and expense of field and office work.
(e) Answer not known 145. The contour interval of a contour map is the
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022 difference in elevation between _____.
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation (a) Successive contour lines
141. With respect to plane table surveying, the (b) Contour line and contour value
terms 'triangle of error', 'great circle', 'great (c) Practical and theoretical value
triangle' are related to : (d) Several points in the area
(a) Lehmann method NWDA JE 21/05/2023
(b) Bessel method Ans. (a) :See the above explanation.
(c) two-point problem 146. Which of the following is a type of contouring
(d) graphic triangulation method that can be effectively used in a hilly
SSC JE Civil 15/11/2022 Shift-I terrain by setting radial lines?
(a) Vertical control method
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation (b) Horizontal control method
142. Which type of table is superior and is generally (c) Tacheometric method
used for work of high precision? (d) Method of cross-section
(a) The traverse table TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
(b) The coast survey table Ans. (c) :There are mainly two methods of locating
(c) The Johnson table contours–
(d) The interior table (i) Direct method
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 (ii) Indirect method–
Ans. (b) : The coast survey table is generally used for • by squares method
work of high precision. The levelling of the table is • by cross-section method
done very accurately with the help of three foot screws. • by tacheometric method
The table can be tuned about the vertical axis and can By tacheometric method–This method is most suitable
be fixed in any direction very accurately with the help in hilly areas as the number of stations which can be
of a clamp and tangent screw. recommended by a tacheometer are far more than those
by a level and thus the number of instrument setting is
143. The vertical distance between any two considerably reduced.
consecutive contours is called .................. • A number of radial lines are laid out at a known
(a) gradient angular interval and representative points are marked
(b) vertical equivalent by pegs along these radial lines.
(c) horizontal equivalent • Their elevations and distance are then calculated and
(d) contour interval plotted on the plan and the contour lines are than
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II interpolated.
Ans. (d) : Contour Interval-Contour interval is the
vertical distance/difference of elevations between any
two consecutive contours.
Horizontal Equivalent- It is the horizontal distance
between any of two adjacent contour lines.
Contour Gradient- It is an imaginary line lying
throughout on the surface of the ground and preserving
a constant inclination to the horizontal.
Surveying 209 YCT
147. Which of the statements is incorrect about the 150. Which is a direct field method of locating
Contours ? contour?
(a) Contours are the lines joining the points of (a) Tacheometric control
equal elevation (b) By squares
(b) Two contours usually don't intersect each (c) Vertical control
other (d) By cross-sections
(c) Contour lines are drawn using the Compass MH PWD CEA 16/12/2023 Shift-III
(d) Contour lines are usually represented on Ans. (c) : See the above explanation
topographical maps 151. Widely spaced contour lines indicate ........
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022 slope.
Ans. (c) : Characteristics of contours– A contour is an (a) uniform (b) gentle
imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal (c) steep (d) equal
elevation GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024
• Two contour lines of different elevation cannot cross Ans. (b) : Characteristics of contour lines-
each other.
• Contour lines are closed curve.
• Contour lines are usually represented on topographical
maps. • Two contour lines are neither meet at point nor cut
each other.
• A closed contour line with one or more higher ones Exception-
inside it represents a hill.
(i) Overhanging cliff
• Contour lines cross a watershed or ridge line at right (ii) Vertical cliff or Wall
angle. They form curves of U-shape round it with the
concave side of the curve towards the higher ground. • A series of equally spaced contour line indicate
plane surface.
• Contour lines cross a valley line at right angle. They
from sharp curves of V-shape across it with convex
side of the curve towards the higher ground.
• A contour line must close upon itself, though not
necessarily within the limits of the map.
148. Select the INCORRECT characteristic of
contour lines form the following.
(a) A contour passes through any point
perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope • Equally spaced contour lines represent uniform slope.
at that point
(b) Two contour lines of different elevations
cannot cross each other except in the case of
an overhanging cliff or a cave
(c) Contour lines of different elevations can unite
to form one line in a vertical cliff
(d) Contour lines are parallel to the watershed
line
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-III • Widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle slope.
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
149. Identify the direct method of contouring in a
survey work.
(a) Contouring by squares
(b) Contouring by cross sections
(c) Contouring by vertical and horizontal control
(d) Contouring by tacheometric method
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-I
• Closely spaced contour lines indicate steep slope.
Ans. (c) The direct method of contouring in a
survey work–
• In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is
actually traced on the ground. Only those points are
surveyed which happen to be plotted.
• This method is slow and tedious and is used for
small areas and where great accuracy is required.
Steps of direct method –
(i) Vertical control – Location of points on the • Direction of the steepest slope is along with the
contour shortest distance between the contours.
(ii) Horizontal control – Plotting of points by a plane • Closed contour lines with higher value inside centre
table or compass or theodolite survey. indicate hill or rising ground.
Surveying 210 YCT
• Closed contour lines with lower value towards centre 156. Identify the type of ground and scale of map
indicate depression, pond or lake. for 0.5 m to 1 m contour intervals?
• Contour lines cut the ridge or watershed line and (a) Rolling ground and large scale
valley or drainage line at right angles (900). (b) Hilly ground and intermediate scale
• If in a loop elevation of contour lines increase towards (c) Flat ground and intermediate scale
inside it indicates ridge and if this value decreases
towards inside of loop, it indicate a valley line. (d) Flat ground and small scale
• All contour lines must close either within the map JSSC JE (General Engg.) 18/10/2023
boundary. Ans. (a) :
• All points on a contour lines are of the same elevation. Contour
• V-shaped contours with convexity towards higher Scale of map Type of ground interval
ground represent hills/valley. (meter)
• U-shaped contours with convexity towards lower Large (1 cm = Flat 0.2 to 0.5
ground represents ridge. 10 m or less) Rolling 0.5 to 1
• Depression between summits is called a saddle. It is
represented by four sets of contour. Hilly 1, 1.5 or 2
Intermediate Flat 0.5, 1 or 1.5
(1 cm = 10 m Rolling 1, 1.5 or 2
to 100 m) Hilly 2, 2.5 or 3
Small 1 cm = Flat 1, 2 or 3
100 m or more Rolling 2 to 5
Hilly 5 to 10
Mountainous 10, 25 or 50
157. Identify the contour interval (Meteres) for
large scale of map for hilly ground?
152. Depression between summits denotes (a) 5 to 10 (b) 0.5, 1 or 1.5
(a) Saddle (c) 1, 2 or 3 (d) 1, 1.5 or 2
(b) Overhanging cliff JSSC JE (General Engg.) 30/09/2023
(c) Hill Ans. (d) : See the above explanation
(d) Vertical cliff 158. The statements pertaining to the indirect
(d) Answer not known methods of locating contours in a topographic
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
survey are given as options. Identify the
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation INCORRECT statement.
153. Which of the following characteristic of (a) The method of squares is most suitable for
contour indicate ridge? railway route surveys.
(a) Contour lines with U-shape with convexity
towards lower ground. (b) Cross-sections should be more closely spaced
(b) Contour lines with V-shape with convexity at places where the contours curve abruptly.
towards higher ground. (c) The spacing of cross-sections depends upon
(c) Concentric closed contours with increasing the character of the terrain.
values towards center. (d) The spacing of cross-sections depends upon
(d) Concentric closed contours with decreasing the purpose of the survey.
values towards center. MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-III
GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II
Ans. (a) : Indirect method–
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
By squares method– The method is used when the
154. In case of uniform slope, the contour lines: area be surveyed is small and ground is not very much
(a) Widely space each other undulating. The area to be surveyed is divided into a
(b) cross each other number of squares.
(c) tend to parallel each other
By cross-section method– In this method, cross-section
(d) space very close to each other
are run transverse to the centre line of a road, railway or
SSC JE (Civil) 15/11/2022
canal etc. The method is most suitable for railway route
Ans. (c) : See the above Explanation. surveys.
155. Under which of the following circumstances By tacheometric method– In the case of hilly terrain,
can the contour lines of different elevations the tacheometric method may be used with advantages.
intersect each other? • The spacing of the cross section depends upon the
(a) Step slope (b) Cave character of the terrain, the contour interval purpose
(c) River (d) Valley of the surface.
SSC JE (Civil) 16/11/2022 • The cross-sections should be more closely spaced where
Ans.(b): See the above explanation the contour curve abruptly as in ravines or on spurs.
Surveying 211 YCT
159. .................. is not the type of indirect method of 162. When the straight lines which the two curves
contouring. connect are nearly parallel or intersect at a
(a) Squares method small angle. For this which type of curve used
(b) Hand level method (a) Simple curve (b) Compound curve
(c) Tacheometric method (c) Reverse curve (d) Transition curve
(d) Cross-section method MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023 Ans. (c) : Reverse curve– Reverse curves are used
when the straight and parallel or intersect at a very
Ans. (b) :See the above explanation
small angle. The use of reverse curve is limited to
160. The alternate name of trapezoidal formula is unimportant places like siding and cross over.
(a) Average end area method Sometimes reverse curves are provided on roads and
(b) Coordinate method railways designed for low speeds. High speeds can not
(c) Prismoidal method be provided on reverse curves for the following reasons.
(d) Simpson's rule • They involve sudden change of super elevation (cross
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023 slopes) at the junction of branches of the curve.
Ans. (a) : The alternate name of trapezoidal formula is • Steering is dangerous in case of highways.
average end area method. 163. A ............. curve is simply a combination of two
• The area may be calculated by the following rules. reverse curves.
(1) Mid ordinate rule. (a) Reverse (b) Simple
(2) Average ordinate rule. (c) Deviation (d) Compound
(3) Trapezoidal rule. PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
(4) Simpson's one third rule. Ans (c) : Deviation curve–A deviation curve is simply
Trapezoidal rule:- a combination of two reverse curves.
• This rule is based on the assumption that the figures Simple curve–A simple curve consists of a single arc of
are trapezoidal. a circle connecting two straights. It has radius
throughout.
• The rules is more accurate than the midordinat rule
Reverse curve–A reverse curve is made up two arcs
and Average ordinate rule.
having equal or different radii bending in opposite
161. The Prismoidal formula for volume directions with a common tangent of their junction.
(Where, V = Volume 164. In the linear method of setting out curve, which
A = Respective area of the following is not used?
D = Distance between the two ends) (a) Tape (b) Chain
D (c) Theodolite (d) Compass
(a) V = [ A1 + 2A m + A 2 ]
6 Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
D Ans. (c) : Theodolite is an instrument that is used for
(b) V = [ A1 + 4A m + A 2 ] computing angles or bearings between the lines which
3
are used for further calculation in computing the
D
(c) V = [ A1 + 4A m + A 2 ] distance between the points whereas tape chain can be
6 directly used for determining the distance.
D 165. Apex distance is calculated from the relation
(d) V = [ A1 + 2A m + A 2 ] of?
3
Kerala PSC Surveyor GR-II 24/05/2023 (a) R sec φ – 1 (b) R 1 – cos φ 
 2   2 
Ans. (c) :Prismoidal formula– Prismoidal formula is
also known as simpson's rule for volumes. The (c) 2 R sin φ (d) R sec φ + 1
prismoidal formula is applicable when there are an odd
2  2 
number of sections. If there be even number of sections (e) Answer not known
the end strip must be treated separately and the volume TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
of the remaining strips is calculated by prismoidal Ans. (a) :
formula. ∆
d
• Tangent length (T) = R tan
V = ( A1 + A n ) + 4 ( A 2 + A 4 + .....A n −1 ) + 2 ( A 3 + A 5 + ....A n − 2 )  2
3
∆
Or • Long chord (L) = 2R sin
This formula is based on the assumption that A1 and A2 2
are the areas at the ends and Am is the area of mid • Length of curve (L) = πR∆
section parallel to ends  = Length between the ends. 180
ℓ  ∆
V = ( A 1 + A 2 + 4A m ) • Mid-ordinate (M) = R  1 − cos 
6  2

Surveying 212 YCT

  ∆  Ans. (d) :Curve- It is defined as the arc with some
• Apex or External distance (E) = R  sec − 1  finite radius provided between intersecting straights to
 2 
gradually negotiate a change in direction.
 
 1 
or R  −1
∆ 
 cos 
 2 
166. What is the formula to calculate the external
distance in a simple curve?
(a) External distance = Radius × Sin (∆)
(b) External distance = Radius × (1- Cos(∆))
(c) External distance = Radius × [(1/Cos(∆/2)-1]
(d) External distance = Radius × Tan (∆/2)
DDA Surveyor 26-08- 2023
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation.
167. What is used for drawing non-circular curves
which can not be drawn by compass?
(a) small compass (b) protractor 170. Which of the following is NOT a type of
(c) divider (d) French curves transition curve ?
CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023 (a) Hyperbola (b) Lemniscate
Ans. (d) : French curves come in a variety of shapes (c) Cubic parabola (d) Spiral
and sizes and are made of transport plastic. They are UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II
used to draw non circular curves, such as ellipses, Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
spirals and parabolas. 171. In a simple curve, the end of the curve where
168. In a compound curve, the point at which both alignment changes from curve to tangent is
the long curve and short curve will meet is called:
called ____. (a) Transition curve (b) Point of tangency
(a) Point of radius
(c) Locus of curve (d) Point of curve
(b) point of curvature curve
(c) Point of compound curve TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
(d) Point of deflection curve Ans. (b) : Point of tangency– It is the end of the curve
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023 where the alignment changes from a curve to a tangent.
Ans. (c) : Compound curve– A compound curve is a Point of curve- It is the beginning of the curve where
combination of two or more simple circular curves with the alignment changes from a tangent to a curves.
different radii. 172. A curve, which is composed of two arcs of
Point of compound curve– The two centered different radius and both having centers on
compound curve has two circular arcs of different radii opposite side of the tangent in between, is
that deviate in the same direction and joint at a common known as
tangent point also known as point of compound curve or (a) simple curve (b) compound curve
curvature. (c) reverse curve (d) vertical curve
ASSAM PWD JE 13/08/2023
Ans. (c) : Reverse curve – A curve which consists of
two opposite circular arcs of same or different radii, is
known as a reverse curve. In such curves the centre of
the arc's are on the opposite sides of the curve.
• The two arcs turn in opposite direction with a
common tangent at the junction of the two arcs.

169. Which of the following is not a horizontal

curve?
(a) Simple curve (b) Reverse curve
(c) Compound curve (d) Summit curve
CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023 A reverse curve

Surveying 213 YCT

173. In using the two theodolite method for setting 176. The chord between two successive regular
curves, the principle used is stations on a curve is known as _____
(a) Deflection angle is equal to tangential angle (a) Long chord (b) Mid chord
for any chord to the point (c) Normal chord (d) Intersection chord
(b) Angle of intersection is the same as the angle
Kerala PSC Surveyor GR-II 24/05/2023
subtended at the center
(c) Deflection of any point P from the first Ans. (c) :Normal chord– A chord between two
tangent is the same as the angle between the successive regular stations on a curve.
long chord and the direction to P from the Length of long chord– It is the chord joining PC to PT.
second tangent point ∆
(d) Equal chords subtended equal angles at the T1T2 = 2R sin
2
center
Mid ordinate (M)– It is the ordinate from the mid-point
UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II
of the long chord to the mid-point of the curve.
Ans. (c) : Two thdololite method– In this method, two
theodolites are used one at P.C (Point of curve and the
other at P.T (Point of tangency). The method is used
when the ground is unsuitable for chaining and is based
on the principle that the angle between the tangent and
the chord is equal to the angle which that chord
subtends in the opposite segment.
• Angle between the tangent at the point of curve and
the chord to a point is equal to the angle which that
chord subtends in the opposite segment at the point of
tangency
174. Offsets from the tangents method of curve
setting can be adopted if________.
(a) both the deflection angle and the radius of
curvature are large
(b) the deflection angle is large and the radius of
curvature is small Fig-parts of circular curve
(c) both the deflection angle and the radius of Tangent distance– It is the distance between PC to PI
curvature are small (also the distance from PI to PT).
(d) the deflection angle is small and the radius of External distance– It is distance from the mid-point of
curvature is large
the curve to P.I.
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
Length of the curve– It is the total length of the curve
Ans. (c) : Offset from the tangent–If the deflection
from PC to PT
angle and the radius of curvature are both small the
curve can be set out by offsets from the tangency. 177. What is the distance between point of
• The offsets from the tangency is classified as– intersection to point of tangency?
(i) Radial offsets (a) Length of the curve
(ii) Perpendicular offsets (b) External distance
• Offset from the tangent method is a linear method (c) Tangent distance
used for setting out simple circular curves on the (d) Long chord
roadway. Kerala PSC Surveyor GR-II 24/05/2023
175. Which curve is generally introduced on Ans. (c) :See the above explanation
highway between a straight and circular curve
to provide ease and gradual change of 178. In which of the following types of curves does
direction? the radius decrease linearly from infinity to
(a) Simple (b) Compound zero, fulfilling the condition of an ideal
(c) Reverse (d) Transition transition curve?
OSSC JE RE-Exam 03.09.2023 (a) Hyperbola (b) Parabola
Ans. (d) : Transition curve– It is a curve of varying (c) Cubic Parabola (d) Clothoid
radius. The value of the radius of this types curve varies DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I
from infinity to a certain fixed value. It provides a Ans. (d) : The curve used for ideal transition curve is a
gradual change from the straight line to the circular clothoid spiral. In which, length is inversely
curve and again from the circular curve to straight line. proportional to the radius of the curve.
It is usually provided on both ends of circular curve.
The transition curves are provided on roads and • It is also known as Glover's spiral.
railways to lessen the discomfort at the sudden change • Cubic parabola is also known as Froude's transition
in curvature at the junction of a straight line and a curve. It use Cartesian co-ordinates which are required
curve. for setting the curve.
Surveying 214 YCT
179. The minimum radius (R in metres) of the valley 182. The minor instrument used not only to take
curve for cubic parabola is given by______ horizontal sight but also inclined sight is known as
Where, (a) clinometer (b) sextant
L = total length of valley curve (c) Abney level (d) pantograph
N = deviation angle in radians or tangent of the Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
deviation angle Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
L L 183. The area of any irregular figure of the plotted
(a) (b)
N 2N map is measured with the help of
L (a) Pantagraph (b) Sextant
(c) (d) None of these
3N (c) Clinometer (d) Planimeter
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 18/05/2022 UPSSSC Mandi Parishad Draftsman 22/05/2022
Ans. (b) : The minimum radius of the valley curve of Ans. (d) :Planimeter- Its an instrument used in
radius, R for a cubic parabola – surveying to compute the area of irregular plan.
L It is only needs a plan drawn on the sheet to
R =
2N calculates the area.
The minimum curve radius is a limiting value of Pantagraph- A pantagraph is an instrument used
curvature for a given design speed. for reproducing, enlarging or reducing the maps. It
180. What type of curve is formed when two simple is based on the principle of similar triangles.
circular curves with different radii that turn in Sextant- The distinguishing feature of the sextant is
the same direction, and join at common tangent the arrangement of mirrors which enables the
point? observer to sight at two different object
(a) Simple curve (b) Transition curve simultaneously and thus to measure at angle in a
(c) Compound curve (d) Reverse curve single observation.
Kerala PSC (PWD) Overseer 14/07/2023 184. Pantagraph is used to
Ans. (c) : Compound curve– A curve which consists (a) Measuring disances
of two or more areas of different circle with different (b) Measuring areas
radii having their centres on the same side of the (c) Enlarging or reducing drawing
common tangent in succession, each bending in the (d) Settling out right angle
same direction, is known as a compound curve. (e) Answer not known
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
185. In a tangent clinometer, the distance between
an eye vane and an object vane is
(a) 20.30 cm (b) 20.30 mm
(c) 21.88 cm (d) 21.88 mm
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
A compound curve
Ans. (a) : Indian pattern clinometer (Tangent
181. _______ is used to measure slopes and clinometer)–Indian pattern clinometer is used for
elevations. determining difference in elevation between points and
(a) Clinometer (b) Coronagraph is specially adopted to plane tabling. The clinometer is
(c) Cyclometer (d) Auxometer placed on the plane table which is leveled by estimation.
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 • In a tangent clinometer, the distance between an eye
Ans. (a) : Clinometer– vane and an object vane is 20.30 cm.
It is an instrument for measuring angles of slope 186. Among the following survey equipment,
elevation of depression of an object with respect to the identify the one which CANNOT be used for
ground. measurement of linear distance.
• Clinometer is a special case of a spirit level. (a) Distomat (b) Geodimeter
• Clinometer are used to determine the straightness and (c) Tellurometer (d) Clinometer
flatness of surface. JSSC JDLCCE JE 17/10/2023 (Civil)
Ans. (d) : Distomat is a measuring tool used in
surveying and construction industries to measure
distances between points accurately.
• The geodimeter was based on the principle that a
beam of light could be used to measure the distance
from one point to another.
• The tellurometer a device for measuring the
distance between two points by electronic method.
• A clinometer is a tool that is used to measure the
angle of elevation or angle from the ground in a
right angled triangle.
Surveying 215 YCT
187. When two aerial photographs of adjacent areas Ans. (a) : The full form of SERIES is Satellite Emission
with ______ per cent longitudinal overlap are Radio Interferometric Earth Surveying.
superimposed, a 3D view of the area can be
observed under the stereoscope, which helps in 191. ___________ is a standard for use in
the interpretation of the geomorphology and cartography, Geodesy and Navigation
geology of a project site. including GPS.
(a) 35-45 (b) 15-25 (a) Satellite system
(c) 85-95 (d) 55-65 (b) World Geodetic system
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I (c) Co-ordinate system
Ans. (d) : Aerial photograph:– In aerial photography, (d) Polar system
two types of overlaps are provided– (e) Answer not known
(i) Longitudinal overlap:– This overlapping of TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
photographs along the flight strips is known as Ans. (b) : World Geodetic system (WGS)–A standard
longitudinal overlap end lap or forward overlap.
Generally it is taken as 60% for use in cartography, geodesy and satellite navigation
(ii) Side overlap:– Two adjacent flight strips are so including GPS. It comprises a standard coordinate
photographed that there is a side lap to lateral overlap. system for the earth, a standard spheroidal reference
Generally it is taken as 30% surface (the datum or reference ellipsoid) for raw
188. Modern electronic distance measurement altitude data and a gravitational equipotential surface
(EDM) measures distance by ______ (the geoid) that defines the nominal sea level.
(a) measurement of wave travel time 192. Total station is things to
(b) measurement of velocity of infra-red signals (a) Theodolite ± microprocessor
(c) measurement by invar tape (b) Theodolite + Tape
(d) measurement of phase difference between (c) Theodolite + EDM
transmitted and reflected signals (d) Theodolite – EDM
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
(e) Answer not known
Ans. (d) : Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)–
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
• EDM is a method of determining the length between
two points using electromagnetic waves. Ans. (c) : Total station–A total station is a combination
• EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient of an electronic theodolite and an electronic distance
pieces of surveying equipment and can be used to meter EDM).
measure distances of upto 100 km. 193. In a remote sensing electromagnetic energy is
• EDM measures distance by measurement of phase characterized and related in terms of
difference between transmitted and reflected signals. (a) Velocity, Wavelength and Magnitude
189. In triangulation, the point at which (b) Velocity, Wavelength and Temperature
astronomical observations for the azimuth and (c) Velocity, Wavelength and Frequency
the longitude are made by use of Laplace
(d) Magnitude, Temperature and wavelength
equation is called __________.
(a) base station (b) base line (e) Answer not known
(c) subsidiary station (d) Laplace station TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I Ans. (c) : In a remote sensing electromagnetic energy is
Ans. (d) : Laplace station–A laplace station is defined characterized and related in terms of Velocity,
as a triangulation or traverse station at which a geodetic Wavelength and Frequency.
(laplace) azimuth is derived from an astronomic 194. The principle of triangulation in surveying is
azimuth by use of the laplace equation. that "if one side and ........... angles are known
• A survey station is a prominent point on the chain line for a triangle, then the remaining sides can be
and can be either at the beginning of the chain line or at calculated using the sine rule".
the end. Such station is known as main station. (a) Five (b) Four
However, subsidiary or tie station can also be selected (c) Two (d) Three
anywhere on the chain line and subsidiary or tie lines
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
may be run through them.
190. Full form of "SERIES"? Ans (c) : The principle of triangulation–
(a) Satellite Emission Radio Interferometric • If we know one side and two angles of a triangle then
Earth Surveying the remaining sides can be determined.
(b) State Emission Radio Interferometric Earth • If we know direction of one side then the direction of
Surveying remaining sides can be make up accurately.
(c) Series Emission Radio Interferometric Earh 195. Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a
Surveying method of determining the length between
(d) Segment Emission Radio Interfermetric Earth ......... points using electromagnetic waves.
Surveying (a) Three (b) Two
(e) Answer not known (c) Four (d) Five
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022 PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
Surveying 216 YCT
Ans (b) : Electronic distance measurement (EDM)–It 200. GIS is helpful in
is a technology used for measuring distances between (a) Creating digital map
two points with high precision. It is commonly (b) Analysis of the data
employed in surveying, construction, geodesy and (c) Map analysis
various engineering applications. EDM has largely (d) All of the above
replaced traditional methods of distance measurement, PGVCL VS JE 20/01/2022
such as chains and tapes due to its speed and accuracy. Ans. (d) : Geographical information system (GIS):
196. Which of the following is NOT an advanced • GIS is a computer system capable of assembling
surveying instrument ? storing manipulation and displaying geographically
(a) GPS (b) Plane table referenced information i.e. data identified acording to
(c) Total station (d) LDM their location.
GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II • A GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware
Ans. (b) : Advance Surveying Instruments– software geographic data and personnel to efficiently
• Total station capture store update manipulate analyze and display all
• Electronic distance measuring forms of geographically referenced information.
• Electronic theodolite 201. Which surveying method is most suitable for
• GPS (Global positioning system) large-scale mapping of extensity areas with
• LDM (Laser Distance Meter) high accuracy?
• Auto level (a) Plane table surveying
197. The Global Positioning System, formally (b) Photogrammetric
known as the Navstar Global Positioning (c) Compass surveying
System, was initiated as a joint civil/military (d) Tachometry
technical program in RITES AM 05/05/2024
(a) 1973 (b) 1993 Ans. (b) : Photogrammetry is a method of surveying in
(c) 1963 (d) 1983 which plans or maps are prepared from photographs
GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II taken from suitable camera stations.
Ans. (a) : The Global Positioning System, formally • This is also known as photographic surveying.
known as the Navstar Global Positioning System, was • Photogrammetric surveying or photogrammetry is
initiated as a joint civil/military technical program in the science and art of obtaining accurate
1973. measurements by use of photographs.
198. Which type of surveying instrument is used for • Photogrammetry is suitable for large scale mapping
measuring short distances with high precision? of extensity areas with high accuracy.
(a) Total station (b) Level 202. In Total station, the vertical angle is usually
(c) Ranging rod (d) Ranging pole measured as a?
RITES AM 05/05/2024 (a) Zenith angle (b) Inclined angle
Ans. (a) : Total station:- (c) Reflecting angle (d) Horizontal angle
• The total station is an improvised version of modern (e) Answer not known
surveying instruments such as EDM-Electronic TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
distance measurment auto level and digital level. Ans. (a) : Vertical angle–The vertical angle is
• Total station is a combination of an electronic measured relative to the local vertical (plumb) direction.
distance measurement (EDM). The vertical angle is usually measured as a zenith angle
• This combination makes it possible to determine the (0º is vertically up 90º is horizontal and 180º is
coordinates of reflector by aligning the instrument's vertically down) although one is also given the option
cross hair on the reflector and simultaneously of making 0º.
measuring the vertical and horizontal angles and 203. The limiting minimum declination of a
slope distances. circumpolar star having latitude 40ºN is ..........
• Total station of surveying instrument is used for (a) 40º (b) 50º
measuring short distances with high precision. (c) 90º (d) 0º
199. Which surveying method involves using aerial UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
photographs to create accurate maps and Ans. (b) : A circular star is a star that appears to move
models of the Earth's surface? in a circular path around the celestial pole without ever
(a) Photogrammetry (b) GPS surveying setting below the horizon. The declination of a star is
(c) Tachometry (d) Remote sensing the angular distance north or south of the celestial
RITES AM 05/05/2024 equator, measured along a great circles passing through
Ans. (a) : Photogrammetry–Aerial photography is the the celestial pole and the star.
branch of surveying that deals with production of maps • The declination of circumstances star is always greater
such as planimetric or topographic maps by compiling than colatitudes of the place of observation, so limiting
number of photographs taken in that area. declination = 900 – 400 = 500.
Surveying 217 YCT
204. Geodimeter is an example of Ans. (d) : Total station– A total station is a
(a) Stadia diaphragm instruments combination of an electronic theodolite and an
(b) Microwave instruments electronic distance meter (EDM). This combination
(c) Electro-optical instruments makes it possible to determine the coordinates of a
(d) Pneumatic mechanized instruments reflector by aligning the instruments cross-hairs on the
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 reflector and simultaneously measuring the vertical and
Ans. (c) :Geodimeter is an example of Electro-optical horizontal angles and slope distance.
instruments. • A total station, also known as an electronic tachometer
• The method, based on the propagation of modulated is an optical instrument.
light waves, was developed by E. Bergestrand of the 209. ____________ is a parameter that a total
Swedish Geographical Survey in collaboration with the station usually does NOT measure.
manufacturer, M/s AGA of Sweden. Of the several (a) Horizontal angle (b) Horizontal distance
models of the geodimeter manufactured by them, model (c) Vertical angle (d) Slope distance
2-A can be used only for observations made at night while
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning)
model-4 can be used for limited day time observations.
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
205. Which among the processes having more
accuracy in its output? 210. Total Station can be used for the measurement
(a) Total station of-
(b) Plane table surveying (a) Horizontal and vertical angles
(c) Chain surveying (b) Horizontal distance
(d) Compass surveying (c) Elevation
APWD Draughtsman (Civil) 19/02/2023 Shift-II (d) All of the above
Ans. (a) : • Chain survey is more accurate comparing UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022
to plane table survey. Ans. (a) See the above expalantion.
• Total station is the combination of conventional transit 211. Zero correction in electronic distance
theodolite with an EDM (Electronic Distance measure) measurement (EDM) instrument is due to
Instrument. It reads and records the horizontal and (a) difference of initial and final reading
vertical distances together with slope distance. The data (b) difference of distance travelled by waves and
of the total station survey can be fed into the computer the direct distance between the point of signal
very easily an instantaneously making it error free and arrival and centering mark
less time consuming. (c) delay of EDM signal
206. In a tachometric survey, which of the following (d) calibration error
instruments is used to measure horizontal and BMRCL 2023
vertical distances simultaneously? Ans. (b) : Electronic Distance measurement (EDM) is a
(a) Total station (b) Dumpy level method of determining the length between points using
(c) Theodolite (d) Planimeter electromagnetic waves. EDM is commonly carried out
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II with digital instruments called theodolites.
Ans. (a) : See the above Explanation. The three distinct systematic errors that may occur in
207. .............. is an EDM that uses high frequency EDM instruments are:–
radio waves (microwaves) for measuring (i) Cyclic or short periodic error
distance. (ii) Index (or zero) error
(a) Clinometer (b) Planimeter (iii) Scale error
(c) EDM (d) Tellurometer • Correction for zero or index error:–
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I It caused by three factors:–
Ans. (d) : Tellurometer– In the tellurometer, high • Electrical delays, geometric detours, and
frequency radio waves (or microwaves) are used instead eccentricities in the EDM,
of light waves. It can be working which a light weight • Differences between the electronic centre and the
12 or 24 volt battery. Hence the instrument is highly mechanical centre of the EDM.
portable. Observation can be taken both during day as • And differences between the optical and mechanical
well as night. centers of the reflector.
208. Total station is an equipment that can 212. In surveying, what does the acronym EDM
electronically measure _____. stand for?
(a) Only vertical angle and distance (a) Electronic distance measurement
(b) Only horizontal angle and distance (b) Estimated distance measurement
(c) Only distance (c) Environmental distance monitoring
(d) Both horizontal and vertical angle and (d) Engineered Distance Mapping
distance RITES AM 05/05/2024
Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023 Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
Surveying 218 YCT
213. The main parts of Total Station are 218. The global positioning system operated by the
(a) Theodolite, tripod, data collector US department of defence uses
(b) EDM, theodolite, GPS (a) 6 satellites (b) 12 satellites
(c) EDM, theodolite, data collector (c) 18 satellites (d) 24 satellites
(d) EDM, dumpy level, data collector Kerala PSC (PWD) AE 07/06/2023
PPSC Building Inspector 27/11/2022 Ans. (d) : GPS stands for global positioning system and
Ans. (c) : Total station– The total station in surveying it allows users to determines their location on land, sea,
is an instrument that is primarily designed as a and in the air around the earth.
combination of electronic transit theodolite, an • It does this using satellites and receivers there are
electronic distance meter (EDM), and software that runs currently 24 satellites in orbit operated by the US
on a computer which is referred to as the data collector. department of defence that provide work loading 3
214. _____________ instruments is the combination dimensional coverage 24 hours a day, 7 day a weak, in
of electronic theodolite and electronic distance all weather.
meter. 219. The advantage of GPS survey is
(a) Digital theodolite (b) Total station (a) Two dimensional
(c) Tachometer (d) Telemeter (b) Three dimensional
(e) Answer not known (c) Weather dependent
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022 (d) Only day time operation
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. (e) Answer not known
215. Which of the following waves is used in the TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
process of remote sensing? Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
(a) Electric field 220. Which of the following is not a segment of
(b) Sonar waves Global Positioning System?
(c) Gamma- rays (a) User segment
(d) Electro-magnetic waves (b) Independent segment
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 07/11/2022 Shift-II (c) Space segment
Ans. (d) : Remote sensing– Remote sensing may be (d) Control segment
defined as art and science of gathering the information UPSSSC Mandi Parishad Draftsman 22/05/2022
about objects, occurrence or area without having Ans. (b) : GPS segments-
physical contact with it. Eyesight's and photographs are Space segment– The space segment of the GPS
common examples of remote sensing in which artificial consists of a constellation of satellites orbiting the earth
light energy from electricity or sunlight it mean sea in a specific pattern.
level. The work consists in measurement of discharge of Control segment– The GPS control segment is a
streams, marking topographic survey of shores and globally distributed network of ground stations that
banks, taking and locating soundings the determine the moments and controls the satellite constellations.
depth of water and observing the fluctuations of the User segment- User segment consists of the GPS
ocean tide. receiver equipment, which receives the signal from GPS
216. In Map versus Aerial photograph, due to satellite and uses transmitted information to calculate
symbolic representation the clarity of details is the user's 3-D position and time.
(a) less on map than on a photo 221. Modern EDM instruments work on the
(b) more on map than on a photo principle of measuring.
(c) less on a photo than on map (a) the reflected energy generated by
(d) more on a photo than on map electromagnetic waves
ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023 (b) the change in frequency of the
Ans. (b) : The map is an orthographic projection, electromagnetic waves
whereas an aerial photograph is a central projection, i.e. (c) the phase difference between the transmitted
perspective projection. and the reflected electromagnetic waves
• Due to the symbolic representation, the clarity of (d) the total time taken by electromagnetic waves
details are more on map than a photo. in travelling the distance
217. How many GPS satellites are available in space DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I
segment? Ans. (c) : Principles of EDM– Electronic distance
(a) 33 (b) 21 measurement includes electro-optical (light waves) and
(c) 48 (d) 28 electromagnetic (micro waves) methods. The basic
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022 principle is the indirect determination of the time
Ans. (d) : Space segment- Space segment system has a required for a light beam to travel between two stations.
total of 28 GPS satellite in orbit around earth although 4 222. A smart station used in surveying consists of :
are prototype not used is main constellation. The satellite (a) Total station with an electromagnetic distance
constellation consists of the nominal 24 satellite measuring equipment
constellation. The satellites are positioned in six earth (b) A total with software to calculate the and
centered orbital planes with four satellite in each planner. display of quantities
Surveying 219 YCT
 (c) A total station with an integrated GPS module Ans. (c) : GPS (Globle Positioning System)–
(d) A Total station attached to a computer • The minimum number of satellites needed for a GPS
UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II to determine its position precisely is 4 nos.
Ans. (c) : A smart station used in surveying includes a • Number of working satellites 24 nos.
GPS unit with the total station. • Height of satellites 11500 miles
Fully integrated data storage and data processing,
Bluetooth data transfer or GPRS. • Speed 3.9 km/sec
No need for control points. 228. A major requirement of GIS application is:
223. When was the first Indian remote sensing (a) vector data structure
Bhaskara-1 launched? (b) the need to manage spatially referenced data
(a) October 1977 (b) July 1980 (c) images from satellites
(c) June 1979 (d) September 1981 (d) raster data structure
UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I BHEL Exe. Trainee, 24.08.2023
Ans. (c) :The satellite for earth observation, now called Ans. (b) :The development of technology and
Bhaskara was the first Indian remote sensing satellite. geographical world is taking place at a very fast pace.
Construction of the satellite began in 1973 by ISRO and This necessitates having a system capable to analyze
launched by a Soviet Launch vehicle from USSR into a and manipulate the spatially referenced data or remotely
near circular orbit in 7 June, 1979. sensed information and give the desired output in a
AS a follow up of Bhaskara SEO-II, which is also a very short time. The major requirement for data files
proto type of SEO-I was launch by 20 November 1981. used in a GIS (as alluded to in the previous discussion
224. ______ was the first Indian Experimental of basemap data) is that they condition some geographic
remote sensing satellite launched by a India attribute that the GIS application can use to place the
Space Research Organization [ISRO] on 7th objects in the data set on the basemap data for display
June 1979 purposes.
(a) ERTS–1 (b) Bhaskara–I
(c) IRS–1A (d) Land Stat–I 229. For zenith angles greater than 90°, the
telescope of the total station will be _________.
(e) Answer not known
(a) pointing to the right of the observer
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
(b) pointing upwards
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
(c) pointing downwards
225. What does EDM stand for? (d) pointing to the left of the observer
(a) Electromagnetic Distance Measurement SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning)
(b) Electrical Distance Meter
(c) Electronic Datum Meter Ans. (c) :Vertical angle–The vertical angle is measure
relative to the local vertical (plumb) direction. The
(d) Electrical Datum Measurement
vertical angle is usually measure as a zenith angle (0
NWDA JE (Civil) 01/08/2021
degree is vertically up, 90 degree is horizontal and 180
Ans. (a) :E.D.M– E.D.M stands for electronic distance degree is vertically down), although one is also given
measurement. the option of making 0 degree horizontal. The zenith
The term EDM is used to describe a category of angle is generally easier to work with the telescope with
instruments that measure distance using an electronic be pointing downward for zenith angles greater than 90
signal.
degree and upward for angles less than 90 degree.
• The instrument broadcasts a focus signal that is
returned by a prism or reflection from the object. 230. What does GIS stand for?
Advantage– (a) Geospatial Investigation system
• Precise measurement of distance (b) Geological Information System
• Line of sight instrument. (c) Geographic Information System
• Capable of measuring long distance. (d) Geographic Investigation System
DDA Surveyor 26-08- 2023
226. Which is the inclination of orbit of satellites in
space segment of GPS? Ans. (c) : Geographic information system (GIS)– GIS
(a) 500 (b) 450 is a computer based information system which attempts
(c) 55 0
(d) 400 to capture, store, manipulate, analyze and display
(e) Answer not known spatially referenced and associated attribute data for
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022 solving complex research, planning and management
Ans. (c) : The satellites in the GPS nominal problems.
constellation are arrange into in six equally spaced GIS is a system of hardware, software, data, and people
orbital planes with an inclination of 55 degrees in organizing, collecting, storing, analyzing and
relation to the equator. disseminating information about the areas of the earth.
227. The minimum number of satellites needed for a 231. What modern method of linear measurement
GPS to determine its position precisely as uses laser or infrared technology to calculate
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 24 distances between two points?
GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024 (a) GPS Surveying
Surveying 220 YCT
 (b) Tape Surveying 235. The forces in a 'Tripod carrying a camera' is
(c) Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) an example of:
(d) Chain Surveying (a) non-coplanar concurrent force system
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III (b) coplanar concurrent force system
(c) Coplanar non- concurrent force system
Ans. (c) : EDM is a general term embracing the (d) non-coplanar non- concurrent force system
measurement of distance using electronic methods. In MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-II
electro-magnetic (or electronics) method, distances are
Ans. (a) :The forces in a 'Tripod carrying a camera' is
measured with instruments that rely on propagation, an example of non-coplanar concurrent force system.
reflection and subsequent reception of either radio, Non-coplanar concurrent force system is the force
visible light or infra-red wave. which meet at one point but there lines action don’t lie
232. The calculations of distances and coordinates on the same plane
after traversing or contouring of any area by 236. EDM technology uses which type of waves to
using a total station can be stored on measure the distance between the instrument
_________. and a handheld reflector?
(a) a plane table survey sheet (a) Sound waves
(b) an electronic notebook attached with the total (b) Infra-red waves
station (c) Ultra-violet light waves
(c) the ground where survey has been conducted (d) Electromagnetic waves
(d) a manual survey notebook Kerala PSC Surveyor GR-II 24/05/2023
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 Ans. (d) : Electronic distance measurement (EDM)–
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of
Ans. (b) : Total Station- It is an electronic instrument determining the length between two points using
used in modern surveying and building construction that electromagnetic waves. EDM is commonly carried out
uses electronic transit theodolite in conjunction with an with digital instruments called theodolites.
electronic distance meter. Therefore total station can EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient
directly be used to calculate distances and coordinates pieces of surveying equipment and can be used to
after traversing or contouring of any area by using a measure distances of up to 100 km. Each piece of EDM
total station can be stored on electronic notebook equipment available at Engineering supply provides
attached with the total station. dependency accurate distance measurement displayed
on an easy to read digital screen.
233. Which of the following statements is correct
about measurement of the vertical angle while 237. Which of the following statements regarding an
electronic theodolite fitted with a graduated
using a total station?
circle encoded in an incremental system in
(a) It is usually measured as a zenith angle. INCORRECT?
(b) It is measured relative to the horizontal (a) The graduated circle is fixed and it does not
direction. move.
(c) It is measured from the instrument north in (b) Two photodiodes are placed perpendicular to
the horizontal plane. each over the graduated circle.
(d) An electronic digital theodolite is not able to (c) One of the photodiodes is fixed and the other
measure the vertical angle. moves with the telescope.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III (d) The graduated circle is made of glass.
Ans. (a) : The vertical angle is usually measured as a SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
zenith angle which indicates 0º vertically up, 90º at Ans. (b) :Electronic theodolite–Electronic theodolite
horizontal and 180º vertically down. The zenith angle is consists of a telescope mounted on a base an electric
read out screen to display vertical and horizontal angles.
generally easier to work. These are convenient as this creates more accurate
234. Which of the following statements gives an readings.
INCORRECT application of GPS? • Electronic theodolites function very similar to the
(a) GPS can be used to track the movement of optical theodolite and vernier transit.
vehicles. • A very unique characteristic of the electronic
(b) GPS can be used for preparation of maps. theodolites is that they have the ability to
(c) GPS can be used to determine the time electronically be interfaced to data collectors.
accurately. • In electronic theodolites, one of the photodiodes is
(d) GPS can be used to determine the position of fixed and other moves with the telescope and
a point in deep, underground mines. graduated circle is fixed and it does not move.
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I • In this method graduated circle is made of glass.
238. Which instrument is a combination of Edm,
Ans. (d) : Application of GPS–
electronic theodolite and microprocessor ?
1. It is used for preparation of maps. (a) diatomite (b) Tellurometer
2. It is used to track the movement of vehicles. (c) Total Station (d) Tacheometer
3. It is used to determine the time accurately. Kerala PSC (PWD) Draftsman 15/06/2023
Surveying 221 YCT
 Ans. (c) : Total station– It is combination of EDM 243. IRS P4 Satellite is used for
instrument and electronic theodolite. (a) Land use study
• It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic (b) Oceanographic data collection
data collector and storage system. (c) Agricultural study
• The instrument can be used to measure horizontal (d) Hydrological data collection
and vertical angles as well as sloping distance of TNPSC AE Civil 11.07.2022
object. Ans. (b) : Ocean satellite -IRS P4– A series of
239. Which of the following is the correct feature of satellites were launched under the Indian remote
geostationary satellites? sensing (IRS) mission. First of these series was IRS and
(a) These have same speed as the Earth's rotation. it was launched 26 May 1999 with liner imaging self
(b) These have same distance from the Earth's scanning sensor (LISS) having coverage of spectral
center. bands is visible and near infrared regions. It is the first
(c) These have same mass as global weight. ocean satellite of IRS serves to cater exclusively for
(d) These have same angle with geodetic stations. oceanographic data requirements.
TSPSC AE 18/10/2023
244. Let P and Q be the reference points on the
Ans. (a) : Geostationary satellites travel at the same
angular velocity at which the earth rotates, as a result, ground. You have to establish a point R. Which
they remain above the same point on earth at all times. of the following methods conforms to the
• A typical orbit has an altitude of almost 36000 km and fundamental principles of surveying?
a velocity of 12000 km/hr
240. The GPS satellites travel about
(a) 12000 Km/H (b) 12500 Km/H
(c) 7000 Km/H (d) 8000 Km/H
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
241. In a total station survey work, the leveling of (a) I, II and III (b) Only I and II
the total station and exact centering at a station (c) Only I (d) Only III
are respectively done by using. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
(a) Tripod legs and Standards (A- frame) Ans. (a) : Fundamental principles of surveying–
(b) Tripod legs, Levelling Foot screws and • To work from whole to part
Optical plummet • To locate a new station by at least two measurements
(c) Optical plummet and Automatic compensator (linear or angular) from the fixed reference point.
(d) Optical plummet, tripod legs and circular
bubble
UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II
Ans. (b) : Total station– A total station is a
combination of an electrical theodolite and an electronic
distance meter (EDM).
• This combination makes it possible to determine the
coordinates of a reflector by aligning the instruments
cross-hairs on the reflected and simultaneously 245. Which of the following is/are the main
measuring the vertical and horizontal angle and slope advantage of using a dumpy level in surveying?
distances. i) Simple to use
• The levelling of the total station and exact centering ii) Provides accurate level of reading
at a station are respectively done by using tripod iii) Can be used at night, without light
legs, levelling foot screws and optical plummet. (a) Only i (b) Only iii
242. In case of a remote sensing system, which of the (c) Only ii (d) Both i and ii
following factors does NOT affect the property SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
of a reflected incident radiation? Ans. (d) : A dumpy level is simple to use and provides
(a) Angle of incident radiation accurate level readings, making it a valuable tool in
(b) Roughness of the surface surveying. However, cannot be used effectively at night
(c) Wavelength of radiation without light.
(d) Type of electromagnetic radiation • Dumpy level is an optical instrument.
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning) 246. Which of the following staff readings is/are
Ans. (d) :The following factors are affect the taken at a turning point, that necesiates
property of a reflected incident radiation:- instruments change point in levelling work?
(1) Angle of incident radiation A) Fore sight
(2) Roughness of the surface B) Back sight
(3) Wavelength of radiation C) Intermediate sight
Surveying 222 YCT
 (a) Only B (b) Only A 250. Which of the following is the method of plane
(c) Both A and C (d) Both A and B tabling?
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I I. Traversing II. Resection
Ans. (d) : Change point–It is also known as turning (a) Only I (b) Both I and II
point. It is a point selected on the route shifting the (c) Neither I nor II (d) Only II
instrument. The staff is kept on the turning point and MH PWD CEA 16/12/2023 Shift-III
fore sight is taken before shifting the instrument. After
the instrument has been shifted and set up at the new Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
location, a back sight is taken on the staff still held at 251. Contour diagrams are given in figures A and B.
the change point. Select the correct option.
247. Which of the following is the method of plane
table survey?
I. Radiation II. Resection
(a) Neither I nor II (b) Both I and II
(c) Only II (d) Only I
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Methods of plane tabling– There are
various type :
(i) Radiation
(ii) Intersection (a) Both figures A and B represent a saddle
(iii) Traversing (b) Figure A represents a valley line, and figure B
(iv) Resection represents a ridge line
(i) Radiation– After setting up of the plane table over (c) Figure A represents a vertical cliff line, and
a station point rays are drawn in the direction of the figure B represents an overhanging cliff line
details through the station point locate on the map. The (d) Figure A represents a ridge line, and figure B
distances to the details from the station points are
represents a valley line
measured and represented to the scale of the map on the
respective radiation lines. DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I
(ii) Intersection– At least two rays are drawn from two Ans. (d) : Contour characteristic
different stations to the detail to be located and the A series of equally Equally spaced contour
detail is located on the map of their intersection. spaced contour line lines represent uniform
(iii) Traversing– The frame work of traverse in the indicate plane surface. slope.
field, be it closed or open, is drawn on the map by
setting up the table over each of the stations constituting
the frame work and drawing rays towards the
subsequent stations.
(iv) Resection– This method is employed to locate the
station point over which the table has been set up on the
map with respect to the plotted details resection may be
simple resection, two point resection and there point
resection.
248. Identify the methods used for locating the
‘plane table stations’ from the mentioned
methods below.
I. Radiation
II. Intersection Widely spaced contour Closely spaced contour
III. Traversing lines indicate gentle lines indicate steep slope.
IV. Resection slope.
(a) I and II (b) II and III
(c) III and IV (d) I and IV
JKPSC AE 14-05-2023
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
249. Identify the CORRECT methods from the
following that are available to perform plane
table surveying :
I. Radiation II. Intersection
III. Traversing IV. Resection
(a) I, II and III (b) II, III and IV Closed contour lines Closed contour lines with
(c) I, III and IV (d) I, II, III and IV with higher value inside lower value towards
UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022 centre indicate hill or centre indicate
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. rising ground. depression, pond or lake.

Surveying 223 YCT

 Ans. (d) :

Contour lines cut the if the value decreases B.S. = Back sight = 1.345, 1.105, 2.005
Change point = Where back sight and fore sight is
ridge or watershed line towards inside of loop, it taken. First reading made on a point of known reduce
and valley or drainage indicate a valley line. level is always a back sight reading.
line at right angles (900). V-shaped contours with
254. If in laying an offset, the likely angular error is
If in a loop elevation of convexity towards higher 3 degree, then the limiting length of the offset
contour lines increase ground represent hills for it to be negligible in a plan drawn to a scale
towards inside it /valley. of 1 cm = 20 m is (take the plotting accuracy as
indicates ridge. 0.025 cm):
U-shaped contours with (a) 7.55 m (b) 9.55 m
convexity towards lower (c) 8.25 m (d) 10.25 m
ground represents ridge. DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (b) : Given,
Angular error (θ) = 3º
Scale (S) = 1 cm = 20 m
= 0.025 cm (Maximum length of error allowed on the
drawing)
So,
ℓ sin θ
cm = 0.025 cm
S
0.0255
ℓ=
Depression between summits is called a saddle. It is sin θ
represented by four sets of contour. l = 0.025 S cosec θ
l = 0.025 × 20 × cosec 3º
l = 9.55 m
255. To determine the length of a chain crossing a
water body is shown in figure, the following
measurements were recorded.

252. 105 -------------------

100 ------------------- CA = AD = 40 metre;
95 ------------------- ∠CAD = 900;
90 ------------------- CE = 76.8 m;
What does the equally spaced contour as shown ∠ACE = 900 = ∠DFE
in above figure indicates? The length of AB, rounded to one digit, is ____.
(a) Flat surface (b) Steep ground (a) 45.7 m (b) 44.7 m
(c) Uniform slope (d) Uneven surface (c) 45.2 m (d) 43.4 m
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
M.P. NHM Sub Engineer Civil 20-09-2023
Ans. (d) :
Ans. (c) : See the above Explanation.
253. Seven readings were taken with a level as 1.345,
1.525, 0.785, 1.105, 1.855, 2.005 and 1.985. If
the instrument was shifted after the third and
fifth readings, the readings recorded under the
backsight column would be
(a) 1.345, 0.785, 1.885 (b) 1.105, 2.005
(c) 1.345, 2.005 (d) 1.345, 1.105, 2.005
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-II
Surveying 224 YCT
Then, length of AB = ? Ans. (b) : Given,
FE = (76.8 – 40) m = 36.8 m WCB - 150º12'
By the similarity triangle, BCE and DFE RB = ?
AB + AC FD
=
CE FE
AB + 40 40
=
76.8 36.8
AB = 43.478 m ≃ 43.40 m
256. Following are the data of an externally focusing
telescope used for a tacheometric survey.
Staff intercept 1.52 m
Interval between stadia hair 5 mm θ = 180º – 150º12'
θ = S29º48'E
Distance between the vertical axis 120 m
259. ___ consists of establishing the horizontal and
of the telescope and the objective
vertical positions of widely spaced control
Focal length of the objective 0.3 m points using the principle of geodetic surveying.
The value of the multiplying constant is (a) Land surveying (b) City surveying
___ (c) Control surveying (d) Route surveying
(a) 60 (b) 24 Panvel Municipal Corp. Surveyor (Civil) 10/12/2023
(c) 12.67 (d) 2.5 Ans. (c) :Control surveying– It consist of establishing the
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I horizontal and vertical positions of widely spaced control
points using the principle of geodetic surveying in India,
Ans. (a) : Given,
control surveying is done by the survey of India.
Staff intercept (s) = 1.52 m
260. In geodetic surveying, which of the following
Focal length of objective (f) = 0.3 m statements is NOT true ?
Interval between stadia hair (i) = 5 mm = 0.005 m (a) The angle of triangle are considered as plain
f 0.3 300 angles
Multiplying constant (K) = = = = 60 (b) The earth surface is considered as Curved
i 0.005 5 Surface.
257. The length of a line measured with 20 m chain (c) The line joining any two stations is
was found to be 500 m. It was subsequently considered as spherical
found that the chain was 0.04 m longer. What (d) Carried out for a small area < 250 km2
Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023
is the correct length of line?
Ans. (a&d) : Geodetic surveying– The surveying in
(a) 499m (b) 500.04 m
which the curvature of earth is taken into consideration
(c) 501 m (d) 502 m are known as geodetic surveying.In geodetic surveying
CSEB JE 03.03.2024 the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration.
Ans. (c) : Given, Geodetic surveying is a method of measuring large
areas of the earth's surface with high accuracy and
Actual length of chain = 20 m precision It is extended over a large area. It is carried
Measured length of line = 500 m over an area exceeding 250 km2.
Corrected length of chain = 20.04 m • It uses a reference system such as the world geodetic
True length = ? system 1984 (WGS84) to define coordinates and
elevations of points on the earth.
Solving
• National boundary survey is an example of geodetic
True length = Wrong length of chain ×Measured distance survey.
Correct length of chain
• Angles are considered as spherical.
20.04 Geodetic surveying–Geodetic surveying is that type of
True length = × 500 surveying in which the shape of the earth is taken into
20
account and earth surface is taken as spherical. All lines
True length (L) = 501 m. lying in the surface area curves lines and the triangles
258. If whole circle bearing (WCB) is 150o12', what are spherical triangles.
will be value in quadrantal bearing (QB)? Plane surveying– In plane surveying the curvature of
the earth is not taken into consideration. This is because
(a) N 25o 12' W (b) S 29o 48' E
o surveying is carried out over a small area so the surface
(c) S 29 48' W (d) N 19o 48' E of the earth is considerd as plane. Plane surveying is
MH Solapur Asstt. JE Class 3, 17.02.2024 done on an area of less than 250 km2.
Surveying 225 YCT
261. Geodetic surveying is conducted by the Survey (i) Working from whole to part–
of India department and is carried out over an • Working from the whole to the part is the ruling
area exceeding principle in surveying.
(a) 150 km2 (b) 200 km2 • The whole area is first enclosed by main stations and
2
(c) 50 km (d) 250 km2 main survey lines. The area is then divided into a
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II number of parts by framing well conditioned triangle. A
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation nearly equilateral triangle is considered to be the best
well conditioned triangle. The main survey lines are
262. Preliminary survey of project includes: measured very accurately with a standard chain then the
(a) Contract documents sides of the triangle are measured. The purpose of this
(b) Soil and traffic survey with the approximate process of working is to prevent accumulation of error.
cost of project • Errors and mistakes of one portion do not affect the
(c) All possible alternatives of project remaining portion.
(d) Detailed design and cost estimate (ii) Location of a point by measurement from two
JKSSB JE 27/10/2021 Shift-I points of reference–
Ans. (b) : Preliminary survey is the first stage in the • The principles of fixing a point in relation to points
process of planning and designing of any engineering already located is based on the fact that it is always
project. The main objective of a preliminary survey is to possible to select two points in the area to be surveyed,
collect the necessary physical information and details of and measure the distance between them.
topography, drainage and soil properties.
263. In plane surveying, level lines are considered as
_______ and plumb lines are considered as
_____.
(a) parallel; straight (b) straight; straight
(c) parallel; parallel (d) straight; parallel
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning)
Ans. (d) :Plane survey–In this type of surveying, the
mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane and
the spheroidal shape is neglected.
• All triangles formed by survey lines are considered
as plane triangles.
• These principles are suitable for plane as well as
• The level line is taken as straight and all plumb lines geodetic surveying.
are considered to be parallel.
266. According to the fundamental principles of
• Plane surveying is done for smaller areas in surveying, what is the purpose of working from
consideration. whole to part and forming well-conditioned
264. A well-conditioned triangle has angles not less triangles?
than and more than respectively (a) To minimize the use of survey instruments
(a) 20° and 120° (b) 90° and 120° (b) To speed up the surveying process
(c) 10° and 90° (d) None of these (c) To create complex survey designs
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023 (d) To control the accumulation of errors
Ans. (d) : A triangle is said to be well conditioned if it UPRVUNL AE 17/07/2022
can be plotted accurately by the intersection of area Ans. (d) :See the above explanation.
from the end of baseline.
267. A survey station must be fixed with reference
• An equilateral triangle is the best well conditioned to a minimum _______ permanent objects on?
triangle or ideal triangle possible. (a) 10 (b) 5
• If not possible to have an equilateral triangle it must (c) 15 (d) 2
ensure that no angle is less than 300 and greater than APWD Draughtsman (Civil) 19/02/2023 Shift-II
1200.
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
265. In surveying, a point is established using:
(a) at least two points of reference 268. Into how many principles is surveying based on?
(b) at the most three points of reference (a) 10 (b) 5
(c) at least two, already fixed points of reference (c) 15 (d) 2
(d) at the most two, already fixed points of GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024
reference Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 03/10/2023 269. What type of error is introduced when the chain
Ans. (c) :Principle of surveying– The fundamental or tape is longer than its standard length?
principles upon which the various methods of plane (a) Positive error (b) Zero error
surveying are based are of very simple nature and can (c) Systematic error (d) Negative error
be stated under the following two aspects. TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
Surveying 226 YCT
Ans. (a) : Types of errors in chaining– Ans. (d) : The simplest instrument used for setting out
• Incorrect length of tap → Cumulative +, or – right angles is a cross staff. It consists of either a frame
or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on
• Bad ranging → Cumulative +
a pole shod for fixing in the ground.
• Tape not stretched horizontally The common forms of cross staff are–
→ Cumulative + (a) Open cross staff –To setout 900
• Error due to temperature → Cumulative + or – (b)French cross staff –To set out 45o, 90o and 135o
• Variation in pull → Compensating ± angles.
• Error due to sag → Cumulative + (c) adjustable cross staff– To set out any angle
• Error in marking tap length → Compensating
• Disturbing arrows after they are set → Blunder
• Errors in reading the tape → Mistake
• Incorrect counting of tape length → Blunder
• If the actual length of the tape is greater than the
nominal or designated length the measured distance will
be too short and error will be negative and vice-versa. 273. The instrument used for setting out an offset at
Error = Measure distance – True distance. a right angle is called ______.
270. ‘Representative Fraction’ (RF) is defined as (a) French cross staff (b) Open cross staff
(a) Length of an object in the drawing / Actual (c) Adjustable cross staff (d) All of the above
length of the object ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
(b) Length of an object in the drawing / Isometric Ans. (d) :See the above explanation.
length of the object 274. Which of the following is an obstacle to both
(c) Actual length of the object / Length of an ranging and chaining?
object in the drawing (a) Building (b) Hill
(d) Isometric length of the object / Length of an (c) Ground (d) River
object in the drawing TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 Ans. (a) :Obstacles in Chaining- Obstacles to chaining
prevent chaining from measuring directly between two
Ans. (a) :Representative fraction (RF)– A points and give rise to a set of problems in which
representative fraction is the ratio of distance on the distance are found by indirect measurements.
map to distance on the ground is known as a Obstacles to chaining are of three kinds-
representative fraction (RF). (a) Obstacles to ranging
Map distance (b) Obstacles to chaining
RF= (c) Obstacles to both chaining and ranging– A
Ground distance
building is the typical example of this type of obstacle.
Note–
• The problem lies in prolonging the line beyond the
RF > 1 – Map size will be greater than actual size
obstacles and determining the distance across it.
RF = 1 – Map size will be equal actual size
275. The angle of intersection of the two plane
RF < 1 – Map size will be less than actual size. mirror of an optical square is
271. Diagonal scale is used to measure : (a) 30º (b) 45º
(a) metre, decimetre and centimetre (c) 60º (d) 90º
(b) metre, decimetre, centimetre and angle UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
(c) metre and angles Ans. (b) : Optical square– An optical square is a small
(d) metre and decimetre only pocket instrument, slightly larger than a watch. It is
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift II used for setting out right angles.
Ans. (a) : Diagonal scale – On a diagonal scale, it is • The optical square is more convenient and more
accurate than a cross staff.
possible to measure three dimensions such as metres,
decimetres and centimetres, units, tenths and
hundredths, yards, feet and inches etc.
A short length is divided into a number of parts by
using the principle of similar triangles in which like
sides are proportional.
272. Cross - staff is used for_______
(a) Taking levels
(b) Measuring contours
(c) Measuring distance
(d) Setting out right angles
Gujarat AMC Asst. Surveyor 26/02/2023
Surveying 227 YCT
• There are two mirrors, H and I, placed vertically (a) variation in temperature
above the base and inclined at 450 to each other. The (b) sag in chain
mirror H is called horizon glass, is unsilvered at the (c) careless holding and marking
bottom and silvered on the top. (d) bad ranging
• The mirror I, called as index glass, is fully painted SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
silvered and opposite to the opening O2. Ans. (c) : When error not occurs in same direction in
276. Which is one of the simplest instruments used chain surveying is called as compensating error.
to set out a right angle to a line chain? compensating error ∝ ℓ
(a) Cross staff (b) Optical square compensating error due to –
(c) Site staff (d) Prism square • Careless holding and marking
AMC Asst. Surveyor 26/02/2023 • Error in marking tape length
Ans. (a) :Cross staff–The cross staff or an open cross • Variation in pull.
staff is a simple instrument used for setting out offsets 281. Which of the following scales may NOT given
to the chain line from a given point. It is also used for accurate measurements of a plan drawn on a
setting out a right angle at a given point on the chain paper, due to shrinkage after few years?
line and also used to locate the foot of the perpendicular (a) Representative fraction and graphical scale
from a given point to a line. (b) Engineer's scale and graphical scale
• The accuracy of the French Cross Staff is less than (c) Graphical scale
that of an Open Cross Staff. (d) Engineer's scale and representative fraction
Type of cross staff– SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning)
(a) open cross staff Ans. (d) :Engineer's scale–It is an instrument that is
(b) French cross staff similar to a ruler and it is used to measure scale on
(c) adjustable cross staff. technical drawings. This scale is represented by a
277. The purpose of an open cross staff in chain statement like 1 cm = 10 cm. Here 1 cm on the plan
survey is : represents 10 m on the ground distance.
(a) Alignment of a survey line Representative fraction–It is the ratio of map distance
(b) Setting out a line at an angle to a survey line to the ground distance. Where one unit of length on the
at a point plan represents some number of the same units of length
(c) Marking of survey stations on the ground. Example–
(d) Setting perpendicular lines to survey lines 1 cm = 10 m is represented in RF as 1:2000.
UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II
Shrunk length on map
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. Shrinkage factor =
Original length on map
278. Which of the following is used to locate the foot
of perpendicular from a known point on survey 282. Theory of probability can be applied to
line? (a) Cumulative errors only
(a) Tape (b) Alidade (b) Accidental errors only
(c) Cross-staff (d) Chain (c) Both accidental and cumulative errors
CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023 (d) None of the above is correct
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-I
279. Systematic errors in surveying is an error: Ans. (b) : Theory of probability– Investigations of
(a) which is beyond the control of the surveyor observations of various type show that accidental errors,
(b) which occurs from unknown causes follow a definite law, the low of probability. This law
(c) whose magnitude and sign changes frequently defines the occurrence of errors and can be expressed in
(d) which occurs from well-understood causes the form of equation which is used to compute the
and can be reduced by adopting suitable probable value or the probable precision of a quantity.
methods The most important features of accidental (or
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-II compensating) errors which usually occur are-
Ans. (d) : Systematic errors (cumulative errors) - • Small errors tend to be more frequent than the large
A systematic error or cumulative error is an error that, ones- that is they are more probable.
under the same conditions, will always be of the same • Positive and negative errors of the same size happen
size and sign. A systematic error always follows some with equal frequency that is they are equally probable.
definite mathematical or physical law and a correction • Large errors occur infrequently and are improbable.
can be determined and applied. Such errors are of 283. The scale for the index plan is equal to ...........
constant character and are regarded as positive or (a) 50 km to 1 cm (b) 5 km to 1 cm
negative according as they make the result too great or (c) 0.5 km to 1 cm (d) 0.05 km to 1 cm
too small. Their effect is therefore, cumulative. Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2
280. Among the following factors that can cause an Ans. (c) :Index plan–It shows general topography and
error during distance measurement in obligatory points of the country. They are generally
chaining, the compensating error is caused by drawn at scale of 1 in 50,000 (0.5 km to 1 cm
_________. horizontal).
Surveying 228 YCT
Preliminary survey plan–These survey reveal material length is more than a chain length such that the
availability approximate quantity of earthwork soil measurement is made along a straight line.
profile etc. • Ranging rods are 30 mm in diameter and 2 or 3 m
It is also bears the details of various alternative long.
alignments and they are usually prepared with a scale of • They are painted with alternate bands of either red
100 mm = 1 km to 250 mm = 1 km and white or black and white of 200 mm height such
Key plan–It shows detailed of existing road network that at sometimes the rod can also used for the rough
and important intermediate point. measurement of short lengths.
284. Which of the following measuring chains are 287. The ranging rods are painted alternatively with
generally available in lengths 5, 10, and 20 red and white (or) black and red (or) black and
metres? white bands (each) of height ______ cm.
(a) Surveyor's chains (b) Metric chains (a) 30 (b) 15
(c) Steel bands (d) Revenue chains (c) 20 (d) 50
JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil) (d) Answer not known
Ans. (b) : Metric Chain (IS : 1492-1970)– TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
It is the most commonly used chain in India. Metric Ans. (c) :See the above explanation.
chains are generally available in lengths of 5, 10, 20 and 288. ____ are the lines which are run in the field to
30 m. Number of links per meter length - 5. check the accuracy of the work in surveying.
Total length- 30m, 20m, number of link - 150, 100 , Per (a) Tie lines (b) Main lines
link length - 20 cm. Brass ring is provided at every (c) Check lines (d) Base lines
meter except tallies place. This chain provides length in CRPF SI 25/06/2023
SI unit.
Ans. (c) : Check line–
• Check lines or proof lines are the lines which are run
in the field to the check accuracy of the work. The
length of the check line measured in the field must
agree with its length on the plane.
• The measurement length of the check line and the
computed one (from the scale of the plan) must be
the same as base line.
• A check line may be laid by joining the apex of the
285. The invar tape is made of _____. triangle to any point on the opposite side or by
(a) Alloy of carbon and steel joining two points on any two sides of a triangle.
(b) Alloy of zinc and steel Each triangle must have a check line.
(c) Alloy of nickel and steel 289. What is the purpose of a check line in chain
(d) Alloy of aluminum and steel surveying?
MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-II (a) To establish a baseline for subsequent Surveying?
Ans. (c) : Invar tape– Invar is a 36% nickel and 64% (b) To determine the magnetic declination
steel alloy which has the lowest thermal expansion (c) To measure the height of landmarks
among all metals and alloys in the range from room (d) To check the accuracy of measurements in
temperature up to approximately 2300C. It is 6 mm wide survey work
and is available in lengths of 30 m, 50 m and 100 m. DDA Surveyor 26-08- 2023
• It is costly and delicate and should be handled with Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
great care. It is highly precise and less effected by 290. In a triangulation network, at least one line
temperature changes. that needs to be measured accurately to
• It is having the lowest coefficient of thermal calculate the site of the triangle is known as
expansion recommended for applications requiring (a) Check line (b) Tie line
no dimensional changes with temperature variations. (c) Base line (d) side line
• Invar tapes are used mainly for linear measurements UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II
of a very high degree of precision such as Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
measurement of base line.
291. Which is the chain with 33 ft length, mainly
286. In a ranging process, which instrument helps in used for measuring fields in cadastral survey?
aligning intermediate surveying points in a (a) Engineer's chain (b) Surveyor's chain
straight line between two main stations? (c) Gunter's chain (d) Revenue chain
(a) Cross staff (b) Optical square
JKSSB JE 27/10/2021 Shift-III
(c) Arrow (d) Ranging rod
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 16/10/2023 Ans. (d) :Revenue chain:- The revenue chain is 33 feet
Ans. (d) : Ranging rod – Ranging rods are used to
1
long and consists of 16 links each link being 2 ft,
locate intermediate points such that these points lie on 16
the straight line joining the end stations. Ranging is long. The chain is mainly used for measuring field in
must before starting the measurement of a line whose cadastral survey.

Surveying 229 YCT

292. The biggest of the main survey line is called the Ans. (a) : Offsets– An offset is the distance of an object
_____ and the various survey station are or ground feature measured from a survey line. By
plotted with reference to this. method of offsets, the point or object is located by
(a) Base line (b) Check line measurement of a distance and angle (usually 900) from
(c) Proof line (d) Tie line a point on the chain line, when the angle of offset is 900,
TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023 it is called perpendicular offset or sometimes, simply
offset and when the angle is other than 900, it is called
Ans. (a) :Base line– The line on which the frame work an oblique offset.
of the survey is built is known as the base line. It is the
295. _____ also called a surveyor's chain, is 66 feet
most important line of survey. Generally, the longest long and it consist of 100 links, each of 0.66
line of the main survey lines is considered as base line. feet.
This lines should be taken through a fairly level ground. (a) Metric chain (b) Gunter's chain
It should be measured carefully and accurately. It is the (c) Revenue chain (d) Engineer's chain
main and longest line, which passes approximately DDA JE 19/10/2023 (Shift-I)
through the cenetre the field. Ans. (b) : Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain– The
Gunter's chain was introduced by Edmund Gunter of
England. This chain has total length of 66 feet which is
divided into 100 links. Each link of this chain has 0.66
feet or 7.92 inch length.
The various types of chain are as mentioned under
below–
Revenue chain – 33 ft. long (16 links)
Gunter's chain – 66 ft. long (100 links)
Engineer's chain – 100 ft. long (100 links)
Metric chains– 30 (150 links) or 20 m (100 links)
296. Identify the INCORRECT statement regarding
magnetic meridian.
(a) Magnetic meridian can be affected by any
serious magnetic interference.
293. What is the purpose of doing a chain survey? (b) The direction is indicated by a freely
(a) To determine the exact distance between two suspended and balanced magnetic needle
points on the earth's surface unaffected by local attractive forces.
(b) To determine the exact latitude and longitude (c) Magnetic meridian through a point on the
coordinates of a point of land on the earth's ground is the direction taken by a freely
surface directly suspended magnetic needle placed at that
(c) To determine the exact height of a point on point.
the earth's surface (d) Direction of magnetic meridian through a
(d) To determine the exact coordinates of a point point on the ground is constant.
on the earth's surface DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-II
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 05/10/2023 Ans. (b) : Magnetic meridian- The magnetic meridian
Ans. (a) : The purpose of doing a chain survey– To through a point is the direction shown by a freely
determine the exact distance between two points on the floating and balanced magnetic needle free from all
earth's surface. other altractive forces. The direction of magnetic
Chain triangulation– Chain surveying is that type of meridian can be established with the help of a magnetic
surveying in which only linear measurements are made compass.
in the field. 297. What is utilised to designate the locations of the
• This type of surveying is suitable for surveys of small survey line's stations and terminating points?
extent on open ground to secure data for exact (a) Plumb bob (b) pegs
description of the boundaries of a piece of land or to (c) Ranging rods (d) Arrows
take simple details. APWD Draughtsman (Civil) 19/02/2023 Shift-II
294. In chain surveying, offsets are Ans. (b) : Pegs– These are used to mark definite points
(a) lateral measurements made with respect to on the ground either temporarily or semi-permanently.
main survey lines The exact point from which the measurements are to be
(b) only perpendicular erected from chain lines taken or over which an instrument is to be set are often
(c) taken to avoid unnecessary walking between marked on the peg using nails.
stations • Marking the survey stations in soft ground is done by
(d) measurements which are not made at right pegs.
angles to the chain line • pegs is utilised to designate the location of the survey
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022 line's station and terminating points.

Surveying 230 YCT

 Arrow– When measuring the length of a long line, the (i) An error is observation of either fore or back
tape has to be laid down a number of times and the bearing, or both.
positions of the ends are marked with arrow. (ii) Presence of local attraction at either or both of the
298. ________is the method of location an offset stations.
point from 2 different points on a chain line in 301. .................... is a term which prevents the needle
such a way that all the three points form a from positioning to the magnetic north in a
near-equilateral triangle. given locality.
(a) Method of ties (a) Declination (b) Deviation
(b) Swing offset method (c) Local attraction (d) Local distraction
(c) Oblique offset method AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
(d) Perpendicular offset method Ans. (c) :See the above explanation
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
302. _____is the phenomenon by which the magnetic
Ans. (a) :Method of ties–The purpose of a tie line is needle is constantly prevented to point towards
two-fold, firstly it enables checking of the accuracy of the magnetic north at a place.
the network and secondary locating the interior details, (a) Declination (b) Dip
which are comparatively far away from the main (c) Local attraction (d) Deviation
survey line. Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 Shift II
• Generally, it is a method of locating offset point from Ans. (c) :See the above explanation
two different point on a chain line and all three points 303. In case of compass surveying, the bearing of a
form a near equilateral triangle. line in the direction of progress of the survey is
Oblique offset–When measurements not made at right called __________.
angles to the survey lines are called tie line offsets or (a) back bearing (b) dip angle
oblique offsets. (c) local attraction (d) fore bearing
Perpendicular offset–When perpendicular distance MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
measured from a known points on the main line to the Ans. (d) :Fore bearing - The bearing of a line
object is called as perpendicular offset. measured in the direction of progress- of the survey is
299. The error in measured length due to sag of called fore bearing
chain or tape is known as ______.
(a) Positive error (b) Negative error
(c) Compensating error (d) Instrumental error
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
Ans. (a) : Sag in chain (cumulative +ve)– When the
distance is measured by 'stepping' or when the chain is
stretched above the ground due to undulations or
irregular ground, the chain sags and takes the form of a
catenary. The measured distance is, therefore, too great where, θ = fore-bearing
and the error is cumulative and positive. Back bearing -The bearing of a line measured in
The location of an object is determined by sighting at direction backward to the direction of the progress of
the object from two plane table stations (previously) survey is called back bearing.
plotted and drawing the rays. The intersection of these
rays will give the position of the object.
300. Identify the primary cause of local attraction in
compass surveying?
(a) Instrumental errors in the compass
(b) Nearby magnetic substances or electrical 304. How many methods for eliminating the effects
interference of local attraction?
(c) Natural Earth's magnetic field (a) One (b) Two
(d) Human errors during observation (c) Three (d) Four
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I (e) Answer not known
Ans. (b) : Detention of local attraction– TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
• The local attraction at any station is detected by Ans. (b) : Elimination of local attraction–If there is
observing the fore and back bearing of the line. local attraction at a station, all the bearings measured at
• If the difference between them is 1800 both the end that place will be incorrect and the amount of error will
stations are considered to be free from local be equal in all the bearings.
attraction provided the compass is not having any • There are two methods for eliminating the effects of
instrument errors. local attractions -
• If the differences is not 1800, the discrepancy (i) Starting from station free from local attraction.
introduced may be because of : (ii) Using method of included angles.
Surveying 231 YCT
305. Which book are used for recorded all 309. The maps that show the detailed physical
observations and measurements taken during features of a particular place are called _____
chain surveying? maps.
(a) Study book (a) atmospheric (b) economic
(b) Chain book (c) symbolic (d) topographical
(c) Field book DLB Senior Draftsman 2021
(d) Double lined book Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
JKSSSB JE 05.12.2022 shift-1 310. The most widely used system in India for
Ans. (c) :Field book–All observations and measurements angular measurement is :
taken during chain surveying are to be recorded in a (a) Centesimal system
(b) Sexagesimal system
standard field book. It is a long book of size 20 cm × 12
(c) Hours system
cm, which can be carried in the pocket. There are two
(d) Representative fraction
forms of the book (i) single line and (ii) double line.
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
306. Size of field book in chain survey Ans. (b) : Three popular systems of angular
(a) 10 cm × 30 cm (b) 20 cm × 12 cm measurements–
(c) 20 cm × 22 cm (d) 10 cm × 12 cm 1. Sexagesimal system
(e) Answer not known 2. Centesimal system
APWD Draughtsman (Civil) 19/02/2023 Shift-II 3. Hours system
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. • The sexagesimal system is widely used in India,
307. Which of the following type of survey consists United States, Great Britain.
of horizontal and vertical location of certain 311. The operation in which the distances are
point by linear and angular measurement and measured using a chain or tape is called
it made to determine the natural features of a ______.
country such as rivers, streams, lakes? (a) odometer method of measurement
(a) Hydrographic survey (b) pacing
(b) Topographical survey (c) pedometer method measurement
(d) chaining
(c) Cadastral survey
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
(d) Astronomical survey
Ans. (d) : Chaining– Chain is a term which is used to
ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023
denote measuring distance either with the help of a chain
Ans. (b) : Classification of survey– or a tape and is the most accurate method of marking direct
Topographical surveys– This consists of horizontal measurements for work of ordinary precision a chain can
and vertical location of certain points by linear and be used for higher precision a tape can be used.
angular measurements and is made to determine the There are different types of chains -
natural features of a country such as rivers, streams, • Metric chain
lakes, woods, hills etc and artificial features as roads, • Engineer's chain
railways, canals, towns and villages. • Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain
• The maps that show the detailed physical features of a • Revenue chain
particular place are called topographical maps. 312. Which of the following direct measurement
Engineering survey– This is undertaken for the instrument is the most accurate method of
determination of quantities or to afford sufficient data for making direct measurements?
the designing of engineering works such as roads and (a) Chaining (b) Passometer
reservoirs or those connected with sewage disposal or (c) Speedometer (d) Pedometer
water supply. JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 03/10/2023
Military survey– This is used for determining points of Ans. (a) : See the above explanation
strategic importance. 313. Following the fundamental principles of
Mine survey–This is used for the exploring mineral surveying, the minimum number of control
wealth. points required for establishing a new station is
Geological survey– This is used for determining ________.
different strata in the earth's crust (a) 4 (b) 1
308. Surveys which are carried out to show natural (c) 2 (d) 3
features of country such as rivers, hills etc., is SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
(a) Cadastral survey Ans. (c) :Principle of surveying–
(b) Engineering survey 1. Work from whole to part.
(c) Topographic survey 2. Fixing position of new control point.
(d) None of the above • For fixing new control point (station) with respect to
ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II already fixed points, at least two independent process
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation. should be followed.
Surveying 232 YCT
CAD SOFTWARE Auto CAD is a commercial operating system
CAD is an advance computer software that is used software.
for creating designs and generate technical drawings It is developed by Autodesk company (America) in
in 2D and 3D by engineers, architects and drafters. December 1982.
CAD - Computer Aided Design. Founder - John Walker, Father - Mike Riddle.
CADD - Computer Aided Design & Drafting. Latest version auto CAD 2022.12

Computer Aided Design 233 YCT

 OFFSET Command O
POLYGON Command POL
TRIM TR
Polyline PL
CIRCLE Command C
ELLIPS Command EL
Property Palette Ctrl + 1
To design Center Palette Ctrl + 2
Tool Palette Ctrl + 3
Sheet Set Palette Ctrl + 4
Close the application window Alt + F4
Displays the text window Alt + F2
Displays the macros dialog box Alt + F8
Close the current drawing Ctrl + F4
Move the next file tab Ctrl + F6
Toggles markup set manager Ctrl + 7
Toggles the quick calc palette Ctrl + 8
Toggles the command line Ctrl + 9
window
Selects all the objects in drawing Ctrl + A
that are not locked or frozen
Toggle snap Ctrl + B
Copies objects to the clip board Ctrl + C
Copies objects to the window Ctrl + Shift + C
clipboard with base point.
To paste the copied object Ctrl + Shift + V
Toggles dynamic UCS Ctrl + D
Toggles running object snaps Ctrl + F
Toggles grid display mode Ctrl + G
Toggles the coordinates display Ctrl + I
Deselect the selected object Shift + click on to
be deselected object
COMMAND AND ITS SHORTCUT KEY
Repeats last command Ctrl + J
Command Short Key Inserts a hyperlink Ctrl + K
LINE Command L Toggles Ortho mode Ctrl + L
CHAMFER Command CHA Open/Creates a new drawing Ctrl + N
FILTER Command FI Opens an existing drawing Ctrl + O
ARC Command ARC Saves the current drawing Ctrl + S
AREA Command AA Displays the save as dialog box Ctrl + Shift + S
FILLET Command F Pastes data from the window Ctrl + V
RECTANGLE Command REC clipboard
EXPLODE Command X Redo the last undo action Ctrl + Y
SCALE Command SC Toggles 3-D object snap mode Ctrl + Shift + Y
POINT Command PO To undo the last action Ctrl + Z
ARRAY Command AR Plot the current drawing Ctrl + P

Computer Aided Design 234 YCT

IMPORTANT COMMAND & THEIR USE (iii) 3-D CAD (3-D object)
(iv) 3-D wireframe and surface modeling
Command Use
(v) Solid modeling (solid geometry)
Name
OFFSET To draw the parallel object at a specified Functionality area of CAD-
distance. There are four category
FILLET To create rounded edges between (i) Geometric modelling
perpendicular lines. (ii) Engineering analysis
TRIM To remove reusable parts of an object. (iii) Design review and evaluation
ERASE Remove the object from a drawing. (iv) Automate drafting
PURGE To remove from the drawing. Process of designing-
PAN To change the cross hair cursor in to hand There are six steps for designing
cursor. (i) Recognition of need
MEASURE To create a vertical and horizontal rays from (ii) The definition of a problem
the location of the pointing device and divide
the object in predefine length. We can also (iii) Synthesis
measure the distance or area. (iv) Analysis and optimization
DONUT Create solid circle or ring. (v) Evaluation
LINE Create straight line. (vi) Presentation
X LINE Draw a line of infinite length. Units in Auto CAD-
There are five units available in Auto CAD-
X ATTACH To attach a drawing in another drawing. (i) Architectural Unit-
EXPLODE To break the poly line in individual It is based in feet and inches and use fractions to
1"
segment . represent partial inches for example 12', 4 . The
2
JOIN To convert individual objects into polyline. base unit is the inch unless otherwise specified, so if
OOPS To restore the erased object. you enter a number like 147.5, then Auto CAD will
SCALE To enlarge or reduce size of selected object. 1"
CHAMFER To level edge of an object. under stand it to be 12', 3 .
2
BLOCK To create block of object which I want to use (ii) Decimal Unit-
regularly in different drawing.
It is not based on any particular real world unit with
LAYER To create layer decimal unit each unit in the drawing could
HATCH Fill an enclosed area or selected object with a represent an inch, a millimeter, a for long a fathom,
hatch pattern, solid fill or gradient fill. or any other unit of measure you deem suitable for
ORTHO To draw normal (900) straight line. example 15.5.
Use of function key in Auto CAD- (iii) Engineering Unit-
Function Key Use It is based in feet and inches and use decimals to
F1 Online/Offline help/Displays help represent partial inches for example 12'3.5".
F2 History of command/toggle b/w (iv) Fractional Unit-
drawing screen to text screen Fractional unit is same as the decimal unit both unit
F3 Snap on/off are unit less and show values as fractions rather than
1
F4 3D snap on/off decimal numbers for example 15 .
F5 Switch isoplane on/off (Isometric 4
view) (v) Scientific Unit-
F6 Dynamic UCS on/off It is also unit less and show value as exponents. It is
used for drawing really tiny or really large things. If
F7 Grid on/off
you design molecules or galaxies, this is the unit
F8 Orthographic mode on/off type for you.
F9 Snap with grid point on/off Example- 15.5 E + 06 = 15,500,000
F10 Snap with polar point on/off 15.5 E – 06 = 0.00001550
F11 Object snap tracking Work space available in Auto CAD-
F12 Dynamic input on/off These are classified in to 4 parts.
Type of Auto CAD- 1. Drafting and annotation
(i) 2-D CAD (Flat drawing) 2. 3-D Basic
3. 3-D Modeling
(ii) 2.5-D CAD (Prismatic model)
4. Auto CAD Classic
Computer Aided Design 235 YCT
 Methods to draw circle in Auto CAD- Method of object selection -
1. Center radius method (i) Window selection - Select the whole object from
2. Center diameter method left to right under blue block.
3. 2 - P method (ii) Crossing window - Select the any part of object
from right to left under green block.
4. 3 - P method
Modern CAD system-
5. Tan - tan radius method
In modern CAD system ICG is used. The interactive
6. Tan - tan - tan method
computer graphics denotes a user oriented system in
Methods to operate line command in Auto CAD- which the computer is employed to create, transform
There are 4 method to operate line command and display data in the form of pictures or symbols
1. Cartesian coordinate method ICG consists software and hardware components.
2. Relative Co-ordinate method Short Name-
3. Relative polar method UCS User Coordinate System
4. Free hand method WCS World Coordinate System
Important Point- COA Council of Architecture
Sides in polygon- ICG Interactive Computer Graphics
Maximum- 1024
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
Minimum- 3
LTS Line Type Scale
While drawing a circle using three point method, all
Auto Automatic Computer Aided Design
three point are taken on the circumference of the
CAD
circle.
The Co-ordinate of cursor in graphics window are Architects Act 1972-
visible in STATUS bar. This act provide registration to architects.
Enactment date - 31 May 1972.
Distance between two adjacent point in grid-
Enforcement date 2 April 1973.
(i) When new file is open with imperial - 0.5.
Location of different room as per Vastushastra-
(ii) When new file is open with metric - 10.
The size of object can be change or object can be
displaced with the help of grip point.
Five grip point are present in a circle.

Objects are rotated about base point.

Relative coordinate system is designed by- @
Points to define rectangle and line command-
2 (starting and end point)
Minimum layer in Auto CAD drawing is - 1.
Number of snap point depends on the object.
Object can be rotate around the base point.
Default size of CAD graphics window in metric-
420 (H) × 297(V)
The Maximum number of view port in Auto CAD-
4.
Type of File Extension
Auto CAD file (save file) .dwg Specification functionality area of auto CAD–
(i) Design
Layer states manager file .las
(ii) Analysis
Auto CAD file (not save) .v$
(iii) Visualization
Auto save .sv$ Note-
The character limit for dwg file name is - 256. STADD Pro - Used for structural analysis and
Maximum limit of error in drawing - 0.25 mm design.
Computer Aided Design 236 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years Ans. (d) :
A0 = 1189 mm × 841 mm
1. When an object is viewed from different
directions and from different distances, the A1 = 841 mm × 594 mm
appearance of the object will be different. Such A2 = 594 mm × 420 mm
a view is called______. A3 = 420 mm × 297 mm
(a) Axonometric projection A4 = 297 mm × 210 mm
(b) Isometric projection A5 = 210 mm × 149 mm
(c) Perspective view 7. Which of the following lines are used to show
(d) Oblique projection that the object is cut and then viewed?
RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning) (a) Hatching lines (b) Centre lines
Ans. (c) : An perspective view object is viewed from (c) Leader lines (d) Hidden lines
different direction and at different distances, the RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning)
appearance of the object will be different, perspective Ans. (a) : Hatching lines are used to show that the
view of an object is viewed from a single point and orthographic view is drawn after a section of the object
where projectors are not parallel. is cut. They indicate that the object is cut and it shows
2. A flexible curve consists of a lead bar inside the remaining solid body.
rubber which bends conveniently to draw a 8. To comply with current building regulations,
smooth curve through any set of points. Which the minimum cavity width in an external wall is
of the following drawing aid is this? (a) 60 mm (b) 100 mm
(a) Scale (b) French curves (c) 70 mm (d) 50 mm
(c) Set square (d) Divider RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning)
RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (evening) Ans. (d) : A minimum 50 mm clear cavity between the
Ans : (b) Frech curves are available in different shapes. partial cavity insulation and the outer leaf should be
First a series of points are plotted along the desired path maintained, wall ties long enough be allow a 50 mm
and then the most suitable curve is made along the edge embedment in each masonry leaf should be used.
of the curve. 9. Medium thickness line-group of 2 mm are not
A flexible curve consist of a lead bar inside rubber used
which bends conveniently to draw a smooth curve (a) Out lines (b) Dimension lines
through and set of point. (c) Cutting plane lines (d) Dotted lines
3. Centre lines and section lines are drawn using RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning)
____ pencil. Ans. (b) : Out lines, dotted lines and cutting lines are
(a) HB (b) H drawn using 2 mm thickness lines, dimension lines,
(c) 3H or 4H (d) 2H extension lines, construction lines, leader lines, short
RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning) break line and long break lines are drawn using 1 mm
Ans. (c) : Centre lines and section line are drawn using thickness liness.
3H or 4H pencil. 10. A ______ is the person responsible for verifying
The centre line is the method of quickly identifying the that the drawings in a project set are free of
shape. mistakes.
4. The default position of the UCS Icon is (a) Checker (b) Client
positioned at ____ on the AutoCAD grid. (c) CAD trainee (d) Receptionist
(a) 0, 0, 0 (b) 10, 10, 10 RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning)
(c) 30, 30, 30 (d) 20, 20, 20 Ans. (a) : A checker is the person responsible for
RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning) verifying that the drawing in a project set are free of
Ans. (a) : The default position of the UCS Icon is mistakes.
positioned 0, 0, 0 on the Auto CAD grid. 11. Name the drawing instruments and aids.
5. A flip-flop is a binary cell capable of storing (a) Templates (b) Set squares
______ of information. (c) All of the options (d) Drawing sheet
(a) Byte (b) One bit RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (evening)
(c) Eight bit (d) Zero bit Ans : (c) Drawing instrument–
RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning) • Drawing Board
Ans. (b) : Flip-flop and latches are used as data storage • Drawing sheet
elements to store a single bit of data. • Drawing pencil
One of its two states represents a "one" and the other • Eraser
represents a "zero".
• T-square
Such data storage can be used for storage can be used
for storage or state, and such a circuit is described as • Set-square
sequential logic in electonics. • Compass
6. According to the Indian Standard Institution • Mini drafter
(ISI), what is the size of a A3 sheet in mm? • Protectors
(a) 189 × 841 (b) 297 × 210 12. Mini drafter combines the functions of
(c) 841 × 594 (d) 420 × 297 (a) T-square and Set squares
RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (morning) (b) French Curve and Pro-circle
Computer Aided Design 237 YCT
 (c) All of the options 18. Modem CAD Systems are based on:
(d) Divider and Compass (a) ICG (b) GCI
RRB JE CBT-II 28–08–2019 (evening) (c) GIF (d) IFG
Ans : (a) Mini drafter–It is an important device used RRB Allahabad SSE 09.09.2012
for making drawing quickly and accurately. This Ans. (a) A modern CAD system is based on Interactive
instrument has a combination of T-square, set-square, computer graphics (ICG).
protractor and scales, it helps to draw the drawing at a ICG denotes a user-oriented system in which the
faster rate. computer is employed.
They come in different size and a pattern called 19. The computer communication with the user via:
pantograph type.
(a) CPU (b) CRT
13. In AutoCAD, the 3-D commands on the (c) Graphics (d) Display Button
Modeling toolbar include– RRB Bangalore SSE 09.09.2012
(a) Extrude (b) All of the options
(c) Sphere (d) Box Ans. (b) The computer communicates with the user via
RRB JE CBT-II 29–08–2019 (evening) a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The designer creates on
image on the CRT screen by entering commands to call
Ans. (b) AutoCAD 3D Commands–AutoCAD 3D the desired software, sub-routines stored in the
commands like extrude, sweep, Box, Relevance, sphere, computer.
box, union are used by the users. Also the user must
know the importance of the view port feature if they are The use of the CAD system provides better engineering
working or 3D modules. drawing, more standardization in drawing, better
documentation of design, fewer drawing error and
14. In AutoCAD, the free orbit tool is found on the greater eligibility for the drawing
______ toolbar.
(a) Rotate (b) Move 20. The process of designing consists of ..........
(c) 3–D move (d) Modify identifiable steps.
RRB JE CBT-II 29–08–2019 (evening) (a) 8 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 3
RRB Kolkala SSE 09.09.2012
Ans. (d) Free orbit tool–Allows you to orbit drawing, or
rotate the view in real time, you can orbit while in module Ans. (b) The six steps are recognition of need, the
space, not paper space, use this command to rotate the definition of a problem, synthesis, analysis &
view of entities, not the actual placement of entities. optimization, evaluation and presentation.
15. Drawing pencils are graded according to CAD software tools empower tools empower designers
increase in relative– to explore design ideas, modify designs easily, visualize
(a) Diameter (b) Hardness concept through rendering, simulate how a design
(c) Sharpness (d) Length & performs in the real world, draft, documentation, share
RRB JE CBT-II 29–08–2019 (evening) designs for feedback.
Ans. (b) Drawing pencils are graded according to the 21. Implementing CAD improves Communications
increase in relative hardness. (a) True (b) False
(i) Softer – B, 2B, 3B, 4B (c) None of these (d) All of the above
(ii) Medium grade – HB RRB Gorakhpur Design SSE 09.09.2012
(iii) Harder – H, 2H, 3H, 4H Ans. (a) The use of CAD system provides the better
16. The computer-aided design hardware doesn't understanding of engineering drawings by standarding
include. theme.
(a) Graphic display terminal It has fewer errors, proper documentation and greater
(b) Computer legibility.
(c) Computer program 22. The functionality area of CAD application can
(d) Key-board be grouped in to..........categories.
RRB Patna JE 25.10.2009 (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
Ans. (c) CAD has both hardware and software RRB Bhopal SSE 09.09.2012
component. The hardware components are graphic Ans. (c) The four categories are geometric modeling
display terminals, computer and keyboard. The software engineering analysis, design review and evaluation and
components include all computer programmers that automated drafting.
implement computer graphics. We can use CAD to assess the load level of the building
Computer-Aided Design package has three component- support in civil engineering project as well.
1. Design 2. Analysis 3. Visualizations 23. The colour on CRT screen is obtained by the
17. How many types of CAD are there ? combination of:
(a) 4 (b) 6 (a) Red, Yellow, Blue (b) Red, Green, Blue
(c) 9 (d) 5 (c) Yellow, Black (d) White, Black
RRB Bhopal TM SSE 25.10.2009 RRB Chandigarh SSE 09.09.2012
Ans. (d) The Five types are 2 D CAD (Flat drawing of Ans. (b) The three primary colour red, green and blue
Product). 2.5D CAD (Prismatic models) 3D CAD (3D are combined to produce variety of colours. Colour
object), 3D wireframe and surface modeling (Skeleton CRT colours on phosphor screen to display objects.
like inner structure) and solid modeling (solid By combining the emitted light from the different
geometry). phosphors, a range of colours can be generated.
Computer Aided Design 238 YCT
24. Who formulated the six ground rules to be 29. Auto CAD was first released in the year.
considered in designing graphics software? (a) 1858 (b) 1966
(a) Schaffer G (b) Fitzgerald W (c) 1977 (d) 1982
(c) Krouse and Lerro (d) None of these RRB Secunderabad Section Engineer (Civil)
RRB Jammu SSE 09.09.2012 29.06.2008
Ans. (d) They gave six ground rules which were Ans. (d) Developed and marketed by autodesk, auto cad
simplicity, consistency, completeness, robustness, was first released in December 1982 as a desktop app
performance and economy. running on microcomputers with internal graphics
Newman and sproull listed six "ground rules" that controllers.
should be considered in designing graphics software. AutoCAD is the original CAD software used by
Newman and sproull listed six ground rules that should millions around the world. It can be used to create
be considered in designing graphics software: precise 2D and 3D drawing and models, as well as
1. Simplicity electrical diagrams construction drawing and more.
2. Consistency 30. Auto CAD, how many times do you click on the
3. Completeness icon to start the session
4. Robustness (a) 1 time (b) 2 time
5. Performance (c) 3 time (d) 4 time
6. Economy RRB Bangalore Section Engineer (Civil)
01.02.2009
25. The input devices in CAD can be divided in to:
Ans. (b) Auto CAD, click the icon 2 times to start the
(a) 2 (b) 5
session.
(c) 3 (d) 4 AutoCAD is a commercial computer - aided design
RRB Allahabad JE 09.09.2012 (CAD) and drafting software application. Developed
Ans. (c) The input devices can be divided into three and marketed by Autodesk.
general categories. These are cursor control devices When drawing using a CAD software use always draw
(direct keys on keyboard, joysticks, tracker ball, etc) "Real size".
digitizers (large smooth board with an electronic For example if we draw a box with size 20×20×20 cm
tracking device and alphanumeric and other keyboard we will use 20 drawing unit for drawing the sidez.
terminals. 31. Templates are used to make a new drawing this
26. The typical ICG system consists of software statement is
component. (a) True (b) False
(a) True (b) False (c) Nothings can be tell (d) Only (b) is true
(c) Both are true (d) None of these RRB Chandigarh Section Engineer, 15.03.2009
RRB Bhubneshwar JE II 29.11.2008 Ans. (a) Templates are used to make a new drawing–
Ans. (b) The ICG system is a combination of hardware • When you choose the use a template button in the
and software. create new drawing dialog box, AutoCAD displays a
• The software consists of the computer programs list of templates.
needed to implement graphics processing of the system. • The default template file is acad.dwt or Acadisco.dwt.
27. Which is the latest version of Auto CAD 32. Drawing is always made-
software? (a) Real unit (b) Sub unit
(a) 2016 (b) 2017 (c) Control unit (d) None of these
(c) 2018 (d) 2019 RRB Chennai Section Engineer, 12.02.2012
RRB Bhopal Section Engineer, 24.11.2002 Ans. (a) Drawing always made of real unit.
Ans. (c) The latest version of Auto Cad software 2018. Ex - inches, millimeter etc.
• Auto CAD was first released in December 1982 as a 33. How many units are available in Auto CAD?
desktop app running on micro. Computer with internal (a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7
graphics controllers. RRB Chandigarh Section Engineer (Civil),
• CAD is an advance computer software that is used for 26.02.2012
creating designs and generate technical drawing in 2D Ans. (b) AutoCAD can work in any of five different
and 3D by engineer, architects and dafters. unit system like scientific decimal, engineering,
28. Which key is used to obtain properties palette architectural or fractional. The unit are used to represent
in AutoCAD? the dimensions in AutoCAD.
(a) Ctrl + 1 (b) Ctrl + 2 34. Which mode allow the user to draw 900
(c) Ctrl + 3 (d) Ctrl + 4 straight lines:
RRB Bhopal & Mumbai Apprentice Section (a) Osnap (b) Ortho
Eng. 23.03.2003 (c) Linear (d) Polar tracking
Ans. (a) Ctrl + 1 = gives properties RRB Chandigarh Section Engineer, 26.02.2012
Ctrl + 2 = gives design centre palette Ans. (b) Ortho mode on/off–
Ctrl + 3 = gives tools palette In ortho made, you can make lines either horizontally or
Ctrl + 4 = in not an option. vertically only.

Computer Aided Design 239 YCT

Ortho mode can be activated using F8 key. It enables 40. The polygon command allows you to draw a
user to draw straight lines (90º) by restricting the cursor polygon of maximum number sides.
to 90º only. (a) 1024 (b) 1028
35. Which command is used to convert individual (c) 1095 (d) 1093
lines together into a single object in a group? RRB Bangalore Material Engg. 21.11.2004
(a) Line command Ans. (a) Polygon – Maximum number of sides 1024
(b) Poyline command and minimum side 3.
(c) Point command The Polygon Command draws a regular polygon with 3
(d) Multi Line command to 1024 sides.
RRB Jammu Section Eng, 2013 We specify centre of polygon.
Ans. (b) The polyline function draws a series of line 41. Which two disciplines are tied by a common
segment by connecting the points in the specified array. database?
(a) Documentation and geometric modeling
At the command line in AutoCAD, type SPLINEDIT.
Select the spline if it was not already selected Type P (b) CAD and CAM
(c) Drafting and documentation
for convert to polyline.
(d) None of these
36. How many workspaces are available in Auto RRB RRB Patna/Allahabad ESM-II , 30.01.2011
CAD?
Ans. (b) CAD – Computer aided design (CAD) is the
(a) 2 (b) 4 use of a high performance computer to assist in the
(c) 3 (d) 5 design process of an item.
RRB Bhubaneswar, 19.08.2001 CAM – Computer Aided Manufacture is a combination
Ans. (c) There are three workspaces available to switch of many engineering and manufacturing disciplines,
between in AutoCAD. CAM function include tool production, parts etc.
These are drafting and annotation, 3D basics and 3D 42. The term that is used for geometric modeling
modeling. like solid modeling, wire frame modeling and
37. Scale command can be accessed easily by drafting is known as:
typing: (a) Software package (b) Operating system
(a) SL (b) S (c) Application software (d) None of these
(c) SC (d) C RRB Bangalore Material Engg, 21.11.2004
RRB Ranchi Signal Maintainer Group-III, Ans. (a) Software package is used for geometric
20.11.2005 modeling like solid modeling, wire frame modeling and
Ans. (c) Scale command is place in the modify panel drafting while operating system is software that
in the home tab or type 'SC' in the command bar and manages computer hardware and software resources and
press enter. provides common services got computer programs.
Scale command is use to increase/decrease the size of 43. Which of the following devices do not Produce
an object. a hard copy?
38. Which type of command is used to make most (a) Impact printer (b) Plotters
constructive lines. (c) CRT Terminal (d) Non-Impact printer
(a) Ray command (b) Arc command RRB Kolkata Civil Ass., 06.02.2005
(c) Circle command (d) Spline command Ans. (c) CRT terminals always plot graphics or images.
RRB Kolkata Engg. (P.Way), 20.02.2000 CRT–A CRT is presentation screen that produces
Ans. (a) Ray command is used to make most pictures as a video signal.
constructive lines. It is a sort of vacuum tube that display picture when
• The circle command is used to draw a circle by electron beam from an electron gun strikes a luminous
specifying the centre point and radius. surface.
44. The software that is used to control the
39. How many grip Point does a circle have? computer's work flow, organize its data and
(a) 5 (b) 4 perform house keeping functions in known as:
(c) 3 (d) 2 (a) Operating software
RRB Kolkata Apprentice Engg., 14.10.2001 (b) Graphic software
Ans. (a) A grip point appears as blue colour when an (c) Application software
object is selected. Using these, an object can be (d) Programming software
modified. A circle has 5 Grip Point. One in centre, 4 at RRB Ranchi Signal Maintainer Group-III,
each quadrant. 20.11.2005
Ans. (a) Operating software– Computed workflow is
controlled with help of operator software. It organized
its data and perform different housekeeping functions.
Application software– It helps to perform the data
entry, design and analysis, drafting and manufacturing
functions.
45. The software that is used to provide the users
with various functions to perform geometric
modeling and construction is known as:
Computer Aided Design 240 YCT
 (a) Operating software 50. The default grid spacing in both X and Y
(b) Graphic software directions is:
(c) Application software (a) 10 (b) 20
(d) Programming software (c) 5 (d) 15
RRB Allahabad Junior Engineer-II [Civil DSL RRB Secunderabad Technical (Eng.), 20.05.2007
(C&W)], 08.01.2006 Ans. (a) The setting in both the grid spacing and snap
Ans. (b) Graphics software is used to provide users spacing groups include X and Y spacing settings.
with a various functions to perform geometric modeling Notice that they're all set for a spacing of 10.
and construction. It can be altered by right clicking on the grid button at
• Programming software enables the to implement the bottom of the severe. A grid setting dialogue box
custom application or modify the system for specialized will appear changes can be made.
needs.
51. Which command is used to divide the object
46. Which of the following is not an operating into segments having predefined length?
system software:
(a) Windows (b) Unix (a) Divide (b) Chamfer
(c) VAX/VMA (d) IDEAS (c) Trim (d) Measure
RRB Kolkata Jr. Engineer-II Civil DRG & DMRC Secunderabad Section Eng. (Civil),
Design, 11.06.2006 29.06.2008
Ans. (d) Except ideas all are the operating systems. Ans. (d) Measure– The measure command is used to
Operating system software–An operating system is a divide the object into segments having a predefined
software which performs all the basic tasks like full length.
management, memory management, process Command (Tr) = This command is used for trimming a
management, handling input and output and controlling geometry.
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. 52. When setting up a mechanical drawing in Auto
47. The basic geometric building blocks provided CAD the drafter should set the units to:
in a CAD/CAM package are. (a) Fractional (b) Decimal
(a) Point (b) Line (c) architectural (d) Metric
(c) Circle (d) All is true RRB Patna Technical Eng., 27.07.2008
RRB Kolkata Technical-III, 20.08.2006 Ans. (b) In AutoCAD, to specify the drawing units in a
Ans. (d) The basic geometric building blocks provided new or existing drawing, the drafter should set the units
in the CAD/CAM package are points, lines, circles etc. to decimal. decimal unit set is the default unit system in
One production is finalized, these designs are sent to AutoCAD.
computer aided manufacture (CAM) machines to be
formed. Auto desk and solid works are common forms 53. How is any drawing?
of CAD software used. (a) 2D (b) 6D
48. The UCS icon represent the intersection of the: (c) 9D (d) 8D
(a) X-axis (b) Y- axis RRB Thiruvananthapuram Section Eng.
(c) Z- axis (d) All options are true (Civil.), 04.01.2009
RRB Chennai Technical (Eng.), 15.04.2007 Ans. (a) A 2 D drawing is a drawing that sits in only
Ans. (d) The UCS icon indicates which direction the the X and Y axis. more simple, a 2D drawing is flat and
positive X and Y axis are going in and the direction of has a width and length but no depth or thickness. There
the Z axis. is no shade and shadow and therefore little realism in a
UCS icon–The UCS icon helps you visualize the 2D drawing.
current orientation of the user coordinate system with 54. In Auto Cad–
respect to your current viewing direction. (a) Same in all drawing
Several versions of this icon are available and your can (b) Working limit are limited
change its size, location and colour. (c) Option (a) and (b) are correct
49. To obtain parallel lines, concentric circles and (d) None of the these
parallel curves:........ is used. RRB Bangalore Section Eng. (Civil), 01.02.2009
(a) Array (b) Fillet Ans. (b) The limit command in AutoCAD is used to set
(c) Copy (d) Offset an invisible rectangular boundary in drawing area, it
RRB Bangalore Technical (Eng.), 22.04.2007 limits the grid display and the point location.
Ans. (d) The various comments used in AutoCAD are • Go to express tools tab of the ribbon and within the
Command Function text panel, expand modify text and click on rotate.
Offset The offset command creates a new Or you can type TORIENT in the command line, select
object parallel to the given object. all of the text whose orientation you wish to change and
Fillet The command can be used to add press enter.
rounded corners to the sharp edges of 55. Which of the following is used to bring back
the geometry, these rounded corners are the last erase drawing by unerase–
also called fillet. (a) OOPs (b) Last
SC This command is used is change the (c) Single (d) End
scale of an object. RRB Chandigarh Section Eng. Civil 15.03.2009
Computer Aided Design 241 YCT
Ans. (a) OOPS restores objects erased by the last Ans. (c) Joins lines using Pedit command–The
ERASE command. process is fairly simple-
The following are the benefit of the OOPs concept, 1. Type in 'pedit'
using the OOPs methodology, one can enhance the code 2. Hit enter,
reusability and save development time. 3. use 'm' enter to select multiple line segments,
56. what is the command used to remove several 4. Select all lines you would like to join.
selected object from drawing. 5. and hit enter to convert lines.
(a) Erase Command (b) Trace Command 62. Offset command only–
(c) Text Command (d) Layer Command (a) Offsets is Single object only
RRB Patna/Allahabad ESM-III , 30.01.2011 (b) Offsets is Double object only
Ans. (a) Use the erase command to remove selected (c) Does not offset any object
objects from a drawing. (d) Offsets all type of objects
The erase command is found on both the modify toolbar RRB Bhubneshwar JE-II 19.12.2010
and the modify menu. Ans. (a) Offset command only offset the single object
57. With the help of which command use can write itself.
any text in different ways in the drawing. • The offset command in AutoCAD is used to create
(a) Erase command (b) Text command parallel lines, concentric circles, and parallel curves.
(c) Layer command (d) None of these 63. Select Command............:
RRB Chennai Section Eng., 12.02.2012 (a) Gives different methods
Ans. (b) In Auto Cad, test style consists of a (b) Gives only one methods
combination of a style name, text front, height, width (c) Gives three methods
factor, oblique angle, and a few other, mostly static (d) Gives four methods
setting. RRB Allahabad JE 19.12.2010
Ans. (a) Select command–Places selected objects in the
58. Used for thick lines. previous selection set. A small box, called the object
(a) Trace command (b) Erase command selection target or pick box, replaces the crosshairs on
(c) ext command (d) Layer command the graphics cursor.
RRB Chandigarh Section Eng. (Civil), 26.02.2012 Select command gives different methods–
Ans. (a) The trace command is much like the line 1. Cross window selection
command except that you can also give thickness to 2. Box selection
your line, much like the P line command. 3. Fence selection
59. What is use the zoom command. 4. Previous selection
(a) Enlarge the drawing 5. Last selection
(b) Shrinking the drawing 6. Fast select selection
(c) (a) and (b) both are correct 6. All selections
(d) None of these 64. The full form of CAM–
RRB Chandigarh Section Eng. (Civil), 26.02.2012 (a) Computer Aided Manufacturing
(b) Computer Aided Machine
Ans. (c) Used of zoom command–
(c) Computer Aided Mail
(i) Enlarge the drawing. (d) None of these
(ii) Shrinking the drawing. RRB Allahabad SSE 19.12.2010
Zoom command– Ans. (a) Full form–
Increases or decreases the magnification of the view in CAM = Computer aided manufactures.
the current view port, you can change the magnification CAD = Computer aided design.
of a view by zooming in and out, which is similar to CGM = Computer graphics metafile.
zooming in and out with a camera. COM = Component object model
60. What is the command which is an object that is UCS = User coordinate system.
an object of something increases the length. WCS= World coordinate system
(a) Trim (b) Extend 65. Representation of Array–
(c) Oops (d) Layer
JMRC JE 10.06.2017 (a) (b)
Ans. (b) The external command is used to extend the
select boundaries or edges. (c) (d)
The objects are extended so that the edges of other
RRB Mumbai JE 05.10.2008
objects can be conveyed.
Ans. (c) The array is the command used to draw
61. Pedit command modify which types of multiple copies of an object in a particular pattern or
polylines shape. order.
(a) 2D (b) 3D • The shortcut key for array is AR to implement an
(c) 2D and 3D (d) None of these array, we can type array or AR on the command line
BMRCL JE 24 Feb. 2019 and the press enter.
Computer Aided Design 242 YCT
 APPLICATION OF GEOTECHNICAL Note-
ENGINEERING IN DESIGN OF Permissible angular settlement for high framed
1
FOUNDATION structure <
500
SHALLOW FOUNDATION Types of settlement in foundation-
Condition- (i) Immediate/ short term settlement-
Df Mostly occur in coarse grained soils of high
(i) As per Skempton- ≤ 2.5
B permeability over short period of time which is 7
D days.
(ii) As per Terzaghi- f ≤ 1
B  1− µ 
1. Raft/Mat/Floating Foundation- Si = qB   Iw
It is preferred when the required area of the footing  Es 
is greater than 50% or one half of the total area. Iw = Influence factor
2. FOOTING Rigid footing shape Influence factor, Iw
(i) Isolated Footing- Circular 0.88
This type of footing is used to transmit and
distribute loads of individual columns to the soil. Square 0.82
It is used when bearing capacity of soil is high. Rectangular, L/B = 1.5 1.06
(ii) Strip/Continuous Footing- Rectangular , L/B = 5 1.70
A strip footing is also provided for a row of column (ii) Primary/consolidation settlement-
which one so closely spaced that their spread footing Occurs in saturated inorganic fine grained soil.
overlap or, nearly touch each other.
(iii) Combined Footing- C σ + ∆σ
Sc = C c .H log10 0
It is suitable when the area is limited and 1 + e0 σ0
construction is to be done near the boundary line of
the building. C = Coefficient or correction factor
It is used when the two columns are so close to each (iii) Secondary settlement (Ss)-
other that their individual footing would overlap. It occurs due to consolidation of soil under constant
Case of loading Shape of footing effective stress.
Equal loading Rectangular Total settlement of foundation, S = Si + Sc + Ss
Unequal loading Trapezoidal
Note-
Contact Pressure Distribution & Settlement- Contact pressure is uniform for flexible footing.
Types of footing Contact pressure Settlement Settlement is uniform for rigid footing.
Flexible footing
Over the clay Uniform Min. at edge & max.
at centre.
Over the sand Uniform Min. at centre &
max. at edge.
Rigid footing
Over the clay Min. at centre & Uniform
max. at edge.
Over the sand Min. at edge & max. Uniform
at centre
According to IS code 1904-1966, allowable
settlement of foundation-
Sand Clay
Specification Max. Deferential Max. Deferential
Settlement Settlement Settlement Settlement
Isolated 40 mm 25 mm 65 mm 40 mm
footing
Raft 40 - 65 25 mm 65 - 100 40 mm
footing mm mm
Geotechnical Engineering 243 YCT
DEEP FOUNDATION (b) Based on materials and composition-
Deep foundation criteria- (i) Pre-cast concrete pile-
D These piles moulded in circular, square, rectangular
• As per Skempton- f > 2.5 and octagonal form.
B (ii) Cast-in-situ concrete pile-
Df
• As per Terzaghi- >1
B
TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATION-
Pile foundation-
It is used when soil of the construction site is weak
and there is no hard rock at a suitable depth below
the ground level.
CLASSIFICATION OF PILE FOUNDATION-
(a) Based on the function-
Compaction Used to compact loose granular soil
pile (sand) to increase its bearing capacity
and density . Ex.-Sand piles
• It is used when there is a danger of
liquefaction in the soil. Driven/displacement piles-
Batter pile Driven in an inclined direction to Use- Embankments, retaining walls, bulkheads,
prevent horizontal thrust or inclined anchorage structure and cofferdams.
forces. Driven pile is classified as-
Anchor pile It is provided to protect the sheet pile i. Raymond pile-
from horizontal pressure coming on the These piles are economical which is developed by
wall or retaining wall. AA Raymond 1897. Raymond pile is primarily used
Sheet pile Used as bulkheads, or as impervious as a friction pile.
cut-offs to reduce piping failure or ii. MacArthur pile-
seepage and uplift under hydraulic These piles is formed by driving a steel shell into
structures. ground upto required depth.
Fender/ Used to protect waterfront structures Concrete is placed in the shell by gradually
Dolphins against the impact from ships or other compaction and withdrawing the steel casing.
pile floating objects. (Ex.-Ship, Boat). iii. Western button bottom pile-
Uplift/ Used to anchor down structures It is used to increase in required end bearing area.
Tension pile subjected to hydrostatic uplift pressure Uncased driven pile-
or overturning forces. Simplex This type of pile driven through soft or hard
pile soil.
• It is formed by driving a steel tube with a
detachable cast iron shoe.
Franki Suitable for granular type of soils and for
pile bearing stratum of soil located at limited
thickness upto reasonable depth.
• It can be used as high-capacity deep
foundation elements without the necessity
of excavation or dewatering.
Vibro It is used where the ground is soft thus
pile offering little frictional resistance to the
flow of concrete.
Bored/replacement pile-
These piles are used primarily in cohesive sub-soil
for the formation of friction piles.
Note-
The efficiency of driven pile is more as compared to
bored pile.
Bored Pile Classification-
(i) Under-reamed/cast in situ pile-
This pile is suitable for expansive soil or soft soil
with filled up ground. This pile is cheap and can be
made in less time.
Geotechnical Engineering 244 YCT
 Negative Skin Friction-
When the soil layer surrounding a portion of the pile
shaft settles more than the pile, a downward drag
occurs on the pile which is known as negative skin
friction.

It is a bored cast in situ concrete pile having one or

more bulbs or under-reams at its lower portion.
This pile protects the foundation from the up-lift of
ground water length of 3 to 8 m.
Most suitable for multi-storey building.
• Bulb dia.- 2-3 times of shaft (pile) dia. It occurs in soft clays due to relative settlement of
• Spacing - (1.25 - 1.5) × bulb dia. the soil.
(ii) Pressure pile- It reduces the bearing capacity of pile.
This type of pile is used where heavy vibration and Friction resistance can be increased by-
noise are not permissible. • Making pile surface rough
(c) Based on mode of load transfer- • Placing closely or grouping of pile
(i) End bearing pile- • Increasing length and diameter
It transmit the load through bottom tips. Such piles Group settlement ratio (Sr)-
act as columns and transmit the load through a weak Settlement of pile group (Sg )
soil to a firm stratum at a greater depth. Sr =
(ii) Friction pile- Settlement of individual pile (Si )
It is used when a hard stratum of soil does not exist
1 < Sr < 16
at a reasonable depth.
These piles transfer the load through skin friction Group efficiency of piles (ηg)-
between the pile surface and the surrounding soil. Q ug
ηg = ×100 For sandy soil, ηg > 1
N.Q up
Qug = Ultimate load carrying capacity of pile group.
N = Number of pile.
Qup = Ultimate load on individual pile.
For end bearing pile-
Q ug = NQ up , ηg = 100%
Note-
For group action of min. number of piles = 3.
According to I.S. code min. spacing b/w piles.
• Friction piles- 3D
• End bearing piles- 2.5D
• Loose sand and back filled pile- 2D
Where, D = Dia. of piles.
End bearing and friction piles- Methods to determine load carrying capacity
Its load bearing capacity is due to combination of of pile-
end bearing and skin friction. 1. Dynamic method-
Classification of timber pile- Applicable for dense cohesionless soil only.
Class A pile Used for heavy loads or large (i) Engineering news formula-
unsupported length. WH
Class B pile These piles are used for medium loads (a) Ultimate load on pile, Q u =
S+C

Class C pile These piles are used for temporary WH Q

(b) Allowable load on pile, Q a = = u
structure. Fs (S + C) 6

Geotechnical Engineering 245 YCT

 Where, Qu
W = Weight of hammer (kg) Qa =
H = Height of Hammer fall (cm) Fs
Fs = Factor of safety (6 for all piles) For driven pile, Fs = 4
S = Final settlement (cm) For driven bored pile, Fs = 2.5
C = Empirical constant/elastic compression Cone Penetration Test-
For double acting steam hammer, To determine the ultimate bearing capacity of piles
(W + ap).H in cohesionless soil the result of Dutch cone
Da = penetration test applied with sufficient accuracy.
6(S + 0.25)
Where, a = Hammer area on which pressure acts. qc
Qu = qc Ab + As
p = Steam pressure. 2
Type of Hammer C, in cm Hammer Where, qc = Static cone resistance
Efficiency ( ηh ) qc = Average cone resistance
Drop 2.5 100% Well Foundation-
Single acting 0.25 75 - 85% It is generally provided below the water level for
Double acting 0.25 75 - 80% bridges.
(ii) Halley's or IS formula (IS : 2911-1964) Well foundation is preferable to pile foundation
η .η WH Q when foundation has to resist large lateral forces.
Qu = h b , Qa = u Grip length-
C Fs
S+ The depth of bottom portion of well from the scour
2 level is called the grip length.
ηh = Hammer efficiency, Fs = Factor of safety = 3 It is used for developing sufficient passive resistance
ηb = Efficiency of blow to counteract the overturning moment due to
horizontal force at well top.
Energy of hammer after impact
ηb = Grip length for well foundation-
Energy of hammer just before impact • For railway bridge- 50%.
• For road bridge- 30%.
W + e2 P
ηb = When, W > e.P Well caisson-
W+P It is used in the construction of bridge piers
2 foundation beneath rivers & other water bodies.
 W + e 2 P   W − eP  It is prefabricated hollow box or cylinder.
ηb =  −  When, W < e.P
 W+P   W+P  Type of well caisson-
Where, W = Weight of hammer in kg. (i) Open caisson-
p = Weight of pile + pile cap It is also known as well foundation.
e = Coefficient of restitutions Open caisson is a box opened both at top and
(iii) Danish formula- bottom.
(ii) Box caisson-
WHηh It open at the top but is closed at bottom. This type
Qu =
S0 of cession is used where bearing stratum is available
S+ at shallow depth.
2
(iii) Pneumatic caisson-
2. Analytical or static formula- Its lower end designed as a working chamber in
It is suitable for friction piles driven through which compressed air is forced to prevent the entry
cohesive soils. of water and thus excavation can be done in dry
Q u = Qeb + Qsf = q b A b + qs A s condition.
Where, Qeb = End bearing capacity
Components of Well Foundation-
Qsf = Skin friction
qb = End bearing resistance of unit area
qs = Skin friction resistance of unit area
As = Surface area, Ab = Bearing area
For pure clay, Q u = 9C.A b + α cA s
3. Field method-
Use of standard penetrations data
Q u = 400NA b + 2NA s
Where, N = Corrected SPT number
N = Avg. Corrected SPT number
Geotechnical Engineering 246 YCT
 Well It is the outer wall of the well which Components of retaining wall and their
Steining transfer the load to sub soil. function-
• It act as cofferdam during sinking and
provides weight for sinking.
• Thickness ≮ 500 mm.
Well Lower wedge shaped portion of well
curb steining is called well curb.
• Well curb is composed to support the
weight of well.
• 75-100 mm off set is provided with
well curb to facilitate well sinking.
Cutting It is the lowest part of the well curb which
edge cuts the soil during sinking.
Bottom After the well is sunk to the required
1. Stem- Stem is a vertical components holding the
plug depth, the base of the well is plugged with backfill.
concrete which is called bottom plug. It stem is designed as cantilever slab.
transmits the load to the subsoil. 2. Toe-
Top It is a concrete plug provided over the Toe is the portion of the footing in front of the wall.
plug filling inside the well. It is designed as a inverted cantilever type slab.
Upward pressure of soil acts on the bottom surface
• It provide contact between well cap of toe.
and sand filling. 3. Heel- Portion of the footing at the backfill side is
Well It is a RCC slab provided at the top of called Heel.
cap steining to transmit the load of 4. Weep Holes- Weep hole drained out the water from
superstructure to the steining. the backfill.
Use to reduce the development of excessive lateral
• Minimum thickness of the slab is 750 pressure (Hydrostatic pressure), weep holes are
mm. provided.
Dredge The hole formed due to the excavation of • The weep holes are spaced 5m horizontally and 2m
hole soil is called dredge hole. vertically.
Note-Total number of cantilevers in cantilever retaining
wall is three.
Note- 5. Shear Key- Shear key is structural element which is
Micro pilling- sometimes used in the bottom side of footing of
Pile having dia. less than 300 mm is known as micro retaining walls to reduce wall's sliding.
Note- If FOS against sliding ≤ 1.5 then shear key is
pilling. Reinforcement and cement grout are the provided.
major component of micro pile. It is install at any
angle. TYPES OF RETAINING WALL
1. Gravity retaining wall
Grillage foundation- It provides suitability by its dead/own weight so it is
Grillage foundation is special types of isolated known as gravity wall.
footing (spread foundation). It consists of two or • It is made of masonry or mass concrete.
more tiers of beams laid at right angles to distribute • Plain concrete gravity walls are not used for height
the load over a large area. Generally it is used for exceeding about 3.0m.
heavy loaded steel stanchions and where bearing 2. T-shaped Retaining wall Cantilever retaining wall
capacity of soil is very poor. 3. L-shaped retaining wall (suitable up to fill of 6m)
Depth- 1 - 1.5 m. 4. Counterfort retaining wall and buttress wall
Counterfort retaining walls have thin vertical slab,
EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE known as counterfort spaced across the vertical stem
Introduction- at regular intervals. Here
Retaining wall is a structure that is used to retain any • Vertical stem and base slabs are connected with the
help of counterfort.
material and prevents it from sliding or eroding
• Purpose of providing counterfort is to reduce shear
away. force and B.M. in the vertical stem and in base slab.
It is designed to resist the pressure of the material • It is more widely used than a buttress because
that is holding back. counterfort is hidden beneath the material.
The material that is retained by the retaining walls is • Suitable height > 7 m.
called back fill. • Its vertical slab is designed as a continuous slab.
Geotechnical Engineering 247 YCT
 Important points regarding counterfort 5. Depth of foundation from G.L.-
retaining wall- From Rankine formula
Vertical slab (stem) and heel slab are both designed 2
P 1 − sin φ 
as continuous slab. D=
In counterfort retaining wall the main reinforcement γ 1 + sin φ 
is provided on the bottom face in front counterfort Where,
and inclined face in back. P = Safe bearing capacity (kN/m2)
Counterfort retaining wall are more economical than γ = Density of soil (kN/m3)
cantilever walls for height above 6 m. φ = Angle of repose of soil
The design of a retaining wall assumes that the Generally depth of foundation is provided between
retained earth is dry, free from moisture and not 50 cm to 100 cm.
cohesive. 6. Lateral pressure at the wall due to filler soil-
Buttressed walls- According to Rankin formula lateral pressure for
It is similar to the counterfort retaining wall but the plain filling-
difference is that buttress is provided on the opposite
side of the retained material. Buttress wall act as
compression members.

wh 2  1 − sin φ 
P=  
2  1 + sin φ 
Where, w = Filling soil density (kN/m3)
h = Height of filling soil (m)
7. Reinforcement-
Tensile or main reinforcement is provided at the
inner face of stem in the form of vertical bars.
(i) Minimum reinforcement-
For Fe-250- 0.15% of gross sectional area.
Cantilever retaining wall- For Fe-415- 0.12% of gross sectional area.
It is a wall which resist the horizontal earth pressure Bending moments reduced towards free ends of
and any other, by the cantilever bending action. stem at the rate of, h3
It is most common type of retaining structure and is B.M max
generally economical for heights of 6 m to 7 m. • B.M. at 0.79h (from bottom) =
2
Design concept and thumb rules for h 2h
cantilever retaining wall- • Curtailment of bars at and
3 3
1. Total height of wall-
H = Height above the ground level + Depth of Where, h = Depth of filling
foundation (ii) Distribution steel-
2. Vertical Slab or Stem- For Fe-250- 0.25% of gross sectional area.
Width - 15 to 30 cm For Fe-415- 0.20 % of gross sectional area.
(iii) Temperature reinforcement-
Min. top width ≮10 cm
At the outer face of stem temperature reinforcement
3. Base slab- is provided to prevent cracks and shrinkage. It is
Width (B) - (0.4 to 0.6) H same as distribution reinforcement.
H H Vertical and horizontal reinforcement is provided if
Thickness- to (Minimum 30 cm)
10 15 wall thickness is > 200 mm at the both faces of stem.
4. Toe extension- (iv) Spacing-
B B 3d
It is provided to Whichever is less 
4 3  450mm
Geotechnical Engineering 248 YCT
Note- The pressure distribution is assumed to be linear.
The tension rod is to be reduced at any point, it Stressed could be checked from the following
should be done only by extending up to from that equation.
point- F My
d σ= ±
Whichever is more  A D
12φ The factor of safety against bearing failure-
Toe- Allowable bearing pressure
Tensile/main reinforcement is provided at the Fb = < 3.0
bottom face of slab. Fmax.
Self weight of toe is neglected during calculation. (4) Slope stability failure-
Heel- If there is a slope stability issue or even other
Tensile reinforcement is provided at the top face of failures modes have higher factors of safety, we
slab. could not be able to avoid the failure of the retaining
Minimum cover- wall.
(i) At the base slab (Heel and Toe) - 70 mm. (5) Tension failure at bottom-
(ii) At the vertical slab (stem) - 50 mm. For safety of tension failure, resultant of all types of
For cantilever retaining wall- forces should be passes middle third of the base of
1 wall i.e. eccentricity, e ≤ b/6.
Stem design shear force = k a rh 2 (6) Shallow shear failure-
2 This type of failure occurs along a cylindrical
1 2 surface passing through is, the heel of retaining wall.
Stem design moment = k a rh
6 F.O.S. > 1.5 (not occurs shallow shear failure).
Mode of failures of retaining walls- Note-
(1) Overturning failures- Main reinforcement in counterfort retaining wall is
Following causes of overturning failure of wall- provided at bottom face in front counterfort and
An inadequate factor of safety is taken against inclined face in back counterfort.
overturning. EARTH PRESSURE THEORY
Inadequate width of the base. Pressure exerted by soil or earth on the retaining
Increase the filling heights with the time. wall is known as earth pressure.
To prevent the overturning of wall, the resultant of Lateral Earth Pressure-
horizontal and vertical forces should be passes Soil is contact with any vertical are inclined face of
through the base. a structure which exert force on structure is known
Factor of safety ≮ 1.55. as lateral earth pressure.
H Lateral earth pressure are categorized in three
Overturning moment = P × Types
3
Restoring moment = W × (b − x) 1. Active Earth Pressure (Pa)-
If the displacement of the wall is away from the
W.(b − x) backfill soil the resulting failure is called active and
Then, ≥ 1.55 lateral pressure exerted on the wall by the backfill
P×H/3
soil is called active earth pressure.
(2) Sliding failure- The minimum pressure exerted by the soil on the
It is defined as the change in the position of the retaining wall is called active earth pressure.
retaining wall away from the backfill on the wall. Active earth pressure of cohesive soils-
Shearing failure is the main cause of sliding failure.
Shear key is provided to increase the sliding
resistance (F.O.S. < 1.5).
Resisting force or friction force (f) = µw
For normal loading condition-
µw
≥ 1.40
P
For earthquake loading-
µw
≥ 1.0
P
(3) Bearing failure of soil-
Pressure under the base of the wall is not uniform
due to rotation.
The pressure exerted by resultant vertical force at
1 2
toe of wall must no exceed the allowable bearing Active Earth Pressure, Pa = k a γH 2 − 2C k a H (kN/m )
capacity of soil. 2

Geotechnical Engineering 249 YCT

Coefficient of active earth pressure, Note-
Failure plane angle or length of failure block -
1 − sinφ  φ  φ
ka = = tan 2  45° −  = cot 2  45° +   φ
1+ sinφ  2  2  45° − 
 2
∆H Pressure distribution order - Pp > P0 > Pa
Strain in active state- = 0.2 − 0.5%
H
Types of soil Strain ∆H/H Coefficient of earth pressure distribution order-
Dense sand 0.2% kp > k0 > ka
Loose sand 0.5%
3. Earth Pressure at- Rest (Po)-
Clayey sand 0.4%
Note-
For cohesive less soils consider (C = 0).
Negative (–ve) earth pressure will be developed at
the top of the wall-
For Z = 0 at G.L. Pa = −2C k a
4C
Cohesive soil can withstand ( 2Z0 ) = depend
γ ka
without any lateral support.
 φ
Length of failure block = H cot  45 +  In his case , the wall is rigid and does not move with
 2
the pressure exerted on the wall. The soil behind the
 φ wall be in a state of elastic equilibrium.
Failure plane, from horizontal  45° +  .
 2 Pressure at rest condition,
2. Passive Earth Pressure (Pa)- 1
The max. earth pressure due to maximum shear Po = k o γH 2 at Z = H & Po = k o γH at Z = 0
stress on the retaining wall is called passive earth 2
pressure. ko = Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
It exist when the movement of the wall is such that σh µ
the wall tends to compress horizontally and the wall For cohesive soil, k o = =
is moving towards the soil mass. σv 1 − µ
Passive earth pressure for cohesive soil- Theory of earth pressure-
1. Rankin theory of active earth pressure-
Assumptions-
i. The soil is isotropic, homogeneous, semi-infinite,
dry and cohesionless.
ii. Back of the wall is vertical and smooth.
iii. Soil element is in a state of plastic equilibrium i.e, at
the verge of failure.
iv. The result is parallel to the backfill surface.
v. The ground surface is plane , which may be
horizontal or inclined.
Passive Earth Pressure, vi. The back of the retaining wall is smooth and
vertical.
1 2
Pp = k p .γ.H 2 + 2C k p H (in kN/m ) 2. Coulomb theory of earth pressure-
2
i. Backfill soil of retaining wall is a dry, cohesion less,
Coefficient of passive earth pressure;
homogeneous, and isotropic.
1 + sin θ  φ  φ ii. Back surface of retaining wall is inclined to the
kp = = tan 2  45 +  = cot 2  45 –  vertical and planar.
1 − sin θ  2  2
iii. Failure surface is a plane surface which passes
1 through the heel of the wall.
kp = k a .k p = 1
ka iv. Position and the line of action of the earth pressure
are known.
Strain in passive state-
v. Sliding wedge is considered to be a rigid body and
Dense sand 2%
the earth pressure is obtained by considering the
Loose sand 15%
limiting equilibrium of the sliding wedge as a whole.
Geotechnical Engineering 250 YCT
 Value of ko for different type of soil- Active earth pressure in case of cohesive soil-
Type of soil ko Active case-
Dense sand 0.4 - 0.45 Active earth pressure intensity
Loose sand 0.45 - 0.5 Pa = K a γh − 2c K a
Mechanically compacted sand 0.8 - 1.5
Normally consolidated clay 0.5 - 0.6 At top surface i.e h = 0
Over consolidated clay 1.0 - 4.0 Pa = −2c K a tensile nature
Retaining wall, with inclined backfill- Position where active earth pressure is zero.
2c
 cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ  Z=
k a = cos β×  Ka γ
 cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ 
Passive case-
 cos β + cos β − cos φ 
2 2
K a γh 2 2c 2
k p = cos β×  Pa = − 2ch K a +
2 γ
 cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ 
Note- Item description Value
Retaining wall are designed for active earth Active earth pressure at top −2c K a
pressure. surface
Due to compaction of soil active earth pressure [tensile nature]
decrease and passive earth pressure increase. Active earth pressure at K a γh − 2c K a
Due to cohesion, decreases the active pressure while bottom
increase the passive earth pressure. Critical depth of cohesive 4c
When height of retaining wall is greater than 6 m the
counterfort retaining wall is provided and cantilever soil γ Ka
retaining wall is generally economical for height of
6 -7 m. Active earth pressure at zero 2c
position z=
Coulomb's Theory Rankine Theory γ KA
Coulomb's considers a Rankine does not Total active earth pressure 1 2c 2
retaining wall and the consider it. K a γh 2 − 2ch K a ×
backfill as a system. 2 γ
The back of the wall can Retaining wall is Passive earth pressure in case of non-cohesive
be inclined or vertical. vertical. soil-
Back of retaining wall is Back of retaining wall is Case Passive earth Total pressure
rough. smooth. pressure per per unit length
Backfill surface may This theory allows only unit area
plane or curved. for a plane surface.
If dry back fill & Pa = kpγh 1
More rational and Relativity simple and horizontal Pp = k p γh 2
difficult to solve the hence is more commonly 2
problems. used. surface
Pressure magnitude end Pressure magnitude and If clay backfill Pp = kpq + kpγh 1
with surcharge Pp = k p qh + k p γh 2
location are calculated location are calculated 2
from the concept of wave mathematically. pressure
friction. When surface is Pp= kpγh 1
Note- inclined Pp = k p γh 2
The earth pressure behind a bridge abutment is at 2
rest. Cohesive soil-
As angle of internal friction 'φ' increases, coefficient  1 + sin φ  1 + sin φ
of active earth pressure ka decrease. Pp = γ h   + 2c
Case Active earth Total pressure per  1 − sin φ  1 − sin φ
pressure per unit length 1 + sin φ
[Where, = Kp ]
unit area 1 − sin φ
If dry back fill & Pa = kaγh 1
horizontal Pa = k a γh 2 Pressure per unit area = Pp = γ h K p + 2C K p ...eq. (i)
2
surface Put h = 0 in eq. (i)
If clay back fill Pa = kaq + kaγh 1 Pp = 0 + 2C K P
with surcharge Pa = k a qh + k a γh 2
2 Total passive earth pressure per unit area =
pressure
When surface is Pa = kaγh 1 1
Pa = k a γh 2 2ch K P + K P γh 2
inclined 2 2
Geotechnical Engineering 251 YCT
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL Volume relationship-
Phase Diagram- • Total volume of soil, V = Vv + Vs
Diagram which represents the components of soil is • Volume of voids, Vv = Va + Vw
called phase diagram. It is two types Where,
1. Three Phase Diagram- Va = Volume of air
It represents three components of soil which is soil Vw = Volume of water
solid, air and water. It is also known as block Vs = Volume of soil solid
diagram.
2. Two Phase Diagram- Vv
It represents only two components of soil which is
Void Ratio, e= ( e > 0, Always )
Vs
dry soil (solid and air) or saturated soil (solids and
water). Vv
Note- Porosity, n= ( 0 < n < 1)
If air is present in soil considered as unit then soil V
consist one phase diagram. Vw
VARIOUS TYPES OF SOIL Degree of saturation, S = ( 0 ≤ S ≤ 1)
Vv
(i) Bentonite Soil-
Va
Obtained from the decomposition of volcanic ash. Air content, ac = ( 0 ≤ a c ≤ 1)
It is highly plastic clay & also highly water Vv
absorbing capacity.
Va
It have high shrinkage and swelling characteristics and Percentage air voids, na = ( 0 ≤ n a < 1)
unsuitable for foundation due to montmorillonite V
mineral. Weight relationship-
(ii) Black Cotton soil-
• Total weight of soil, W = Wv + Ws
It is a residual soil formed from basalt & have
excess of montmorillonite. • Weight of voids, Wv = Wa + Ww
It has high swelling, shrinkage and very low bearing Where,
strength due to montmorillonite mineral. Wa = Weight of air
It is a type of inorganic clay, black in colour & Ww = Weight of water
useful for cotton crops. WS = Weight of solid
(iii) Laterite Soil- Note-
It is a residual soil formed by leaching action.
• Weight of air is considered as zero.
Its hardness is due to cementing action of iron oxide
and aluminum oxide. Water content, Ww
wc = ( w c ≥ 0)
Due to iron oxide gives red colour. Ws
(iv) Muck- Ww
It is mixture of fine soil particles and highly Effective water content, w'= ( 0 ≤ w ' < 1)
W
decomposed organic matter.
(v) Peat- Unit weight of soil-
It is formed by the rotting of the peel of the leaves of W
the plant. Bulk unit weight, γt / γb =
V
Highly compressible, low strength and permeable in
nature. WS
(vi) Marl- Dry unit weight, γ d =
V
Formed due to the decomposition of plants and
bones of animals. Wsat
It is a stiff, marine calcareous clay of greenish colour. Saturated unit weight, γ sat =
V
(vii) Humus-
It is a dark brown organic amorphous earth of the Submerged unit weight,
top soil. Wsub γ
(viii) Caliche- γ sub = = γ sat − γ w = sat
It is a type of soil which contains gravel, sand and silt V 2
and its particles are cemented by calcium corbonate. Ws
(ix) Tuff Soil- Unit weight of soil solid, γ s =
It is fine grained slightly cemented volcanic ash Vs
transported by wind or water.
Ww
(xii) Gumbo soil- It is a black and highly plastic soil. Unit weight of water, γ =
(xiii) Fills- Vw
All man made deposits of soil and waste materials is Decreasing order of unit weight-
called fills.
(xiv) Loam- It is the mixture of (sand+ silt + clay). γ s > γ sat > γ t > γ d > γ sub

Geotechnical Engineering 252 YCT

 Dry unit weight of soil represents the compactness
emax − enatural
or denseness of soil ID =
Unit weight of soil at zero air voids depends upon- emax − emin
i. Unit weight of water
ii. Water content γ d max , ( γ d − γ d min )  1
ID = e ∝ 
γ d ( γ d max − γ d min ) 
iii. Specific gravity
γd 
Specific Gravity-
• True/Absolute specific gravity of soil solid ( n max − n natural )(1 − n min )
ID =
γ
Gs = s =
Ws ( n max − n min )(1 − n natural )
γ w Vs γ w
0 ≤ ID ≤ 1
• Apparent/ Mass specific gravity for soil
γt Note-
Gm = Id ∝ denseness, compactness and shear strength.
γw
Soil at loosest state, e = emax & ID = 0
For- Soil at densest state, e = emin & ID = 100%
Organic soil solid, Gs = 1.2 - 1.4
Density Index Soil Condition
Inorganic soil solid, Gs = 2.6 - 2.75
0-15 Very Loose
Functional relationships- 15-35 Loose
G m < Gs (S.G.)Fine Grained > (S.G.)Coarse Grained 35-65 Medium Dense Important Rela
,
65-85 Dense
w' wc n 85-100 Very Dense
• wc = • w'= • e=
1− w ' 1+ wc 1− n Saturation (%) Soil Condition
e W V 0 Dry
• n= • Ws = • Vs = 0-0.25 Humid
1+ e 1+ wc 1+ e
0.25-0.5 Damp
 G + S⋅e  Gγ w (1 + w) 0.5-0.75 Moist
• S.e = w c G • γ b =   γw = 1 Fully Saturated
 1+ e  1+ e
Specific Gravity of Different Types of Soil-
• γd =
γb  G γw 
• γd = 
(1 − n a ) Gγ w Generally it is lie between- 2.65 - 2.85
 • γd =
1+ wc  1+ e  1 + w cG Soil Type Specific Gravity
Clean Sand & 2.65 - 2.68
 (G + e)  Gγ w Gravel
• γ sat =   γw = (1 + w)
 1 + e  1 + w.G Silt & Silty Sands 2.66 - 2.70
Inorganic soil 2.68 - 2.80
Organic Soil 1.2 - 1.4 or < 2
 G −1  G
• γ sub =   γw • Gm = = G (1 − n ) Soil High in 2.75 - 2.85
 1+ e  1+ e Mica, Iron
wc Porosity of soil in different condition-
• S= • γ b = γ d + S ⋅ ( γ sat − γ d ) Condition Porosity (n)
γw 1
(1 + w c ) − loose condition 50-60%
γt G Compacted condition 30-40%
• n a = a c .n • ac = 1− S Soil particle arranged 47.6%
in cubical form emax = 91%
G = Gs
Soil particle arranged 25.9%
Density Index/Relative Density/Degree of in prismoidal form emin = 35%
density-
It is used to express relative compactness of Simple tests of soil
cohesionless soil. It is unitless quantity. Methods for determination of water content-
1. Oven Dry Method- IS : 2720 (Part II) – 1973
It is the simplest and most accurate standard
laboratory method.
Soil sample dried in oven at a temp. of 110° ± 5° C
for 24 hrs.
W2 − W3
Water content, w c = × 100
W3 − W1

Geotechnical Engineering 253 YCT

 Where,
 W − W1   G − 1  
W1 = wt. of container Water content, w c =  2   − 1 × 100
W2 = wt. of container and wet soil sample  W3 − W4   G  
W3 = wt. of container and dried soil sample
Ww = W2–W3 W2 − W1
Specific gravity, G =
Ws = W3–W1 ( 4 1 ) − ( W3 − W2 )
W − W
Type of Soil Temp. Drying W1 = wt. of empty pycnometer
Range period W2 = wt. of pycnometer + wt. of dry soil
Inorganic soil 105- 4 hrs. W3 = wt. of pycnometer + wet soil + water
110°C W4 = wt. of pycnometer filled with water only
Organic soil (Clay and < 60º C 12-16 Note-
silt) hrs. If fine grain soil is to be tested in pycnometer or
Soil containing Gypsum ≯80º C - flask kerosene is used instead of water due to better
& calcium component properties.
2. Sand Bath Method- 6. Alcohol Method (field Method)-
It is rapid field method but not very accurate. It is This method cannot be used if the soil contains a
used to determining the rough value of water large proportion of clay, organic matter, gypsum or
content. any other calcareous material.
This method should not be used for organic soils or This method is quite rapid, but not very accurate.
for soils having higher percentage of gypsum. The soil sample is mixed with methylated spirit
(alcohol), and quantity of methylated spirit about
W − W3
Water content, w c = 2 × 100 one ml. for every gram of soil.
W3 − W1 7. Radiation Method-This method is extremely useful
3. Torsion Balance Moisture Meter Method - for the determination of water content of soil in-situ
It is rapid and accurate laboratory method. By this conditions.
method water content determine within 15 to 30 In this method Radio-active isotopes material (such
minutes. as cobalt 60) are used for the determination of water
Infrared rays are used for drying the soil sample content of soils.
It is suitable for soil which absorbed moisture from Methods of Specific Gravity
the atmosphere Determination -
4. Calcium Carbide or Rapid Moisture Method- Specific gravity of solid particles is determined in
This method is rapid but not accurate and can be the laboratory with the following methods.
used in the field and laboratory both. Measuring For coarse grained soil
Result in 5 to 7 minutes. flask volume = 500 ml.
It is use for fine grain soil. Method
CaC2 + 2H 2 O → C2 H 2 ↑ + Ca ( OH ) 2 Gas Jar For coarse grained soil.
( Acetylene Gas ) Method volume = 1 Ltr.
Pycnometer For coarse grained cohesionless
This method is suitable for embankment of highway.
Method soil.
Note-
volume of flask = 900 ml.
To get an accurate value, a minimum of three soil
samples should be taken to test, and average water Density Most accurate and useful for all
content should be taken as result. Bottle types of soil
5. Pycnometer Method- Method It is standard laboratory method.
This is a quick laboratory method for determining volume of bottle = 50 ml.
the water content of those soils whose specific • It is suitable for Cohesive and
gravity (G) is already known. cohesionless soil.
It is suitable for cohesionless soil only.
Its principle is not based on air voids. Shrinkage -
limit
Method
Specific gravity of solids is generally reported at
27°C (IS:2720-II) or at 4°C.
S.G.of water at t °C
G 27 = G t ×
S.G.of water at 27°C
G 4 = G t × S.G.of water at t °C

Geotechnical Engineering 254 YCT

 Methods to determine the unit weight of 2. Textural Classification-
soil The texture depends upon the particle shape, size
Method Suitable for and gradation of particles.
Core cutter It is quite suitable for soft, It is based on the percentage of sand, silt and clay
method (Field fine grained and clayey soil. size.
Method) It is not suitable for stony It is divided into 12 groups.
soil.
Sand It is suitable for gravelly,
replacement sandy and dry soil.
method
(Field Method)
Water It is suitable for cohesive
displacement soils only and in this method
Method paraffin wax is used.
Submerge This method is also suitable
density Method for cohesive soil.
Rubber Balloon Suitable for all types of
Method soils.
• It is not so accurate method.
Radiation/direct Bulk mass density of in-situ
transmission soil can be determined using
Method this method.
• It is quick and convenient 3.
Highway Research Board Classification-
• It is based on particle size composition and plasticity
In this method Nuclear density
meter is used. characteristics.
• It is mostly used for pavement construction.
It is quick and non-destructive
method. It is also called as American association of state
highway and transportation official (AASHTO).
0

CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOIL
It is based on grain size and soil consistency. It is divided into 8 groups from A-1 to A-7 with and
1. Grain/Particle Size Classification- additional group A-8 for peat or muck soil and it is
(i) U.S. Bureau and Public Road Administration based on group index of soil.
(PRA) Classification. Group index-
Higher the value of group index, poorer is the
quality of material.
Group Index = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where,
a = P – 35 ≯ 40 (Range 0 to 40)
b = P –15 ≯ 40 (Range 0 to 40)
(ii) International (Swedish) soil Classification- c = wL – 40 ≯ 20 (Range 0 to 20)
d = IP – 10 ≯ 20 (Range 0 to 20)
If the value of a,b,c,d comes negative while
determining the group Index of soil, then it is taken
as zero.
If the value of ‘a’ and ‘b’ is more than 40% only
(iii) M.I.T. Classification- taken 40% and if the value of ‘c’ and ‘d’ is more
than 20% only 20% is taken.
wL= Liquid limit
IP = Plasticity Index
P = Percentage of particle finer than 75µ
0 ≤ G.I. ≤ 20
Group Index Value Qualify of Soil
0 -1 Good
(iv) Indian Standard Classification- As per IS : 1498 -
2-4 Fair
1970,
5-9 Poor
10-20 Very Poor
4. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)-
Soil Based on
Course grained Grain size distribution.
Fine Grained Plasticity characteristics.
Geotechnical Engineering 255 YCT
 In USCS, various soils are classified into 4 major Liquid limit Plasticity clay Compressibility
groups- silt
(i) Coarse grained (ii) Fine grained < 35 Low Low
(iii) Organic soil (iv) Peat 35 - 50 Medium Medium
There are 15 Groups of soils- > 50 High High
• Coarse grained - 8 groups Note-
• Fine-grained - 6 groups (including organic soil) WL < 35 - Low plasticity clay and low
• Peat- 1 group compressibility silt.
It is based on index property of soil.
It is developed by A. Casagrande's.
Symbols Used in USCS-
Symbols Description
G Gravel
Primary S Sand
M Silt
C Clay
O Organic
Pt Peat
Secondary W Well-graded
P Poorly-graded
M Non-Plastic fines
C Plastic fines
Soil is defined as value of A-Line and U-Line
L Low plasticity equation.
H High plasticity Equation of A-line-
Indian Standard Classification System
(ISCS, IS: 1498-1970) IP = 0.73(w L − 20)
This system has been derived from the unified soil Soil above A-Line is clay.
classification system. This classification is done Soil below A-Line is silt or organic soil.
based on three parameters- Equation of U-line-
1. Coarse grained Soil- U-Line is a line above which not any soil is exist.
(i) Gravel-
I P = 0.9(w L − 8)
Coarse fraction > 50% retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve
(ii) Sand- Note-
Coarse fraction > 50% passes through 4.75 mm IS : Dry strength of organic soil > inorganic soil.
sieve. CGS is based on fineness-
Group Classification Gravel and sand are further classified base on
Symbol percentage (%) fineness finer than 75µ sieve.
GW Well-graded Gravel (i) Fineness < 5% -
GP Poorly- graded Gravel
GM Silty Gravel
GC Clayey Gravel
SW Well graded Sand
SP Poorly graded Sand
SM Silty Sand
SC Clayey Sand
2. Fine grained soil-
Plasticity index and liquid limit are used to classify (ii) 5% < Fineness < 12%
the fine grained soil by plasticity chart. Coarse grained soils are designed by dual symbols.
Group Classification
Symbol
ML Silt of low plasticity
MI Silt of intermediate plasticity
MH Silt of high plasticity
CL Clay of low plasticity
CI Clay of intermediate plasticity
CH Clay of high plasticity
OL Organic silt/clay of low plasticity
OI Organic silt/clay of intermediate
plasticity
OH Organic silt/clay of high plasticity

Geotechnical Engineering 256 YCT

(iii) Fineness > 12%- Factor Affecting of permeability-
Particle size k ∝ D10
2

Shape of particle 1
(S-Specific Surface Area). k∝
S2
Void ratio e3
k∝
1+ e
Viscosity 1
k∝
µ
Temperature k∝T
Effective stress 1
k∝
σ'
PERMEABILITY OF SOIL Degree of saturation k∝s
Property of soil which permit the flow of water Unit weight of water k ∝ γw
through its voids is called permeability. Property of Impurities in water 1
a porous material which permits the passage or k∝
seepage of water. impurity
Darcy's Law- Entrapped air 1
k∝
According to Darcy’s law, "The rate of flow or the Entrapped air
discharge of water per unit area is proportional to Adsorb water 1
the hydraulic gradient i.e, k∝
Adsorb water
v ∝ i , v = k.i , or q = ki. A Relation b/w e & k-
∆h  ∆h  k1 e12
q = k. .A , ∵ q = A × v and i =  = (Used for Sand)
L  L  k 2 e 22
Where,
log10 k1 e1
k = Coefficient of permeability = (Used for Silt & Clay)
(Unit of k- cm/sec, m/sec or mm/sec) log10 k 2 e 2
v = Discharge velocity Typical Values of the Coefficient of
i = Hydraulic gradient , ∆h = Head loss Permeability (k)-
L = Length of soil specimen Soil Type (k) (cm/sec) Drainage
q = Amount of water (in time ‘t’) properties
A = C/S area of soil perpendicular to the direction Clean Gravel ≥1 Very good
of flow Clean Sand (coarse) 1 - 0.01 Good
Permeability is also known as coefficient Sand (Mixture) 0.01 - 0.05
permeability. Fine Sand 0.05 - 0.001 Fair
Assumption of Darcy’s Law- Silty Sand 2×10-3 - 1×10-4
i. Soil is fully saturated. Silt 5×10-4 -1 ×10-5 Poor
ii. Flow is completely laminar through fine grained soil Clay ≤10–6 Very poor
(silt, clay, fine sand). Note-
iii. Relationship between velocity and hydraulic Superficial velocity (Avg. velocity)= Avg. velocity
gradient should be linear. of flow through soil.
iv. It is not valid for extremely find grained soil Seepage velocity (actual velocity) = Velocity of
(colloidal clay) and coarse grained soil. flow through soil.
Hydraulic gradient- Coefficient of permeability-
The loss of head per unit distance of flow (or along
the length of flow) is called hydraulic gradient.
∆h
i = tan θ = , ∆ h = (h in – h out ) , i = tanφ
L
γ w e3
Poiseuille Equation- k = C.D 2 . .
η 1+ e
Here, k ∝ e2
According to Allen k sand = 100D10
2

Geotechnical Engineering 257 YCT

1. Laboratory (direct) methods- hl = Head of water in time ‘t1’
Permeameter is used to measure coefficient of h2 = Head of water in time ‘t2’ (t2 > t1)
permeability. h = Head of water at any intermediate time t (h1-h2)
(i) Constant Head Permeability Test Capillary Permeability Test-
This test is suitable for coarse grained soil with high This test is suitable for partially saturated soil but
permeability. above two test are suitable for saturated soil.
Q.L Jodhpur Permeameter-
k= It was designed & developed by Dr. Alam Singh
A.h.t
(1958).
It measure the permeability of all types of soil and it
is useful for laboratory and field both.
Falling head and constant head test can be done by
this method.
It is performed on remolded as well undisturbed
specimens. Remolded specimen is prepared by static
and dynamic compaction.
Apparatus size-
Capacity = 300 ml, Dia. = 79.8 mm,
Height = 600 mm,
Transverse sectional area = 50 cm2
2. Field methods-
(It is suitable for large area)
Dupit's equation-
It is used to find out the co-efficient of permeability
of confined and unconfined aquifer.
(ii) Falling/variable Head Permeability Test- It is used to compute the discharge through an
This test is suitable for less permeable soils like fine unconfined and confined aquifer.
sand silt and clay etc. Assumptions-
i. Soil mass is homogeneous, isotropic and flow is
2.303.a.L h 
k= log10  1  steady and laminar.
At  h2  ii. Darcy's law is valid.
t = Time interval during the head reduces from h1 to iii. Co-efficient of permeability remains constant
h2. (t2 – t1). throughout.
iv. Flow towards well is radial and horizontal.
v. Ground water conditions remain constant all the
time.

(i) Pumping-out test-

It is used for large engineering project for a
homogeneous and coarse grained deposits for which
it is difficult to obtain undisturbed samples.
This test is very costly.
(a) For Confined Aquifer-
It is an aquifer below the land surface that is
saturated with water.

2.303q log10  
R
Where,  r  (Dupit's Equation)
a = Standpipe area k=
2πD(H − h)
A = Permeameter area
L = Length of Sample D = thickness confined layer
Geotechnical Engineering 258 YCT
 If h1 & h2 = Depth of water above bottom Indirect method of Coefficient of Permeability
impervious stratum in two observation well then. Determination-
q r  Jaky’s formula k = 100 Dm2
k= .log e  2  (Thiem's Equation)
2πD(h 2 − h1 )  r1  Dm= Grain Size (cm)
(b) For Unconfined Aquifer- Allen Hazen’s formula k = CD10 2
, if D in mm
It is an aquifer whose upper water surface is at
atmospheric pressure and thus is able to rise and fall. C =constant = 100, if D in cm.
Terzaghi’s formula k = 200 De2 e 2
2.303q log10  
R
De= Effective grain size
k=  r  (Dupit's Equation)
π(H − h )
2 2 Kozney’s Carman
1 n3
formula k= ×
k k .µ.Ss2 1 − n 2
 r2 
2.303q log10  
 r1  (Thiem's Equation) Louden’s formula Log10 (kS 2s ) = a + bn
k=
π(h 22 − h12 ) a = 1.65 b = 5.15 constant
Where , Where,
r = Radius of well SS = Specific area surface of particles (cm2/cm3)
R = Radius of zero draw down curve µ = Viscosity (g-sec/cm2)
h = Depth of water in main soil Kk = Constant (5 for spherical particles)
q = Rate of discharge Note-
Allen Hazen formula is used for uniform sands in a
h1 = H – S1
loose state of compaction.
h2 = H – S2
Radius of Influence , R-
S1 and S2 are the drawdown in two observation
well located at radial distance r1 and r2 from As per Sichardt, R = R = 3000.s k
main well axis. s = drawdown of main well (m)
(ii) Pumping in test-
1/ 2 1/ 2
 
As per Kozeny (1933)- R =  12.t  s.k  
It is conducted to determine the coefficient of
permeability of an individual stratum of soil just  n  π  
close to the hole.
This test give the value for a large area around the Where,
hole. k = Co-efficient of permeability (m/sec.)
This test is suitable for low permeability and thin s.k = Draw down (m)
strata. Permeability of stratified soil-
It is more economical than pumping out test but 1. Parallel to the Bedding Planes-
results of pumping out test are more reliable than In this case head loss is constant for all layers.
that pumping in test. k1z1 + k 2 z 2 + ............ + k n z n
kH =
q z
(a) Open - End Test- k =
5.5rh (z = z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 ........ zn)
Differential head, h =Gravity head + Pressure head
(b) Packer Test-
The packer tests are commonly used for pressure
testing of bedrock by using packers but these tests
can also be used for determining coefficient of
permeability of soils
q L
• If, L ≥ 10 r k= log10  
2πLh r
q L
• If, 10 r < L ≥ r k= sinh −1  
2πLh  2r 
r = Radius of bore hole Flow parallel to bedding plane
L = Length of the test section 2. Perpendicular to the Bedding Planes-
In this case discharge is same for all layers.
Theoretical/ Indirect Method-
(a) Consolidation Method- k = C v .m v .γ w z
kV =
z1 z 2 z
Cv = Coefficient of consolidation (m2/sec) + ....... + n
mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility (cm2/N) k1 k 2 kn

Geotechnical Engineering 259 YCT

 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS OF SOIL
Seepage Pressure (Ps)-
Seepage is a process in which liquid flows through a
pores of soil mass from higher to lower head.
The pressure of water exerted on the soil which
tends to percolate, is called seepage pressure.
Seepage Pressure, Ps = hγ w = hγ w i
Seepage force Fs = hγ w A = iγ w V
A = Area of soil sample.
h = Total head of the point = (H –n.∆h)
H = Total head causing flow
n = Number of potential drop
V = Seepage force per unit volume
H
Potential drop per field, ∆h =
Flow perpendicular to bedding plane Nd
3. Equivalent Permeability-
2H
h =H−
i. In case if 2D flow- k eq = k H .k V Nd

ii. In case if 3D flow- k eq = k x .k y .k z Exit gradient i e =

H
Note- b.N d
kGravel > kSand>kSilt > kClay Seepage force
For homogeneous layers the average permeability of Seepage specific force = = i.γw
volume of Soil
entire deposit- k H > k V
Laplace’s Equation-
For isotropic soil- k V = k H Laplace’s equation describes the loss of fluid
Seepage velocity (Vs)- energy, when water flow through pervious medium.
The velocity of water passes through voids of soil 2D Laplace equation-
mass is known as seepage velocity. ∂ 2h ∂2h
(i) In terms of head, + =0
vs ∝ i , vs = k p .i ∂x 2 ∂y 2
kp = Coefficient of percolation
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
Relation between flow velocity and seepage (ii) In terms of velocity potential, + =0
velocity- ∂x 2 ∂y 2
v Assumption-
vs = , vs > v ∵ n is less than 1 (i) Soil is isotropic, homogeneous and fully saturated.
n
(ii) Water and soils are incompressible and flow is 2-D.
k (iii) Flow is steady.
k < kp , n=
kp (iv) Darcy’s law is valid.
Type of soil Shape of flow channel
Where,
n = Porosity of soil Isotropic soil Square shape
vs = Seepage velocity Non-isotropic soil Rectangular shape
v = Flow/discharge velocity Seepage Discharge-
Coefficient of transmissibility (T)- For isotropic medium per unit width.
Rate of flow of water through the entire medium of
Nf Nf
unit width under unit hydraulic gradient is termed as Q = kH × = Shape factor
coefficient of transmissibility. Nd Nd
T = k.d Q = Seepage discharge per unit width
d = Thickness of aquifer water (m) H = Total head loss
k Nf = Total number of flow channels
Coefficient of Percolation- k p = n = porosity
n Nd = Total number of equipotential drops
µ N d = N φ − 1 N φ = Total number of equipotential
Coefficient of Absolute Percolation- k o = k.
γw Lines.
µ = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity N f = Nψ – 1 Nψ = Total number of flow line.

Geotechnical Engineering 260 YCT

 Coefficient of permeability for Non-isotropic soil. Note-
Failure plane is one at which angle of obliquity is
k = k eq = k x k y max. where max. angle of obliquity is equal to angle
Note- of friction.
Shape factor is a only function of boundary Difference of shear shear stress and shear strength is
min. at failure shear stress.
condition.
In earthen dam during seepage top flow line is called
phreatic line. It is parabolic shape.
On phreatic line acts atmospheric pressure.
Quick Sand Condition or Boiling
Condition-
When submerged weight of the soil is equal to the
seepage pressure at a section, then in this case
effective stress is equal to zero. In this case, the soil
like coarse silt and fine sand losses all its shear
strength and move along flowing water, such a
Normal stress, σ n =
( σ1 + σ3 ) + ( σ1 − σ3 ) .cos 2θ
condition is referred as quick sand condition.
2 2
It is a vertically upward flow condition in fine
grained sand or silt.
Shear stress, τ =
( σ1 + σ3 ) sin 2θ
Critical hydraulic gradient- 2
γ G −1
i c = sub = = (G − 1)(1 − n) Resultant stress, σ r = σ n2 + τ2
γw 1+ e
 φ  φ
ic and FOS condition Quick sand condition σ1 = σ3 tan 2  45 +  + 2C tan  45 +  (for C-φ soil)
ic > i or FOS > 1 Safe or stable  2  2
ic = i or FOS = 1 Critical  φ
ic < i or FOS < 1 Unsafe or unstable σ1 = σ3 tan 2  45 +  (for φ soil)
 2
Filter Material Specifications-
It ensure no σ1 = 2C (for C - soil)
D15 (Filter)
<5 significant invasion Where,
D85 (Protected Material) of particles from the σ1 = Major Principal stress
protected material to σ3 = Minor Principal stress
the filter Coulomb Equation (In terms of total stress)-
D15 (Filter) It ensure that S = C + σ tan φ
4< < 20 sufficient heat is lost
D85 (Protected Material) in filter without built Where,
up of seepage S = Shear strength
pressure. C = Apparent cohesion
It gives additional σ = Total normal stress
D50 (Filter) φ = Angle of internal friction
< 25 guideline for
D50 (Protected Material) selection of material Mohr Coulomb's Equation (In terms of effective
stress)-
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL S = C '+ σ ' tan φ '
It is defined as the resistance deformation by the
action of tangential stress. S = C '+ ( σ − u ) tan φ '
The bearing capacity of soil, stability of slope, earth C' = Effective cohesion
pressure and retaining structure depends on shear σ ' = Effective normal stress
strength of soil. u = Pore water pressure
Factor affecting shear strength- φ ' = Effective friction angles
• Shape of particle • Gradation of soil Failure envelope for various soil-
(i) Cohesion less soil (ii) Cohesive soil or pure
• Denseness of soil • Confining pressure
(φ-soil) clay (C-soil)
• Deviator stress • Loading
• Type of minerals • Capillary moisture
Mohr's Circle-
It is a graphical representation of a general state of
stress at a point.
This method is used for evaluation of principal
stresses, maximum shear stress, normal and S = σ tan φ ( C = 0) S = C ( = 0)
tangential stresses at any given plane.
Geotechnical Engineering 261 YCT
 C - φ soil- Direct Shear Test or Shear Box Test-
Soil which possesses both cohesion and friction is This test is used for both cohesive and non-cohesive
called (C - φ) soil. samples of undisturbed or remolded soil.
S = C + σ tan φ Effective stress and total stress are same.

Effect of angularity and grading on φ of C- soil.

Shape Grading Angle of internal friction
Loose Dense Apparatus-
Rounded Uniform 30° 37° • Square shear box (60 × 60 × 50 mm)
Rounded Well graded 34° 40° • Proving ring (used to read applied shear load), Dial
Angular Uniform 35° 43° gauge, Grid plate etc.
Angular Well graded 39° 45°
Note- Dense sand/
OC clay
For a granular material at its loosest state, angle of

Shear Stress, τ
repose is equal to the angle of friction. τf
Angle of repose is the angle b/w the horizontal and Loose sand/
τf NC clay
maximum slope at which a given dry material is
stable.
φ = 0 for cohesive soils.
Effective stress analysis is used in drained condition. Shear displacement
In undrained condition, total stress and analysis is Advantage-
done by assuming pore water pressure developed in (i) Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid
lab is same as those in field. drainage can be achieved.
Test condition for shear stress- (ii) Easy and quick test for sands and gravels.
Drained condition Effective stress analysis and (iii) It is used to determine interface strength parameter.
post construction stability is (iv) Large deformation achieved by reversing shear
checked. direction.
Undrained condition Total stress analysis and Disadvantage-
(with +ve pore water stability should be checked (i) Shear plane is predetermined that can't be weakest
pressure) immediately after construction. plane.
Undrained condition Effective stress analysis and (ii) Stress distribution is not uniform (more at the edge,
(with –ve pore water long term stability should be least at centre).
pressure) checked. (iii) No control over drainage.
(iv) Reliable mostly for granular soil.
SHEAR STRENGTH TEST OF SOIL Tri-axial Test-
Suitable for all types of soil.

Laboratory test-
This test is done for the soil with max. particle size
4.75 mm in undrained, consolidated undrained and
consolidated drained conditions.
Undrained test can be performed only for highly
impermeable clays. When silty clays and silts are
involved, partial drainage is inevitable.
Geotechnical Engineering 262 YCT
• σ1 = σ3 + σd • This test carried out for evaluation of long term
stability of the structure.
P
• ( σd )failure = ( σ1 − σ3 )failure =
A
• S = C + σ'n tan φ
Where,
σ3 = Cell pressure
σd = Deviator stress
A = Area at failure
A 0 (1 ± ε v )
• A=
(1 − ε L ) Types of Failure in Tri-axial Test-
Where, A0 = Area at beginning 1. Brittle failure Failure occur in dense sand and
εv = Volumetric strain over consolidated clayey soil.
εL = Axial strain • Axial strain at failure is 5-8%.
• ε v = 0 for UU test 2. Plastic Failure occur in loose sand or NC
failure clayey soil.
∆V •Axial strain occurs upto 10- 20%.
• εv = for CD test
V 3.Semi plastic Failure occur in C - φ soil.
Tri-axial test is used In following condition - &semi brittle •Axial strain occur upto 12- 14%.
failure
(a) Unconsolidated un-drained test (UU)-
• It is performed on cohesive soil sample to determine Condition of tri-axial test and their suitability-
the un-drained shear strength of core sample. Test Suitability
• In this case drainage is not permitted at any stage. UU Test Construction of building over
saturated clay.
• This test is suitable for low permeable soil such as
CU Test Analysis of earthen dam during
clays with fast loading.
sudden drawdown.
• It shows short term stability of the soil structure. Analysis of retaining wall with sandy
CD Test
• Failure envelope for the total stress Mohr's circle backfill.
becomes a horizontal line. Properties-
i. This test is suitable for accurate research work.
ii. Specimen is free to fail on the weakest plane.
iii. Stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform.
iv. Drainage can be controlled.
v. Pore water pressure and volume changes are
measured.
vi. The state of stress at all intermediate stages up to
failure is known and Mohr circle drawn at any stage
(b) Consolidated Un-drained Test (CU)- of shear.
• In this case drainage is permitted at confining stage viii. Axial stress, deviation stress are determined.
but at consolidation stage drainage is not allowed. Unconfined compression test-
• Pore pressure or volume are measured during shear It is one of the fastest and cheapest methods of
stage. measuring shear strength of clayey soil.
It stands for the maximum axial compressive stress
that a cohesive soil specimen can bear under zero
confining stress.

(c) Consolidated Drained Test(CD)-

• In this case drainage is permitted during the
confining and shear stage both.
Geotechnical Engineering 263 YCT
 σ1 = σ3 tan 2 (45º +φ) + 2C tan(45º +φ) 2. Two Way Shearing-
When top & bottom both ends shear the soil
For unconfined compression test, φ = 0, at G.L.
σ3 = 0 T
Shear strength, τf =
∴ σ1 = 2C  H d
For C-soil πd 2  + 
 2 6
σ1 = 2C tan(45º +φ / 2) For C-φ soil
Properties-
qu i. The height of the vane is usually twice its diameter.
S=C= For clay's or C- soil ii. This test can be done both in the lab and field. This
2
Mohr's Circle for UCS test- is an undrawn test.
iii. Sensitivity of a soil is determined by vane shearing.
iv. It is often used for marine clays.
Dimension of vane-
Parameter Lab size Field size
(mm) (mm)
Height of vane (H) 20 100 - 200
Dia. of vane (d) 12 50 - 100
Thickness of vane (t) 0.5 20 - 30
Pore pressure parameter-
∆U c ∆U c
(i) B= =
∆σc ∆σ3
∆U c = Change in pore pressure due to increase
in cell pressure
Properties- ∆σc = ∆σ3 = Change in cell pressure.
i. Easy and quick.
ii. Most suitable for saturated clayey soil. • 0 ≤ B ≤1
iii. Failure surface is exist at weakest point and plane is • B = 0 , for dry soil.
not predefined.
Field test- • B = 1 , for saturated soil
Vane shear test-
It is a quick test and used to determine the in situ un- (ii) A = A.B
drained shear strength of soft clays and silts. Where A & B = Pore pressure parameter
Suitable in plastic cohesive soil(clay) which is very ∆U d
sensitive. • A=
∆σd
Where,
∆U d = Change in pore pressure due to deviator
stress
∆σd = Change in deviator stress
∆U = Change in pore pressure
(iii) ∆U = ∆U c + ∆U d
(iv) ∆U = B[∆σ3 + A(∆σ1 − ∆σ3 )]

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory-
Assumptions-
(i) Soil is semi infinite, homogeneous, isotropic and
problem is two dimensional.
(ii) Principle of superposition and columbs law is valid.
1. One Way Shearing- (iii) Base of footing is rough
When only bottom end shear the soil (iv) Footing is laid at a shallow depth (Df < B)
(v) Load distribution on footing is vertical and
T
Shear strength, τf = uniform.
 H d  (vi) Shear strength of the soil above the base of the
πd 2  + 
 2 12  footing is neglected.
Geotechnical Engineering 264 YCT
(vii) Footing is long i.e. L/B ratio is infinite. Parameter General Local/punching
(viii) Shear strength of the soil is governed by the Mohr- shear failure shear failure
coulomb equation. Internal friction angle > 36° < 28°
(ix) Ground surface is horizontal and overburden or angle of shear
pressure at foundation level is equivalent to a resistance
surcharge load. Void ratio (e) < 0.55 > 0.75
As per Terzaghi, Bearing capacity of soil Relative density (I ) >70% < 20%
D
depend on-
(i) Cohesion of soil particles
Standard penetration ≥ 30 ≤5
number (N)
(ii) Angle of internal friction between soil particles
(iii) Shape and size of foundation Net bearing capacity of > 100 MPa < 80 MPa
soil (Ultimate Bearing
Types of shear failure- capacity) (qu)
1. General shear failure-
Strain of failure <5% 10-20%
This type of failure occurs in shallow footing, dense
sand and stiff clay. Equation parameter
Failure pattern in shallow foundation is continuous Cohesion C 2/3 C
well defined reaching up to ground surface. Friction tanφ 2/3tanφ
Well defined peak in P-∆ curve. 3. Punching shear failure-
Bulging of ground surface adjacent to the This type of failure occurs in very loose sand and
foundation.
deep foundation with low compressibility.
Ultimate bearing capacity is well defined.
No failure pattern is observed.
Failure is sudden and accompanied by tilting of
Failure surface, which is vertical or slightly inclined.
footing.
All the three zones of failure fully develops. There is no tilting and bulging of footing.
Bulging is more. Failure is defined by very large settlements.
In case of general shear failure- Ultimate bearing capacity is not well defined.
N c = cot φ(N q − 1) , N γ = 1.8 tan φ(N q − 1) ,

N q = N φ e π tan φ Where, Nφ = Influence factor

Bearing capacity test-

2. Local shear failure-

This type of failure occurs in relatively loose sand
and soft clay in case of shallow foundation. In this
type of failure there is a large settlement of soil
before shear.
Failure surface is well defined only immediately
below the footing.
Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of
footing.
There is no heave, no bulging and no tilting.
In case of local shear failure- A. Field Test-
2C 2φ 1. Plate load test (IS : 1888-1982)-
C' = , tan φ ' = tan( ) This method was developed to determine modulus
3 3
of sub-grade reaction which is used in the design of
rigid pavement. It is can also be bused to find
bearing capacity based on shear criteria and ultimate
bearing pressure based on settlement criteria.
It is only suitable for cohessionless soil.
Used for design of rigid pavement.
Width of foundation/pit, Bf = 5Bp
BP = Width of Plate (m)
Geotechnical Engineering 265 YCT
 2. Standard Penetration Test (IS : 2131 - 1981)-
This test is most commonly used in situ soil test for
cohesionless soil which is not easily sampled.
Split spoon sampler that is a thick wall sampler is
used to take soil sample.
• Bore hole dia. - 55-150 mm
• Weight of hammer - 63.5 kg
• Height of free fall - 750 mm.
• S.P resistance, N - 15-30
• Length of sampler - 60 cm.
• Inner and outer dia. - 35 mm, 50.5 mm

Size of plate-
• (30 × 30) cm (min.) • (45 × 45) cm
• (60 × 60) cm • (75 × 75) cm (maximum)
Thickness of plate - 25 mm.
Pre loading recommended - 70 kg/cm2
Min. thickness of plate should be 10 mm to avoid
punching.
Limitation of plate load test-
i. This test is a short duration test and is not suitable in
cohesive soil.
ii. It does not record the total settlement of the test
plate in clayey soil.
iii. Ultimate bearing capacity of clay is free from the
SPT test is done to determinate-
(i) Permissible bearing capacity on the basis of shear
size of plate. norms.
iv. It does not represent the actual conditions. (ii) Permissible bearing pressure based on settlement
a. Foundation on clay, q uf = q up criteria.
(iii) Ultimate pile load bearing capacity.
q B (iv) Unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil.
b. Foundation on sand, uf = f (v) Angle of internal friction or shearing resistance.
q up Bp
(vi) Relative density/density index for cohesionless soil.
(vii) Shear resistance of sand.
Sf  Bf ( Bp + 0.3) 
2

• = Note-
 If test carried at foundation level.
Sp  Bp ( Bf + 0.3)  There is number of blows (N) counted required to
reach a depth of 15 cm.
• If foundation is located at deep depth- Correction done in SPT-
0.5 (i) Overburden pressure correction-
 1 
Sf corrected = Sf ×   SPT value is less for shallow foundation and higher
(1 + D f / B f ) for for greater depth.
Then corrected value of SPT, N c = N o × C
S B
c.. For clay, f = f
Sp B p 350
N c = No × but σ ≯ 280
σ + 70
S  Bf ( Bp + 0.3) 
2
Where,
d. For dense sandy soil, f =   σ = Effective overburden pressure
Sp  Bp ( Bf + 0.3) 
No = Observed SPT value for first correction
n +1 Nc = Overburden correction.
S B 
e. For silt, f =  f  Note-
Sp  B p  If the value is σ ≥ 280 kN/m2 then correction is not
required.
Where,
Nc/No should be lie between- 0.45 - 2.
quf = Ultimate bearing capacity of foundation
(ii) Water table/dilatancy correction-
qup = Ultimate bearing capacity of plate
1
Sf = Settlement of foundation Nc > 15 then, N 2 = 15 + ( N c − 15 )
Sp = Settlement of plate 2
n = Coefficient (depends on type of soil) Nc = 15 (For dense sand)
n = 0 (for clay) and 0.5 (for sand) Where, N2 = Dilatancy or water table correction.
Geotechnical Engineering 266 YCT
Note- B. Analytical method-
Nc ≤ 15 No correction required 1. Elastic theory-
Nc > 15 Correction apply Schleicher's method-
All the value of corrected SPT No. should be in the It is based on elastic theory and boussinesq stress
range of Nfinal ± 0.5 Nfinal. If any of the values is not theory.
range then that should be ignored and average of It is also used for calculation of immediate
remaining should be taken. settlement of cohesive soil.
For Sand-
 1 − µ2 
No. of blow (N) Soil packing ID φ Si = q.B  
<4 Very loose < 20 < 30°  Es 
4 - 10 Loose 20 - 40 30° - 35° 2. Classical/pressure theory-
10 - 30 Compact 40 - 60 35° - 40° (i) Rankine theory (φ - soil)-
30 - 50 Dense 60 - 80 40° - 45° It is used for cohesionless soil and not give reliable
> 50 Very Dense > 80 > 45° value of ultimate bearing capacity.
2
For Clay-  φ  1 + sin φ 
No. of blow (N) Consistency q u = γD f tan 4  450 +  or q u = γ.Df  1 − sin φ 
 2  
<2 Very soft
2-4 Soft (ii) Pauker's theory-
4-8 Medium stiff It is used for cohesion less soil (sand) and based on
rankine theory.
8 - 15 Stiff
15 - 30 Very Stiff (iii) Bell's theory (C - φ)−
> 30 Hard It is used to obtain the ultimate bearing capacity of
the foundation placed in semi-infinite rock mass
3. Static/Dutch Cone Penetration Test- (cohesive soil).
It is used on very soft and loose soils where q u = CN c + γDf .N q for pure clay, C = 4
transportation of heavy equipment required for SPT
and DCPT test not be possible. 3. Plastic theory-
Unsuitable for gravelly soil and soil for having SPT (i) Fellinius theory-
number > 50. This method is used for long strip footing on highly
Rate of penetration 10 mm/sec. cohesive soil.
Depth of penetration 35 mm/sec. W.lr + C.R.
qu = or q u = 5.5C
q  b.lo
C = 1.5  c 
 σ0  (ii) Skemption's theory (C- soil)-
Where, It is applicable only for pure cohesive soil and
qc = Static cone resistance (kg/cm )2 provide net ultimate value of bearing capacity.
c = Compressibility coefficient q nu = CNc
σ = Initial effective over burden pressure in kg/cm2
• For strip footing, Nc = 5 - 7
H0  σ + ∆σ  • For circular and square footing N c = 6 - 9
• S = 2.3 log10  0  Where, S = Settlement.
C  σ0  Df/B Value of Nc
ratio
• q ns = 3.6q ns W ' When B < 1.2 m. Strip footing Circular/ square footing
• q ns = 2.7q c .W ' When B > 1.2 m 0 5 6
>2.5 7.5 9
Where, W' = Water table correction factor
(iii) Prandtl theory-
This theory is based on the assumption that a strip
footing placed on the ground surface sinks vertically
downwards into the soil at failure like a punch.
1
q u = CN c + γDf .N q + γB.N γ For strip footing
2
For C- soil Nc = 5.14 , Nq= 1 , Nγ =0
(iv) Terzaghi's theory-
Tarzaghi's bearing capacity equation-
q u = CN c + γD f N q + 0.5γBN γ
For clay Nc = 5.7, Nq = 1 and Nγ = 0
∴ qu = C×5.7 + γDf (for clay)
Geotechnical Engineering 267 YCT
 and qnu = qu – γDf (∵ qu = CNc γ.Df) It is used for strip footing at any depth.
= C× 5.7 + γDf – γDf q u = CN c s c d c i c + σ.N q s q d q i q + 0.5γBN γ s γ d γ i γ
= C × 5.7 or C.Nc
i.e. net ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation in Where,
clay strata is free from depth and width of footing. s, d and i stand for empirical correction factor called,
In case of shape factor- shape factor, depth factor and inclination factor.
• q u = CN cSc + γDf N qSq + 0.5γBN γ Sγ σ = γDf = Effective surcharge at the base.
for strip footing- sc, sq & sγ = 1
• N c = ( N q − 1) cot φ
N c = ( N q − 1) cot φ , N q = e( π tan φ ) tan
2
(45+φ / 2)

a2
• Nq = N γ = (N q − 1) tan (1.4φ)
 φ
2 cos 2  45° + 
 2 (vi) IS code method (IS : 6403 - 1981)-
q nu = CN c sc d c ic + σ.Df (N q − 1)sq d q i q + 0.5γBN γ s γ d γ i γ w '
tan φ  k p 
• Nγ =  2 − 1
2  cos φ  w' = A factor which take into account the effect of
water table.
Where,
a = e(0.75π−φ / 2)tan φ
k p = Passive earth pressure coefficient
Nq, Nc, Nγ = Bearing capacity factors that is depends
upon values of angle of internal friction.
Shape factor for various types of footing-
Shape of footing Sγ Sq Sc
Strip footing 1 1 1
Circular footing 0.6 1.2 1.3
Square footing 0.8 1.2 1.3
Rectangular  0.4B  0.2B 0.3B
footing 1 −  1+ 1+
 L  L L
• If, D 'w ≥ B w' = 1
Angle of General shear Local shear • If, D = 0
'
w w' = 1
Internal failure failure
Friction (φ) Nc Nq Nγ Nc Nq Nγ • For, 0 < D < B w' = 0 - 1
'
w

0° 5.7 1 0 5.7 1 0 • For local shear failure and loose soil.

5° 7.3 1.6 0.5 6.7 1.4 0.2
2 2
10° 9.6 2.7 1.2 8 1.9 0.5 C' = C and tan φ = φ
15° 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9 3 3
20° 17.7 7.4 5 11.8 3.9 4.7
Note-
1 Order of bearing capacity of various soil-
For strip footing- q u = CN c + γ.D f .N q + γ.B.N γ
2 Soft clay < Loose sand < Black cotton soil < Loose
For circular footing- gravel < Compact clay < Compact sand < Compact
gravel < Soft rock < Hard rock.
q u = 1.3.CN c + γ.Df .N q + 0.3γ.D.N γ
D = Diameter of the footing
COMPACTION
The process by which grains of soil get rearranged
For square footing-
more closely by mechanical means due to which air
q u = 1.3CN c + γ.D f .N q + 0.4γ.B.N γ voids volume reduced and density of soil increases,
B = Width of footing is called compaction/compression of soil.
For rectangular footing- It is done to improve the engineering properties of
soil.
 B Object of soil compaction-
q u = CN c 1 + 0.3  + γ.D f .N q + 0.4 γ.B.N γ
 L (i) To increase shear and bearing property.
(v) Mayor Hoff's theory- (ii) To decrease permeability and settlement.
This theory failure mechanism is similar to (iii) To increase dry density.
Terzaghi's but Mayor Hoff's considered failure (iv) To increase stability of soil.
surface that extended above the foundation level. (v) To decrease air voids or void ratio of soil etc.
Geotechnical Engineering 268 YCT
Factors affecting compaction- Moisture density curve for standard and
Water γd ↑ with ↑ in moisture content up to modified (Light & Heavy) proctor test-
Content OMC but γd ↓ with ↑ in moisture
beyond the OMC.
Type of Soil Coarse grained soil requires less
moisture content to achieve γd max.
because of lesser specific surface area.
Admixture The most commonly used admixture are
lime, cement and bitumen,
Amount of Increasing in compaction energy- dry
Compaction density increase and OMC decrease.
Method of Vibratory rollers
Compaction Static roller- (Useful for clayey soil)
Moisture Density Curve- Curve-1
The graph drawn b/w dry density of soil at Lower dry density at higher OMC i.e. more water
corresponding water content during compaction is content is required for lubrication to achieve lower
called moisture density curve. compactive effort.
Compaction curve- Curve-2
Compaction curve representing the relation b/w Higher dry density at lower OMC.
water content and dry density.
Increasing the compacting effort on the soil Standard Modified Light Heavy
maximum dry density achieved and corresponding proctor proctor compaction compaction
line OMC is deceases. test test
Maximum dry unit weight at a particular water Weight 2.54 4.54 2.60 4.9
content during compaction is achieved when of
saturation is 100% or percentage of air voids is zero.hammer
Falling 304.8 457.2 310 450
γd =
G.γ w
=
(1 − n a ) .G.γ w γ = γ b height
1 + w c .G 1 + w c .G 1+ wc
d
(mm)
Methods of Soil Compaction Test- Number 25 25 25 25
of blows
1. Proctor test-
per
It is a laboratory method used to determined the dry layer
density of soil. It is two types-
Number 3 5 3 5
(a) Standard Procter compaction test- of layer
It is developed by R.R. proctor in 1933. Volume 944 944 1000 1000
Optimum moisture content is obtained by this test. of
(b) Modified proctor compaction test- mould
Soil compaction increases with increase in Compaction energy ratio for-
compaction.
The degree of compaction of a given soil is E modified SPT 4.9 × g × (5 × 25) × 450
= = 4.5
measured in terms of its dry density. ESPT 2.6 × g × (3 × 25) × 310
It is used for rapid determination of moisture
contents in situ. ESPT 2.6 × g × (3 × 25) × 310
= = 0.22
E modified SPT 4.9 × g × (5 × 25) × 450
γb
γd =
1+ wc Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)-
Maximum dry density (MDD) is achieved at higher
2. Core cutter method- optimum moisture content for fine grained soils as
It is used to find out the field density of compared to Cohesionless/coarse grained soil.
cohesive/clayey soil and not for coarse grain soil.
Determination of in situ dry density is necessary for
the design of pavement and highways.
3. Sand replacement method-
It is useful for sandy and gravelly soil.
It is based on the IS : 2720 part - 28.
Clean, uniformly graded natural sand passing the
300 micron sieve and retained on the 600 micron
sieve is used.
Geotechnical Engineering 269 YCT
Order of OMC- Engineering properties of soil-
OMCsand < OMCsandy clay < OMCSilty clay < OMC high plastic clay Property Dry optimum Wet optimum
Typical values of MDD & OMC- Structure Flocculated Dispersed
Type of soil Max. dry density OMC (%) Permeability More Less
(MDD) (In kN/m3) Swelling ability More Less
Sand 19.0 11 Shear strength High Less
Sandy Clay 18.1 14 Water deficiency More Less
Silty Clay 16.3 21 Shrinkage Less More
Clay 15.2 28
Pore water Less More
Gravel sand-Clay 20.0 9
pressure
Mixture
Property of soil for various types of construction-
Zero Air Voids Line-
Zero air void line or 100% saturation curve is the Types of Water content Required
line shows the relationship between dry density and construction (During compaction) property
water content at 100% saturation. Core of earthen Wet optimum Less
Relative Compaction/Percent Compaction (Rc)- dam permeability
It is used to represent relative compactness/ Sub-grade of Wet optimum Less volume
denseness of cohesionless and cohesive soil. It is pavement change
unitless quantity.
Homogeneous Dry optimum More strength
γ d field dam and low pore
R c (%) = × 100
γ d max .lab water pressure

 1 + emin 
Compaction Curve for Various types of
R c (%) =   ×100 Soil-
 1+ e 
Rc measured the degree of compaction measured in
the field.
Empirical formula for Granular soil -
R c = 80 + 0.2I D

At loosest state, ID = 0 Rc = 80%

At densest state, ID = 100% Rc = 100%

Degree of compaction for sand is defined in terms of
relative density.
Note-
As per IS : code γ d field ≮ 95% of γ d max.
Type of Project Minimum required
SOIL EXPLORATION
Relative compaction The process of collection soil data for the assessment soil
Earth dames 100% properties at the site through laboratory and field
Aggregate base materials 95% investigation is called soil exploration.
below roadways Purpose of soil exploration-
Upper 150 mm of sub-grade 95% i. Used to determine the nature and engineering
bellows roadways properties of soil.
Fill to support building or 90% ii. To know about the location of ground water table
roadways and its variation.
Min. Relative Compaction for various types of work- iii. Knowing about the order of occurrence of soil and
rock strata.
Type of work Minimum
Relative iv. Estimation of the max. deferential settlement.
compaction Methods of site exploration-
Highly expansively 85% 1. Open Excavation Method-
Top 500 mm of embankment below 100% Pit and trench are prepared and used for all types of
Subgrade level and shoulders soil.
Other portions of embankment 95% Useful if ground water table is lowered.
Geotechnical Engineering 270 YCT
2. Boring/Drilling Method- It is following types Soil sample required for various laboratory
Auger Use- cohesive and soft soils above water tests-
Boring table and for gravel also. Types of test Types of sample required
• It is suitable for shallow foundation . Natural water Disturbed or SPT sample
Wash Fast and simple method for advancing holes content
Boring in all types of soils except hard rock. Density Disturbed
• Suitable for exploration below ground Specific gravity Representative or disturbed
water table. Grain size Representative or disturbed
Rotary/ It is a very fast method of advancing hole distribution
Core in both rocks and soils (Clay, Sand). Atterberg limits Representative or disturbed
Boring • Bore hole dia. made- 50 - 200 mm. Coefficient of Undisturbed
Percussion Used for making holes in rocks, boulders permeability
Drilling and other hard strata. Consolidation Undisturbed
• Used for obtained highly disturbed parameters
samples. Shear strength Undisturbed
parameters
Auger and Cylindrical auger and shell with cutting
Shell edge at lower end can be used for deep Soil Simpler-
Boring boring in hard /stiff soil. Instrument used to take of undisturbed soil samples
• Auger is used for soft clay while shell is from test pits or boreholes at required depth s known
for stiff clay. as soil sampler.
3. Sub surface sounding- Types of sampler-
4. Geophysical method- A. Open Drive Sampler-
Note-. It is classified on the basis of area ratio.
The depth of exploration should be about 1.5 times (i) Thin Walled Sampler (IS : 2132 - 1972)-
of the width of square footing and 3 times the width It is a seamless steel tube used for taking
of the strip footing. undisturbed sample.
Ex.- Piston samplers, Shelby tube samplers
Area ratio ≤ 10%, Wall thickness- 2.5% of dia.
(ii) Thick walled sampler-
Disturb but representative sample is obtained by
thick walled sampler area.
Area ratio- 10 - 25%.
B. Based on the Sampler Designed-
Open/Shelby Most widely used for collecting
1. Disturbed Soil Sample-
tube sampler undisturbed soil sample
Its natural structure has been disturbed during the
sampling process. • Unsuitable for hard or dense
gravely soil.
It can be used to determine the index properties of
the soils such as grain size distribution, plastic limit, Standard split Used for obtaining undisturbed soil
liquid limit, specific gravity etc.. spoon sampler samples.
(i) Representative Samples- Piston Sampler Used to take samples of saturated
If only soil structure gets modified and moisture sand, soft and wet soils.
content and mineral content remains the same while Rotary Used for taking samples from firm
sampling the sample is called representative sample. Sampler to hard cohesive soils and rocks.
(ii) Non-Representative/Zero Samples- • Unsuitable for gravely soil and
If soil structure, mineral content. moisture content loose cohesionless soil.
get modified by sampling then it is called non Scraper bucket Useful to obtain disturbed sample
representative samples. sampler of cohesionless soil.
Such samples are obtained by wash boring and auger Design feature of the sampling tool-
boring.
2. Undisturbed Soil Sample-
Soil sample collect from the from the field n a
natural state without disturbing its natural structure
is called undisturbed soil sample.
Samplers Used- Shelby tube, piston sampler.
It is used for determining the engineering properties
of the soil, such as compressibility, shear strength
permeability, shrinkage limit etc.
Geotechnical Engineering 271 YCT
(i) Inside Clearance, (Ci)- NR = Observed N-value, Nc = Corrected N-value
D3 − D1 σ0 = Effective overburden pressure (kN/m2)
Ci = × 100% (1 < Ci < 3)
D1 Correlation b/w penetration resistance N & φ-
(ii) Out side clearance, (Co)- N Denseness φ
0-4 Very loose 25° - 32°
D2 − D 4
Co = ×100 (0 < Co < 2) 4 - 10 Loose 27° - 35°
D4 10 - 30 Medium 30° - 40°
Where, 30 - 50 Dense 35° - 45°
D1 = Inner dia. of cutting edge > 50 Very Dense > 45°
D2 = Outer dia. of cutting edge Correlation b/w N & qu
D3 = Inner dia. of sampling tube N Consistency qu (kN/m2)
D4 = Outer dia. of sampling tube 0-2 Very soft < 25
Note- 2-4 Soft 25 - 50
Co > C1 Always 4-8 Medium 50 - 100
(iii) Area Ratio, (Ar)- 8 - 15 Stiff 100 - 200
It is the most critical factor which affects sample 15 - 30 Very Stiff 200 - 400
disturbance. > 30 Hard > 400
Max. C/S area of the cuting edge Note-
Ar = × 100 SPT is done in bore hole, while CPT & DCPT are
Area of the soil sample
done without bore hole.
D 22 − D12 Geophysical method is used for mineral and oil
= ×100 exploration. This is developed over 100 years.
D12
The Shelby tube is used to collect undisturbed soil
Note- samples.
For Stiff formation Ar ≯ 20%
For soft soil, Ar < 10% Questions Asked in Previous Years
For a good quality undisturbed soil sample Ar ≤ 10% 1. Soil in a three-phase system comprises of
(iv) Recovery Ratio, (Lr)- ______
Recovery length of the sample (a) solids and water only (b) sand, gravel and air
Lr = (c) solids, water and air (d) solids and air only
Penertration depth of the sample
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
Recovery value Soil property
Lr = 1 Good Recovery Ans. (c) : Three-phase diagram–A soil as a three
Lr < 1 Compressed soil phase system consisting of solid particles or soil grains,
Lr > 1 Swelled soil water and air.

Standard Penetration Test-

(a) Dilatancy Correction-
As per Terzaghi and peck in case of silty fine sand if
• Example of three phase diagram is partially saturated
N > 15 soil.
1
N c = ( N R − 15) + 15 2. Which of the following is the correct
2 relationship between γd (dry density of soil), γ
NR = Recorded value or corrected SPT value after (unit weight of soil) and w (water content of
overburden pressure. Nc = Corrected value soil)?
• If N ≤ 15, Nc = NR γ
(b) Overburden pressure correction- (a) 1 + W = γ.γd (b) d = 1 + γ
w
As per Gibbs and Holtz for dry and moist clean sand
γ γ
350 (c) γd = (d) γ = d
Nc = NR × 1+ w 1+ w
σ0 + 70 MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024
Geotechnical Engineering 272 YCT
 γ 7. Which type of soils are formed by
Ans. (c) : γd = decomposition of rock, removal of bases and
1+ w silica and accumulation of iron oxide and
n aluminium oxide?
●e =
1− n (a) Desert soils (b) Lateritic soils
● S.e = w.G (c) Black cotton soils (d) Alluvial soils
NWDA JE 27.06.2023
G+e
● γ sat = γ w   Ans. (b) : Laterites and laterite soils– Laterization
 1+ e  mainly due to the decomposition of rock, removal of
 G −1  silica and bases, and accumulation of aluminium oxide
● γ sub = γ w   and iron oxide.
 1+ e 
● The red, pink or brown colour of laterites is mainly
4. Depending upon the transporting agency, soils due to iron oxide.
transported by rivers and streams can be Black cotton soil– This soil is expansive in nature due
termed as to the presence of montmorillonite and illite clay
(a) Aeoline soils (b) Lacustrine soils minerals.
(c) Alluvial soils (d) Marine soils • These soil are residual deposists from basalt or trap
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 rocks.
Ans. (c) : Alluvial soil– Soil which is deposited from Desert soils– These soil are wind blown deposits
suspension in running water. generally present in the form of sand dunes.
• Transported soil Alluvial soils– Soils deposited by surface water along
rivers.
• Water is the agency Loam– Mixture of sand, silt and clay size particles
• Physical weathering approximately in equal properties, sometimes contains
• Found along the banks of river. organic matter.
Lacustrine soil– It is the soil which is deposited in Bentonite– Decomposed volcanic ash containing a high
from suspension in fresh, still water of lake. percentage of clay mineral montomorillonite.
Marine soil– It is the soil which is deposited from sea • It exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling.
water. 8. ............ is formed due to weathering of the
Aeoline soil– Soil which is transported by blowing rocks by physical agencies and in which
wind also known as sand dunes. transportation is by gravitational forces.
5. The degree of saturation for a fully saturated (a) Glacial soil (b) Loam soil
soil is (c) Colluvial soil (d) Sandy soil
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.75 Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2
(c) 1.00 (d) 2.00 Ans. (c) : Gravity-deposited soils–
MH Solapur Asstt. JE Class 3, 17.02.2024 • Soil can be transported through distances under the
action of gravity.
Ans. (c) : Degree of saturation (S)– It is defined as the
ratio of volume of water to the volume of voids present • Colluvial soils, such as talus, have been deposited by
in the given soil mass. the gravity.
• Talus consists of irregular, coarse particles.
V
s = w range : 0 ≤ S ≤ 1 9. When the soil mass is saturated, its bulk
Vv density is called
For fully saturated soil, degree of saturation is 100% or 1. (a) Dry density (b) Density of solids
Its mean the voids are completely filled with water. (c) Saturated density (d) Submerged density
6. The water content of a highly organic soil is JKSSSB JE 06.12.2022 Shift II
determined in an oven at a temperature of- Ans. (c) : Saturated density (ρsat)–It is the ratio of the
(a) 27ºC (b) 60ºC total mass of the saturated sample to its total volume.
(c) 80ºC (d) 105ºC M
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 ρsat = sat
V
Ans. (b) : Oven drying method–The oven drying Submerged mass density (ρ’)– The submerged
method is a standard laboratory method. density is the submerged mass of soil solids Msub per
• This is very accurate method. unit of total volume V of the soil mass.
• The soil sample in container is then dried at a M
temperature of 105-110ºC for 24 hrs in laboratory, ρ ' = sub
above 110ºC water of crystallisation may be lost. V
• For soil containing significant amount of organic Dry mass density (ρd)– The dry mass density is the
matter, a temperature 60ºC is recommended. mass of solids per unit of total volume of the soil mass.
• For soil containing significant amount of gypsum, a ρd = d
M
temperature 80ºC is recommended. V
Geotechnical Engineering 273 YCT
 Bulk mass density (ρ)– The bulk density is the total Aeolian deposit– Deposit by wind ex-loess.
mass M of the soil per unit of its total volume. It is also Marine deposit– Deposit by sea water, ex-marl clay.
called moist density. Lacustrine deposit– Deposit by still water of lakes.
M Alluvial deposit– Deposit by river.
ρ= • Loess is a wind deposit soil (silt) it is generally of
V
• It is expressed in terms of g/cm or kg/m .
3 3 uniform gradation with the particle size between 0.01-
0.05 mm. These deposits have low density and high
10. ______ is also called the moist density of soil compressibility (when they are in wet form).
and is the total mass of soil per unit of its total
volume. • Soil deposit due to gravity force is called talus.
(a) Bulk density (b) Dry density 16. The ratio of volume of air to the volume of
(c) Wet density (d) Submerged density voids is known as
TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023 (a) Percentage voids
(b) Air content
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
(c) Air porosity
11. Bulk density of soil is equal to the: (d) Degree of air saturation
(a) total mass of soil/ total volume of soil AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
(b) mass of solids/volume of solids
(c) mass of solids/the total volume of soil Ans. (b) : Air content– The ratio of volume of air to
the volume of voids is known as air content, it is
(d) dry density of the soil
denoted as ac.
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20.09.2023
V
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. ac = a ( 0 ≤ a c ≤ 1)
12. The Mass of solids per unit total volume of soil V v
mass is known as Percentage air voids– It is defined as the ratio of
(a) Dry mass density volume of air to the total volume is known as
(b) Submerged mass density percentage of air voids.
(c) Bulk mass density V
(d) Saturated mass density ηa = a × 100
V
DSSSB AE 27/09/2021 Shift-III Note–
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. ηa = n × a
13. .............. is the submerged mass of soil solids ac + S = 1 (ac > na)
per unit of total volume V of the soil mass.
(a) Density of soil (b) Dry density Where,
(c) Saturated density (d) Submerged density n = porosity
Bihar DLRS 29.08.2023 S = Degree of Saturation
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. 17. ............. is defined as the ratio of the volume of
air voids to the total volume of the soil.
14. In a soil sample, the ratio of the volume of
water to the volume of voids is known as : (a) Percentage air void
(a) percentage of air voids (b) Air content
(b) degree of saturation (c) Degree of saturation
(c) degree of compaction (d) Density index
(d) degree of consolidation UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
Ans. (b) : Degree of saturation (S)– The degree of 18. The ratio of volume of voids to the total volume
saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of water to the of soil mass is called-
(a) Air content (b) Porosity
V
volume of voids.. S = w (c) Percentage air voids (d) Void ratio
Vv KRIDL JE (Civil) 29.01.2023
The degree of saturation is generally expressed as a Ans. (b) : Porosity (n)– The porosity of a soil is
percentage. It is equal to zero when the soil is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total
absolutely dry and 100% when the soil is fully volume of soil.
saturated. In expressions, the degree of saturation is V
used as a decimal. n = v ×100%
V
15. Transported soil known as ‘Talus’ is
• The range of porosity is 0 < n < 100%
transported by ____________.
(a) gravitational force (b) wind • It is called percentage voids
(c) flowing water (d) ice Void ratio (e)– The void ratio of a soil is defined as the
ratio of the total volume of voids to the volume of soil
NBCC Site Inspector 11.07.2021 solids.
Ans. (a) : Colluvial deposit– Transported by gravity
V
ex-talus. e = v ,e > 0, there is no upper limit.
Glacial deposit– Deposited by glaciers ex-drift, till. Vs

Geotechnical Engineering 274 YCT

19. The ratio of the weight of water to the weight V
of solids in a given mass of soil, is known e= V
(a) Water content (b) Specific gravity VS
(c) Void ratio (d) Porosity
NBCC SITE INSPECTOR 11/07/2021 ● Range (0 < e < ∞)
Ans. (a) : Water content (W)– The ratio of the weight
of water to the weight of solids in a given mass of soil.
w
w = w , Range : w ≥ 0
ws
Void ratio (e)– It is defined as ratio of volume of
voids to the volume of solids in given soil mass.
V
e = v , Range : e > 0
Vs
20. The value of Porosity(n) and Void ratio (e) may
be 23. The relation between porosity and void ratio is
(a) n>1, e<1 (b) n<1, e<1 given as–
(c) n<1, e>1 (d) n>1, e>1 (a) n = (1 + e) / e (b) n = (1 – e) / e
JKPSC AE 02.10.2023 (c) n = e / (1 + e) (d) None
V MH Solapur Asst. JE Class 3, 17/02/2024
Ans. (c) : Void ratio (e) = v Ans. (c) : Void ratio (e)– It is defined as the ratio of
Vs
the volume of voids to the volume of solids.
V
e= v
Vs
(0 < e) Porosity (n)– It is defined as the ratio of the volume of
voids to the total volume.
V
● Porosity n = v × 100 V
V n= v
{0 < n < 1} VT

21. The soil transported by wind is called The relation between porosity (n) and void ratio (e) :-
(a) Alluvial Soil (b) Marine Soil V VV VV 1
(c) Lacustrine Soil (d) Aeolian Soil n= V = = =
VT VS + VV  VS  1 +1
NHPC JE 04.04.2022 Shift-II VV  + 1
Ans. (d) : Aeoline soil– It is the soil which (sand  VV  e
dunes) is transported wind.  VV 
e
Marine soil– It is the soil which is deposited from sea n= e = 
water transported soil. 1+ e  Vs 
Loess soil– It is uniformly graded wind blown silt, n
slightly cemented by calcium compound or and e =
montmorillonite. 1− n
• It is also termed as collapsible soil. 24. The relation between void ratio (e) degree of
Bentonite soil– It is chemically weathered volcanic saturation (S), water content (w) and specific
ash. gravity of solids (G) is given by
• It consist of high % of montmorillonite. (a) e + S = w + G (b) e × S = w × G
Black cotton soil– It is a residual soil formed from e w S+e G +e
basalt and have excess of montmorillonite in it. (c) = (d) +
S G w S
• It is dark in colour and is suitable for growing cotton. CRPF SI 25.06.2022
22. The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume
W V × γ
of soil solids in the given soil mass is called Ans (b) : (w) = w = W w
(a) porosity (b) voids ratio Ws Vs .γ s
(c) air ratio (d) percentage of voids W
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023 ∵ γ w = w , ∴ Ww = Vw γ w ,
Vw
Ans. (b) : Void ratio– Void ratio is defined as the
voids volume existing in the soil. It is denoted by the W
γ s = s , ∴Ws = Vs .γ s
term 'e'. Vs
Volume of voids V .γ  γ 
Void ratio = = w w ∵ G = s ,∴γ s = Gγ w 
Volume of soil solids Vs G γ w  γw 
Geotechnical Engineering 275 YCT
 Vw Vv 1 28. The plasticity index value for a coarse grained
= × × soil can be expected as:
Vv Vs G
(a) Zero (b) 4 to 7
S.e  Vw V  (c) 10 to 17 (d) 7 to 10
= ∵ = S, v = e 
G  Vv Vs  UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II
e.S = w.G Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
29. The soil having more plasticity index is
25. The method used to determine the in-situ unit (a) Sand (b) Silt
weight of soil is :
(c) Clay (d) Gravel
(a) Oven drying method
WBPSC Sub Engg. 18/12/2022
(b) Pumping out of well method
(c) Plate load test Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
(d) Sand-replacement method 30. The numerical difference between liquid and
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 plastic limit of a soil indicates _____ index.
Ans. (d) : Method to determine the in-site density of (a) Plasticity (b) LL
soil– (c) Plastic (d) Elastic
• Core cutter method RITES AM 05/05/2024
• Sand replacement method Ans. (a) : Plastic index– Plasticity index is difference
• Radiation method between the liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil.
• Rubber ballon method IP = WL– WP
Method to determine the density of soil in lab- PI Description
• Water displacement method 0 Non-plastic
• Submerged mass density method <7 Low plastic
26. Moisture content of a soil below which the soil 7-17 Medium plasticity
volume becomes constant is called the > 17 High plasticity
(a) Shrinkage limit (b) Solid limit 31. The instrument pycnometer is associated with
(c) Plastic limit (d) Liquid limit which of the following soil properties?
SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024 (a) Water content or Specific gravity
Ans. (a) : Shrinkage Limit- Shrinkage Limit is the (b) Bearing capacity
smallest water content at which the soil is saturated. It is (c) Grain size analysis
also defined as the maximum water content at which a (d) Field density
reduction of water content will not cause a decrease in DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
the volume of the mass. Ans. (a) : • Pycnometer have volume 900 ml having
27. When the Plasticity Index of a soil is zero then conical brass tip of 6 mm diameter core.
the soil is • The pycnometer method for the determination of
(a) Clay (b) Silt water content can be used only if the specific gravity
(c) Sand (d) Silty sand of solid particles is known.
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 • It is more suitable for cohesionless soil.
Ans. (c) : Plasticity Index (IP)– It is the range of 32. The water content of a soil sample can be
consistency in which soil exhibit plastic property or determined by :
behave like plastic material. (a) pycnometer method (b) pipette method
IP = W L – W P (c) hydrometer method (d) one - point method
Where, Cochin Shipyard AE (Civil) 11/12/2021
WL is liquid limit Ans. (a) : The following methods are used in
WP is plastic limit determination of water content or natural moisture
Plasticity index of different types of soils– content-
(i) Oven drying method– Most accurate laboratory
Types of soil IP method.
Gravel 0 (ii) Sand bath method– It is a quick field method that
Sand 0 is used when the facility of oven is not available.
Silty Sand <7 (iii) Alcohol method
Silt 7 - 17 (iv) Pycnometer method–
Clay > 17 • It is a quick method which gives the result in (10-20)
For sand and gravel, plastic limit is not attained hence minutes.
they are reported as non-plastic • This is suitable for those soil whose specific gravity is
• If plastic limit of the soil comes equal or more that known.
liquid limit, Ip is reported as zero. • This method is used for cohesionless soil.
Geotechnical Engineering 276 YCT
(v) Calcium carbide method/moisture meter 36. The phenomenon of strength loss – strength
method– gain with no change in volume or water content
• It is one of the quickest method available to find is called:
water content, which gives the result in (5-7) minutes. (a) Thixotropy (b) Activity
• It is a field method (c) Collapsibility (d) Sensitivity
(vi) Radiation method HPCL JE 04/11/2022
(vii) Torsional balance method (infrared method) Ans. (a) : Thixotropy of clay–
33. What is the range of relative density of very • When sensitive clays are used in construction, they
loose soil. loose strength due to remoulding during construction
operations.
(a) 25-40% (b) 0-15%
• However, with passage of time, the strength gain
(c) 45-60% (d) 75-90% increases, though not to the same original level.
Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023 • This phenomenon of strength loss strength gain with
Ans.(b):Classification of soil as per relative density no change in volume or water content is called
Relative density Density thixotropy.
description
0-15 Very loose
15-35 Loose
35-65 Medium
65-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense
34. If in a soil, one’s thumb can be pressed with
pressure, its consistency index is in the range of
50% to 75% and unconfined compressive
strength (qu) of that soil is in range of 50
kN/m2. Its consistency it termed as:
37. The toughness index of clayey soil is given by
(a) hard (b) soft
(c) stiff (d) medium (firm) Plasticityindex Liquidity limit
(a) (b)
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023 Flow index Plastic limit
Ans. (d) : Liquidity index Plasticity limit
(c) (d)
Consistency Consistency index qu (kN/m2) Plastic limit Liquidity index
(%) Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Very soft 0-25 < 25 Ans. (a) Toughness Index– Toughness index indicates
Soft 25-50 25-50 the shear strength of the soil at its plastic limit. It is
Medium (firm) 50-75 50-100 defined as ratio of plasticity index to flow index.
Stiff 75-100 100-200 Plasticity index ( I p )
Toughness Index (IT) =
Very stiff > 100 200-400 Flow index ( I F )
Hard > 100 > 400 • Range = 0 ≤ IT ≤ 3
35. The most accurate method for the • More will be the toughness index more will be the
determination of water content in the firmness of soil.
laboratory is • When, toughness index is more then the rate of loss of
(a) Sand bath method shear strength is more.
(b) Oven-drying method 38. At the plastic limit, the soil is friable (easily
(c) Pycnometer method crushed), the toughness index of the soil is :
(d) Calcium carbide method (a) Range 2 to 3 (b) Less than 1
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 (c) Equal to 1 (d) Between 1 and 2
Ans. (b) : The most accurate method for the Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift 2
determination of water content in the laboratory is oven Ans. (b) : Toughness index, IT is defined as the ratio of
drying method. the plasticity index to the flow index.
Methods of determination of water content– I
1. Oven drying method IT = P
IF
2. Pycnometer method
• Toughness index gives us an idea about the shear
3. Sand bath method
strength of a soil at plastic limit. Two soils, having
4. Torsion balance method the same plasticity index value posses toughness
5. Calcium carbide method/Rapid moisture method which vary in inverse proportion to their flow index.
6. Alcohol method • It is, therefore quite clear that different soils have
7. Radiation method. different shear strengths at plastic limit.
Geotechnical Engineering 277 YCT
• IT generally lies in the range of 0 to 3 for most soils. • A negative consistency index indicates that the soil
• When IT is less than 1, the soil is friable (easily has natural water content greater than the liquid limit
crushed) at the plastic limit. and hence behaves just like a liquid.
39. The minimum water content at which a soil will 41. If the sand in-situ is in its densest state, then
just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread the relative density of sand is
approximately 3 mm in diameter is called: (a) Zero (b) 1
(a) Shrinkage limit (b) Plastic limit (c) between 0 and 1 (d) greater than 1
(c) Plasticity index (d) Liquid limit Odisha Lift Irrigation JE 21.06.2023
Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 Shift II
e −e
Ans. (b) : Plastic limit– It is minimum water content at Ans. (b) : Relative density, I D = max
which soil is in plastic stage. e max − e min

• Shear strength at the plastic limit is about 100 times If in-situ state of sand is equal to their densest state.
at the liquid limit. Then we can say that e = emin
• At plastic limit a soil when rolled a thread of 3 mm e −e 
does not show any crack on surface, it starts to So, I D =  max min 
crumble.  e max − e min 
Id = 1 or 100%
42. The soil having plastic limit greater than liquid
limit has the reporting Plasticity Index (Ip).
(a) One (b) Zero
(c) Non Plastic (d) All of the above
CSEB JE 03.03.2024
Ans. (b) : When the plastic limit of a soil is greater than
the liquid then the plasticity index is reported as zero.
Ip = W L – W P
∴ IP = 0 {if WL < WP)
43. _______ of a clay is defined as the ratio of
(compressive strength undisturbed) to
(compressive strength remoulded), romoulding
Plasticity index – I p = w L − w P
being carried out in such a manner as to avoid
Where, any change in water content.
wL = Liquid limit (a) Compressibility (b) Sensitivity
wP = Plastic limit (c) Collapsibility (d) Thixotropy
Liquid limit– Minimum water content at which soil has MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024
tendency to flow. Ans. (b) : The ratio of compressive strength of soil in
• Found out by two tools– undisturbed condition to compressive strength of soil
(i) Casagrande's tool (ii) Cone penetration in disturbed condition is known as sensitivity of soil.
40. The ratio of liquid limit minus the natural q
water content to the plasticity index of the soil Sensitivity (St) = u (undisturbed )
is ____ q u (remoulded )
(a) All of the mentioned Sensitivity (St) Soil classification
(b) Plasticity index 1 Insensitive
(c) None of the mentioned
2-4 Normal / less or
(d) Consistency index
moderates sensitive
JSSC JE (General Engg.) 13/10/2023
4-8 Sensitive
Ans. (d) : Consistency Index (IC) – The consistency
index or the relative consistency is defined as the ratio 8-16 Extra sensitive
of liquid limit minus the natural water content to the > 16 Quick clay / unstable
plasticity index of a soil. 44. Density index of soil is denoted by
WL − WN emax–max. void ratio
Ic = emin–min. void ratio
IP e–natural void ratio
• Where, WN is the natural water content of the soil of UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
the consistency index of a soil is equal of unity, it is
(a)
( emax − e ) (b)
( e − emax )
at the plastic limit.
• If the consistency index of a soil is zero, it is at the
( emax− e min ) ( emax − emin )
liquid limit.
(c)
( emax + e ) (d)
( e + emax )
• If IC exceeds unity, the soil is in a semi-solid state ( emax − emin ) ( emax − emin )
and will be stiff.
DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
Geotechnical Engineering 278 YCT
Ans. (a) Density index/relative density of soil– 47. The ratio of natural water content of a soil
It is also known as relative compaction or degree of minus Plastic limit to its plasticity index
compaction. (expressed in percentage) is known as :
Density index expressed as– (a) Toughness index
(b) Water-Plasticity ratio
e max − e  γ − γ d.min  γ d max
ID = , ID =  d . (c) Flow index
e max − e min  γ d.max − γ d.min  γ d (d) Consistency index
It's value DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 27/06/2022 Shift-III
Density description Relative density (ID) Ans. (b) : Water-plasticity ratio (or) liquidity
Very loose 0-15 index– The liquidity index is defined as the ratio of
Loose 15-35 the difference between the natural water content of
Medium 35-65 soil minus plastic limit to the plasticity index.
Dense 65-85 wn − wp
Very dense 85-100 IL =
Ip
45. ........... of clays is defined as the ratio of the
plasticity index to the clay fraction content, Ip = w ℓ − w p
which is approximately constant. Note-
(a) Thixotropy (b) Activity w − wn
(c) Compressibility (d) Collapsibility Consistency index (Ic) = L
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023 Ip
Ans. (b) : Activity – IP
Toughness index (IT) =
• The activity as the ratio of plasticity index to the Flow index
percent by weight of soil particles of diameter
smaller than two microns present in the soil. W1 – W2
Flow index (If) =
Ip N 
Ac = log  2 
Cw  N1 
Classification of soil the based an activity- Liquidity index classification
Activity Classification >1 Liquid
< 0.75 Inactive 0.75-1.00 Very soft
0.75–1.40 Normal 0.50-0.75 Soft
> 1.25 Active 0.25-0.50 Medium stiff
Activity of clay minerals– 0-0.25 Stiff
Kaolinite 0.4-0.5 <0 Semi-solid
Illite 0.5-1.0 48. When the natural state of the cohesion less soil
Montmorillonite 1.0-7.0 is in its loosest form then the relative density
Loess soil– Uniformly graded wind blown silt will be equal be ______.
slightly cemented by calcium component or (a) 0 (b) 1
montmorillonite. (c) Less than one (d) More than one
• It is also termed as collapsible soil. AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
46. In dry state of soil mass, the shrinkage ratio is Ans. (a) : Density index and relative compaction–
equal to: • The density index is defined as the ratio of the
(a) Mass specific gravity difference between the voids ratio of the soil in its
(b) True specific gravity loosest state (emax) and its natural voids (e) to the
(c) Shrinkage limit difference between the voids ratios in the loosest and
(d) None of these densest states.
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift I e −e
I D = max
Ans. (a) : Shrinkage ratio– Shrinkage ratio is defined e max − e min
as volume change in soil above shrinkage limit • If soil is naturally in loosest state,
expressed as percentage of dry soil per unit change in e = emax, ID = 0
water content above shrinkage limit. • If soil is naturally in densest state,
 V1 − V2  e = emin, ID = 100%
  ×100
 Vd 
Shrinkage ratio =
W1 − W2
Dry density
Shrinkage ratio =
Density of water
γ
SR = d = Mass specific gravity of the soil in dry
γw
static.

Geotechnical Engineering 279 YCT

49. In the classification of Soil, plasticity chart is: 52. According to particle size distribution curve, if
(a) Plasticity Index vs Liquid Limit the value of coefficient of uniformity(Cu) is
(b) Plasticity limit vs Liquid Limit greater than 6 and coefficient of curvature (Cc)
(c) Plasticity index vs Liquidity Index is between 1 and 3. then it is classified as:
(d) None of the above (a) poorly graded sand (b) poorly graded gravel
RITES AM 05/05/2024 (c) well graded sand (d) well graded gravel
Ans. (a) : Plasticity chart as per ISSC system:– ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
53. Which soil component particles has average
diameter smaller than 300 mm but can be
retained in 80 mm IS sieve?
(a) Cobble (b) Gravel
(c) Sand (d) Boulder
BSF SI (Works) 06.08.2023
Ans. (a) : Particle size classifications according to IS
A – Line equation I p = 0.73(WL − 20) : 1498-1970.
Particle Size in (mm)
U – Line equation I p = 0.9(WL − 8) 1. Clay 0.002 mm
2. Silt 0.075 mm
50. For a well graded sand, the coefficient of
3. Sand 0.075-4.75
curvature should be-
or (a) Fine 0.075-0.425
The value of coefficient of curvature (Cc) for (b) Medium 0.425-2.000
well graded soil lies between_______. (c) Coarse 2.000-4.75
(a) More than 3 (b) Between 1 and 3 4. Gravel 4.75-80
(c) Less than 1 (d) None of the above (a) Fine 4.75-20
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 (b) Coarse 20-80
Ans. (b) : Coefficient of curvature (Cc)– It signifies 5. Cobble 80-300
the shape of particle size distribution curve. 6. Boulder >300
2
D30 54. As per IS Soil classification system the silt
Cc = particles size ranges from ___________ to
D60 × D10
______________ ?
• For well graded coarse graded soil (a) 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm
1<CC < 3 (b) 4.75 mm to 20 mm
• For gap graded soil (c) 0.002 mm to 0.075 mm
Cc < 1 or Cc > 3 (d) 2 mm to 20 mm
NBCC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022
51. The soil having uniformity coefficient less than
4.0 is called Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
(a) uniformly graded soil (b) fine graded soil 55. As per soil classification system, silty sand is
(c) coarse grained soil (d) well graded soil denoted by the symbol
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-1 (a) SW (b) SP (c) SM (d) SC
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-I
Ans. (a) : Uniformity coefficient (Cu)
Ans. (c) Indian soil classification system–
• Uniformity coefficient is the ratio of D60 and D10.
• In this system classification of the soil is done on the
D60
Cu = basis of –
D10 (i) Particle size distribution
Where, (ii) Plasticity characteristics
D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 60% (iii) Compressibility
of the particles are finer, and D10 is the diameter of the (i) Particle size distribution– In this method, soil is
soil particles for which 10% of the particles are finer. classified in broadly two categories.
• It is a measure of the particle size range. (a) Coarse grained soil.
• Uniformity coefficient of less than 4 usually indicate (b) Fine grained soil
uniform soils while well graded soils have uniformity • In this method coarse grained soil is classified on the
coefficient equal to greater than 4. basis of % fineness.
• Cu > 6, for well graded sand and 1<CC < 3 (A) When % fineness < 5%
• Cu > 4, for well graded gravel and 1<CC < 3 (B) When % fineness > 12%
• Cu = 1, uniformly graded. (C) If % fineness is between (5-12)%

Geotechnical Engineering 280 YCT

 59. As per Indian Standard soil classification
System (ISSCS), if the coefficient of uniformity
of soil sample is greater than 4 and coefficient
of curvatures lies between 1 to 3, the soil is
classified as_____.
(a) SP (b) GW
(c) SC (d) GC
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III
Gravel = G, Sand = S, Clay = C, Silt = M Ans. (b) : Well graded gravel – Cu > 4
56. According to the Indian Standard Soil 1 < Cc < 3
Classification System, the basic soil
( D30 )
2
components ‘sand’ and ‘silt’ are symbolized D60
∴ Cu = and Cc =
with letters______, respectively. D10 D60 × D10
(a) S and M (b) M and S • Cu > 6 for well graded sand.
(c) S and S (d) S and O
DDA JE 28/03/2023 Shift-III 60. Hydrometer is an instrument used for carrying
out sedimentation analysis based on Stoke's law
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. for particle size less than .............
57. As per IS soil classification, which of the (a) 100 microns (b) 75 microns
following symbol is used for poorly graded or (c) 150 microns (d) 125 microns
gravelly sands? Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 1
(a) MH (b) GP (c) SP (d) SC
Ans. (b) : Sedimentation analysis–
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-I
• Sedimentation analysis is based upon Stoke's law.
Ans. (c): According to IS classification system,
Soil classification by using group symbols- • Sedimentation analysis is carried out for the soil
fraction having size < 0.075 mm.
Group Classification
symbol • Particles having size smaller than 0.0002 mm cannot
be analyzed even by sedimentation analysis as they
Coarse soils – undergo Brownian motion.
GW Well graded gravel • According to which settling velocity of spherical
GP Poorly graded gravel particle undergoing settlement in an infinite medium.
GM Silty gravel
( γ − γ w ) × d2
GC Clayey gravel Vs = s
18µ
SW Well graded sand
SP Poorly graded sand 61. The temperature correction applied to
hydrometer reading is:
SM Silty sand
(a) always negative
SC Clayey sand (b) either positive or negative
Fine soils– (c) always positive
ML Silt of low plasticity (d) neutral
MI Silt of intermediate HPCL JE 04/11/2022
plasticity Ans. (b) : Corrections to be applied to hydrometer
MH Silt of high plasticity readings– The following three corrections are to be
CL Clay of low plasticity applied to the observed hydrometer readings.
CI Clay of intermediate (i) Menicus correction
plasticity (ii) Temperature correction
CH Clay of high plasticity (iii) Dispersing agent correction
OL Organic soil of low (i) Meniscus correction (Cm)– It is always positive
plasticity / Organic silt of correction the menicus correction is constant for a
low plasticity hydrometer.
OI Organic soil of (ii) Temperature correction (Ct)– The hydrometer is
intermediate plasticity usually calibrated at a temperature of 270C.
OH Organic soil of high If, temp > 270C, correction → positive
plasticity temp < 270C, correction → negative
Pt Peat (iii) Dispersing agent correction (Cd)– It is always
58. The correct group symbol of "clayey sand" is negative.
(a) SM (b) OH Hydrometer reading ( R ) = R h '+ Cm ± Ct − Cd
(c) SC (d) GC Where,
SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024 Rh' = Observed hydrometer reading at the top of the
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. meniscus.

Geotechnical Engineering 281 YCT

62. In hydrometer analysis for a soil mass
(a) both meniscus and dispersive agent correction
are additive
(b) both meniscus and dispersive agent correction
are subtractive
(c) meniscus correction is additive and dispersive
agent correction is subtractive
(d) meniscus correction is subtractive and
dispersive agent correction is additive
AP PGECET 29.05.2023 66. The soils which plot above the A-line in the
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation plasticity chart and have liquid limit 55%
63. A soil having particles of nearly the same size will be :
in called (a) Highly compressible clays
(a) Well graded (b) Uniformly graded (b) Lower compressible clays
(c) Poorly graded (d) Gap graded (c) Lower compressible silts
Assam PSC JE 16.07.2023 (d) Highly compressible silts
Ans. (b) : A well graded soil contains particles of a Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2
wide range of sizes and has a good representation of all Ans. (a) : The A-line in the plasticity chart has the
sizes. equation IP = 0.73 (WL – 20).
• A uniformity graded soil has most of its particles of
about the same size.
• A poorly graded does not have a good representation
of all sizes of particles.
• A gap-graded soil has an excess or deficiency of
certain particle sizes or a soil that has at least one
particle size missing.
64. Stoke's law is valid only if the size of particle is • The A-line generally separates the more clay like
(a) 0.2 mm and 0.0002 mm materials from those that are silty, and also the
(b) 0.3 mm and 0.0003 mm organic soils from inorganic soils.
(c) 0.1 mm and 0.001 mm • Above the A- line
(d) 0.1 mm and 0.0001 mm → If, 35 > wL Classify as CL
MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-III → If, 35 < wL < 50 Classify as CI
Ans. (a) : Limitation of sedimentation analysis– → If, 50 < wL Classify as CH
Assumption–
• If the limits plots below A-line
• Soil particles are spherical.
35 > wL → ML or OL
• Particles settle independent of other particles and
neighbour particles do not have any effect on its 35 < wL < 50 → MI or OI
velocity of settlement. 50 < wL → MH or OH
• Validity of law < 0.2 mm Eq. dia (upper limit of 67. Which of the following is NOT a measure of
particle size) particle size range in coarse grained soil.
• Particle size > 0.2 mm– Liquid tends to develop (a) Coefficient of curvature
turbulent motion at the boundaries of particles. (b) Fineness modulus
• Validity of law > 0.0002 mm Eq. dia (Lower limit of (c) Effective size
particle size) (d) Uniformity coefficient
• Particle size < 0.0002 mm– Brownian movement Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023
affects settlements stoke's law fails. Ans. (a) : The following terms are used to measure of
• According to which settling velocity of spherical particle size range in coarse grained soil.
particle undergoing settlement in an infinite medium. (i) Fineness modulus
( γ − γ w ) × d2 (ii) Effective size
Vs = s (iii) Uniformity coefficient (Cu)– It signifies the range
18µ
of particle size distribution curve.
65. Soil lying above A line in plasticity chart is
known as– • It is defined as ratio of D60 and D10.
(a) Sand (b) Clay D
Cu = 60
(c) Gravel (d) rganic soil D10
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
• For well graded sand Cu > 6
Ans. (b) : Soil lying above A line in plasticity chart is
know as clay and below A line in plasticity chart is • For well graded gravel Cu > 4
know as silt or organic soil. • For uniformly graded CG soil Cu = 1

Geotechnical Engineering 282 YCT

Coefficient of curvature (Cc)– It signifies the shape of 71. The compaction energy used for standard
particle size distribution curve. proctor test is
2
D30 (a) 595 kJ/m3 (b) 300 kJ/m3
Cc = (c) 6065 kJ/m 3
(d) 1000 kJ/m3
D60 × D10 PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
• For well graded CG soil, 1 < Cc < 3 Ans. (a) : Compactive energy in standard proctor test is
• For Cc < 1 or Cc > 3 , gap graded soil. 595 kJ/m3 and in modified proctor test is 2674 kJ/m3.
68. The uniformity coefficient of soil is 72. The compaction of soil is aimed at ....................
(a) D60/D10 (b) D30/D10 (a) decreasing dry density
(c) D60/D30 (d) D30/D10D60 (b) increasing porosity
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 (c) decreasing void ratio
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation (d) decreasing shear strength
69. The particle size distribution curve for soil uses AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
some grading characteristics. Which of the Ans. (c) : Compaction- Compaction of soil is the
following is NOT among them? process of increasing the unit weight of soil (decreasing
(a) Uniformity coefficient the volume of soil and voids of soil) by forcing the soil
(b) Coefficient of compressibility solids in denser state by reducing air voids.
(c) Effective size • It is the process in which soil particles (cohesive and
(d) Coefficient of curvature cohesionless) are artificially rearranged and packed
DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III together into closer state of contact by mechanical
Ans. (b) : Particle size distribution curve– means in order to decrease void ratio permeability and
• The result of the particles size distribution analysis to increase denseness unit weight, shear strength,
is reported in the form of a curve termed as particle bearing capacity etc.
size distribution curve particle size is expressed on • It is instantaneous process, in which soil mass in
x-axis on log-scale. always unsaturated (partially saturated) and measures in
• This curve helps in analysing the type of soil and terms of dry density.
gradation of soil, the soil may be termed as well • Compaction can be achieve by the use of rollers,
graded soil if it has good representation of all sizes rammers and vibrators.
of particles in it. 73. Coarse grained soils are best compacted by
• Following grading characteristics estimated from (a) Sheep foot roller
the particle size distribution curve of soil : (b) Pneumatic - tyred rollers
(i) Effective size (D10) (c) Vibratory rollers
(ii) Coefficient of curvature (d) Smooth wheel roller
(iii) Uniformity coefficient CHB JE (Civil) 28/01/2023
70. Which of the following clay mineral shows Ans. (c) : Suitability of compaction equipment -
largest swelling and shrinkage characteristics?
(a) halloysite (b) illite Types of Suitable of soil Nature of
(c) kaolinite (d) montmorillonite equipment type project
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-I Sheep foot Clayey soil, Core of earth
rollers pure clay dams.
Ans. (d) : Montmorillonite– It is the most common
mineral of the montmorillonite group of minerals. The or cohesive soil
basic structure unite consists of an alumina sheets Smooth Crushed rocks, Road
sandwiched between two silica sheets. The thickness of wheeled gravels, sand construction etc
each structural unit is about 10 Å. The link is due to rollers
naturals attraction for the cations in the intervening space Vibratory Coarse grained Embankments
and due to vander wall forces. The water interventing rollers soil or sand for soil storage
space can be removed by heating at 200-3000C. tanks etc.
• Montmorillonite minerals have lateral dimensions of Frog hammer Cohesionless For small
0.1 µ to 0.5 µ and the thickness of 0.001 µ to 0.005µ. soil restricted and
The specific surface is about 800 m2/gm. confined areas
• Soils containing montmorillonite minerals exhibit Pneumatic Graved silts, Base, sub-base
high shrinkage and swelling characteristics. tyred rollers sands, clayey of embankment
• Swelling nature of black cotton soil is primarily due soil, not suitable compaction for
to presence of montmorillonite. for uniformly highways
graded soils airfields, earth
dams etc.
Rammers or All soils In confined areas
tempers such as fills
behind, retaining
walls, basement
walls, trench
fills.
Geotechnical Engineering 283 YCT
74. Select the most appropriate roller for clayey 78. The Proctor Test is commonly used to
type of soil sub-grade construction determine ______.
(a) Pneumatic tyred roller (a) The shear strength of soil.
(b) Sheep foot roller (b) The maximum dry density and optimum
(c) Smooth wheeled roller water content of soil.
(d) Vibratory roller (c) The water content of soil.
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
(d) The plasticity index of soil.
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024
75. For a standard proctor test, the mass of hammer
and the drop of hammer are as follows: Ans. (b) : The standard proctor test was developed by
(a) 2.60 kg and 310 mm R.R Proctor (1993) for the construction of earth fill
(b) 2.60 kg and 450 mm dams in the state of California.
(c) 4.89 kg and 310 mm • The Proctor test is commonly used to determine the
(d) 4.8 kg and 450 mm max. dry density and optimum moisture content of
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 soil.
Ans. (a) : These are following four lab test being • Compaction curve is plotted between the water
performed over the soil- contents as abscissa and the corresponding dry
IS 2720 densities as ordinates.
Standard Modified IS 2720
Compaction light
proctor proctor heavy
characteristics
test
compaction
test compaction 79. The degree of compaction achieved in the field
test is expressed in terms of relative compaction,
Volume of 944 cc 1000 cc 944 cc 1000 cc which is defined as :
mould
No. of layers 3 3 5 5 (a) Relative compactions
No. of 25 25 25 25 field dry density
=
blows/layer laboratory maximum drydensity
Wt. of 2.495 kg 2.6 kg 4.54 kg 4.90 kg
hammer (b) Relative compaction = field dry density ×
Height of 304.8 310 mm 457.2 450 mm laboratory maximum dry density
free fall of mm mm (c) Relative compactions
hammer laboratory maximum dry density
Energy 593 593 kj/m3 2693 2703 kj/m3 =
provided per kj/m 3
kj/m 3 field drydensity
3
unit (m ) (d) Relative compactions
volume 1
76. What is the mass of hammer and height of =
field dry density × laboratory maximum dry denstiy
drop, respectively, in modified proctor test?
(a) 2.60 kg and 310 mm MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-II
(b) 3.85 kg and 350 mm Ans. (a) : Field compaction– In most specification of
(c) 4.90 kg and 450 mm earthwork, one stipulation is that the contractor must
(d) 4.25 kg and 425 mm achieve a compacted field dry unit weight of at least 90
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-III to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in
Ans. (c) See the above explanation. the laboratory by either the standard or modified proctor
77. The optimum water content (OWC) is the test.
moisture content at which the soil attains Relative compaction expressed in–
______.
(a) maximum dry density
Field dry density ( γ d )
(b) maximum water content R c (%) = × 100
(c) minimum dry density Laboratory maximum dry density ( γ dmax )
(d) fully saturated density
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning)
80. An increase in compaction effort will lead to
which of the following ?
Ans. (a) : Optimum moisture content (OMC)–The
water content at which soils gives max dry density is (a) Decrease in both the Optimum Moisture
called optimum moisture content (OMC) or optimum Content (OMC) and maximum dry density
water content (OWC). (b) Decrease in the optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) and increase in the maximum dry
density
(c) Increase in the Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) and decrease in the maximum dry
density
(d) Increase in both the Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) and maximum dry density
Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023
Geotechnical Engineering 284 YCT
Ans. (b) : Factors affecting compaction– The dry 84. The property of a soil which permits flow of
density of the soil is increased by compaction. The water or any other fluid through its
increase in the dry density depends upon the following interconnected voids is called ............
factors. (a) consolidation (b) specific gravity
(i) Water content (c) compaction (d) permeability
(ii) Amount of compaction MH Latur MNC JE (Water supply) 23.02.2024
(iii) Type of soil Ans. (d) : The property of a soil which permits flow of
(iv) Method of compaction water or any other fluid through its interconnected voids
(v) Admixture is called permeability (k).
Amount of compaction– As discussed earlier, the • Unit of permeability is cm/sec.
effect of increasing the amount of compactive effort is 85. The relation between total stress (σ), Effective
to increase the maximum dry density and to decrease stress (σ') and pore water pressure (u) in
the optimum water content. saturated soil can be given by :
81. A compaction curve is plotted between: (a) σ = σ' + u (b) σ = σ' – u
(a) water content and saturated density (c) σ' = σ × u (d) u = σ' + σ
(b) water content and dry densities CSEB JE 03.03.2024
(c) void ratio and saturated density
Ans. (a) : Relation between total stress (σ), effective
(d) void ratios and dry density
stress (σ') and pore water pressure (u)
GSECL JE 2023 Shift-II
Ans. (b) : Compactive effort is a measure of mechanical σ = σ '+ u
energy applied to soil mass. The degree of compaction • When water table rise above ground surface then
of a soil is characterized by its dry density.
σ ↑ u ↑→ σ ' ↓ vice versa
• Compaction curve is plotted between water content
(Optimum moisture content) and dry densities. • When water table rise above ground surface then σ
• On increasing the compaction effort curve shift and u usually ↑, σ' = constant
backwards and upwards OMC decrease and MDD • Due to capillary effect negative pore pressure
increases. generated
So, σ'↑
86. What is the maximum particle size applicable
for Darcy's Law?
(a) 0.2 mm (b) 0.5 mm
(c) 1.0 mm (d) 2.0 mm
PPSC JE 06/03/2022
Ans. (b) : Validity of Darcy's law–
• As per Allen Hazen, the maximum diameter of the
particle for the flow to be laminar is about 0.50 mm.
• It is valid for flow in clays, silts and fine sands. In
82. The unit of coefficient of permeability is :
coarse sands, gravels and boulders, the flow may be
(a) m/sec (b) N/sec
2 3 turbulent and Darcy's law may not be applicable.
(c) m /sec (d) m /sec
• For Darcy's law to be valid the relationship between
MH Solapur M.C JE Class2, 17.02.2024
velocity (V) and hydraulic gradient (i) should be
Ans. (a) : Coefficient of permeability in soil is usually linear.
expressed in m/sec.
87. What is the drainage property of clean gravel?
83. According to Darcy law for flow through (a) Fair (b) Very poor
porous media, the velocity is proportional to (c) Poor (d) Very good
(a) Cohesion BSF SI (Works) 06.08.2023
(b) Hydraulic gradient
Ans. (d) : The typical values of coefficient of
(c) Angle of internal friction permeability of various soils.
(d) Specific gravity
Coefficient of
MH Solapur M.C JE Class2, 17.02.2024 Soil type
permeability cm/sec
Ans. (b) : Darcy's law:- The law of flow of water Clean gravel 1.0 and greater
through soil was first studied by Darcy (1856) who
demonstrated experimentally that for laminar flow Clean sand (coarse) 1.0 to 1 ×10–2
conditions in a saturated soil, the rate of flow or the Sand (mixture) 1 × 10–2 to 5 × 10–2
discharge per unit time is proportional to the hydraulic Fine sand 5 × 10–2 to 1 × 10–3
gradient. Silty sand 2 × 10–3 to 1 × 10–4
q = k.i. A Silt 5 × 10–4 to 1 × 10–5
• Velocity is proportional to hydraulic gradient (i). Clay 1 × 10–6 and less
V∝i The drainage property of clean gravel will be very
V = k.i good.

Geotechnical Engineering 285 YCT

88. Which of the following has highest permeability? Ans. (c) : Pore water pressure is also called as neutral
(a) Clay stress because it acts on all sides of particles. It is
(b) Fine Silt measured by using a piezometer or a stand pipe.
(c) Coarse Sand • Effective stress (intergranular stress) is not a
(d) All the above have same permeability physical parameter but it is very important
Assam PSC JE 16.07.2023 parameter in soil mechanics.
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. • Total stress is a physical parameter which can be
89. According to Darcy's law, flow of water measured by suitable arrangement (Pressure cell).
through soil is equal to σ=σ+ u
Where
q = discharge per unit time Where,
A = Total cross sectional area of soil mass σ = Total stress
i = Hydraulic gradient σ = Effective stress
(a) k = qiA (b) q = kiA u = Pore water stress
(c) q = ki/A (d) q = kA/I 92. The rate of flow through per unit cross-
JSSC JE (General Engg.) 13/10/2023 sectional area per unit hydraulic gradient is
Ans. (b) : Darcy's law– For laminar flow condition in a known as
saturated soil, the rate of flow or the discharge per unit (a) Storage coefficient
time is proportional to the hydraulic gradients.
(b) Coefficient of transmissibility
Q = kiA
(c) Coefficient of permeability
Q
V = = ki (d) Coefficient of variation
A MPPSC AE 08.10.2023
Where,
Ans. (c) : Coefficient of permeability (k)– Which is
Q = rate of flow
the measure of flow through a porous formation, is
i = hydraulic gradient
k = darcy's coefficient of permeability defined as the rate of flow of water through a unit cross-
v = flow velocity sectional area under a unit hydraulic gradient.
• Darcy's law is valid only for laminar flow, because at • Since flow of water through porous media is quite
very small pore dimension in fine grained soils, a slow, the permeability coefficient k is normally
laminar flow should exist, but in case of coarse ground expressed in m/day.
soils turbulent flow may be expected under certain • Permeability of surface layers varies in the range of
conditions. 0.8-1.2 m/day, which may extend to 7-8 m/day for
90. Which of the following methods is best suited sandy soil.
for determination of permeability of coarse- 93. Which of the following factors affects the
grained soils? permeability of soil?
(a) Constant Head method (a) Grain size
(b) Falling Head Method (b) Properties of pore fluid
(c) Both of the above
(c) Void ratio of soils
(d) None of the above
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 (d) All of the above
Ans. (a) : Constant head permeability test– Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
• Water flows from the overhead tank consisting of Ans. (d) : Factors affecting permeability–
three tubes. the inlet tube, the overflow tube and the • Grain size
outlet tube. • Properties of pore water pressure
• Constant hydraulic gradient i causing the flow is • Temperature
the head h divided by the length L of the sample. • Void ratio
• This methods is best suited for determination of • Stratification of soil
permeability of coarse grained soil. • Entrapped air and organic impurities
• If Q is the total quantity of flow in a time interval t, • Absorbed water
we have from Darcy's law,
• Degree of saturation
Q
q = = k.i.A • Shape of particles
t • Structure of soil mass.
Q 1 QL
k= × = 94. The drawdown, corresponding to a steady
t i.A t.h.A discharge, is observed at a number of wells in
91. The stress taken up by the pore water in a soil (a) pumping out test
mass is (b) pumping in test
(a) effective stress (b) total stress (c) constant head permeability test
(c) neutral stress (d) All of these (d) falling head permeability test
AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023 PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
Geotechnical Engineering 286 YCT
Ans. (a) : The analysis of flow towards such a well was 97. Every process involving a decrease in the water
given by Dupit (1863) and modified by Theim (1870). content of a saturated soil without replacement
In pumping out tests, drawdowns corresponding to a of water by air is called
steady state discharge are observed at a number of (a) compression (b) compressibility
observation wells. Pumping must continue at a uniform (c) tension (d) consolidation
rate for an adequate time to establish a steady state SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
condition, in which the drawdown changes negligibly Ans. (d) : According to Terzaghi "Every process
with time. involving a decrease in water content of a saturated soil
95. Pore water pressure in the capillary zone of a without replacement of the water by air is called a
soil mass___________. process of consolidation. The opposite process is called
(a) is zero (no rise, no fall) a process of swelling, which involves an increase in the
(b) can be either positive or negative water content due to an increase in the volume of voids.
(c) is positive (capillary water flows towards the98. In the context of consolidation,____ is defined
direction of gravity) as the decrease in voids ratio per unit increase
(d) is negative (capillary water rises against the of pressure.
gravity) (a) coefficient of compressibility
UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II (b) coefficient of volume change
Ans. (d) : Zone-II (Capillarity zone)– (c) coefficient of consolidation
• If gravity was the only force, acting on the (d) coefficient of permeability
percolating water and taking it downward, then the PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
soil above the water table would be completely dry. Ans. (a) : Coefficient of compressibility– The
But it is not so in actual practice. coefficient of compressibility is the ratio change in void
• Soil in this zone is completely saturated upto some ratio to change in effective stress.
height above the water table. This condition of rising −∆e
water in soil is known as capillarity in soils. av =
• Pore water pressure in the capillary zone of a soil ∆σ
mass is negative. (Capillary water rises against the Where,
gravity). e1 = Void ratio at effective stress σ1
96. The average permeability perpendicular to the e2 = Void ratio at effective stress σ 2
bedding planes in case of stratified soil deposits 99. Reduction in volume of soil primarily due to
is determined using the formula:
squeezing out of water from the voids is called
Z2 (a) Primary consolidation
(a) k z = (b) Plastic flow
Z1 Z2 Z
+ + ... n (c) Creep
k1 k 2 kn
(d) Secondary consolidation
Z1 Z2 Z UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-I
+ + ... n
(b) k z =
k1 k 2 kn Ans. (a) S total = Si + S p + Sf
Z Where,
Z1 Z2 Zn Si = Immediate settlement
+ + ...
k1 k 2 kn Sp = Primary settlement
(c) k z = 2 Sf = Secondary settlement
Z Primary consolidation settlement–
(d) k z =
Z • Primary consolidation is a major component of
Z1 Z 2 Zn settlement of fine grained saturated soils and this can
+ + ... be estimated from the theory of consolidation.
k1 k 2 kn
MPPGCL JE 29/04/2023 Shift-I • The reduction in volume of a soil mass caused by the
application of a sustained load on the mass. Primarily
Ans. (d) : Permeability coefficient of stratified soil– due to squeezing out of water from the voids.
1. In case of vertical flow (perpendicular to the bedding
planes) Secondary consolidation settlement–
• This is also called secondary compression (creep).
• The rate of secondary consolidation is very slow
when compared with primary consolidation.
 ∆e 
2. In case of horizontal flow (parallel to bed) 100. The equation ∆H =   H0 helps to calculate
 1 + e0 
k Z + k 2 Z2 + ... + k n Zn
kH = 1 1 (a) change in head
Z1 + Z2 + ...Zn
(b) compression of fill
or
(c) consolidation of soil
k1 Z1 + k 2 Z2 + ...k n Zn (d) All of these
kH =
Z RSMSSB JE Degree 18.05.2022
Geotechnical Engineering 287 YCT
Ans. (b) : In given equation- 102. The change that takes place during the process
of consolidation of a saturated clay would
 ∆e 
∆H =   H0 include
 1 + e0  (a) an increase in pore water pressure and an
Where, increase in effective pressure
(b) a decrease in pore water pressure and an
∆H = Final settlement
increase in effective pressure
∆C = Change in void ratio (c) an increase pore water pressure and a
e0 = Initial void ratio decrease in effective pressure
H0 = Total thickness of soil sample. (d) a decrease in pore water pressure and a
decrease in effective pressure
CHB JE (Building) 05/02/2023
Ans. (b) : With the onset of consolidation excess pore
pressure starts dissipating and effective stresses
increase.
Finally at the end of consolidation the stress increment
is completely transferred to soil grains and only
hydrostatic pore pressure exists.
∆H ∆V ∆e • So, effective stress is maximum at the end of
= =
H0 V 1 + e0 consolidation and pore water pressure is zero.
∆e • A decrease in pore water pressure and an increase in
∆H = effective pressure.
1 + e0
103. The seepage pressure always acts _______
Hence, (a) tangential to direction of flow
The above equation is helpful in calculating the (b) perpendicular to direction of flow
compression of fill. (c) opposite to direction of flow
101. All the following are the assumptions made in (d) in the direction of flow
Terzaghi's theory of consolidation EXCEPT : Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
(a) the coefficient of permeability of soil varies at Ans. (d) : Seepage pressure– When water flows
all points during the entire period of through the saturated soil mass. It exerts the pressure
consolidation over the solids by the virtue of viscous friction and is
(b) Darcy's law is valid throughout the referred as seepage pressure.
consolidation process • Hence seepage pressure is the pressure exerted by the
(c) the soil is homogeneous and isotropic water over the soil solids in the mass through which
(d) the soil is fully saturated it percolates.
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II • Seepage pressure always acts in the direction of flow.
Ans. (a) : The following are are assumptions made in
Terzaghi's theory-
(i) The soil is homogenous and fully saturated.
(ii) Soil particles and water are incompressible.
(iii) The deformation of the soil is entirely due to
change in volume.
(iv) Darcy's low for the velocity of flow of water
through soil is perfectly valid.
(v) Coefficient of permeability is constant during 104. The rate of discharge of seepage water through
consolidation. a porous medium per unit area of void
(vi) Load is applied in one direction only and space perpendicular to the direction of flow is
deformation occurs only in the direction of the known as ______.
load application, i.e. the soil is restrained against (a) Seepage Velocity (b) Discharge Velocity
lateral deformation. (c) Spectral Velocity (d) Critical Velocity
(vii) Excess pore water drains out only in the vertical DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-II
direction. Ans. (a) : The flow takes place the voids, the actual or true
(viii)The boundary is a free surface offering no velocity of flow will be more than the discharge velocity.
resistance to the flow of water from the soil. • This actual velocity is called the seepage velocity vs,
(ix) The change in thickness of the layer during and is defined as the rate of discharge of percolating
consolidation is insignificant. water per unit cross-sectional area of voids
perpendicular to the direction of flow.
(x) The time lag in consolidation is entirely due to the
permeability of soil, and thus, the secondary V
vs =
consolidation is disregarded n
Geotechnical Engineering 288 YCT
105. In Seepage pressure, if the flow occurs in Ans. (d) : Phreatic line of an earth dam– The phreatic
downward direction, the effective pressure will line or seepage line is defined as the line within a dam
be section below which there are positive hydrostatic
(a) Decrease (b) No change pressures in the dam. The hydrostatic pressure on the
(c) Increase (d) Double phreatic line itself is atmospheric. The phreatic line can
JKSSSB JE 06.12.2022 Shift II be located by- (i) analytical method (ii) graphical
Ans. (c) : The seepage pressure always acts in the method (iii) experimental method.
direction of flow. • We shall first discuss the graphical method of
• The vertical effective pressure may be decreased or determination of phreatic line suggest by casagrande.
increased due to the seepage pressure depending • The shape of the phreatic line in an earth dam is
upon the direction of flow. parabolic.
• Thus the effective pressure in a soil mass subjected
to seepage pressure is:
σ = Z γ' ± iz γw
• If the flow occurs in the downward direction, the
effective pressure is increased and hence + sign is
used, if, however, flow occurs in upward direction,
the effective pressure is decreased. 109. Which one of the following assumptions is not
106. Quick sand is the correct assumption of basic equation for
(a) Pure silica sand seepage through the soils?
(b) a condition in which cohesion is decreased (a) Water is incompressible
quickly (b) Soil is incompressible
(c) a sand which can act as a quick filter (c) The hydraulic boundary conditions are known
(d) a condition in which cohesionless soil looses at entry and exit of the fluid (water) into the
its shear strength due to the upward flow of porous medium (soil)
water (d) The porous medium is compressible.
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20.09.2023 UPSC ESIC JE 08.10.2023
Ans. (d) : Quick sand:– It is a condition in which Ans. (d) : The following assumptions in seepage
cohesion less soil looses its shear strength due to the through the soils:-
upward flow of water. It is also known as ‘boiling of (i) Water is incompressible and soil is porous and
sand’ as the surface looks it is boiling. incompressible
• At quick sand condition, net effective stress is reduced (ii) The quantity of water entering the soil at any given
to zero. time is the same as the quantity flowing out of the
107. Quick sand condition occurs when soil
(a) void ratio of the soil becomes 1 (iii) Darcy's law is valid for the given soil.
(b) upward seepage pressure in soil becomes zero (iv) The hydraulic boundary condition at the entry and
(c) upward seepage pressure in soil becomes exit of the fluid into the porous medium etc.
equal to the saturated unit weight of the soil 110. In a flownet, the discharge is inversely
(d) upward seepage pressure in soil becomes proportional to:
equal to the submerged unit weight of the soil (a) Co-efficient of permeability
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024 (b) Head causing the flow
Ans. (d) : Quick sand condition– (c) Number of equipotential drops
• Quick sand condition is the phenomenon in which (d) Number of flow channels
upward seepage force exerted on soil due to pore TNPSC AE Civil 11.07.2022
water becomes equal to the submerged unit weight of Ans. (c) : Discharge in flow net (q)
soil.
N
• This condition occurs in cohesionless soils only. Soil q = K.H. f
looses all its shear strength and soil starts to flow Nd
hence. It is termed as quick sand condition. • Where, Nf is the number of flow channel.
γsub = Upward seepage force (γs) • Nd is the number of equipotential drops
Hence = σ' = γsub – γs = 0 • The discharge is inversely proportional to number of
We know that equipotential drops
τ = C + σ' tan φ
1
C = 0 (Cohesion less soil) q∝
τ = 0 × tan φ = 0 Nd
108. The shape of the phreatic line in an earth dam 111. Which of the following is a correct expression
is of seepage pressure in terms of unit weight of
(a) circular (b) hyperbolic water and hydraulic gradient?
(c) elliptical (d) parabolic (a) Seepage Pressure =Hydraulic Gradient - Unit
TNPSC AE CES (Civil) 06.01.2024 weight of water
Geotechnical Engineering 289 YCT
 Hydraulic Gradient Ans. (c) : Vane shear Test– Suitable for plastic
(b) Seepage pressure = cohesive soil which is very sensitive.
Unit weight water
• When top & bottom end shear the soil–
Unit weight water
(c) Seepage pressure = H d
Hydraulic Gradient Torque (T) = πd 2 τf  + 
 2 6
(d) Seepage Pressure =Hydraulic Gradient * Unit • When only bottom end shear the soil–
weight of water
H d 
UPRVUNL AE 17/07/2022 Torque (T) = πd 2 τf  + 
Ans. (d) : The seepage pressure always acts in the  2 12 
direction of flow and is given by 115. What is the primary factor that influences the
Ps = iγwz shear strength of soil according to the Mohr-
Where, Coulomb Failure Criterion?
i = hydraulic gradient (a) Permeability of soil
(b) Grain size distribution
γwz = unit weight of water
(c) Effective stress
112. A flow net may be utilized for the (d) Porosity of soil
determination of OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024
(a) Exit gradient (b) Seepage Ans. (c) : Mohr-coulomb failure theory– According
(c) Hydrostatic pressure (d) All the above to this theory, the failure of soil mass will not occur on
OSSC JE RE-Exam 03.09.2023 a plane where shear stress is maximum but on a plane
Ans. (d) : Application of flow net are as follows– where there is combination of normal and shear
(i) Determination of seepage stresses.
(ii) Determination of hydrostatic pressure At failure conditions of the soil element there will one
(iii) Determination of seepage pressure particular plane called "failure plane" along which the
(iv) Determination of exit gradient shear stress reaches its failure value. This failure of
shear stress (τf) along the failure plane is known as
113. Seepage force is the energy transfer between shear strength.
(a) air and water (b) water and soil The shear strength is a function of the normal stress on
(c) air and soil (d) earth and air the failure plane.
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II S = τf = C + σ tan φ
Ans. (b) : The seepage pressure is the pressure external Where,
by flowing water on the section of soil mass in the S = τf = Shear strength
direction of flow. It is caused by the force C = Cohesion
corresponding to the energy transfer affected due to φ = Angle of shearing resistance
frictional drag between water and soil particles. σ = Normal stress on the failure plane
Seepage pressure (ps) = hγw But the shear strength of soil is always controlled by the
ps = izγw effective stress and the equation can be modified.
The seepage force per unit volume is given by S = τf = C' + σ' tan φ' = C' + (σ–u) tan φ
H iz γ w A Where,
J= = = iγ w C' = Effective cohesion
Az Az
φ' = Effective angle of internal friction
Note– The seepage pressure always acts in the direction
σ = Total normal stress
of the flow. Depends upon the flow is downward or
u = Pure water pressure
upward.
σ' = Effective normal stress
114. What will be the correct equation for 'total
116. Which of the following conditions of soils, the
shear strength' of soil in vane shear test? Vane shear test conducted in the laboratory to
(where T = total shear strength of soil, H = determine the shear strength is applicable?
Height of vane, d = Diameter of vane, τf = Unit (a) Drained shear strength of stiff clays
strength of soil) (b) Undrained shear strength of soft clays
H d (c) Undrained shear strength of problematic soils
(a) T = πτ f + (d) Drained shear strength of soft clays
2 2
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II
H d Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
(b) T = πτ f +
2 12 117. Vane shear test is used to find the_______.
H d (a) Compressive strength of soil in the field
(c) T = πd 2 τ f + (b) plasticity of soil in the laboratory
2 12
(c) safe bearing capacity of soil in the field
H d (d) shear strength of soil in the field
(d) T = πd 3 τ f +
2 12 MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-I
MH Solapur Asstt. JE Class 3, 17.02.2024 Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
Geotechnical Engineering 290 YCT
118. The angle of shearing resistance used in the Ans. (c) : Mohr's Coulomb failure envelope –
Taylor’s stability number curves for the From mohr-coulomb failure equation-
analysis of stability of slopes is: τf = C + σ tan φ
(a) Apparent angle (b) Effective angle
(c) Mobilized angle (d) Weighted angle
TNPSC AE Civil 11.07.2022
Ans. (c) : The stability number (Sn)–
C C
Sn = = m
Fc .γ.H γ.H
• The reciprocal of the stability number is known as
stability factor.
• The stability number is a dimensionless quantity.
• Taylor determined the value of Sn for finite slopes
using the friction circle method. Where,
• Slopes that are of simple sections and of C= Cohesion
homogenous soils may be analyzed using the slope σ = Normal stress on the failure plane
stability charts given by Taylor. φ = Angle of internal friction
• The angle of shearing resistance used in the The Mohr-Coulomb equation is represented in figure.
mobilized angle (φm). The intercept of the straight line with the shear stress
119. The phenomenon when the sand loses its shear axis is taken as cohesion (C) and the angle made by the
strength due to oscillatory motion is known as : line with respect to normal stress axis is taken as angle
BHEL Exe. Trainee, 24.08.2023 of internal friction of soil.
(a) liquefaction of sand (b) bulking of sand 121. Shear strength of soil mainly depends on :
(c) boiling of sand (d) shrinkage of sand (a) Cohesion
Ans. (a) : Liquefaction of sand– Loose sand has a (b) Angle of internal friction
tendency to get compressed when loaded. If rate of (c) Both (a) and (b)
loading is larger and soil is saturated, +ve pore water (d) None of the above
will develop. This will reduce effective stress & hence
strength. If effective stress reduces to zero, the soil will JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 04/10/2023
loose all its shear strength. This, phenomenon is known Ans. (c) As per Mohr-Coulomb, shear strength of soil
as liquefaction. depends upon
• Thus liquefaction occurs in saturated loose sand. τ = C + σ tan φ
• It occurs during pile driving, vibration of machine, C = Cohesion
explosive blasting, earthquake shock. σ = Normal stress
• It occurs at high frequency of vibration. φ = angle of internal friction
• There can be cumulative increase in pore water With increase in cohesion and friction angle shear
pressure under successive cycle of loading. strength of soil increases.
• Once a complete loss of strength has occurred in a 122. In a shear test on cohesion less soils, if the
limited mass of soil, the stress which were carried initial void ratio is less than the critical void
by the affected soil before its liquefaction, are ratio, the sample will:
transferred to the adjacent parts, throwing that part (a) Increase in volume
of the soil mass also into a state of liquefaction and (b) Decrease in volume
process may continue.
(c) Initially decrease and then increase in volume
• The phenomenon when the sand loses its shear (d) Initially increase in volume and then remain
strength due to oscillatory motion is known as constant
liquefaction of sand. The structures resting on such
KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023
soils sink. In the case of partial liquefaction. The
structure may undergo excessive settlement and the Ans. (c) The volume change in sand can be
complete failure may not occur. understood in a different way in terms of void ratio.
120. What does the intersection point of the Mohr- • In loose sand as the shear strain in increased the
Coulomb failure envelope with the shear stress void decrease from initial large value ei to ecr.
axis represent in soil mechanics? • In dense sand as the shear strain is increased, void
(a) The maximum normal stress the soil can ratio increase with initial decrease and approach a
withstand before failure constant value of ecr, further application of strain
(b) The angle of internal friction of the soil after which do not produce any change in void
(c) The cohesion of the soil ratio or volume.
(d) The maximum shear stress the soil can • Hence, If ei < ecr → Initially decrease and then
withstand before failure increase in volume.
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 • And, If eI > ecr → volume will decrease.

Geotechnical Engineering 291 YCT

 125. The retaining wall moves _______ during the
active state of plastic equilibrium.
(a) away from the fill
(b) does not change its position
(c) remains in equilibrium
(d) towards the fill
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 07/11/2022 Shift-II
Ans. (a) : Active earth pressure-
• It is a state of plastic equilibrium as the entire soil
mass is on the verge of failure. A retaining wall when
123. The dimensionless quantity C/FcHγ is called as: moves away from the backfills there is a stretching of
(a) Rankine's Stability number the soil mass and the active state of earth pressure
(b) Taylors stability number exists the active pressure develops on the right hand
(c) Coulombs stability number side when the wall moves towards left.
(d) Terzaghi's stability number • When the wall moves away from the backfill some
MPPSC AE 08.10.2023 portion of the backfill located immediately behind
Ans. (b) : Taylors stability number– the wall tries to break away from the rest of the soil
• It is well understood that gravity forces are a cause mass. This wedge-shaped portion, known as the
of instability while the cohesive forces (Cu) failure wedge or the sliding wedge, moves downward
contribute to stability in a soil mass. and outwards.
• These two are body forces distributed throughout 126. Which of the following assumptions of
the soil mass and the above statement is valid for Coulomb's theory of Earth pressure is
every point within the sliding mass. INCORRECT?
• The maximum height Hc of a slope that can be built (a) The backfill of the wall can be inclined to the
without failure is thus directly proportional to the vertical.
unit cohesion Cu and inversely proportional to γ. (b) The backfill is dry, cohesion less,
• Hc is also related to the values of φu and β C or i homogeneous, isotropic soil.
which is the slope angle. (c) The backfill surface is planar and can be
inclined.
C
Hc = u f ( φu .β ) (d) The failure surface is a plane surface which
γ passes through the toe of the wall.
• Taylor (1937) exposed this as a reciprocal of a DSSSB AE 28.11.2022 Morning
dimensionless number which he called the stability Ans. (d) : Following are the basis assumptions of the
number. coulomb's wedge theory:
According to Taylor, (i) The backfill is dry, cohesionless, homogenous
C isotropic and ideally plastic material.
Hc = u
γ.Sn (ii) The slip surface is plane which passes through the
heel of the wall.
Cu C
Sn = = (iii The wall surface is rough, the resultant earth
γ.H c γFc H pressure on the wall is inclined at an angle δ to the
124. ______ is the ratio of horizontal to vertical normal to the wall, where δ is the angle of the
stress when the retaining wall moves away friction between the wall and the backfill.
from the retained soil. (iv) The sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body.
(a) Passive earth pressure (v) The back of the wall is rough and a relative
(b) Earth pressure at rest movement of the wall and soil on the back takes
(c) Vertical earth pressure place which develops frictional forces that
(d) Active earth pressure influence the direction of the resultant pressure.
MH Latur MNC JE (Water supply) 23.02.2024 127. Westergaard's analysis for stress distribution
Ans. (d) : Active earth pressure co-efficient (Ka) is the beneath loaded areas is applicable to
ratio between the lateral and vertical principal effective (a) Sandy soils (b) Clayey Soils
stresses when an earth retaining structure moves away (c) Stratified soils (d) Silty soils
from the retained soil. UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II
• Active earth pressure co-efficient–
Ans. (c) Westergaard's theory–
1 − sin φ • Westergaard's solution assumes that soil mass
Ka =
1 + sin φ consists of infinitely rigid thin sheet of materials
• Active Earth pressure sandwiched in a homogenous soil mass.
• Westergaard's theory is applicable for stratified soil.
Pa = KaγZ– 2C K a
• Vertical stress at a point 'p' below the concentrated
• Pa < Po < Pp load 'Q' is given by
Geotechnical Engineering 292 YCT
  
3/ 2 • The soil is cohesionless.
Q 1 • The soil is in a state of plane strain.
σz = 2  2
πz 1 + 2 ( r / z )  • The most critical shear surface is plane.
Q 131. For frictional granular soils, the active earth
σz = Iw 2 pressure coefficient is
Z
Where, 1 + sin φ 1 − sin φ
(a) (b)
Iw = Westergaard's influence coefficient. 1 − sin φ 1 + sin φ
• Fenske's charts are based on westergaard's solution. 1 + cos φ 1 − cos φ
128. The lateral earth pressure exerted by the soil (c) (d)
when the retaining wall moves into the soil, is 1 − cos φ 1 + cos φ
called _________. UKPSC AE Civil 2022 Paper-I
(a) Active earth pressure Ans. (b) : In earth pressure theory,
(b) Earth pressure at rest 1 − sin φ
(c) Passive earth pressure • Co-efficient of active earth pressure, K a =
1 + sin φ
(d) Total earth pressure
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023 1 + sin φ
• Co-efficient of passive earth pressure, K p =
Ans. (c) : If the wall is pushed forwards the backfill, the 1 − sin φ
soil is compressed and soil offers resistance to this • Co-efficient of rest earth pressure,
movement by virtue of its shearing resistance. µ
• Since shearing resistance builds up in direction K a = 1 − sin φ =
towards the wall, the earth pressure is called passive 1− µ
earth pressured Where, µ = Poisson's ratio
φ = Internal friction angle
Ka.Kp = 1
132. Comment on the effect of cohesion in soil on
the active and passive earth pressure of soil.
(a) Increases both active pressure and passive
resistance.
129. The coefficient of earth pressure at rest for (b) Decreases both active pressure and passive
sand is given by the equation ............... (where resistance.
Ko is earth pressure at rest and φ is functional (c) Increases the active pressure and decreases
angle). the passive resistance.
(a) Ko = 1 + sin φ (b) Ko = sin φ (d) Decreases the active pressure and increases
1 the passive resistance.
(c) Ko = 1 – sin φ (d) K o =
1 − sin φ UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II
MH Latur MNC JE (Water supply) 23.02.2024 Ans. (d) For cohesive soil.
Ans. (c) : When the wall is rigid and unyielding the (a) Active earth pressure (Pa)
element of soil at a given depth (z) below the ground Pa = Ka σv – 2c K a
surface is not submerged to any strain.
(b) Passive earth pressure (Pp)
• The element in this state is termed to be in condition
known s "at rest" condition. Pp = Kp σv + 2c K p
• The corresponding lateral pressure is called Earth • From above equation we can say that on increasing
pressure at rest. cohesion that is c, active earth pressure that is Pa decrease
σh µ while passive earth pressure that is Pp increases.
= ko =
σv 1− µ 133. According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow
• For sand, ko = 1 – sinφ if its
130. Which of the following is NOT an assumption (a) depth is equal to or less than its width
of Rankine's theory? (b) depth is twice the width
(a) The group surface is a plane (c) width is thrice the depth
(b) The soil is homogeneous and isotropic (d) width is one fourth of depth
(c) The wall is very short ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023 -II
(d) The most critical shear surface is plane Ans. (a) : Shallow foundation-
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 • Df ≤ B - Terzaghi
Ans (c) : Assumption of Rankine’s theory- • Df < 2.5 B - Skempton
• The soil mass is homogenous and isotropic. Deep foundation-
• The failure plane is a smooth, continuous surface • Df > B - Terzaghi
• The group surface is a plane. • Df ≥ 2.5 B - Skempton

Geotechnical Engineering 293 YCT

134. For foundations on clayey soils, the allowable 137. The piles used to transfer load through water
bearing capacity is usually reduced due to: or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum is
(a) Increased cohesion known as
(b) Permeability of clay (a) Friction pile (b) End bearing pile
(c) High angle of internal friction (c) Compaction pile (d) Anchor pile
(d) Consolidation settlement TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024 Ans. (b) End-bearing piles- End bearing piles transmit
Ans. (d) : The allowable soil, pressure for cohesive the loads through their bottom tips. Such piles act a
soils is generally controlled by the net safe bearing columns and transmit, the load through a weak material
capacity although settlement criterion may control in to a firm stratum below. If bed rock is located within a
soft clays. It is essential to compute the consolidation reasonable depth, piles can be extended to rock. The
settlement in all cases of heavy structures. The ultimate capacity of the piles depends upon the bearing
allowable bearing capacity is usually reduced due to
consolidation settlement. capacity of the rock. If instead of bed rock, a fairly
compact and hard stratum of soil exists at a reasonable
135. A shallow foundation is defined as a foundation depth, piles can be extended a few meters into the hard
which has stratum. End-bearing piles are also known as point-
(a) depth less than 0.5 m bearing piles.
(b) depth less than its width
(c) depth less than 1.0 m 138. Negative skin friction in a soil is considered
(d) depth less than 2.0 m when the pile is constructed
(e) Answer not known (a) Fill material
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 (b) Dense coarse sand
Ans. (b) : A shallow foundation is defined as one where (c) Over consolidated stiff clay
the depth is less than its width. (d) Dense fine sand
• Typically used when strong soil exist near the surface. AP PGECET 29.05.2023
136. Which one of the following is a field test to Ans. (a) : Negative skin friction– Negative skin
determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, friction is a downward drag acting on a pile due to the
and the probable settlement under a given downward movement of the surrounding compressible
loading? soil relative to the pile.
(a) Plate load test • This happens when the surrounding compressible
(b) Sand replacement method soil has been recently filled material or formed.
(c) Unconfined compression test • As the soil consolidates, the earth fill moves
(d) Proctor test downward, developing friction forces on the
UPSC AE (CIVIL) 19/09/2021 perimeter of the pile which tend to carry the pile
Ans. (a) : Plate load test (IS 1888 : 1982)– Plate load farther into the ground.
test is a field test to determine the ultimate bearing • The effect of negative skin friction on the load
capacity of soil, and the probable settlement under a carrying capacity of pile foundations reduce the load-
given loading. carrying capacity.
• The bearing plate is either circular or square, made • The negative skin friction may also be developed by
of mild steel not less than 25 mm in thickness and the lowering of the ground water, the increase in
varying in size from 300 to 750 mm. effective stress causing consolidation of the soil, with
• For clayey and silty soils and for loose to medium the resultant settlement and friction forces being
dense sandy soils with N < 15, a 450 mm square developed on the pile.
plate or concrete block shall be used.
• In case of dense sandy or gravely soils (15 > N > Q u ' = Q u − Q n sf
30) three plates of sizes 300 mm to 750 mm shall
be used.
• The test pit, having in general normally of width
equal to five times the test plate (Bp) or block.

Where,
Qnsf = Negative skin friction
Qu' = Net ultimate load
Negative skin friction Q n sf = πdL c C → for clays
The effect of negative skin friction on a pile in
foundations is caused by relatively higher settlement of
the soil.
Geotechnical Engineering 294 YCT
139. The dilatancy correction to the standard (ii) The failure surface, which is vertical or slightly
penetration number is given by: inclined, follows the perimeter of the base.
1 (iii) There is no tilting of footing.
(a) N C = 15 + (N R − 15)
2 (iv) There is no bulging of soil around the footing.
1 (v) Failure is characterized in terms of very large
(b) N C = 15 − (15 − N R ) settlements.
2
(vi) The ultimate bearing capacity is not well defined.
1
(c) N C = 15 − (N R − 15) (vii) A strip footing resting on a loose sand or a soft
2 clay.
1 In this case the failure surface do not extend up to the
(d) N C = 25 − (15 − N R )
2 ground surface.
MPPGCL JE 29/04/2023 Shift-I 141. According to Vesic, what type of bearing
Ans. (a) : The dilatancy correction to the standard capacity failure occurs when a strip footing
penetration number– rests on the surface of dense sand or stiff clay,
1 for which the failure surfaces extend to the
N C = 15 + (N R − 15)
2 ground surface?
This formula is applicable when, NR > 15 (a) General shear failure
• Dilatancy correction is also known as water table (b) Local shear failure
correction. (c) Punching shear failure
• This correction is applied after over burden pressure (d) Both punching and local shear failure
correction. MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-II
There are two types of correction in SPT–
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation-
1. Over burden correction
2. Water table/dilatancy correction 142. The bearing capacity of soil supporting a
140. In which type of shear failure does the failure footing of size 3m × 3m will not be affected by
surface NOT extend up to the ground surface the presence of a water table located at a depth
when a strip footing rests on loose sand or soft below the base of the footing of
clay? (a) 3 m (b) 1.5 m
(a) Meyerhof's failure (c) 4.5 m (d) 6.0 m
(b) Local shear failure J&K PSC Lecturer 15/11/2022
(c) Punching shear failure Ans. (a) :
(d) General shear failure
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II
Ans. (c) : Types of bearing capacity failures–
(1) General shear failure
(2) Local shear failure
(3) Punching shear failure
1. General shear failure– Following are the typical
characteristics of general shear failure.
• It has well defined failure surfaces, reaching up to
ground failure.
• The bearing capacity of soil supporting a footing of
• There is considerable bulging of sheared mass of soil
adjacent to the footing. size 3 m × 3 m will not be affected by the presence of
a water table located at 3m depth below the base of
• Failure is accompanied by tilting of the footing.
the footing.
• Failure is sudden, with pronounced peak resistance
• The ultimate bearing capacity is well defined. • If soil is taken as cohesionless and water table up to
• Such a failure occurs in soils of low compressibility. the base of footing then bearing capacity of soil
reduced by 50%.
• Footing on the surface or at shallow depths in very
dens sand or stiff clay. 143. The maximum total settlement for raft
foundation on clayey soil should be limited to
(a) 25 mm (b) 25 mm to 40 mm
(c) 65 mm (d) 65 mm to 100 mm
Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022
Ans. (d) : The maximum total settlement for raft
and instead footing on different type of soils.
Soil Isolated Raft
(3) Punching shear failure– Following the footing foundation
characteristics of punching shear failure. Clay 65 mm 65-100 mm
(i) No failure pattern is observed. Sand 40 mm 40-65 mm
Geotechnical Engineering 295 YCT
144. The maximum permissible settlement in • The shallow foundations are of the following types.
isolated footings on clayey soils should be (i) Strap footing, (ii) Spread footing
limited to : (iii) Combined footing (iv) Mat or raft footing.
(a) 25 mm (b) 40 mm • Pile foundation is the deep foundation.
(c) 65 mm (d) 100 mm Df > B
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-I Footing are the lower most supporting part of any
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation structure known as sub-structure at which load is
145. Under-reamed piles are generally transferred to foundation consisting soil/rock.
(a) Driven piles (b) Pre-cast piles The foundation is classified in two types-
(c) Bored piles (d) None of the above (i) Shallow foundation
MPPSC AE 03/07/2022 (ii) Deep foundation
Ans. (c) : Under-reamed pile foundations– These are Types of shallow foundation–
bored cast-in-situ concrete piles having one or more (i) Raft or mat foundation.
bulbs formed by enlarging reaming tool. (ii) Spread or isolated footings foundation
• Generally the dia. of under-reamed bulbs is kept (iii) Combined footing foundation
equal to 2.5 times the dia. of pile stem. (iv) Inverted arch foundation
• It may vary from 2 to 3 times the stem dia. (v) Steeped or benched foundation
• The centre to centre spacing for under-reamed piles (vi) Grillage foundation
should not be less than 2Du (where Du is the under- (vii) Strap foundation
reamed diameter). Types of deep foundation–
• Safe load for multi under-reamed pile may be (i) Pile foundation
worked out from the table by allowing 50% of the (ii) Well foundation
load increase for each additional bulb.
(iii) Caisson foundation
• The ratio of shaft diameter to bulb diameter is
148. A foundation is to transmit loads to lower level
1
. of ground by a combination of friction and end
2.5 bearing is known as
UPSSSC Mandi Parishad Draftsman 22/05/2022
(a) Strip foundation (b) Raft foundation
(c) Pile foundation (d) Grillage foundation
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation-
149. The type of pile which is driven at an
inclination to resist inclined forces is known as
(a) friction pile (b) sheet pile
146. The soils having SPT value in between 0 & 2, (c) batter pile (d) anchor pile
will have the consistency as GPSC AAE (GMC) 19/09/2021
(a) Very soft (b) Medium Ans. (c) : Batter pile– The pile which is installed at an
(c) Hard (d) Stiff angle to the vertical using temporary casing or
NBCC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 permanent liner.
Ans. (a) : The soil having SPT value– • A pile formed in the ground for transmitting the load
Consistency SPT Value of a structure to the soil by the resistance developed
Very soft 0-2 at its tip and or along its surface.
Soft 2-4 • It may be formed either vertically or at an inclination
Medium 4-8 batter pile) and may be required to resist uplift
Stiff 8-15 forces.
Very stiff 15-30 • If the pile supports the load primarily by resistance
Hard >30 developed at the pile tip or base it is called end
147. Which of the following is not a type of shallow bearing pile and if primarily by friction along its
foundation? surface then friction pile.
(a) Individual footing or isolated footing 150. While designing a footing foundation which of
(b) Strip foundation the following bearing capacities should be
(c) Pile foundation considered?
(d) Mat foundation
(a) Crawling bearing capacity
NWDA JE 21/05/2023
(b) Overburden bearing capacity
Ans. (c) : Shallow foundation–
(c) Safe bearing capacity
• According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its
(d) Last bearing capacity
depth is equal to or less than its width ( D f ≤ B ) MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18/11/2022 Shift-II
Geotechnical Engineering 296 YCT
Ans. (c) Safe bearing capacity– The maximum γsub = 0.5γ (when the water table rises upto ground level
pressure which the soil can carry safety without risk of then soil becomes submerged condition).
shear failure is called the safe bearing capacity. It is q u 2 = 0.5 × γDf N q + 0.5 × B × 0.5γN γ
equal to net safe bearing capacity plus original
overburden pressure. q u 2 = 0.5 × ( γD f N q + 0.5 × Bγ N γ )

q s = q ns + γD f =
q nf
+ γDf
q u 2 = 0.5 q u1 (Bearing capacity reduced to 50%)
fs
155. When selection equipment of installing a deep
Where, fs = factor of safety. foundation in a dense urban environment with
151. The maximum intensity of loading that the soil limited space and strict vibration control
will safely carry without risk of shear failure is requirements, which of the following piling
called. methods is most suitable?
(a) Safe bearing capacity of soil (a) Vibratory hammer piling
(b) net pressure intensity (b) Drop hammer piling
(c) allowable bearing pressure (c) Continuous flight auger piling
(d) ultimate bearing capacity of soil (d) Diesel hammer piling
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-I BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. Ans. (c) : Continuous flight piling– These types of
piling is commonly used and highly versatile method of
152. For a rectangular foundation of width 'b', installing foundations in a wide range of conditions.
eccentricity of load should not exceed • Quick, quiet and virtually vibration free, this popular
b b technique is best suited to urban projects or
(a) (b)
2 3 environmentally sensitive surrounding.
b b • Suitable for installation in the majority of soil conditions
(c) (d) including dense sand, clay and low grade rock.
4 6
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023 156. The plate load test consists in loading a rigid
plate at the
Ans. (d) : Design of eccentric footing– (a) base of the footing
Shape of column Eccentricity of load (b) bottom of the construction
Rectangular foundation b/6 or d/6 (c) foundation level
Circular foundation d/8 (d) All of the mentioned
153. According to IS: 6403-1981, in the computation Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
of ultimate net bearing capacity for strip Ans. (c) : Plate load test (IS 1888)– The test was
footings, what is the value of shape factor (Nc) designed to determine modulus of subgrade reaction
to be used for square shape of base? which is used in designing of rigid pavement. It is field
(a) 0.5 (b) 1.3 test to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil
(c) 1.7 (d) 0.9 and settlement under a given loading. The test
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III essentially consists of loading a rigid plate at foundation
level & determining the settlement corresponding to
Ans. (b) : Shape Factor–
load increment.
Shape of Nc Nq Nγ Note– The size of plate shall be atleast 5 times the
Footing maximum size of the soil particles present at test location.
Continuous 1.0 1.0 1.0 • Small size plate is used for dense and stiff soil
Footing whereas large size plate is used the loose & soft soils.
Rectangular B B B 157. The immediate settlement of a rigid footing is
Footing 1 + 0.2 1 + 0.2 1 − 0.4 about ......... times the maximum settlement of
2 2 2
Square Footing 1.3 1.2 0.8 an equal flexible footing.
(a) 0.9 (b) 0.8
Circular Footing 1.3 1.2 0.6 (c) 0.7 (d) 0.6
154. The ultimate bearing capacity of a shallow SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
foundation on sand is reduced to about _____,
Ans. (b) : In saturated clays there is insignificant
when the water table rises to the ground
immediate settlement because pore water pressure can
surface.
not dissipate immediately.
(a) 75% (b) 50%
However small elastic settlement can occur due to
(c) 25% (d) 40%
deformation of clay particles, squeezing of water.
HPSSSC JE CIVIL 10.09.2022 The immediate settlement is given as
Ans. (b) : Ultimate bearing capacity of soil
qu = CNC + γDfNq + 0.5. B.γ.Nγ qB (1 − µ 2 )
Si = It
Calculation Es
for sand, c = 0 Where,
q u1 = γDfNq + 0.5. B.γ.Nγ • q is the pressure at the base of foundation.
Geotechnical Engineering 297 YCT
• Es is the young's modulus of soil. Ans. (d) : Criteria for the determination of bearing
• N is the Poisson's ratio. capacity– The criteria for the determination of bearing
• It is the influence factor capacity of a foundation are based on the requirements
= 1 for flexible circular footing for the stability of the foundation.
= 0.88 for rigid circular footing (i) Shear failure of the formation or bearing capacity
= 0.82 for rigid square footing failure, as it is sometimes called, shall not occur.
= 1.06 for rigid rectangular footing with L/B = 1.5 (This is associated with plastic flow of the soil
material underneath the foundation and lateral
= 1.70 for rigid rectangular footing with L/B = 5 expulsion of the soil from underneath the footing of
So, the ratio of immediate settlement of the rigid footing the foundation.
to flexible footing. (ii) The probable settlement, differential as well as total
qB (1 − µ 2 ) of the foundation must be limited to safe, tolerable
It ( rigid ) or acceptable magnitudes.
Si( rigid ) Es 0.8
= = = 0.8 161. The gross pressure at the base of the
Si( flexible ) qB (1 − µ 2 ) 1 foundation at which the soil fails in shear is
It ( flexible ) known as:
Es
(a) net safe bearing capacity
158. The piles that are used for protecting (b) net ultimate bearing capacity
structures from ships and floating objects are (c) gross safe bearing capacity
(a) Anchor piles (b) Compaction piles (d) ultimate bearing capacity
(c) Batter piles (d) Fender piles GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024
ISRO Technical Asst. 03/11/2022 Ans. (d) : Ultimate bearing capacity (qf)–The ultimate
Ans. (d) : Fender piles and dolphins are used to protect bearing capacity is defined as the minimum pressure
water front structure against the impact from ships or intensity at the base of the foundation at which the soil
other floating objects. fails in shear or it is the max gross pressure that soil can
• The batter piles are used to resist large horizontal or support before it fails in shear.
inclined forces. qf = qnf + σ
• End bearing piles are used to transfer load through Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnf)–It is the minimum
water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum. net pressure intensity causing shear failure of soil.
• Tension or uplift piles anchor down the structured to q nf = q f − σ
uplift due to hydrostatic pressure or due to overturning Where σ is the effective surcharge at the base level of
moment. the foundation.
159. Skempton's pore pressure co-efficient 'B' for a 162. Which of the following bearing capacity is
saturated soil is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus the
(a) 1 (b) 0 original overburden pressure?
(c) 1 to 2 (d) 0 to 1 (a) Net ultimate bearing capacity
(e) Answer not known (b) Net safe settlement pressure
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 (c) Net allowable bearing capacity
(d) Gross safe bearing capacity
Ans. (a) : Skempton’s pore pressure coefficient ‘B’
MHADA JE 01/02/2022, Shift-II
varies from 0 to 1 depending on the degree of
saturation. Ans. (d) : Gross safe bearing capacity– It is defined as
the maximum load per unit area including the surcharge
• For dry soil – B = 0 pressure which the foundation soil or bed can carry
• For saturated soil – B =1 safety without risk of shear failure or with a factor of
• Skempton’s B Parameter is given by safety against shear failure.
1 • It is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus the
B= original overburden pressure or surcharge pressure It is
C  denoted by qs.
1+ n  V 
 CS  q s = q ns + γD f
Where, q
q s = nu + γD f
CV – Volume compressibility of pore fluid F
CS – Coefficient of compressibility of the soil 163. The maximum gross pressure which the soil
skeleton. can carry safely without shear failure is known
160. The two criteria for the determination of as :
allowable bearing capacity of a foundation are (a) Gross ultimate bearing capacity
(a) Tensile failure and compression failure (b) Gross safe settlement pressure
(b) Tensile failure and settlement (c) Gross allowable bearing pressure
(c) Bond failure and shear failure (d) Gross safe bearing capacity
(d) Shear failure and settlement GETCO VS JE 04/01/2022 Shift-III
CSEB JE 03.03.2024 Ans. (d) : See the above explanation-

Geotechnical Engineering 298 YCT

164. In the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), after Boring method:– Soil samples can be lifted from
the initial seating drive of 150 mm, the number deeper depths by drilling bore holes by using
of blows required to drive the split spoon mechanical devices called samplers.
sampler for the next 300 mm is used to The process consist of
determine. • Drilling a hole and visually examining the cutting
(a) The depth of water table coming out from different depths.
(b) The dynamic frictional resistance • Lifting the soil samples from different depths by
(c) The standard penetration resistance. using mechanical devices called samplers.
(d) The elastic rebound of soil 167. Lime stabilization is useful for which type of
JKSSB JE (Civil) 20/03/2022 soils?
(a) Coarse grained soils (b) Silts
Ans. (c) : Standard penetration test (IS 2131:1981)
(c) Clayey soils (d) Fine grained soils
• The split tube sampler, commonly known as split UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-I
spoon sampler resting on the bottom of the bore hole
Ans. (c) : Lime stabilization–
is allowed to sink under its own weight.
Hydrated (or slaked) lime is very effective in treating
• It is then seated 15cm with the blows of the hammer heavy, plastic clayey soils.
falling a height of 75cm. • Lime may be used alone, or in combination with
• Thereafter, the split spoon sampler is further driven cement, bitumen or fly ash.
by 30cm or 50 blows. • Sandy soils can also be stabilized with these combinations.
• The number of blows required to affect each 15cm • Lime has been mainly used for stabilizing the road
penetration is recorded. bases and sub-grades.
• The first 15cm or 150mm of drive may be considered • Normally 2 or 8% of lime may be required for coarse
to be seating drive. The total blows required for the grained soils, and 5 to 10% for plastic soils.
second and third 150mm of penetration is termed as • The amount of fly ash as admixture may vary from 8
the standard penetration resistance N. to 20% of the soil weight.
165. Which of the following assumptions made in 168. Bitumen stabilization acts as .................
the Terzaghi’s bearing capacity theory? (a) a hydrophilic medium
(a) The base of footing is rough (b) an adhesive for coarse grains and water
(b) The footing is shallow proofing agent for fine grains
(c) The shear strength of soil is governed by the (c) a destroyer of organic matter and hence more
Mohr-Coulomb equation strength
(d) All of the above (d) a thin cover that gets oxidised in a few days
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 04/10/2023 AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
Ans. (b) : Stabilization with bitumen– Bituminous
Ans. (d) : Assumptions in Terzaghi's Analysis
materials when added to a soil, it imports both cohesion
(i) The base of footing is rough. and reduced water absorption. Depending upon the
(ii) The footing is laid at a shallow depth. above actions and the nature of soils, bitumen
(iii) Shear strength of the soil above the base of the stabilization is classified in following four types-
footing is neglected. The soil above the base is (i) Sand bitumen stabilization
replaced by a uniform surcharge γDf. (ii) Soil bitumen stabilization
(iv) The load on the footing is vertical and is uniformly (iii) Water proofed mechanical stabilization
distributed. (iv) Oiled earth.
(v) The footing is long i.e. L/B ratio is infinite. • It is acts as an adhesive for coarse grains and water
(vi) The shear strength of the soil is governed by the proofing agent for fine grain.
Mohr-Coulomb equation. 169. In soil exploration, .........is one of the in situ test
166. In which of the following methods of soil (a) Consolidation test
exploration, soil samples can be lifted from (b) Static cone penetration test
deeper depths by drilling bore holes by using (c) Field density test
mechanical devices called samplers? (d) Unconfined compression test
(a) Geographical methods GETCO VS JE 04/01/2022 Shift-III
(b) Open excavation Ans. (b) : Static cone penetration test also known as
(c) Subsurface soundings cone penetration test (CPT) is a method of geotechnical
(d) Boring methods investigation for testing bearing capacity and
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 penetration resistance of soil.
• This method is widely used to record the variation in
Ans (d) : Different methods of soil exploration for the in-site penetration resistance of soil where
study of soil profiles are:– standard density test (SPT) is ureliable or where soil
(i) Open excavation density is disturbed
(ii) Borings Following are some of the method, for in-situ,
(iii) Subsurface soundings exploration-
(iv) Geographical methods. • Static cone penetration test (SCPT)
Geotechnical Engineering 299 YCT
• Pressure meter test (PMT) 174. The ______ method involves stabilizing soils at
• Standard penetration test (SPT) great depths.
• Vane shear test (VST) (a) mass stabilization (b) grouting
170. The depth up to which pressure increases due to (c) electrical (d) deep mixing
structural loading causing settlement is called : GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024
(a) Significant depth (b) Failure depth Ans. (d) : The deep mixing method involves stabilizing
(c) Pressure depth (d) Exploration depth soil at great depths.
GSECL JE 2023 Shift-2 • It is an in-site ground modification technology in which
Ans. (a) : Depth of exploration (IS : 1892-1979)– a wet or dry binder is injected into the ground and
• Exploration, in general, should be carried out to a mechanically or rotary mixed with in-side soft soils.
depth upto which the increase in pressure due to • Mass stabilization is a shallow to deep stabilization
structural loading is likely to cause perceptible method that can stabilize the entire volume of soft
settlement or shear failure. soil to a specified depth.
• Such a depth, known as the significant depth, 175. Granular stabilization of soil is also called:
depends upon the type of structure, its weight, size, (a) cement stabilization
shape and disposition of the loaded areas, and the (b) bitumen stabilization
soil profile and its properties.
(c) lime stabilization
• It is generally safe to assume the significant depth
(d) mechanical stabilization
uotp a level at which the net increase in vertical
pressure becomes less than 10% of the initial AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
overburden pressure. Ans. (d) : Mechanical stabilization– Mechanical
171. In site exploration, it is generally safe to stabilization is the process of improving the properties
assume the significant depth upto a level, at of the soil by changing its gradation. Two or more types
which the net increase in vertical pressure of natural soils are mixed to obtain a composite material
becomes less than _____ percent of initial which is superior to any of its components. To achieve
overburden pressure. the desired grading, sometimes the soils with coarse
(a) 30 (b) 75 particles are added or the soils with fine particles are
(c) 10 (d) 50 removed. Mechanical stabilization is also known as
TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023 granular stabilization.
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation- 176. According to Indian standards, what is the
172. Which of the following is NOT a typical depth of soil exploration at the start of the
method for stabilizing expansive soils? work for isolated spread footing or raft?
(a) Lime stabilization (a) One and a half times the length (L) of the
(b) Cement stabilization footing
(c) Bitumen stabilization (b) One and a half times the width (B)
(d) Gypsum stabilization (c) Depth of one and a half times the width of the
RITES AM 05/05/2024 structure from the bearing level
Ans. (d) : Soil stabilization either achieved by (d) Equal to the bottom width of the cut
mechanical, physical and chemical stabilization SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
Physical stabilization:– Ans. (b) : The depth of exploration at the start of the work
(1) Cement stabilization may be decided according to the following guide rules.
(2) Lime stabilization (i) Isolated spread footing or raft one and a half times
(3) Bitumen stabilization the width.
(4) Chemical stabilization (ii) Adjacent footings with clear spacing less than
(5) Resin Stabilization twice the width one and a half times length.
Chemical Stabilization:– (iii) Pile foundations 10 to 30 meters, or more, or at
(i) Calcium chloride stabilization least one and a half times the width of structure.
(ii) Sodium chloride stabilization (iv) Base of retaining wall retaining wall one and a half
(iii) Sodium silicate stabilization times the base width or one and half times the
(iv) Polymer stabilization exposed height of face of wall, whichever is
(v) Chrome Lignin stabilization greater.
(v) From the considerations of weathering.
173. In case of standard Penetration test if the
• 1.5 meters in general.
number of blows exceeds this value for 150 mm
penetration it is generally refused. • 3.5 meters in black cotton areas.
(a) 20 (b) 35 177. In the context of pile foundation, based on the
(c) 50 (d) 70 function and use, piles are classified into which
of the following?
(e) Answer not known
I. Anchor pile,
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 II. Batter pile
Ans. (c) : If the number of blows for 150 mm drive (a) Only I (b) Only II
exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the test is (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
discontinued. SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
Geotechnical Engineering 300 YCT
Ans. (c) : Classification of pile base on the function– 180. Identify the given test apparatus that is used to
Anchor pile determine the shear strength of soil.
Batter pile
End bearing pile
Friction pile
Compaction pile
Tension pile or uplift pile
Fender pile and dolphins
Sheet pile
• Anchor piles provide anchorage against horizontal
pull from sheet piling or other pulling forces.
• The Batter piles are used to resist large horizontal or
inclined forces.
178. Which of the following factor affecting the
compaction of soil?
I. Method of compaction (a) Triaxial compression test apparatus
(b) Unconfined compression test apparatus
II. Types of soil
(c) Direct shear test apparatus
III. Water content (d) Vane shear test apparatus
(a) Only I and II (b) Only II and III SSC JE Mains 04/12/2023
(c) Only I and III (d) I, II and III Ans. (b) : Direct shear test – (Shear box test)
SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024 Unconfined compression Vane shear test
Ans. (d) : Factors affecting compaction– test
• Water content
• Amount and type of compaction
• Addition of admixture
• Method of compaction
• Type of soil
Type of soil– Coarse grained soil, well graded, compact
to higher dry density especially if they contain some
fines and however if the quantity of fines is excessive
max dry density decreases.
179. Identify the following foundation plan shown in 181. According to Rankine's Formula, the minimum
figure : depth of foundation when q=180 kN/m2, γ = 20
kN/m3 and φ = 300 is
(a) 0.50 m (b) 0.75 m
(c) 1.0 m (d) 2.0 m
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 18/05/2022
Ans. (c) : Given,
(a) Combine q = 180 kN/m2
(b) Raft foundation γ = 20 kN/m3
(c) Rectangular column footing φ = 300
(d) Pier foundation 2
 1 + sin φ 
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023 q = γDf  
Ans. (a) : Two types of combined footings–  1 − sin φ 
Min depth of foundation
Trapezoidal Rectangular 2 2
q  1 − sin φ  180  1 − sin 300 
Df =   ⇒ D f =   = 1 meter
γ  1 + sin φ  20  1 + sin 300 
182. Poisson's ratio of a soil sample is 0.5 showing
theory of elasticity, the estimated value of the
coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest in
the same soil is _____.
(a) 0.7 (b) 1
(c) 0.5 (d) 0.8
MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024
Geotechnical Engineering 301 YCT
Ans. (b) : Given, 186. A triaxial test was conducted on a saturated
Poisson's ratio (µ) = 0.5 clay soil sample. The major and minor
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest- principal stresses at failure are 60 kPa and 10
µ 0.5 kPa, respectively. Find the value of undrained
k0 = ⇒ k0 = shear strength.
1− µ 1 − 0.5 (a) 30 kPa (b) 35 kPa
ko = 1 (c) 25 kPa (d) 20 kPa
183. A sample of clayey soil of natural moisture CRPF Assistant Commandant 2023
content 32% has a liquid limit of 42% and Ans. (c) : Given,
plastic limit of 22%. The liquidity index of the Major principal stresses (σ1) = 60 kPa
soil is
Minor principal stresses (σ2) = 10 kPa
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.05
σ − σ2 60 − 10
(c) 0.5 (d) 2 Undrained shear strength (S) = 1 =
(e) Answer not known 2 2
CHB JE (Building) 05/02/2023 S = 25 kPa
Ans. (c) : Given, 187. A clay deposit is having a unit weight of 22
Normal moisture content (w) = 32% = 0.32 kN/m3 and φ = 0. A vertical excavation was
Liquid limit (wL) = 42% = 0.42 made in the given clay deposit and it caved in
Plastic limit (wp) = 22% = 0.22 after the digging reached 4m depth. What is
the cohesion of clay?
w − wp w − wp
Liquidity index (IL) = = (a) 22 kN/m2 (b) 23 kN/m2
Ip wL − wp (c) 24 kN/m 2
(d) 25 kN/m2
0.32 − 0.22 0.10 TSPSC AEE 22/05/2023
= = = 0.5
0.42 − 0.22 0.20 Ans. (a) : Given data,
184. The void ratio at the densest, loosest and the φ=0
natural state of a sand deposit are 0.2, 0.6 and γ = 22 kN/m3
0.4 respectively. The relative density of the C=?
deposit is Hc = 4m
(a) 100% (b) 75% 1 − sin 0º
Ka = = Ka = 1
(c) 50% (d) 25% 1 + sin 0º
(e) Answer not known 4C 4C
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 Hc = =
γ K a 22 1
Ans. (c) : Given,
emax = 0.6 4C
4=
emin = 0.2 22 1
enatural = 0.4 C = 22 kN/m2
e − e natural 188. The observed N value from a standard
Relative density (ID) = max × 100
e max − e min penetration test conducted on a saturated
sandy soil stratum is 35. The corrected N value
0.6 − 0.4 0.2
= ×100 = × 100 = 50% for dilatancy can be estimated as :
0.6 − 0.2 0.4 (a) 20 (b) 15
185. How much will be the vertical stress by (c) 25 (d) 45
Westergaard's solution at a point that is 4 m UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II
from the vertical load of 200 kN. Consider Ans. (c) : Given data:–
Westergaard's influence coefficient IW = 0.0613 Observed N value = 35
and Poisson ratio µ = 0.0. Corrected N value = ?
(a) 49.04 kN/m2 (b) 0.766 kN/m2 We know that:–
(c) 3.065 kN/m2 (d) 0.681 kN/m2 1
BHEL Exe. Trainee, 24.08.2023 N" = 15 + (N '− 15)
2
Ans. (b) : Given,
1
Vertical load, Q = 200 kN N" = 15 + (35 − 15)
Z=4m 2
Westergaard's influence coefficient, IW = 0.0613 20
N '' = 15 +
Q 200 2
qwestergaard = 2 ·I W = × 0.0613 N '' = 15 + 10
Z 16
qwestergaard = 0.76625 kN/m2 N '' = 25

Geotechnical Engineering 302 YCT

 PROPERTIES OF FLUID Dimensional formula- M1L–2T–2
4. Specific Gravity or relative density-
Fluid- It is defined as the ratio of the density or weight
A substance, as a liquid or gas, that is capable of density of a fluid to the density or weight density of
flowing and that changes its shape at a steady rate a standard fluid.
when acted upon by a force is called fluid. Standard fluid-
Fluid dynamics- (i) For liquid is water at 40C
Study of fluid in motion with or without considering (ii) For gas is air
force is known as fluid dynamics.
It is two type- Density or weight density of liquid
1. Fluid Kinetics- S.G liq =
Density or weight density of water at 4 C
It is study of fluid in motion with considering
pressure forces. Maximum density of water is at 40C and equal to 1
2. Fluid Kinematics- gm/cm3
The study of fluid in motion without considering From above relation-
pressure forces. Density of liquid = (S.G)Liq.× Density of water at 4°C
Fluid Static- = (S.G)Liq × 1000 kg/m3
It is Study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. Weight density of a liquid
1. Density or mass density- It is the ratio of mass of = (S.G)Liq× weight density of water.
fluid to the volume of fluid i.e. = (S.G)Liq × 1000 × 9.81 N/m3
5. Viscosity-
Mass of fluid m
ρ= = It is the property of a fluid that is measure of fluid's
Volume of fluid V resistance to flow.
Unit - Kg/m3 Viscosity of liquid is due to cohesion (inter
ρwater = 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3 molecular attraction force) only but for gas it is due
ρSea water = 1025 kg/m3 to molecular momentum transfer between gas
ρmercury = 13600 kg/m3 or 13.6×103 kg/m3 molecules.
= 13.6 × ρwater It is an internal friction of a moving fluid of one
ρAir = 1.225 kg/m 3 layer over another adjacent layer. Viscosity of fluid
0 is measured by viscometer instrument. It is measure
The density of water is maximum at 4 C.
only on flow condition.
For gases density increases with pressure increase
and decreases with increase in temperature. Viscosity of liquid in varying condition is measured
Liquid density considered constant at pressure by Rheometer.
variation and decreases with increases the It is classified in two types.
temperature. (i) Dynamic/absolute viscosity-
2. Specific Volume- τ τ
It is defined as the ratio of volume of fluid to the Viscosity, µ = =
du/dy dθ / dy
mass of fluid, i.e.
Where,
V 1 1
Specific Volume, ν = or = τ = shear stress
m m/V ρ dθ/dy = Rate of shear strain or rate of shear
Unit = m3/kg deformation
Where, V = volume of fluid du
m = mass of fluid = velocity gradient
3. Specific weight or weight density- It is the weight dy
per unit volume of the fluid i.e. Unit-
S.I. - N-s/m2, kg/m-s, Pa-s.
Weight of fluid W mg
w= = = = ρ.g C.G.S - Dyne-s/cm2 or poise
Volume of Fluid V V M.K.S.- kg/m-s
W = Fluid mass × Acceleration due to gravity. Note- 1 N-s/m2 = 10 poise = 1 Pa-s
3
Weight of water = 1000 × 9.81 N/m 1 poise = 100 centi poise
Unit , S.I. - N/m3 µwater = 1 centi poise = 0.01 poise at 20°C
M.K.S. - kg/m2-s2
C.G.S. - gm/cm2 - sec2 µ water = 55 µ Air at 200C

Hydraulics 303 YCT

 Dynamic viscosity is measured by Reynold Classification of Real Fluids-
viscometer. Real fluids are classified in two types-
Where, 1 - RN = 6.89476 × 106 centi poise 1. Non-Newtonian Fluid.
Note- 2. Newtonian Fluid
For liquid T↑ µ↓
P ↑ µ = constant
For gases T↑ µ↑
P ↑ µ = constant
T = temperature, P = Pressure.
(ii) Kinematic viscosity-
The ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of fluid
is called kinematic viscosity (ν) i.e.
Viscosity of fluid µ Types of fluid-
ν= =
Density of fluid ρ 1. Ideal/Perfect Fluid-
Unit- A fluid which is incompressible and have no viscosity is
M.K.S. & S.I. - m2/sec. known as ideal fluid.
C.G.S. - cm2/sec or stokes No fluid is ideal in nature.
1 stokes = 10-4 m2/sec, or 1 m2/sec = 104 stokes Non-colloidal liquids are Ideal fluids.
1 centi stokes = 10–2 stokes Ideal fluid does not have surface tension.
Note- Bulk modulus of ideals fluid is infinite.
For liquid T↑ ν↓ It flow is steady; velocity is constant.
Bernoulli equation is applicable that means total
P ↑ ν constant head of energy constant.
For gases T↑ ν↑ No intermolecular force, no intermolecular resisting
P↑ ν↓ force, no friction force.
2. Real fluid-
νair = 15.2 νwater at 20°C A fluid which possess both viscosity and
Kinematic viscosity is measured by Saybolt, Engler compressibility is known as real fluid.
and redwood viscometer. Which based on petroleum In general practice all fluid are real fluids.
based liquid.
3. Newtonian fluid-
Newton's law of viscosity- In this types of fluid, shear stress is directly
According to Newton's law of viscosity shear stress proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity
on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to
gradient.
the rate of shear strain i.e.
Newtonian fluid does not change with viscosity or
with the rate of shear deformation or shear strain.
Ex.- Water, Petrol, Benzene, Kerosene, Air,
Mercury, Ethanol etc.
4. Non-Newtonian fluid-
A real fluid in which shear stress is not proportional
to the rate of shear strain.
It obey's power's law of viscosity.
Study of Non-Newtonian fluid is called Rheology.
du dθ
τ ∝ or 5. Ideal Plastic Fluid (Bingham Plastic)-
dy dt A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield
du dθ value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of
τ=µ or µ shear strain.
dy dt They behave like a rigid body under low stress.
dθ
Where, = Rate of shear deformation or rate of
dt
angular deformation.
du
= velocity gradient
dy
A fluid which obey's the Newton's law of viscosity
is called Newtonian fluid.
A fluid which does not obey's Newton's law of
viscosity is called Non-Newtonian fluid.
n
 du 
τ = A  + B
 dy 
Hydraulics 304 YCT
A. Time independent Surface Tension-
Pseudo-plastic These are shear thinning fluids. It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface
n<1 • Apparent viscosity decreases with of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface
B=0 increase in velocity gradient. between two immiscible liquids such that the contact
n
 du  surface behaves like a membrane under tension.
τ = A 
 dy  Force F
Surface tension, σ = = and
Ex.- Blood, Milk, Polymer solutions, Length L
Syrup, Rubber solution, Gelatine, Nail
paint, Paper pulp etc. Work done
σ=
Dilatant • These are Shear thickening fluid. Increase in area
Fluids n
n>1  du  It is due to cohesion force between liquid molecules.
τ = A  It is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m.
B=0  dy 
Ex.- Quick sand, Saturation solution of For liquid - Surface tension decreases with increase
sugar, Rice starch, Butter in temperature.
Bingham It has some initial strength beyond At critical point surface tension becomes zero.
plastic fluids which deformation starts. Surface tension is measured by tensiometer and
B≠0 n stalagmometer.
 du  Surface tension of a liquid can be changed by adding
τ = A  + B
 dy  impurities. With impurities (salt, sugar) soluble in
Ex.- Tooth paste, Sewage sludge, water increases surface tension, if impurities (soap,
Drilling mud, Gel, Cream detergent) are not soluble in water, they decrease the
B. Time dependent surface tension.
Thixotropic The viscosity decreases with application
Fluids of shear stress.
n<1 Ex.- Lipstick, Ketchup, Printer inks,
B≠0 Enamels paint, Jelly
Rheopectic Viscosity increases with application of
fluids shear stress.
n>1 Ex.-Gypsum paste, Bentonite slurry
B≠0
Excess pressure-
Bulk modulus-
It is the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric Condition Pressure
strain. • Pressure inside droplet 4σ 2σ
p= or
Increase of pressure ∆P (Solid as sphere) d R
K= =
Volumetric strain ∆V • Pressure inside bubble or 8 σ 4σ
− p= or
V Hallow bubble d R
2
S.I unit of of Bulk modulus (K) is N/m (Like soap bubble)
Compressibility (β)- • Pressure inside liquid jet 2σ σ
p= or
It is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity. d = dia of bubble d R
It is the ratio of volumetric strain to compressive σ = Surface tension
stress.
Compressibility of air is greater than of water. Capillarity-
β Air = 7.65 × 10–10 m2/N The phenomenon observed in liquid due to
2
S.I unit of compressibility (β) is m /N. molecular attraction at the liquid boundary, as the
βWater = 5.1 × 10–1 m2/N rise or fall of liquid surface in a narrow tube is
called capillary action.
1
β= Adhesion- It is the tendency of two or more
K different molecule to bond with each other.
Volumetric strain −∆V / V Cohesion- It is due to force of attraction b/w the
Compressibility, β = = same molecules.
Increase of pressure ∆p

Type of process compressibility (β)

Adiabatic 1
PVγ = constant γp
Isothermal 1
T = constant ρRT
Hydraulics 305 YCT
 Mercury does not wet the glass tube because Units of pressure-
cohesive force within the liquid are stronger than the 1kgf 9.81× 10 4 N / m 2
adhesive force b/w the liquid and glass.
cm 2
Only mercury is a metal that is in liquid state at the
room temperature. 1 Pa 1N/m2
If Hg (Mercury) poured on a horizontal surface it 1 atm 101325 Pa
becomes in the form of droplet because cohesive 1.01325 Bar
force is greater than adhesive force. 760 mm Hg
Capillary rise- Adhesive force > cohesive force, θ < 14.3 Psi
900, wetting surface.
1 Bar 105 Pa or 105 N/m2
Capillary fall- Cohesive force > Adhesive force, θ
> 900, Non wetting surface. 1 Psi 6894.76 Pa
Capillary action is due to both cohesion and 1 Torr 133.3 Pa
adhesion. 1 mmHg
Capillary rise or fall of liquid in- From P = ρgh, pressure does not depend upon the
4σ cos θ 4σ cos θ shape and size of container.
Capillary tube, h = = Its only depends on height of liquid surface or
ρgd wd
pressure head.
2σ cos θ
Parallel plate, h =
ρgt
Where,
t = Distance b/w plates
w = Specific weight of liquid
σ = Surface tension
Pascal's Law-
θ = 00 for pure water and glass tube It is given by Blaise Pascal, it states that intensity of
θ = 80 for water and glass tube pressure or pressure at a point in a static fluid is
θ = 1280, For mercury and glass tube equal in all direction.
θ = 260, for kerosene and glass tube Ex- Hydraulic crane, Hydraulic lift, Hydraulic jack,
Capillarity is expressed in terms of cm or mm of Hydraulic brake system.
liquid.
Dia. of capillary tube should be less than 6 mm.
Vapour pressure-
It is a measure of the tendency of a material to
change into the gaseous or Vapuor state and it
increases with temperature. The temperature at
which the Vapour pressure at the surface of a liquid i.e. at a point A". p x = p y = p z
becomes equal to the pressure exerted by the
surroundings is called the boiling point of the liquid. Hydrostatic Pressure-
Psaturation = PVapour It is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at
Boiling is bulk phenomena. equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to
Evaporation is slow process. It is surface the force of gravity.
phenomena. Hydrostatic Law-
It states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical
Cavitation- direction is equal to weight density or specific
Cavitation will take place if pressure of the flowing weight of fluid at that downward direction i.e.
fluid at any point is less than Vapour pressure of the
fluid. If pressure of the flowing fluid at any point is ∂p
= ρ×g ⇒ w P = ρgz
greater than Vapour pressure of the fluid then ∂z
rupture of bubble started. These bubble collapse and Hydrostatic law is quantitative aspect but Pascal law
can generate shock waves. is qualitative aspect.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE Types of Pressure-
Pressure- Atmospheric Atmospheric pressure is the normal
It is defined as the normal force exerted by a fluid pressure, (Patm) pressure exerted at the earth
per unit area. surface by the column of air above
it.
W mg A × h × ρ× g
P= = = = ρgh = wh •It is described by meteorologists.
A A A • The atmospheric pressure at sea
Where, h = Pressure head, w = specific weight level is 1 atm.

Hydraulics 306 YCT

 • It is measured by Barometer. a. Piezometer-
• Barograph is used for continuous The pressure at point A is given by,
recording of atmospheric pressure. p = ρgh = ωh
Gauge pressure, It is measured above the p
(Pgauge) atmospheric pressure. ∴h= = Piezometric head
ρg
• In gauge pressure measurement
atmospheric pressure assumed as
datum or zero.
• It may be +ve and –ve.
Vacuum/Negative Pressure measured below the
gauge/Suction atmospheric pressure is known as
pressure, vacuum pressure.
(Pvacuum) Pvaccum = P atm − P abs
Absolute The pressure measured with
pressure, reference to the absolute zero
(Pabs) pressure or complete vacuum
pressure is called absolute It is the simplest form of manometer in which its one
pressure. end connected to the measuring point and other is
• It is also known as actual open to atmosphere.
pressure at a given point. It is used for measuring small and moderate
• It can be zero but never be –ve. Positive, Laboratory, gauge pressure.
• Measured with aneroid Not suitable for measuring high pressure because at
barometer. high pressure manometric height will be very large
P abs = P atm + P gauge Patm at sea that is difficult to handle.
It measures only liquid pressure not used for gases.
level - 101.3 kN/m2 (15oC). It is not measure negative pressure.
b. U-Tube manometer-
It is used to measure liquid and gas pressure, high
pressure.
It measured both +ve and –ve pressure.
It is very sensitive to temperature changes so liquid
should have small thermal coefficient and also low
Vapour pressure.
U-Tube is filled with liquid whose specific gravity is
higher than the liquid whose pressure is to be
measured is known as manometric fluid.
MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID U-Tube manometer measure absolute pressure at a
point.
PRESSURE IN PIPES
1. Manometers-
Manometer are based on the principal of balancing
the column of liquid by the same or other column of
liquid.
It is measure +ve and –ve both pressure.
It is a device which is used to measuring low,
medium and high pressure.
Diameter of manometer tube should be ≥ 6 mm.
It is used for liquids and gas.
Mercury is an ideal fluid because of-
(i) Higher density (i) Gauge pressure-
(ii) Immiscible with other fluid Pg = ρ2 h 2g − ρ1h1g
(iii) Low Vapour pressure.
(iv) High specific gravity. ρ1 = Density of light liquid = 1000 × S1
(v) High surface tension and high cohesion. S1 = Specific gravity of light liquid
(vi) Shinning in nature. S2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid
A. Simple manometer- ρ2 = Density of heavy liquid
It consists of a glass tube having one of its end (ii) Vacuum pressure-
connected to point where pressure is to be measured P = −ρ2 h 2 g − ρ1h1g = −(ρ2 h 2 g + ρ1h1g)
and other end remains to atmosphere.
Hydraulics 307 YCT
c. Sensitive/single column manometer- It can be used to calibrate a wide range of pressure
It is the modified form of U-tube manometer in measuring devices.
which a reservoir having large cross-sectional area is Note-
connected to one of the limbs. The accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected
It is used to precise measurement of small pressure due to the friction between the piston and cylinder,
in low velocity gas flow. and due to the uncertainty of the value of
Sensitivity can be increased by inclining the tube of gravitational constant 'g'.
 1  (d) Bellows Pressure Gauge
input limb thus the reading increased by  
 sin θ  It is used to measure absolute and differential
times. pressure.
Sensitivity of micro manometer is 100 times more It is mostly used in low-pressure measurements.
than sensitivity of simple U-tube manometer. Various types of manometer and
When the pressure difference is high then the pressure measured-
sensitivity of manometer is decreased by inclining Type of Types of pressure Types of fluid
output limb. Sensitivity decreased by sinθ times. Manometer measured
B. Differential manometer- Piezometer For small and moderate only liquid
A differential manometer is a device which measure +ve gauge pressure
pressure difference between two points in a pipe or
two different pipes. U-Tube Positive and negative For liquid and
Inverted U-tube differential manometer- manometer both (gauge and high gas both
Used to measure small pressure difference for liquid. pressure)
In this manometer is containing a light liquid. Inclined tube +ve and –ve both Very low gas
manometer pressure
PC − PD = ( S1 − S2 ) γ w h
Differential Pressure difference b/w For liquid and
manometer two points gas both
Bourdon Pressure at a point (high For liquid and
pressure gauge & low pressure) gas both
Important note point-
Mercury gives less height of column for high
pressure.
Aneroid barometers or diapharm tube are used for
local atmospheric pressure.
Hydrostatic law is the basic principle applied in
manometer.
In a Bourdon tube the deflection is proportional to
Micrometer Differential manometer- pressure difference.
Used for the measurement of the very small pressure Sensitivity can be also increased or decreased by
difference with high precision. changing the area of the manometer.
2. Mechanical Gauge- In a differential manometer, the use of mercury is
Mechanical gauge are used for measuring high advantageous when the pressure difference is large
pressure values which does not requires high mercury is used in manometer.
precision. The atmospheric pressure with rise in altitude
It is based on the principle of balancing the column decreases rapidly initially then slowly.
of fluid by the spring or dead weight.
The maximum vacuum created at the summit of a
(a) Diaphragm Pressure Gauge-
siphon is 7.4 m of water.
Diaphragm or Disc is used for actuating the
indicating device. FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUID FLOW
(b) Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge- Kinematic flow :
It is used for measuring high as well as low pressure. It is branch of the science that deals with the study
It is generally made of bronze or nickel steel. of motion of particles without considering the force
Compound Bourdon tube used for measuring causing motion.
pressures both above and below atmospheric Method of fluid motion analysis-
pressure. (1) Lagrangian method-
Double bourdon tube used where vibration are In this method each single fluid particle is studied
encountered. for its motion characteristics density, acceleration
(c) Dead weight pressure gauge- etc. It is time taking and most accurate method.
It generates very precise pressures by means of (2) Eulerian method-
calibrated weights placed on top of a hydraulic In this method, the velocity, acceleration, density
piston. etc. are described at a point or certain section in the
It can measure the pressure exerted by gas or liquid. flow field.
Hydraulics 308 YCT
 Control volume through which fluid flows is Compressible flow, ρ ≠ constant (Gas)
considered and instead of tracking the individual Incompressible flow, ρ = constant (Liquids)
fluid particle, fluid properties are described with Rotational and Irrotational flow-
respect to space and time.
In a rotational flow fluid particles rotate about their
Type of fluid flow-
own axis with flowing along the stream lines.
1. Steady and unsteady flow.
2. Uniform and non-uniform flow. When fluid particles flowing along stream lines does
3. Laminar and Turbulent flow not rotate about their own axis then it is termed as
4. Compressible and incompressible flow irrotational flow.
5. Rotational and irrotational flow. Irrotational flow occurs in non-Newtonian fluid.
6. One, Two and three dimensional flow. Basic Principles of flow-
Steady and un-steady flow- (i) Principle of conservation of mass in flow.
Steady flow is a type of flow in which the fluid (ii) Principle of conservation of energy.
properties like density, velocity; pressure etc. does (iii) Principle of conservation of momentum.
not change with respect to time at any section i.e. Continuity Equation-
∂v ∂p ∂ρ Continuity equation is based on principle of
= 0, = 0, =0
∂t ∂t ∂t conservation of mass.
In case of un-steady flow above properties changes According to this equation for steady flow, the
with respect to time, i.e. volume of fluid entering a tube at one end per unit of
time must be equal to the volume of fluid leaving the
∂v ∂p ∂ρ
≠ 0, ≠ 0, ≠0 other end per unit time.
∂t ∂t ∂t According to law of conservation of mass.
Path line, stream line and streak line are same in
steady flow.
Uniform and Non-uniform flow-
Uniform flow is defined as the flow in which along
the length velocity remains constant at different
cross sections for any given time with respect to
space and if its not constant then this phenomenon is
called non-uniform flow i.e.-
Rate of flow at section (1) = Rate of flow at section
 ∂V  (2)
For uniform flow-   = 0
 ∂S  t is constant ∴ ρ1A1V1 = ρ2 A 2 V2

 ∂V  (This equation is valid for both compressible and

For non-uniform flow-   ≠ 0 incompressible flow)
 ∂S  t is constant
If flow is incompressible, ρ1 = ρ2 ⇒ ρ
Where,
∴ A1V1 = A 2 V2 = constant
∂V = Change in velocity
∂S = Length of flow in the direction S. General continuity equation
Flow at constant rate through a tapering pipe is ∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
steady and non uniform flow. + ( ρu ) + (ρν) + (ρw) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Flow through long pipe at constant rate is called
Above equation is valid for all types of flow (steady,
steady uniform flow.
Gradually varied flow is steady non-uniform flow. unsteady, uniform, non-uniform etc.)
Laminar flow- (i) If flow is incompressible, ρ = constant
Types of flow in which fluid particles moves in ∂u ∂v ∂w
layer form and one layer smoothly slides over the + + =0 3-D equation
∂x ∂y ∂z
adjacent layers is known as laminar flow.
Laminar flow is also known as viscous flow or ∂u ∂v
stream line flow and this flow occurs at a low + =0 2-D equation
velocity. ∂ x ∂y
∂ ∂

In this flow, fluid particle moves along well defined ρ

paths or all stream line are straight and parallel. (ii) For steady flow, =0
t
Turbulent flow-
In a turbulent flow, fluid particles move in a zig-zag ∂ ∂ ∂
( ρu ) + ( ρv ) + (ρw) = 0 3D equation
motion it occurs at high velocity. ∂x ∂y ∂z
Compressible and Incompressible flow-
Type of flow in which density of fluid changes from ∂ ∂
point to point or density is not constant, is known as ( ρu ) + ( ρv ) = 0 2D equation
∂x ∂y
compressible flow otherwise incompressible flow.
Hydraulics 309 YCT
 Stokes theorem- ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
• u=− • v=− • w=−
In two direction (2D) flow circulation along the ∂x ∂y ∂z
closed curve is equal to the total vorticity enclosed for above after applying continuity equation,
within it. "vorticity can also be defined as circulation
∂u ∂v ∂w
per unit area". + + =0
Velocity and Acceleration of fluid- ∂x ∂y ∂z
If u, v, w are the components of resultant velocity in ∂ 2 φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2 φ
x, y and z direction, then + + = 0 Laplace's equation in 3D
Resultant Velocity, ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

v = uiˆ + vjˆ + wkˆ = u 2 + v 2 + w 2 ∂ 2 φ ∂ 2φ

+ = 0 Laplace's equation in 2D
Total acceleration = convective acceleration + local ∂x 2 ∂y 2
acceleration If for certain value of φ, Laplace's equation = 0 then
Let ax, ay, and az are the total acceleration in x, y and flow is possible otherwise not.
z direction, then. If velocity potential exists the flow should be
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u irrotational.
ax = u + v + w +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t If φ satisfied the Laplace equation then there is
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v possible steady incompressible irrotational flow.
ay = u + v + w + Stream function (Ψ)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
It is a scalar function of time and space, such that its
partial derivative w.r.t any direction gives the
velocity component at right angle in anticlockwise
direction. It defined only for 2-D flow i.e.
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
u=− and v =
∂y ∂x
Local Acceleration-
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time at ∂2Ψ ∂2Ψ
a given point in a flow field is known as local Laplace equation for Ψ , + 2 =0
∂x 2 ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂w
acceleration , and If stream function Ψ exists, fluid flow may be
∂t ∂t ∂t rotational or irrotational.
Local acceleration is zero in steady flow. Difference b/w two stream function provide
Convective Acceleration- discharge per unit width.
It is the rate of change of velocity due to the change If the flow is continuous, the flow around any path
of position of fluid particle in a fluid flow. in the fluid is zero.
If the direction of flow velocity changes then the The rate of change of Ψ with distance in arbitrary
flow has normal acceleration. direction is proportional to the component of
Convective acceleration is zero in uniform flow. velocity normal to that direction.
If the fluid moves in curved path and if its velocity Cauchy Reiman equation-
change in magnitude, then in this situation tangential
acceleration occurs. ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ
u=− =− v= =−
Types of Local or Convective Total or ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
flow Temporal or max.
Flownet-
acceleration Advective acceleration
A grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential
acceleration
and stream lines are known as a flow net.
Steady and 0 0 0
A graphical representation of equipotential line and
uniform flow
stream line in an irrotational flow is known as flow
Steady and 0 Convective net.
Non-uniform
Use of flownets-
flow
To determine the stream lines and equipotential
unsteady and 0 Local
lines.
uniform flow
To determine the design of the outlets for their
unsteady and Local +
streamlining.
non-uniform convective
flow To determine quantity of seepage and upward lift
pressure below hydraulic structure.
Velocity potential function (φ)- To determine the velocity and pressure distribution
It is the scalar function of space and time such that for given boundaries of flow.
its negative derivative w.r.t any direction gives the Properties of flow net-
fluid velocity in that direction. Head loss through each successive equipotential line
Velocity potential, for steady flow φ = f(x, y, z) is equal.
Hydraulics 310 YCT
 Discharge through each flow channel is constant. (ii) Flow of liquid through the runner of turbine.
In flow net all flow fields are elementary squares (iii) Rotation of water in a washing machine.
(linear or curvilinear). Free vortex flow-
Equipotential Line- If there is no external torque required to rotate fluid
It is a line along which the velocity function is mass about its own axis then this type of flow is
constant. called free vortex flow.
Equipotential lines are orthogonal to the stream line Bernoulli's equation is valid in free vortex flow,
at intersection points. flow is irrotational.
dy u In free vortex flow pressure is directly proportional
Slope of equipotential line =− to radius.
dx v Change in angular momentum is zero if there is no
Vortex flow- torque.
Flow of fluid along the curve path or rotation of a Rate of linear momentum = constant
cylindrical vessel containing liquid about its own (m.v).r = c
axis is known as vortex flow of fluid. It is two type. V.r = constant
1. Forced vortex flow 1
2. Free vortex flow v∝
Forced vortex flow- r
If the fluid particle are moving around a curve path
with the help of some external torque the flow called
Forced vortex flow
v
= ω , v = rω or v ∝ r ,
r
Where,
v = Tangential velocity
r = Radius of fluid particle
ω = Angular velocity
Bernoulli's equation is not valid for this flow
because of there is continuous expenditure of
energy.
In forced vortex flow, pressure is directly
proportional to square of radius.
Surface profile of a forced vortex flow is parabolic.
Example of free vortex flow-
v2 ω2 r 2
Height of paraboloid formed, Z = ⇒ (i) A Whirlpool in a river
2g 2g (ii) Flow through kitchen sink
2πn (iii) Flow through a hole provided at the bottom of
Where, ω= container.
60
(iv) Liquid flow around a circular bend in a pipe.
(v) Flow of fluid in centrifugal pump casing.
Note-
The movement of air mass in the case of tornado can
be described as forced vortex at the core and free
vortex outside.
Source flow-
A radially symmetrical flow field directed outward
from a common point is known as source flow.

Volume of paraboloid formed,

πr 2 Z
V=
2
Example of forced vortex flow-
(i) Flow of liquid passing through impeller of a
centrifugal pump.

Hydraulics 311 YCT

 Strength of sources is defined as the volume flow In a stream line flow each fluid particle has definite
rate per unit depth. path and the paths of individual particles do not
The central common point is the line source cross each other.
described as "A line is a line from which fluid Stream lines represent the direction of motion of
appears and flows away on planes perpendicular to many particle.
the line". The stream line flow intersect at a stagnation point.
As the fluid flows outward, the area of flow Between two stream line represents discharge of
increases. flow at that point.
Sink flow- The best instrument for measuring the velocity of a
Sink flow is the opposite of source flow. stream flow is Price's current meter.
The streamlines are radial, directed inwards to the
line source.

Equation of stream line-

dy dx
ν= and u =
dt dt
dy dx
or = dt and = dt
ν u
dx dy
= for 2 − D
u ν
dx dy dz
= = for 3 − D
u ν w
Doublet/Dipole/Double source- (iii) Streak/Filament Line-
It is the combination of source and sink flow. It is locus of various fluid particles passing through
a same fixed point.
In a steady flow as stream line are fixed and path
line, stream line and streak lines are same.
For unsteady flow streak line at any instant of flow
is the locus of end pint of path line.

Types of flow Line-

(i) Path Line-
Its a path travelled by a single fluid particle at the
different instant of time. Circulation-
Path line represents the direction of motion of a It is a microscopic measure of rotation for finite area
single fluid particle at a given time. of the fluid it is a scalar quantity.
Path line can intersect itself and follows lagrangian It is defined mathematically as the line internal of
approach. the tangential velocity about a closed path.
Shape of path line for the one dimensional flow is
straight line. C = ∫ v cos θ.ds C = ε.A
Path lines are actual line and are not imaginary.
Where,
Path lines can cross each other.
v = velocity in the flow field
θ = Angle b/w (v) and tangent to the path.
Vorticity
(ii) Stream Line-
It is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a Vorticity is a measure of rotation of a pair of fluid
flowing fluid in such a way that the tangent to it at particles.
any point gives the direction of instantaneous If is defined as the circulation per unit of enclosed
velocity of flow at that point. Area.
Hydraulics 312 YCT
 C • Pressure head P
ε= ε = 2ωz
A ρg
Where,
• Dynamic head/velocity v2
ωz = Angular velocity of fluid particle in z-direction
head/kinetic head
1  ∂v ∂u   ∂v ∂u  2g
ωz =  −  ε=  − 
2  ∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂y  • Potential/Datum head Z
• Piezometric Head P
FLUID DYNAMICS +z
ρg
Fluid dynamics is defined as the study of fluid in
motion where pressure, force are considered. • Stagnation Head P v2
In this fluid is assumed to be incompressible and +
ρg 2g
viscous.
Equation of motion- Bernoulli's Theorem-
Dynamic behavior of the fluid is analyzed by the Bernoulli's principle states that the sum of total
Newton's 2nd law of motion i.e. energy per unit volume of an incompressible, non-
viscous steady flow in a streamlined, irrotational and
F = Ma continuous flow remains constant along a streamline
Newton's F = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft + Fc + Fσ i.e.
equation 1
of motion Forces present in fluid flow P + ρv 2 + ρgh = constant
2
Reynolds F = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft
equation Assumptions of Bernoulli's theorem-
of motion i. Flow should be irrotational
Navier Stoke's F = Fg + Fp + Fv ii. Flow is incompressible
equation iii. Flow is continuous
iv. Flow is steady
Euler's Equation F = Fg + Fp
of motion v. Friction losses are negligible
vi. Fluid is ideal i.e. viscosity is zero
Where,
vii. Flow is in steamline
Fg = Gravity force
viii. Flow is one dimensional
Fp = Pressure force
Bernoulli's equation for Real fluid-
Fv = Force due to viscosity
Ft = Force due to turbulence in fluid P1 v12 P v2
Fc = Compressibility force + + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 + h L
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Fσ = Force due to surface tension
Where, hL = Head loss
Euler's equation-
Euler's equation for motion of liquids is based on the Kinetic energy correction factor (α)-
assumption that the flow is homogeneous and It is defined as the ratio of kinetic energy of flow per
incompressible. second based on actual velocity across a section to
the kinetic energy of flow per second based on
dp average velocity across the same section.
+ g.dz + v.dv = 0
ρ Mathematically,
Assumptions of Euler's equation- Actual kinetic energy
α=
i. The fluid is non-viscous (i.e.friction losses are zero). K.E. calculated from average velocity
ii. The flow is continuous, steady and along the Least possible value of kinetic energy correction is
streamline. one (1).
iii. The velocity of the flow is uniform. In energy equation, velocity assumed uniform while
iv. No energy or force is involved in the flow . it is parabolic.
vi. Linear momentum conservation considered.
∫ v dA
3
v.dA
Bernoulli's Equation- α= 3
Vavg = ∫
It is based on the principle of conservation of AVavg A
energy. Where, v = actual velocity
Bernoulli's equation is obtained from integrating the Vavg = average velocity
Euler's equation. Momentum correction factor (β)-
Each term represent energy per unit weight. The ratio of momentum of the flow per second
P v 2 based on actual velocity to the momentum of the
+ + Z = Constant Bernoulli's equation flow per second based on average velocity across a
ρg 2g section.
Hydraulics 313 YCT
 Mathematically, Loss of head due
V2
Momentum per second based on actual velocity to an obstruction h1 =
β= in pipe 2g
Momentum per second based on average velocity
Loss due to pipe
1 v2
2 ∫
β= v 2 dA fitting and bend hF / B = K
Avavg 2g
When the velocity distribution is uniform over cross  for 45°elbow,K = 0.4 
section the momentum correction factor is 1.  
Value of α and β in different flow condition-  for 90° bend,K = 1.2 
Flow condition α β Note :
Due to sudden enlargement of pipe fitting the flow
Laminar flow in pipe 2 1.33
separates from the boundary and turbulent eddies are
Turbulent flow in pipe 1.33 1.2 formed.
Laminar flow b/w parallel plates. 1.543 1.2 K depends upon-
FLOW OF LIQUID THROUGH 1. Angle of bend
2. Pipe diameter
PIPES 3. Type of pipe fitting
Loss of energy in pipes- 4. Radius of Curvature of bend
A. Major losses (It is mainly due to friction) (80-90%) Energy lines-
Darcy- fLv 2 Hydraulic grade line (H.G.L.)/Piezometric
Weisbach hf = ] head line-
formula 2gD
It is the summation of pressure head and datum
4f 'Lv 2 head, i.e.
= (Fanning equation)
2gd P
Chezy's H.G.L = +Z
f P ρ g
formula hf = × × L × V 2

ρg A HGL always remains parallel to total energy line.

8g 1 Vertical gap between H.G.L. and T.E.L. is equal to
V= C mi , C = ⇒ .R 1/ 6
f n  v2 
kinetic head  
f = friction factor  2g 
where, H.G.L. always remains below the total energy line
P = Wetted Perimeter of pipe and sloping downward in the direction of flow.
V = Mean velocity of flow
L = Length of pipe
Total energy line (T.E.L.)/Total head
A = Area of cross- section of pipe line/Energy grade line-
hf = Loss of head due to friction It is the sum of pressure head, kinetic head and
datum head i.e.
Reynold's Number ρvD P V2
RN = T.E.L. = + +Z
µ ρg 2g
v = Flow velocity T.E.L. always drops in the direction of flow due to
µ = Dynamic viscosity loss of head.
B. Minor losses (10 - 20%)-
It is due to local disturbance with pipe fittings.
Sudden 2
 v − v2 
enlargement h EL =  1 
of pipe  2g 
2 2
v2  A  v2  A 
= 1 1 − 1  = 2  2 − 1
2g  A 2  2g  A1 
Sudden
v2
Contraction h c = 0.5
2g
Inlet loss
v2 Pipe Junction-
h i = 0.5
2g At junction point total energy line and hydraulic
Exit loss grade line is same.
v2 Only piezometric head is exist at junction.
h EX =
2g Junction point is also known as stagnation point.
Hydraulics 314 YCT
 Pipe Network- It is used for-
In pipe network two rules must be satisfied : • The loss of head caused by a given flow of water
The algebraic sum of the piezometric head drops through the pipes connected in series, is additives.
around each elementary circuit is zero, i.e. there • The quantity of discharge flowing through the
cannot be any discontinuity in piezometric heads. different pipes connected in parallel will be such as
The flow entering a junction (or node) must be equal to cause equal head loss through each pipe.
to the flow leaving the same junction, i.e. the law of For maximum power transmission-
continuity must be satisfied. H
Pipe connection- hf =Where, H = Total head at inlet
3
1. Pipe in series connection-
When pipes of different lengths and different hf = Loss of head due to friction
diameters are connected end to end, pipes are called Maximum efficiency of power transmission-
in series or compound pipes. H − hf
Power transmission efficiency, η =
Hardy Cross Method- H
In the analysis of water distribution for the
For ηmax. , h f = H / 3
arrangement of long and narrow pipe (forming
closed loops) hardy cross method is most suitable. ∴ ηmax. = 2 / 3 or 66.7%
This method is based on continuity and energy Water Hammer-
equation or closed loop method or head balanced When the liquid flowing through a long pipe is
method. suddenly brought to rest by closing the value at the
It is also known as equivalent pipe method. end of a pipe then the pressure wave of high
In this method pipes of complex system is replaced intensity is produced behind the value. This pressure
by the single hydraulically equivalent pipe. wave of high intensity has the effect of hammering
Hydraulically equivalent pipe means discharge and action on the wall of the pipe. This phenomenon is
head loss will have same. called water hammer.
Ex. For two pipes to be equivalent. Water hammer in pipes occurs due to sudden change
h f1 = h f2 and Q1 = Q 2 in the velocity of flowing fluid.
Factors affecting water hammer-
According to hardy cross method the algebraic sum 1. The speed at which the value is closed
of the pressure drops around a closed loop must be 2. Length of pipeline
zero. 3. Elastic property of pipe material
Then, head loss in pipes, hf = K.Qn 4. Elastic property of flowing fluid
Where, n = 1.85- For Hazen William formula Case of water hammer-
n = 2.0 For Darcy-weisbach formula
Case of Water hammer Pressure head
Leq L1 L 2 L3 Gradual closure of valve p L.v
= + + Dupit's equation =
d 5eq d15 d 52 d 35 (t = thickness of pipe) w gt
In the series connection of pipe, discharge is same in Sudden closure of valve in rigid p vC v k
each pipe i.e. Q1 = Q2 = Q3 pipe = =
w g g ρ
Total loss in series connection of various pipe is
equal to summation of local loss and head loss in Sudden closure of valve in elastic p V
=
every pipe. pipe w  1 D 
2. Pipe in parallel connection- t = time of closing valve in sec. ρg 2  + 
 K xE 
5/ 2 x = thickness of pipe
d eq d5 / 2 d5 / 2 d5 / 2
1/ 2
= 11/ 2 + 1/2 2 + 53 / 2
Leq L1 L2 L3 Closure of valve will be gradual 2L
if T>
In a parallel pipe problem head loss is same in each C
pipe and discharge is increase in main pipes. Closure of valve will be 2L
The rate of flow in the main pipe is equal to the sum Instantaneous if T<
C
of flow through branch pipes. (T = time of closing of valve in
Q = Q1 + Q2 sec.)
Note-
Equivalent pipe connection- FLOW THROUGH OPEN
It is a method of reducing a combination of pipes CHANNEL
into a simple pipe for easier analysis of a pipe Open channel flow means a flow through channel
network. that is open to the atmosphere and has a free surface.
It is an imaginary pipe in which discharge and head A free surface is a surface having constant pressure.
loss is equivalent to the head loss and discharge of This flow is produced because of gravity that is
real pipe system. obtained by providing a bed slope.
Hydraulics 315 YCT
 Hydraulic gradient line coincide with free surface in 1. Rapid Varying flow (RVF) –
open channel flow. In this case depth of flow rapidly changes over a
In open channel flow pressure head takes place but
not velocity head. Velocity distribution in open smaller length of the channel and it rises up
channel flow is logarithmic. suddenly for a short length and settles back.
Max. velocity occurs just below the free surface. 2. Gradually varying flow (GVF)-
In this type of flow, depth of flow changes gradually
over a longer length of the channel.
Flow is steady, prismatic channel and pressure
distribution is hydrostatic.
It is steady and non-uniform type of flow.

Types of channel-
Following types of channel is defined as-
(i) Prismatic or non prismatic channel-
If cross-section shape, size and bed slope remain
constant in the direction of flow known as prismatic
channel. Ex.- Man made channel
Channel generally varying cross section are known
as non-prismatic channel. Ex.-Natural channel. 3. Laminar flow and Turbulent flow-
(ii) Mobile boundary channel and rigid boundary It is defined based on the Reynolds number (Re)
channel-
ρVD
Rigid boundary channel are non-deformable, no Reynolds Number, R e =
silting or scouring takes place but with respect to µ
time only depth of flow is change it is having only
one degree of freedom. D = Hydraulic mean depth = A/T
In case of mobile boundary channel, it is deformable µ = Viscosity of fluid
due to erosion and deposition of flow, it is four V = Mean velocity of fluid
degree of freedom which is depth of flow bed width,
bed slope and alignment of flow. 4. Sub-critical, Critical and Super critical flow-
In OCF only rigid boundary channel are considered. It is based on Froude number as given below.
Types of flow in open channels-
Properties of uniform flow- V
Fr =
Bed slope (So ) = Energy line slope (Sf ) g.D
Depth of flow = constant Wetted area
In case of uniform slope So and Sf will be same and Hydraulic depth of channel ( D ) =
Top width of channel
total energy line will be parallel to bed slope (So)
For determining the type of flow by producing small
disturbance on the flow surface by throwing a small
object-
(i) Disturbance travels both upstream and down stream
it is known as sub critical flow.
(ii) If disturbance travel only in down stream direction
then flow is supercritical flow.
Nature of flow according to Reynolds number for different condition–
Reynolds No, Re = ρVD/µ
Flow b/w
Nature of flow Pipe Flow Open channel parallel plates Flow through Soil
flow
Laminar flow Re < 2000 Re < 500 Re < 1000 Re < 1
Transitional flow 2000 < Re < 4000 500 < Re < 2000 1000 < Re < 1< Re < 2
2000
Turbulent flow Re > 4000 Re > 2000 Re > 2000 Re > 2
Lower critical flow Re = 2000 Re = 500 Re = 1000 Re = 1
point
Higher critical Re = 4000 Re = 2000 Re = 2000 Re = 2
flow point

Hydraulics 316 YCT

 Type of flow Depth of flow (yc) Velocity of flow (vc) Froude Number (Fr)
Subcritical/Tranquil streaming y > yc v < vc Fr<1
or Tangential flow
Critical flow (At this flow specific y = yc v = vc Fr = 1
energy is min)
Supercritical/Torrential/Rapid y < yc v > vc Fr > 1
or shooting flow
Where,
y = Depth of water, yc = Critical depth vc = Critical Velocity
Celerity can be more than the velocity of flow in sub critical flow.
The velocity of the surge relative to the initial flow velocity in the canal is k/a the celerity of the surge (Cs).
Celerity (Cs) = Lc .g
Hydraulic Radius/Hydraulic mean depth (m/R)- Kutter's Formula
0.00155 1
Hydraulic Radius = Area of flow/Wetted perimeter 23 + +
C= i N
of the channel
 0.00155  N
1 +  23 + 
 i  m
N = Kutter's constant or
Roughness Co-efficient
i = Bed Slope,
m = Hydraulic radius
Area of flow = B × y
Relation between manning's and Chezy's
Wetted perimeter = B + 2y formula-
A B× y 1 1/ 6
R= = C= m
P B + 2y n
Note-
Note point-
In an open channel flow hydraulic radius is used to
defined the Reynold's number. Value of C depends upon – surface roughness, shape
of channel, Frictional factor, Reynolds number and
Discharge calculation through open channel-
hydraulic radius.
Chezy's
Q = A × v = A.C m.i In an open channel, a moving wave front which
formula brings about and abrupt change in depth of flow is
v = C m.i known as surge.
Hydraulic mean depth- If it is producing an increasing in depth is called
Area A positive surge.
m= =
Wetted Perimeter P The surge causing a decrease in depth is called
negative surge.
i = Hydraulic gradient
0 1/2 –1 Surge Analysis-
Dimension of C = M L T Rapidly varied flow
Manning's 1 2 / 3 1/ 2 (Friction role neglected)
Q = A × v = A m .i
Formula n Unsteady flow hence equivalent steady flow formed
1 2 / 3 1/ 2 by considering flow with respect to surge/wave
v = m .i itself.
n Most Economical Section of Channels-
Dimension of n = M 0 L−1/ 3T1 Rectangular Channel Width of channel, b = 2d
For open channel flow this is mostly Depth of flow, d = b/2
used. Hydraulic radius, (R) or
Hydraulic mean depth,
Empirical formula for the value of Chezy's
m = d/2
Constant-
Bazin Formula 157.6
C=
k
1.81 + Trapezoidal Section • Length of sloping side
m equal to half of the top
k = Bazin's constant b + 2nd
width d 1 + n 2 =
m = Hydraulic radius 2

Hydraulics 317 YCT

 • m = R = d/2 Critical velocity, (Vc) -
• θ = 600 The velocity of flow from the wide rectangular
• A circle of radius (d) channel at critical depth is known as critical
should be inscribed in velocity.
trapezoidal section.
Critical Velocity, Vc = ( q.g )
1/ 3
• Semi circle touch the three = g.yc
sides of trapezoidal section Minimum Specific energy–
(P, Q,R)
• Trapezoidal channel v2 Q2
section will be most E min = yc + = yc + 2
2g A 2g
economical when top
width is twice the length Critical flow-
of slanting side (T = 2L) If the critical state of flow exists throughout the
Triangular Channel d entire length of the channel, the flow in the channel
• m or R = is called critical flow.
2 2
• Side slope = 1 :1 Condition for critical flow-
• θ= 45° (i) Specific energy and specific force is minimum for a
• Most economical section given discharge.
of a triangular channel is (ii) For a given specific energy, the discharge is maximum.
right angle triangle with (iii) Froude number is unity.
equal side. (iv) Velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in
Circular Section For Max. discharge- a channel of small slope.
d (v) Flow at the critical state is unstable.
= 0.95
D Note point-
2θ = 308° Uniform flow is occurred in critical flow condition.
m = 0.30D
For Max. velocity- Q2 A 3
For critical flow- =
d g T
= 0.81
D Where, T = Top width of channel
• 2θ = 257°27' A = Cross sectional area
m = 0.30D
Hydraulic jump or standing/shock wave-
• Area of flow,
 sin 2θ 
A = R2  θ − 
 2 
Critical/Potential depth(yc) –
Critical depth is defined as the depth of flow of
water at which the specific energy is minimum.
1/ 3
 q2 
Critical depth, y c =  
 g  Hydraulic jump is defined as the rise of water level
which takes place due to transformation of unstable
Where,
shooting flow (super-critical) to the stable streaming
Q
q = Discharge per unit width of channel = flow (sub critical).
B When hydraulic jump occurs, a loss of energy due to
 v c2  eddy formation and turbulence flow occurs.
Value of Ac, vc, yc, Es(min.)  - Hydraulic jump usually acts as the energy dissipator.
 2g 
Shape of Ac vc yc Es(min.) Kinetic It clears the surplus energy of water.
channel head It is a rapid varied steady flow
 vc2  Shooting flow is an unstable type of flow and does
  not continue towards D/S side.
 2g 
Hydraulic jump observed in open channel flow.
Rectangular B.yc 1/ 3 3 1
g.yc  Q2  × yc × yc Critical depth meter is used to measure hydraulic
 2  2 2 jump.
 g.B 
Parabolic
Assumption of hydraulic jump-
2 1/ 3 4 1
× B.yc 2 3  Q2  × yc × yc i. Depth of flow before and after jump is uniform and
3 g.yc   3 3
3 2  g.B2  pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
ii. Length of jump is so small that frictional resistance
Triangular 1  Q2 
1/ 3
5 1 can be neglected.
× B.yc 1
2 g.yc 2× 2 
× yc × yc
2  g.B  4 4 iii. Before and after the jump flow is one dimensional.

Hydraulics 318 YCT

iv. The slope of the channel is very small, so the Classification of jump and water surface based on
corresponding weight component in the direction of Froude number-
flow is negligible. Froude Ratio of Types of Water Surface
Equation used in hydraulic jump analysis number alternate jump
(Fr) height
1 - 1.7 1-2 Undular/ Undulating
Continuity Equation Momentum Equation
Unsteady
Application of hydraulic jump- 1.7 - 2.5 2 - 3.1 Weak Small Rollers form
i. It is used to increase the depth of level of water. 2.5 - 4.5 3.1 - 5.9 Oscillating Water moving in
ii. It is also used de-salination of water. random manner
iii. Mixing chemical in water supply system.
4.5 - 9 5.9 - 12 Steady Roller and jump action
iv. Energy dissipaters
(Best
Alternate Two depth having same specific energy jump)
depth for a given discharge are known as
≥9 > 12 Strong or Very rough and
alternate depth.
choppy choppy
Conjugate The depth before and after the hydraulic
depth jump is known as conjugate depth or Relation b/w pre jump, post jump and
sequent depth. Froude number –

Critical
• Two depth having same specific force.
Depth at minimum specific energy.
y2 1
(
= −1 + 1 + 8Fr12
y1 2
)
depth
Normal depth-
It is the depth in case of uniform flow.
y1 1
(
= −1 + 1 + 8Fr22
y2 2
)
Q2T
Fr =
gA 3
y2
Where, = Sequent depth ratio (SDR)
y1
y2 = Post jump
y1 = Pre-jump
The ratio of sequent depth may be computed
assuming-
Note point - • Hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Fluid speed before the hydraulic jump is • Uniform velocity distribution.
supercritical/shooting speed and after the hydraulic • Time averaged quantities.
jump subcritical/streaming speed. Different conditions-
Height of fluid before the jump is low. (i) Uniform flow-
Loss of energy due to hydraulic jump- dy
= 0 , it means water surface will be parallel to
( y 2 − y1 )
3
dx
EL =
4.y1 y 2 the channel bottom So = Sf
Where, y1 = Depth of flow at section 1-1
dy
y2 = Depth of flow at section 2-2 (ii) If > 0 The shape of water surface to the back
Note point- dx
side of dam this surface is known as 'Back water
2q 2
= y1 y 2 ( y1 + y 2 ) surface' (Curve).
g
dy
Standard terms related to jump- (iii) < 0 , The profile of surface is known a draw
dx
Height of jump y2 – y1
surface (curve).
Relative height of jump y 2 − y1
dy
E1 (iv) = So Flow is uniform
dx
Length of jump 5 to 7 times of height
of jump. Length of back water curve,
Efficiency of jump E2 E 2 − E1
(l ) =
E1 So − Sf

Hydraulics 319 YCT

 Analysis of depth of flow with the slope of Pressure head in case of horizontal venturimeter-
channel-  V 2 − V12 
The water surface profile is a measure of how the Venturimeter head =  2 .
flow depth changes longitudinally. The profiles are  2g 
classified based on the relationship between the
actual water depth (y), the normal depth (yn) and
critical depth (yc).
Channel slope Profile Flow depth Froude
number
Mild (M) M1 y > yn > yc fr < 1
(yn > yc) M2 yc < y < yn fr < 1
M3 y < yc < yn fr > 1
Steep (S) (yc > yn) S1 y > yc > yn fr < 1
S2 yn < y < yc fr > 1 Piezometeric head (h) calculation
S3 y < yn < yc fr > 1 For Differential Piezometer h=x
Critical (C) C1 y > yc fr < 1 For u-Tube manometer S 
yn = yc C3 y < yc fr > 1 (when standard liquid h = x  h − 1
Horizontal (H) H2 y > yc fr < 1 heavier than flowing liquid)  S0 
So = 0 H3 y < yc fr > 1 Sh = S.G. of heavier liquid
Adverse (A) A2 y > yc fr < 1 So = S.G. of flowing liquid
So < 0 A3 y > yc fr > 1 For inverted u-Tube  S 
Total number of profile exist in gradually varied manometer (when standard h = x 1 − ℓ 
flow is 12. liquid lighter than flowing  So 
liquid) Sl = S.G. of lighter liquid
FLOW MEASURING DEVICES 2. Pitot tube-
1. Venturimeter- Pitot tube is used to measure flow velocity at a point
Venturimeter is a rate of flow or discharge in an open channel or closed pipe. It is based on the
measurement device of the large diameter containing principle that if the velocity of flow at any point in
three section as. becomes zero (At stagnation point), there is increase
(i) Convergent cone in pressure due to the conversion of kinetic energy
(ii) Throat to pressure energy.
(iii) Divergent cone It consist a glass tube bent at right angle lower end
It is most accurate discharge measuring device based that is bend at 900 directed in the upstream side.
on Euler's equation. Velocity is determined by measuring the rise of
Head loss in Venturimeter is so small. liquid in the tube in a fluid flow system the velocity
Coefficient of Discharge 0.94 - 0.98 becomes zero, it is known as stagnation point.
A venturimeter has a differential mercury water
manometer connected to its inlet and throat for a
given discharge in the pipe is independent of the
orientation of venturimeter.
Section detail-
Length of converging section - 2.5 (D – d)
Angle of convergence - 210±10
Length of diverging section- 7.5 (D – d)
Angle of divergence - 50 - 70
1 1
Dia. of throat = to (D)
2 3
D = inlet & outlet diameter
d = diameter of throat
Length of throat is equal to the diameter of the
throat.
Pressure at the throat should be more than fluid P −P 
Vapour pressure. C v = 2g  1 2 
To avoid separation of flow divergence cone angle  ρg 
should be less that convergent cone angle.
Vact = C v 2gh Vth = 2gh
Actual discharge is less than theoretical discharge.
Actual discharge, Cv = Coefficient of velocity
C d × a1a 2 P1 P
Q act = 2gh Stagnation head = Static head = 2
a −a
2 2 ρg ρg
1 2

Hydraulics 320 YCT

Summary- Hydraulic Co-efficient-
Instrument Accuracy Head loss Cost Coefficient Actual velocity of jet at vena contracta
Venturimeter High Low High of velocity Cν = Theoretical Velocity
Orifice meter Low High Low
v v
Flow Nozzle Medium Medium Medium C v = act =
Flow through orifice, experimental determination of v th 2gH
Coefficient. • Cν = 0.95 - 0.99 ≃ 0.97
Vact = C v 2gH • For sharp edge orifice Cv = 0.98
Where, Coefficient Area of jet at vena - contracta a c
of Cc = =
x Area of orifice a
Cv = contraction
, x and y are point on the parabolic • Cc = 0.61- 0.69 ≃ 0.64
2 H.y
Coefficient Actual discharge Q Q act
stream of water flowing out of orifice.
of Cd = = act =
3. Orifice meter or orifice plate- Theoretical discharge Q th a 2gH
discharge
Orifice meter is also used for measuring discharge or • Cd = 0.61 - 0.65 ≃ 0.62
rate of flow of the fluid flowing through pipe. It
consist of a flat plate which has a circular sharp edge Coefficient Loss in actual kinetic energy
hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. of Cr =
Actual Kinetic energy
Orifice dia. kept 0.4-0.85 times of the pipe dia. Resistance
Coefficient of discharge 0.61 - 0.65. Loss of head in orifice
or,
Flow is laminar between plates. Head of water
C ×a a • C r = 0.061 - 0.63 ≃ 0.062
Q act = d 1 2 2gh Relation between C d, C c and C v-
a12 − a 22
C d = Cc × C v
Classification of Orifice
1. Based upon the size and head
Small orifice H ≥ 5D
Large orifice H < 5D
Where,
H = Liquid head from centre of the orifice
D = size of an orifice
2. On the basis of cross sectional area-
(a) Rectangular orifice

Orifice meter
Vena contracta-
It is defined as the point in a fluid stream where the
diameter of stream is minimum and fluid velocity is
maximum. In a orifice it is generally kept at a
distance of half the dia. of orifice (d/2) from the
orifice.
Vena contracta is a region formed just after sudden
contraction after which flow again becomes laminar
(straight line). At vena contracta area, of the flow jet
is minimum and velocity of the flow is maximum H 2
< 5D Q = Cd × B 2g  H 3/2 2 − H13/ 2 
pressure is minimum. 3
Theoretical velocity of jet at vena-contracta H > 5D Q = Cd × a 2gh
v th = 2g.H Where, H1 = Liquid height above top edge of orifice
vth > vact H2 = Liquid height above the bottom edge
B = Breadth of orifice
(b) Circular orifice
(c) Triangular orifice
(d) Square orifice
3. According to shape of edge-
(a) Sharpe edge orifice (It is used as standard orifice)
(b) Square edge orifice
(c) Bell mouthed/Rounded edge orifice
Hydraulics 321 YCT
(i) Fully submerged orifice- Internal • It is also known as Re-entrant or
mouthpiece Borda's mouthpiece.
Discharge, Q = Cd B ( H 2 − H1 ) 2gH
(It is fitted • Internal mouthpiece also classified
Where, internally) into two types.
B = Breadth of orifice (i) Running full (Liquid jet comes out
with touching its side).
(ii) Running free (Liquid jet comes out
from mouthpiece without touching its
sides).
Value of Cv, Cd, and Cc for various types of
mouthpiece-
Mouthpiece type Cv Cd Cc
1. External mouthpiece-
(ii) Partially Submerged orifice- (a) Cylindrical mouthpiece 0.855 0.855 1.0
Discharge, (b) Convergent mouthpiece 0.98 0.98 1.0
2 (c) Convergent divergent 0.99 0.99 1.0
Q = Cd B ( H 2 − H ) 2gH + Cd B 2g  H 3/2 2 − H13/ 2  mouthpiece
3
2. Internal mouthpiece-
(a) Running full 0.707 0.707 1.0
(b) Running free 1.0 0.50 0.50
Note-
Convergent and divergent mouthpiece is having the
maximum coefficient of discharge & coefficient of
velocity.
B. According to shape of mouthpiece-
(i) Cylindrical mouthpiece
Time taken to empty tank through the orifice at (ii) Convergent mouthpiece
its bottom- (iii) Convergent divergent mouthpiece
Shape of H2 ≠ 0 H2 = 0 These are external mouthpiece.
tank For a convergent divergent mouthpiece, area ratio at
Rectangular 2A  H1 − H 2  2A H1 outlet (a) and at vena contracta (Cc) is given
T= T =
/ square Cd .a. 2g Cd .a. 2g
a H − Hc
Hemispheri T = π  4 R ( H3/ 2 − H3/ 2 ) T = π × as = 1+ a
a H
cal tank Cd .a. 2g  3 1 2
Cd .a. 2g c

2  4 2  Where,
− ( H15/ 2 − H 5/2 2 )   RH13/ 2 − H15/ 2  Ha = Atmospheric pressure head
5  3 5 
Circular 4L 4L H c = Absolute pressure head at vena-contracta
T= ( 2R − H 2 )3/ 2 T = ×
horizontal 3C .a. 2g  3C d .a. 2g H = Height of liquid above mouthpiece.
d

( 2R ) − ( 2R − H1 ) 
tank   and Discharge, Q = a c 2gH
− ( 2R − H1 )
3/ 2

3/ 2 3/ 2


L = Length of C. According to depending upon the nature of
horizontal tank discharge at the outlet of mouthpiece-
Note- (i) Mouthpieces running free
H2 = 0, it means completely empty tank. (ii) Mouthpieces running full
MOUTHPIECE Important points-
A mouthpiece is a short length of a pipe that is two In an orifice discharging under a head (H) the head
or three times to its diameter in length, fitted in a loss is H (1 − C 2v )
tank or vessels containing the liquid.
It is used to measure discharge or rate of flow of HYDRAULIC MACHINE
liquid and the discharge through orifice increase. The device which extract energy from the fluid is
Classification of Mouthpieces- called turbine.
(A) On the basis of their position Turbine, is defined as the hydraulic machine that
External • For it coefficient of discharge depends convert the hydraulic energy into mechanical
Mouthpiece upon length of mouth piece. energy.
(It is fitted • Absolute pressure head for an external
externally) Principles mainly behind the generation of
mouthpiece at vena-contracta
hydroelectric power is conversion of gravitational
H c = H a - 0.89H potential energy into electrical energy.
Hydraulics 322 YCT
 Layout of Hydroelectric Power Plant- Types of efficiency-
1. Hydraulic efficiency-
Power delivered to runner R.P.
ηH = =
Power supplied at inlet W.P
Max. Hydraulic efficiency of an impulse Turbine-
1 + cos φ
ηmax =
2
φ = Angle of blade tip at outlet
2. Mechanical Efficiency-
Power at the shaft of turbine S.P
ηm = =
Power delivered by water to runner R.P
3. Volumetric efficiency-
Surge tank Surge tank is a tank provided in
Volume of water actually strike the runner
high or medium head hydroelectric power ηv =
plant at sufficient height connected to long Volume of water supplied to turbine
penstock to control the pressure variation 4. Overall Efficiency-
and eliminate the effect of water hammer.
Power available at the shaft S.P
Penstock It is a large diameters pipe that carries ηo = =
water under pressure from source of water Power supplied at the inlet W.P
to turbine under sudden change of internal Relation b/w efficiencies-
pressure in penstock is a cause of water ηo = ηm × ηH
hammer. The flow in the penstock is a
viscous flow. ηH = ηnozzle × ηrunner
Tail Race Tail race is controlling tail water ηo = ηnozzle × ηrunner × ηm
channel that carries water away from a
hydroelectric plant. Note:–
Head Race It is the water surface in the storage If nozzle efficiency (ηnozzle) = 100% then water
power = kinetic energy.
reservoir.
Draft tube This is the pipe of gradually increasing W.P. = K.E. > R.P. > S.P.
area that connects the outlet of runner to If nozzle efficiency (ηnozzle) ≠ 100%, then water
the tail race. power ≠ kinetic energy.
• It converts kinetic energy to pressure W.P. > R.P. > S.P.
energy. Efficiency of turbine-
• It is only used in reaction turbine to Efficiency of turbine is greater than pump according
increase the effective head of water. to viscous losses
• It permits a negative or suction head. 1
Viscous losses ∝
• In Francis turbine conical draft tube is size of device
mostly use. Since size of turbine are larger than the pump
• In Kaplan turbine Moody spreading therefore viscous losses are less in turbine.
draft tube is mostly use. Classification of turbine according to the-
Forebay Storage reservoir at the head of penstock 1. Type of energy at inlet-
is forebay. Type of Energy Example
Types of head- Turbine available at
Gross head- inlet
It is inlet to the power plant and defined as a Impulse Only Kinetic Pelton Turbine, Turgo Cross
difference between head race and tail race level Turbine Energy flow Turbine
when water is not flowing. Reaction Both Kinetic Francis, Kaplan, Girard,
Turbine and pressure Fourneyron propeller
H g = Head race – Tail race Energy
Net head or Effective head (H)- 2. Direction of flow through runner-
It is the head under which turbine is working and it Type of Turbine Example
is defined as the difference between gross head and Tangential flow Pelton Turbine
all the losses. Radial flow Francis Turbine
H effective = H g − h f Axial flow Kaplan, Propeller Turbine
Mixed flow Modern Francis Turbine
Hydraulics 323 YCT
3. Head available and discharge- For Tangential flow πDN
Types of Discharge Head Example turbine u1= u2 =
60
Turbine (m3/s) (m) u = tangential speed of
High Head Low > 300 Pelton Turbine bucket
D = Dia of the runner
Medium Medium 60-300 Francis Turbine Co-efficient of v1
Head velocity Cv = ,
2gH
Low Head High < 60 Kaplan & Propeller Cv ⇒ (0.98 - 0.99)
Turbine Speed ratio (S.R.) u1
= ,
4. Specific speed (Ns)- 2gH
Specific speed (Ns) Suitable Turbine (S.R. = 0.43 - 0.48)
M.K.S. Unit S.I. Unit Jet ratio (m) Dia of runner (D)
10-35 8.5-30 Pelton wheel with single jet =
35-60 30-51 Pelton wheel with two or Jet dia (d)
multi jet = (12 for most cases)
60-300 51-225 Francis Turbine Range of jet ratio 11 to 16.
300-1000 225-860 Kaplan or Propeller Turbine Number of buckets = 18 to 25 m for Zmin
(z) = 18 (Tygon formula
5. Type of Turbine-
D
Type of Turbine Velocity Overall = 15 + )
Ratio efficiency ηo 2d
Pelton wheel Number of jets (n) Q
=
(Single jet) q
0.43 - 0.48 85%-90% ≃ 86%
Pelton wheel = 2 for horizontal shaft.
(Double jet) = 6 for vertical shaft.
Francis Turbine 0.6 - 0.9 88% Max. Number of jets 6
Kaplan, Propeller 1.4 - 2.0 88.35% ≃ 90% Min. Dia. of Braking = 0.6 × d
Turbine jet
Note- Width of Bucket = 5d
(a) Pelton (Impulse)- Depth of Bucket = 1.2d
Head race → Penstock → Surge tank → Bucket Length of bucket, L = 2.5d
(blads)→ Runner → Tail race. Angle of deflections, = 160°-170° (Avg. α = 165°)
(b) Reaction turbine (Kaplan and Francis)- (α)
Head race → Penstock → Surge tank → Casing → Vane Angle at outlet, = 10°- 20° (Avg. φ = 15°)
Guide vanes → Moving vanes → Runner → Draft (φ)
tube → Tail race. No. of Blades on = 16 - 24
Degree of Reaction- Pelton
Pressure head contribution at runner For maximum efficiency the speed ratio is taken
D.O.R. =
Total head at runner 0.5
Type of Turbine D.O.R. Kaplan turbine-
Pelton Wheel Turbine 0
Francis Turbine 0 - 1/2
Kaplan Turbine 1/2 - 1
Pelton turbine-

In Kaplan turbine the vanes fixed to the hub are

adjustable.
In case of propeller the vanes attached to the hub are
fitted.
This turbine is suitable where a large quantity of
water at low head is available.
It is axial flow turbine.
Hydraulics 324 YCT
 Runner Power 0 Classification of Pumps-
M v w1 u1
Speed Ratio (S.R.) u1
= (1.4 − 2.0 )
2gH
Flow Ratio, (kf) Vf1
= (0.35 − 0.70)
2gH
Breadth Ratio B1
= ( 0.1 − 0.3)
D1
No. of Blades 4-8
Roto-dynamic pump-
Peripheral velocity at πDo N
inlet and outlet u1 = u 2 = The energy is supplied to the fluid by rotating
60 blades.
Note- Positive displacement pump-
ηkaplan > ηpropeller Energy supplied to the fluid by the movement of the
boundary of control volume or closed volume
Model Relationship for Turbine- coursing the volume to expand or contract.
Specific N P Centrifugal pump-
Speed N s = 5 / 4 ,  M1/2 L-1/4 T -5/2  It is commonly used for pumping water, solvents,
H
organics oils, acids, bases and any thin liquids in
Shape N P/ρ
S= both industrial, agricultural and domestic
Number
( gH )
5/ 4
applications. It is use for high discharge, high speed
and low head.
Unit Speed N The principle of centrifugal pump is based on the
Nu =
H forced vortex flow.
Unit Power P The centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward
Pu = 3/ 2 radial flow reaction turbine.
H
Its efficiency is 75 - 88%.
Unit Q Main part of centrifugal pump-
Discharge Qu =
H (a) Impeller
Discharge Through a Turbine- (b) Casing
Type of Turbine Discharge (c) Suction pipe with a foot valve and strainer
(d) Delivery pipe.
Pelton wheel π 2
Q = d .C v 2gH
4
Francis Q = πD1B1 × Vf1
Kaplan π 2
Q=
4
( Do − Db2 ) .Vf1
Model Law of Turbine-
 H   H 
 2 2  = 2 2 
 D N m  D N P
 Q   Q 
 3  = 3 
 D N m  D N P
 P   P 
 5 3  = 5 3 
 D N  m  D N P
PUMP
Pump is a mechanical device that is used for lifting
the liquid from ground surface to the upper top Centrifugal pump
surface. Pump increase the pressure energy of liquid. Types of casing-
Pump operates at higher speed therefore results in (i) Volute casing (without guide vanes)-
high shear stresses and frictional losses. Volute casing without guide vanes which results in
It is convert mechanical energy into hydraulic formation of eddies due to which losses occur and
energy. efficiency reduces. Its efficiency is 60%.
Hydraulics 325 YCT
(ii) Vortex casing- Efficiency of pump-
Vortex casing is a casing in which circular chamber
S.P. I.P.
is provided between the casing and the impeller
0 0
> > Hm
vortex casing is helpful to increase pump efficiency Mg Mg
by reducing eddies formation to a considerable
Where, S.P. = Shaft power
extent.
I.P. = Impeller power
(iii) Casing with guide vane- 0
It is also known as diffusing type casing the function M = Mass flow rate
of diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy into Hm = Manametric head
pressure energy therefore it produces large head. Manometric/ Manometric head
It is use for high heads and multistaging. Manometric efficiency =
Hydraulic Impeller head
It has the highest efficiency. efficiency
Hm
Note- ηmanometric = 0
ηcasing with guide vanes > ηvortex casing > ηvolute casing (without guide vane) I.P./ M g
Note-
Classification of centrifugal pump- Impeller head = Manometric head +
(i) On the basis of working head- Hydraulic losses
Pumps Head (m) vane Mechanical Mechanical efficiency = Power at the impeller
Low head < 15 m No guide vane efficiency Power at the shaft
Medium head 15 - 40 m Guide vane 0
I.P./ M g I.P.
High head > 40 m Multistaging ηmechanical = 0
=
pumps S.P./ M g S.P.
(ii) On the basis of casing- Overall Power output
Volute casing efficiency Overall efficiency =
Vortex casing Power input
Casing with guide vane Hm
ηoverall = = ηmanometric × ηmechanical
(iii) On the basis of number of shaft- 0
S.P. / M g
Single stage - each shaft has one impeller.
Multi stage - each shaft has two or more impeller. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)-
(iv) On the basis of flow- Total head required to make the liquid flow through
Radial flow the suction pipe to the pump impeller.
Absolute pressure head at inlet – Vapour pressure
Mixed flow
head + Velocity head
Axial flow
(v) On the basis of specific speed P1 Pv Vs2
NPSH = − +
Type of pump Specific speed ρg ρg 2g
Slow speed radial flow 10-30 rpm In order to avoid the cavitations-
Medium speed radial flow 30-50 rpm (NPSH)available > (NPSH)required
High speed radial flow 50-80 rpm Note-
Mixed flow (or screw type) 80-160 rpm In order to avoid the cavitations and to lift the water
Axial flow (or propeller type) 160-500 rpm NPSH > 0.
The suction pipe diameter > delivery pipe diameter
Geodetic/ Total head (H) = (hs) + (hd) because-
Static head (i) To reduce the velocity of the given discharge
(ii) To increase the static head show that NPSH should
Suction head It is the term used to describe liquid
be maximum.
(hs) pressure at pump suction in terms of
height of liquid column. Model Relationship for Pumps-
Dimensional Parameter Dimensionless Parameter
Delivery head The vertical distance between the
(hd) centre line of the pump and the water H gH
CH = 2 2 CH = 2 2
surface in the tank to which water is ND ωD
delivered is known as delivery head. Q Q
Manometric It is the head against which CQ = CQ =
ND3 ωD3
head (hm) pump has to work. P P
v2 Cp = 3 5 Cp = 3 5
H m = h s + h ls + h d + h ld + ND ρω D
2g
N Q ω Q
Where, Ns = Ns =
hls = Losses in suction pipe H 3/ 4 (gH)3/ 4
hld = Losses in delivery pipe [ L3 / 4 T −3 / 2 ]
Hydraulics 326 YCT
Note- The theoretical discharge or average rate of flow is
Dimensionless specific speed called shape number. given by-
Reciprocating pump- L.A.N.
If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic Q th =
60
energy (or pressure energy) by sucking the liquid Where,
into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating A.L = Volume delivered
(moving backwards and forwards), which exerts the N = Number of revolution in 60 sec.
thrust on the liquid and increases in hydraulic energy Work saved in a single acting reciprocation pump-
(pressure energy), the pump is known as 84.8%.
reciprocating pump.
2. Double acting-
Efficiency of reciprocating pump is 50 - 90%. In double acting pumps, liquid is discharged on both
It is used where a precise amount of fluid is required the forward and return stroke of the piston.
to be delivered, also where the delivery pressure Two suction stroke and two delivery stroke are
required is higher than can be achieved with other completed in complete revolution of the crank.
types the fluid is moved by the means of a piston
that travels in a cylinder.
These are low speed pumps and suitable for high
head, low discharge and low viscous fluid like pure
water.
They are use in oil drilling operations, pneumatic
pressure system and light oil pumping.

Theoretical discharge or overage rate flow

2.L.A.N.
Q th =
60
Where,
2A.L = Volume delivered
Work saved in double acting reciprocating pump-
39.2%.
Slip and co-efficient discharge-
For good condition percentage of slips is less than
2%.
Reciprocating Pump Slip = Q th – Q act
Classification of reciprocating pump- Where,
Qth = Theoretical discharge
Qact = Actual discharge
Q th − Qact
% of slip = ×100 = (1 − Cd ) ×100
Q th
For Reciprocating pump-
To make uniform- Operate at high rpm.
To make continuous-
It is classified on the basis of water being in contact Use double acting reciprocating pump.
with side of the piston. Head v/s Discharge-
1. Single acting-
It is defined as, discharge on either the forward or
return stroke of the piston or plunger. It has only one
suction stroke and one delivery stroke for one
complete revolution of the crank.

Power v/s Discharge-

Hydraulics 327 YCT

 Questions Asked in Previous Years Ans. (b) : Pressure Gradient- The change in pressure
with horizontal distance is called as pressure gradient.
1. _____is that branch of science which deals with • Cause of fluid flow from a region of high pressure to a
behaviour of the fluids(liquids or gases) at rest region of low pressure terms as pressure gradient force.
as well as in motion.
5. Value of density of water in gm/cm3............
(a) Hydrostatics (b) Hydro-kinematics
(a) 1000 (b) 1
(c) Hydrokinetics (d) Fluid mechanics
(c) 10 (d) 981
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
NWDA JE 27/06/2023
Ans. (d) : Fluid mechanics–It is that branch of science
Ans. (b) : The density of water can be written as 1
which deals with behaviour of the fluids (liquids or
gm/cm3 in CGS unit and 1000 kg/m3 in SI unit.
gases) at rest as well as in motion.
Fluid statics–Study of fluid at rest condition. 6. Cavitation is caused by
Fluid dynamics–Study of fluid in motion with or (a) high velocity (b) low pressure
without considering forces. (c) high pressure (d) high temperature
(a) Kinetics– Study of fluid in motion considering MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
forces. Ans. (b) : The pressure developed by the collapsing
(b) Kinematics–Study of fluid in motion without bubbles is so high that the material from the adjoining
considering forces. boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them
2. Which of the following property of water this phenomenon is known as cavitation.
makes the raindrops to form roughly spherical Therefore the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation
structure? of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the
(a) atmospheric pressure pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and
(b) surface tension sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of
(c) Acceleration due to gravity higher pressure, it is caused by low pressure.
(d) air resistance 7. What is the standard unit of measurement for
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III the rate of flow of a fluid?
Ans. (b) : Surface tension–The property by virtue of (a) Liters per minute (L/min)
which liquid tries to minimize the free surface area is (b) Gallons per hour (gal/h)
called surface tension. (c) Cubic centimeters per day (cm³/day)
• This is because of this film that a thin small Needle (d) Cubic meters per second (m³/s)
can float a free surface (the layer act as a membrane). OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024
Force Ans. (d) : Rate of flow of a fluid
Surface tension =
Length Q
= A.V
• Due to the surface tension, a liquid drop tends to t
assume a spherical shape to minimize the surface area. The standard unit of measurement for the rate of flow of
• Fluid causes it to adhere to solid surface and form a fluid cubic meters per second.
meniscus is due to surface tension. 8. Which of the following is MKS unit of
3. According to the Newton's law of viscosity, the viscosity?
shear stress of a fluid element layer is directly kgf − sec 2 kgf − sec
proportional to the ________. (a) (b)
(a) elastic modulus (b) pressure m m2
(c) bulk modulus (d) rate of shear strain kgf − sec kgf − sec 2
(c) (d)
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I m m2
Ans. (d) : Newton's law of viscosity–This law states MH Solapur Asstt. JE Class 3, 17/02/2024
that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is Ans. (b) :
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. Shear stress
Viscosity, µ =
du Change in velocity/Change in distance
τ=µ
dy Force / Area Force × Time
= =
• The constant of proportionality (µ) is called the co-  Length  1 (Length) 2
efficient of viscosity.  ×
 Time  Length
4. What force causes fluid to flow from a region kgf -sec
of high pressure to a region of low pressure? MKS unit =
m2
(a) Surface tension force dyne-sec
(b) Pressure gradient force CGS unit =
(c) Viscous force cm 2
(d) Buoyant force N−s
SI unit =
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III m2
Hydraulics 328 YCT
9. The value of the compressibility of an ideal Non-Newtonian fluid–In this type of fluid shear stress
fluid is is not proportional to the rate of shear strain. This fluid
(a) zero does not obey Newton's law of viscosity.
(b) unity Example–Human blood, toothpaste, paint, shampoo
(c) infinity mudflow.
(d) more than that of a real fluid 13. As the temperature of a gas increases, its
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II viscosity
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
Ans. (a) : Ideal fluid– The fluid which is
(c) Remains constant (d) None of the above
incompressible inviscid and irrotational.
Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023
So, the compressibility of an ideal fluid is zero.
Compressibility– Change in volume with respect to Ans. (a) : Viscosity is that property of a fluid by virtue
of which it offers resistance to the movement of one
unit pressure. layer of fluid over an adjacent layer. It is primarily due
β = 1 = −∂V / V to cohesion and molecular momentum exchange
K ∂P between fluid layers and as flow occurs. These effects
10. In which of the following fluid, shear stress is appear as shearing stresses between the moving layers
not proportional to the rate of shear strain? of fluid.
(a) Ideal plastic fluid • Increasing the temperature of a gas increases its
(b) Newtonian fluid viscosity as a result of the increase in the movement of
(c) Non- Newtonian fluid its molecules.
(d) Ideal fluid 14. 1 mb pressure is equal to:
DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023 (a) 1N/m2 (b) 100N/m2
2
Ans. (c) : Non-Newtonian fluid– In this shear stress is (c) 0.1/m (d) 10N/m2
not proportional to the rate of shear strain. This fluid UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I
does not obey Newton's law of viscosity. Ans. (b) : 1 mb = 10–3 bar
n = 10–3 × 105 N/m2 [1 bar = 105 N/m2]
 du 
τ = A  + B = 100 N/m 2

 dy  15. What is the dimension of dynamic viscosity of

Where, fluid?
τ = Shear stress A = Consistency Index (a) MLT–2 (b) M–1L–1T–1
–1 –1
µ = Dynamic viscosity B = Initial stress (c) ML T (d) ML–1T–2
du = Rate of shear strain JSSC JE (General Engg.) 30/09/2023
n = Flow behavior Index Ans. (c) :
dy
Properties Dimension
Weight of the fluid Dynamic viscosity ML–1T–1
11. What defines the above
Volume of the fluid Bulk modulus ML–1T–2
ratio? Compressibility M–1LT2
(a) Specific Gravity (b) Weight density Surface tension MT–2
(c) Mass density (d) Specific volume Vapour pressure ML–1T–2
UPMRCL JE 02/01/2023 Specific weight ML–2T–2
Ans. (b) : 16. Unit of measurement of dynamic viscosity is ____
Weight of the fluid (a) poise (b) poisson
Specific weight or weight density = (c) stoke (d) joules
Volume of the fluid
NBCC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022
Weight density ( density ) of liquid
Specific gravity = τ
Weight density ( density ) of water Ans. (a) Dynamic viscosity, µ =
 du 
mass  dy 
Density or mass density (ρ) =  
volume N − sec
Volume of fluid 1 SI unit,
Specific volume = = m2
Mass of fluid ρ kgf − sec
12. The property of a fluid which determines its MKS unit, m2
resistance to shearing stress is called
dyne − sec
(a) Specific gravity (b) Specific volume CGS unit, , is also called poise
(c) Surface tension (d) Viscosity cm2
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 17. The unit of dynamic viscosity of a fluid is
Ans. (d) : Viscosity–Viscosity is the property of a fluid (a) m2/s (b) Ns/m2
2
due to cohesion and interaction between molecules, (c) Pa s/m (d) kg s2/m2
which resists shear deformation. Different fluids deform NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-II
at different rates under the same shear stress. Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
Hydraulics 329 YCT
18. Mass density of fluid is defined as: Ans. (a) Surface Tension–Force per unit length to the
Mass of fluid Volume of gas free surface.
(a) (b)
σ = = = 2 = 2 = [ MT −2 ]
Volume of fluid Mass of gas F N kg.m kg
Volume of fluid Mass of fluid L m s ·m s
(c) (d) In SI system, surface tension is expressed in N/m.
Mass of fluid Weight of fluid
22. What is the SI unit of surface tension?
UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I (a) N/m (b) Pa/s
Ans. (a) : (c) N-m (d) Pa-s
Mass of fluid (m) MH Solapur MC JE 17/02/2024 Class-2
Mass density of fluid (ρ) =
Volume of fluid (V) Ans. (a) See the above explanation
Unit – kg/m3 23. A fluid in which shear stress is more than the
Dimension – ML–3 yield value and shear stress is proportional to
the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient) is
known
19. The ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of (a) Real fluid (b) Ideal Plastic fluid
fluid is termed as_____. (c) Ideal fluid (d) Non-Newtonian fluid
(a) viscosity ratio (e) Answer not known
(b) capillarity TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
(c) kinematic viscosity Ans. (b) : Ideal fluid–A fluid which is incompressible,
(d) surface tension and is having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid.
DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids
Ans. (c) : Kinematic viscosity– which exist have some viscosity.
Ideal plastic fluid–A fluid in which shear stress is more
Dynamic viscosity µ
ν= = than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to
Mass density ρ the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient) is known as
Unit– ideal plastic fluid.
SI – m2/sec 24. The ratio of pressure intensities inside a liquid jet,
CGS – cm2/sec or stoke a droplet and a soap bubble having same internal
radius and equal surface tension will be
1 stoke = 10–4 m2/sec or 1 cm2/sec
(a) 1 : 2 : 4 (b) 2 : 1 : 4
1 m2/sec = 104 stoke (c) 4 : 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 4 : 2
• Dimension of kinematic viscosity is L2T–1 PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
20. What does specific gravity measure ? Ans. (a) :
(a) The ratio of a material's density to the density i. Pressure inside liquid jet-
of air σ
(b) The ratio of a materials density to the density P1 =
of water R
ii. Pressure inside droplet-
(c) The ability of a material to regain its original
2σ
shape P2 =
(d) The ability of a material to resist abrasion R
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 06/10/2023 iii. Pressure inside soap bubble-
4σ
Ans. (b) : Specific gravity– Specific gravity or relative P3 =
gravity is a dimensionless quantity that is defined as the R
ratio of the materials density to density of the water. σ 2σ 4σ
P1 : P2 : P3 = : :
Density of object R R R
Specific gravity (G) = P1 : P2 : P3 =1 : 2 : 4
Density of water
25. Flow through a capillary tube is an example of
ρobject (a) Unsteady non-uniform flow
G=
ρ water (b) Turbulent flow
(c) Steady non-uniform flow
ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
(d) Laminar flow
21. Consider the following options, identify statement JSSC JE (General Engg.) 30/09/2023
depicting the CORRECT relationship. Ans. (d) : Laminar flow refers to smooth and orderly
(a) In SI system, surface tension is expressed in flow of a fluid in a confined space such as a capillary
N/m tube, where the fluid moves in parallel layers without
(b) In SI system, force is expressed in N/m2 mixing. This type of flow is characterized by law
(c) In SI system, pressure is expressed in N/m velocities and predictable behaviour, making it different
(d) In SI system power is expressed in N/m2 from turbulent flow where the fluid moves in irregular
UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022 and chaotic patterns.

Hydraulics 330 YCT

26. Surrounding atmospheric pressure is taken as (c) Pressure in pipes and channels is
datum to find______ (d) Pressure difference between two point in a pipe
(a) absolute pressure (b) gauge pressure DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-II
(c) Null pressure (d) vacuum pressure Ans. (d) Differential Manometer–It is used for
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I measuring the difference of pressure between two
Ans. (b) : Gauge pressure–It is defined as the pressure points in a pipe or two different pipes.
which is measured with the help of a pressure Most commonly types of differential manometers
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric are–
pressure is taken as datum. • U-tube differential manometer
Absolute pressure–It is defined as the pressure which • Inverted U-tube differential manometer
is measured with reference to absolute vacuum pressure.
Vacuum pressure–It is defined as the pressure below 31. What is the standard atmospheric pressure at
the atmospheric pressure. sea level?
(a) 1.5 bar (b) 1.013 bar
27. Which pressure is defined as the pressure
below the atmospheric pressure? (c) 1.3 bar (d) 1013 mmHg
(a) Gauge pressure (b) Earth pressure SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning)
(c) Vacuum pressure (d) Absolute pressure Ans. (b) : Atmospheric pressure–It is the pressure at
MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024 any point on the surface of the earth due to the weight
Ans. (c) : of the column of air above that point.
• The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm.
1 atm = 1.013 bar
32. A simple U-tube manometer connected to a
pipe in which liquid is flowing with a uniform
speed will give ______ .
(a) vacuum pressure (b) gauge pressure
(c) atmospheric pressure (d) absolute pressure
SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning)
Ans. (b) : U-tube manometer–It is the simplest
• When the pressure is below atmospheric pressure, it pressure measurement device. A simple U-tube
is called the vacuum pressure. manometer connected to a pipe in which liquid is
• When the pressure is above atmospheric pressure it is flowing with uniform speed will give gauge pressure.
called the gauge pressure. • Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric
• Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure. It is positive for pressure above atmospheric
pressure gauge pressure is zero at atmospheric pressure.
• Pvacuum = Patm – Pabs Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
28. Which principle is the operation of a U-tube
manometer primarily based on?
(a) Bernoulli's principle
(b) Pascal's law
(c) Hydrostatic equilibrium
(d) Venturi effects
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
Ans. (c) : A U-tube manometer operates on the
principle of hydrostatic equilibrium and is used for 33. In case of an inverted U tube manometer, the
measuring the pressure (static pressure) exerted by a manometric liquid will be having the specific
still liquid or gas. gravity:
• Hydrostatic equation states that the pressure at any point (a) more than that of the liquid flowing in the
in a fluid at rest is equal to the weight of the overlying pipe
fluid. (b) equal to that of the liquid flowing in the pipe
29. 1 Atmospheric pressure is equal to ........... mm (c) less than that of the liquid flowing in the pipe
of Hg. (d) either less or more, depending on the
(a) 590 (b) 300 temperature of the liquid flowing in the pipe
(c) 450 (d) 760
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023
Ans. (d) : Ans. (c) : Inverted U-tube manometer- it is consists
1 atm = 760 mm Hg of a U-tube held in on inverted position and is
1 atm = 10.3 m water connected to the gauge point. It is used for measuring
1 atm = 101325 Pa small difference of pressure in liquids.
30. A differential manometer is used to measure: • In case of an inverted U-tube manometer, the
(a) Atmospheric pressure manometric liquid will be having the specific gravity
(b) Pressure in venturimeter less than that of the liquid flowing in the pipe.
Hydraulics 331 YCT
34. Absolute pressure is equal to: 38. The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is
(a) Gauge pressure – Atmospheric pressure determined by which of the following factors?
(b) Atmospheric pressure – Gauge pressure (a) Viscosity of liquid
(b) Density of liquid
(c) Atmospheric pressure × Gauge pressure (c) depth of the point below the surface
(d) Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure (d) temperature of the liquid
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 05/10/2023
Ans. (d) : Absolute pressure–It the pressure measured Ans. (c) : The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest,
with reference to the absolute zero pressure. such as a liquid in a container is primarily determined
• The complete vacuum pressure is called absolute by the depth of the point below the surface of the fluid.
pressure. This relationship is described by the hydrostatic
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge pressure equation -
P = ρgh
Where,
P = pressure at the point below surface
ρ = density of the fluid
h = depth of the point below the surface
39. The vertical component of pressure force on a
submerged curved surface is equal to
(a) its horizontal component
(b) the force on a vertical projection of the
curved surface.
35. Hydrostatic pressure in a static fluid depends on: (c) the product of the pressure at the centroid and
(a) the density of the fluid only surface area
(b) the atmospheric pressure and temperature of (d) the weight of liquid supported by the curved
the fluid surface.
(c) the surface tension and viscosity of the fluid OSSC JE RE-Exam 03.09.2023
(d) the depth of the fluid and acceleration due to Ans. (d) : Hydrostatic pressure force on curved
gravity surface-
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I Horizontal force or component-pressure force equal to
the projection of the curved surface on vertical plane
Ans. (d): Hydrostatic pressure (P) = ρgh and is acting at the centre of pressure of projecting area.
• Hydrostatic pressure in a static fluid depends on the Vertical force or component-pressure force equal to
depth of the point below the surface acceleration due to the weight of the liquid supported by the curved surface
gravity and the nature of the liquid. upto the free surface of the liquid above the curved
36. The pressure at any given point of a non- surface.
moving fluid is called the 40. The relation 'The rate of increase of pressure in
(a) gauge pressure vertical direction = Weight density of the fluid
(b) atmospheric pressure at any point,' is applied to ______.
(c) differential pressure (a) Hydrostatic law
(d) hydrostatic pressure (b) Hydrothermic law
(c) Hydrophobic law
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
(d) Newton's modified law
Ans. (d) : Hydrostatic pressure varies with depth of UPMRCL JE 02/01/2023
fluid. Hydrostatic pressure is measured from the surface
of the fluid because of the increasing weight of the Ans. (a) : • The hydrostatic law states that the rate of
increment of pressure is equal to the specific weight of
fluid. The fluid exerts a downward force from the the fluid at any point in a static fluid system.
surface of water.
• At depth h, if the pressure (p) acts on the surface, the
37. Which of the following law states that the equilibrium condition can be expressed with Newton's
pressure applied in a confined incompressible second law of motion as–
fluid gets transmitted throughout the liquid
dp
without any change in all the directions? = −ρg
(a) Hooke's Law (b) Pascal's Law dh
(c) Gauss's Law (d) Henry's Law This can alternately be written as–
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 P = wh
Ans. (b) Pascal's law– where, w = ρg
1. The pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all 41. The point from which the resultant pressure
direction. acts and it is always referred to as a liquid
Px = Py = Pz surface is called depth is represent in terms.
2. External static pressure exerted on a fluid is (a) Centre of pressure
distributed evenly through. (b) Hydrostatic pressure
Hydraulics 332 YCT
 (c) Atmospheric pressure Ans. (b) : Equation condition for submerged body-
(d) Total pressure Equilibrium condition Submerged body
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-2 Stable B is above G
Ans. (a) The total pressure force or resultant force is Unstable B is below G
always perpendicular to the surface and the point of Neutral B and G coincide
application is known as centre of pressure and denoted 45. The point of action of buoyancy force is
by C.P. called____
• Hydraulic force on plane surface– (a) Centre of object immersed in liquid
FR = ρgh.A = wh.A (b) Centre of object exposed in air
(c) Centre of buoyancy
• It is valid for vertical, horizontal and inclined plane. (d) Critical point
42. The hydrostatic law states that the rate of UPMRC AM (Civil) 02/01/2023
increase of pressure in a vertical direction is Ans. (c) • Centre of buoyancy is that point through
equal to? which buoyant force act.
(a) density of the fluid • This force of buoyancy always acts through the
(b) weight of the fluid centroid of liquid displaced.
(c) specific weight of the fluid 46. If the flow parameter such as velocity,
(d) None of the above acceleration, discharge do not change with time
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 is called........
Ans. (c) : The hydrostatic law states that the rate of (a) Unsteady flow (b) Uniform flow
increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to the (c) Steady flow (d) Rapidly varied flow
weight density of the fluid at that point when the fluid is SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift III
stationary. Ans. (c) Steady flow–Fluid property like density,
∂P pressure, velocity do not change with time.
= ρ× g
∂h ∂v ∂p ∂ρ
=0 =0 =0
43. The centre of pressure for a vertically ∂t ∂t ∂t
immersed surface lies at a distance equal to Unsteady flow–Fluid property changes with time.
______ the centre of gravity. ∂v ∂p ∂ρ
≠0 ≠0 ≠0
I I ∂t ∂t ∂t
(a) G below (b) G above
Ax Ax 47. The primary parameters correlating the
Ax Ax viscous behaviour of all Newtonian fluids is the
(c) below (d) above dimensionless:
IG IG (a) Avogadro’s number (b) Mach number
MPSC MES 29/10/2022 Paper-2 (c) Reynolds number (d) Weber number
Ans. (a) : Center of pressure (i.e. h ) lies below the MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III
center of gravity of the vertical surface. Ans. (c) : The primary parameter correctly the viscous
IG behavior of all Newtonian fluid is the dimensionless
h= +x ρVL
Ax Reynolds number, R e =
I µ
h−x = G Where,
Ax V = Velocity of fluid
The centre of pressure for a vertically immersed surface L = Length of flow pipe.
I 48. Continuity equation used for fluid flowing
lies a below G from the center of gravity.
Ax through pipes is based on principle of _______
(a) Conservation of energy and momentum
(b) Conservation of momentum
(c) Conservation of mass
(d) Conservation of energy
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (c) : Continuity equation–
• It is based on principle of conservation of mass.
44. For a submerged body, if the centre of • According to this, mass inflow is a fixed region
should be equal to mass outflow from that fixed region
buoyancy is above the centre of gravity, the
in a particular time.
equilibrium is called For steady flow–
(a) neutral (b) stable
∂ (ρAV)
(c) unstable (d) None of the above Continuity equation for one dimension is =0
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 ∂s

Hydraulics 333 YCT

 ρAV = constant
ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2
for incompressible fluids
A1V1 =A2V2= Constant
Where, V1 and A1 are velocity and area at section 1 or
at inlet V2 and A2 are velocity and area at section 2 or at
outlet.
• For incompressible fluid flow through a pipe, if the
cross-sectional area of the pipe decreases, then velocity
of the fluid increase.
52. In a fluid-flow, the streamlines-are lines
49. The tangent drawn to the instantaneous (a) Along which the vorticity is zero
velocity in a flow field is called: (b) Along which the stream function Ψ =
(a) Streak line (b) time line constant
(c) path line (d) stream line (c) Which are parallel to equipotential lines
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III (d) Which exist in irrotational flow only
Ans. (d) : Stream line:– A Stream line is an imaginary (e) Answer not known
curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way that TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
the tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the Ans. (b) : Streamlines–A streamline is a line on which
velocity of flow at that point. a tangent drawn at any point gives the direction of
Streak line–Path of the fluid particles that they have velocity of the fluid particle passing through that point.
passed sequentially through a given point in flow is Properties of streamlines–
termed as streak line. 1. A streamline is a continuous curve that cannot
Path line–It is a path travelled by a single fluid particle intersect itself.
at the different instant of time. 2. The spacing between streamlines indicates the
Time line–A time line is a set of fluid particles that velocity of the fluid.
form a line segment at a given instant of time. 3. Streamlines never cross each other.
4. Bernoulli's equation is applied in stream line.
Note- In physical, all the three lines (Stream, path,
5. The value of the stream function is constant along
streak line) are different but mathematically they may
every streamline.
be same (steady flow).
53. In which type of flow does the velocity of fluid
50. The flow in pipe is laminar if– particles change from point to point at given
(a) Reynolds number is equal to 2500 instant?
(b) Reynolds number is equal to 4000 (a) Steady flow (b) Laminar flow
(c) Reynolds number is more than 2500 (c) Non-uniform flow (d) Uniform flow
(d) None of the above Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 Ans. (c) Types of fluid flow–
Ans. (d) : Steady flow Fluid property like density,
Reynolds number Type of fluid flow pressure, velocity does not
Re < 2000 Laminar flow change with time.
∂V ∂P ∂ρ
2000 < Re < 4000 Transition flow = 0, = 0, =0
Re > 4000 Turbulent flow ∂t ∂t ∂t
51. Equation of continuity is– Unsteady flow Fluid property changes with
∂V ∂P ∂ρ
(Where A-Cross-sectional area, V-Velocity, P- time ≠ 0, ≠ 0, ≠0
Pressure, ρ-Density) ∂t ∂t ∂t
(a) ρ1A1 = ρ2A2 (b) P1V1 = P2V2 Uniform flow At a given time, fluid property
(c) ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 (d) P1A1 = P2A2 does not change with respect to
the space.
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
 ∂V 
Ans. (c) : Continuity equation–   =0
• It is based on principle of conservation of mass.  ∂s  t = constant
• According to this, mass inflow is a fixed region Non-uniform flow At a given time fluid property
should be equal to mass outflow from that fixed changes with respect to space.
region in a particular time.  ∂V 
For steady flow–   ≠0
 ∂s  t = constant
∂ (ρAV)
Continuity equation for one dimension is =0 54. The velocity components of a two-dimensional
∂s plane motion of a fluid with constant density
ρAV = constant are u = 2x – x2y and v = xy2 − 2y. Which of the
ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 following is the correct statement?
Hydraulics 334 YCT
 (a) The fluid is incompressible and flow is (d) equal to hydrostatic pressure distribution
unsteady. minus weight of liquid
(b) The fluid is compressible and flow is steady. ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023
(c) The fluid is incompressible and flow is steady. Ans. (a) : Concept of acceleration vessel containing
(d) The fluid is compressible and flow is unsteady. liquid-
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (c) : Given,
u = 2x – x2y
v = xy2 − 2y
As per continuity equation, for flow to occur,
∂u ∂v dp = ρa x dx − ρ ( a z + g ) dz
∴ + =0 dp = − ρg dz
∂x ∂y
∂u dp
= 2 − 2xy = − ρg
∂x dz
From the above equation, it is clear that pressure head
∂v at any point in a liquid subjected to a constant
= 2xy − 2
∂y horizontal acceleration is equal to the height of the
2 – 2xy + 2xy – 2 = 0 liquid column above that point therefore pressure
distribution in a liquid subjected to a constant horizontal
∂u ∂v
Since, + = 0, then flow is incompressible and acceleration is same as hydrostatic pressure distribution.
∂x ∂y Planes of constant pressure are therefore parallel to
steady. the inclined surface
55. If a device consists of one inlet and one outlet and 58. Consider the below statements with respect to
the volume flow rates at the inlet and at the outlet types fo fluid flow and identify the
are equal, then the flow through the device: INCORRECT statement.
(a) must be steady (b) is not necessarily steady (a) Reynolds number is used to classify the types
(c) must be uniform (d) must be laminar of flow whether laminar or turbulent.
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I (b) The fluid character 'pressure' at a point in
Ans. (b) : Steady flow–Steady flow is defined as that steady flow does not change with time.
type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity, (c) The velocity at any given time changes with
pressure, density etc. at a point do not change with time. respect to space in uniform flow.
Constant volume at inlet and outlet does not mean (d) Fluid particles move along well-defined paths
constant mass at inlet and outlet respectively because or streamline in laminar flow
there is no comment about density variation. DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III
So the flow can be either steady or uniform depending Ans. (c) • The velocity at any given time no change
on the density of the fluid. with respect to space is known as uniform flow.
56. Which among the following provides the third • Reynolds number is used to classify the types of flow
principle in fluid mechanics? whether laminar or turbulent.
(a) Conservation of heat • If the fluid and flow characteristic (such as density,
(b) Conservation of volume velocity, pressure etc.) at a point do not change with
(c) Conservation of linear momentum time, the flow is said to be steady flow.
(d) Conservation of mass • The type of flow in which the fluid particles move along
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II well-defined paths or streamline and all the streamlines are
Ans. (c) : In fluid mechanics, the third principle is given straight and parallel is known as laminar flow.
by the conservation of linear momentum. It is in 59. Pitot tube is used to measure the ...................
addition to the continuity of mass and conservation of (a) discharge (b) acceleration
energy. (c) velocity of flow (d) depth of flow
The momentum principle states that all forces acting on CSEB JE 03.03.2024
a system result in a change of momentum in the system Ans. (c) : A pitot tube is a device used to measure the
Momentum = Mass flow rate × Velocity velocity of flow in a fluid. It works based on the
• Momentum principle can be applied to situations that principle of Bernoulli's equation, which relates the
deal with a high loss of internal energy like hydraulic pressure of a fluid to its velocity.
pumps, which cannot be evaluated with the energy 60. Among the flow measuring devices given as
principles alone options, identify the one which is used for the
57. The pressure distribution in a liquid subjected measurement of velocity of flow in both open
to a constant horizontal acceleration is channel flow and pipe flow.
(a) same as hydrostatic pressure distribution (a) Orifice meter (b) Pitot tube
(b) less than the hydrostatic pressure distribution (c) Rectangular notch (d) Piezometer
(c) more than the hydrostatic pressure distribution CSEB JE 03/03/2024
Hydraulics 335 YCT
Ans. (b) : Pitot tube–Use for the measurement of Ans. (d) : Bernoulli's equation is obtained by
velocity of flow in both open channel flow and pipe flow. integrating the Euler's equation of motion as
Orifice meter–Use for discharge measurement in pipe dP
flow. ∫ ρ + ∫ g dz + ∫ v dv = constant
Rectangular notch–Use for measurement of discharge
P gz v 2
in open channel. + + = constant
Piezometer–Use for the measurement of pressure in pipe. ρg g 2g
61. Bernoulli's equation is applicable for: 64. A fluid is flowing with a velocity V and
(a) compressible fluids pressure head P. The kinetic head of a fluid
(b) viscous fluids body due to its motion is:
(a) V2/(2gh) (b) P/h
(c) rotational fluids
(c) 2P/h (d) V2/(2g)
(d) incompressible fluids
HPCL Officer 23/12/2023
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
Ans. (d) Bernoulli's equation,
Ans. (d) : Assumptions of Bernoulli's theorem–
• Flow should be irrotational. P V2
+ +z =0
• Flow is incompressible. ρg 2g
• Flow is continuous Where,
• Flow is steady P
= pressure head
• Friction losses are negligible ρg
• Fluid is ideal i.e. viscosity is zero
• Flow is in streamline V2
= kinetic head
• Flow is one dimensional 2g
62. The Bernoulli's equation relates the: z = potential head or potential energy per unit weight.
(a) pressure, velocity, and elevation in a fluid flow 65. Venturimeter is used to measure the
(b) pump head and discharge in a hydraulic system (a) velocity of flowing liquid
(c) density, viscosity, and temperature of a fluid (b) discharge of flowing liquid
(d) frictional losses in a pipe flow (c) pressure of flowing liquid
(d) pressure difference between two points in a
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III pipeline
Ans. (a) : Bernoulli's equation along streamlines– GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
 P  +  V  + z = Constant
2 Ans. (b) : Venturimeter is used to measure the
 ρg   2g  discharge of flowing liquid.
   
• It works on Bernoulli's theorem.
Elevation head : Z
Pressure head : P/ρg
Velocity head : V2/2g
P
Piezometric head = + z (HGL) 66.
The range of coefficient of discharge (Cd) for a
ρg venturimeter is ____
(a) 0.60 to 0.70 (b) 0.70 to 0.80
 P  V 2
Total head =   + + z (EGL) (c) 0.80 to 0.90 (d) 0.95 to 0.99
 ρg  2g Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023
P V2 Ans. (d) : Coefficient of discharge (CD) = 0.95 to 0.99
+ + z = constant for venturimeter
ρg 2g For orificemeter–
The line of constant piezometric head passes through Coefficient of discharge (CD) = 0.61–0.65
two points which have the same velocity. Coefficient of velocity (CV) = 0.95 – 0.99
63. Which of the following equation is integrated to Coefficient of contraction (CC) = 0.61 – 0.69
get Bernoulli's equation? CD = CC × CV
Z 2
P g v 67. Out of the following flow meters, which one is
(a) + + = constant based on Bernoulli's principle?
ρg g 2g
(a) Venturi meter (b) Rotameter
P g Z mv 2 (c) Turbine meter (d) Vortex meter
(b) + + =0
ρg g 2 GAIL JA (Tech) 13.05.2023
(c) −ρg dA dZ Ans. (a) :
• Venturimeter is used to measure flow on the
dp application of Bernoulli's theorem.
(d) + gdz + vdv = 0
ρ • An orifice meter is a piece of equipment used to
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 measure the flow rate of liquids.
Hydraulics 336 YCT
• Turbine flow meters use the mechanical energy of the • The angle of convergence is generally 20°-23º and
liquid to rotate a rotor within the flow stream. its length is 2.7 (d1 – d2).
• Vortex flow meters measure fluid velocity using a principle • The diverging section has an angle of 6° to 7º.
of operation referred to as the Von Karman effect. • The length of diverging cone is more than
68. Which of the following is correct expression of converging cone.
Bernoulli’s equation? • Size of venturimeter is designated by main pipe
(a) Pressure head + Kinetic head + Potential head diameter as well as throat diameter.
= Constant Application of Bernoulli 's theorem-
(b) Pressure head + Kinetic head – Potential head 1. Pitot tube
= Constant 2. Orifice meter
(c) Pressure head – Kinetic head + Potential head 3. Venturimeter
= Constant 70. What is potential head?
(d) Pressure head – Kinetic head – Potential head (a) Potential energy per unit weight of fluid
= Constant particle
TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023 (b) Kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid particle
Ans. (a) : Bernoulli's equation states that the (c) Pressure energy per unit weight of fluid particle
summation of pressure head, kinetic head and (d) Potential energy per unit mass of fluid
datum/potential head is constant for incompressible, particle
steady, irrotational and non-viscous flow. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
2 Ans. (a) : Bernoulli's theorem –
P v
+ +z =C • Bernoulli's theorem is based on the principle of law
ρg 2g
of conservation of energy.
From above equation, it clear that if velocity increases,
pressure will decreases. • According to this theorem, for an ideal (inviscid,
incompressible, irrotational) and steady fluid flow
69. In a venturimeter, which of the following along a streamline, the total energy per unit weight of
statement is correct? the flowing fluid is constant.
(a) length of diverging cone is equal to length of • The total energy consists of kinetic energy, pressure
converging cone energy and potential energy.
(b) length of diverging cone is more than
converging cone • Further, the energy per unit weight has the
dimensions of length and therefore each type of
(c) length of diverging cone is less than length of
energy is also known as potential head.
converging cone
(d) None of these P v2 P V2
+ + Z = constant or + + z = constant
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-I ρg 2g w 2g
Ans. (b) Venturimeter–A venturimeter is a device where,
used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing w = ρg
through a pipe. It consists of three parts. P
(i) A short converging part = Pressure head
(ii) Diverging part ρg
v2
= Velocity head
2g
Z = Potential head or datum head or potential energy
per unit weight of fluid.
71. The mechanical device which is used to measure
flow velocity, where the number of revolutions of
the wheel per unit time are proportional to the
velocity of the flowing water is the_______.
(a) rotameter (b) pitot tube
(c) current meter (d) float
Where, SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
d = diameter of throat Ans. (c) : Various types of devices which is used to
d1 = diameter at inlet measure flow velocity–
P1 = pressure at section (1) (i) Pitot tube or Prandtl tube
V1 = velocity of fluid at section (1) (ii) Current meter (Velocity in open channel)
π Based on Bernoulli's equation there are different
A = area at section (1) = d12 flow or discharge measuring devices as–
4
(i) Venturimeter
1 3
• The diameter of the throat is to of the diameter (ii) Orifice meter
4 4 (iii) Pitot tube
of the inlet pipe. (iv) Nozzle meter
Hydraulics 337 YCT
(v) Rotameter Narrow-crested weir– Similar to rectangular weir with
(vi) Elbow meter a narrow shaped crest at the top.
● The current meter is based on the principle that the Ogee-shaped weir– It is provided for the spillway of a
velocity of water is proportional to the angular velocity storage dam.
of the meter's rotor. The velocity of water at a given 75. Discharge through a rectangular notch is
point can be determined by counting the number of independent of _____.
revolutions of the rotor during a specified or measured (a) Material type used in notch
interval of time. (b) Head over notch
72. Venturimeter is an application of Bernoulli’s (c) Length of notch
equation. Its basic principle also depends on (d) Coefficient of discharge
the Bernoulli equation, which is ________. Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023
(a) both velocity of moving fluid and pressure Ans. (a) : Discharge through a rectangular notch–
within fluid constant 2
(b) velocity of a moving fluid increases and the Q = · Cd L 2g·H 3/ 2
pressure within the fluid decreases 3
Here,
(c) both velocity of moving fluid and pressure
within fluid increases Q ∝ Cd (Where, L = Length of notch)
(d) pressure within the fluid increases and Q∝L
velocity of moving fluid increase Q∝H
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning) So, Q independent of material type used in notch
Ans. (b) : Venturimeter–A venturimeter is a device 76. If H is the height of water over the crest then
used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing the discharge over a rectangular notch is
through a pipe. directly proportional to-
• It consists of three parts– (a) H (b) H1/2
3/2
(A) A short converging part (c) H (d) None of these
(B) Throat and UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-2
(C) Diverging part. Ans. (c) : The discharge through a rectangular notch:–
• It is based on the principle of Bernoulli's equation
which is velocity of a moving fluid increase and the
pressure within the fluid decrease.
• Cd is the coefficient of discharge is always less than 1.
73. The sheet of water flowing through a notch is 2
known as the Q= Cd L 2g.H 3/ 2
(a) Sill (b) Crest 3
Discharge through triangular notch:–
(c) Nappe (d) Water lamina
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Ans. (c) : The sheet of water flowing through a notch
over a weir is known as nappe or vein. The bottom edge
of the notch or the top of a weir over which water flows
is known as sill or crest. 8 θ Q
Qac = Cd . tan 2g.H 5 / 2 and Q th = ac
15 2 Cd
• Discharge through a trapezoidal weir or notch:–

5
2 8 θ
74. Which of the following is a type of weir based Q= Cd1 2g.LH3/ 2 + Cd 2 2g.tan .H 2
on the shape of crest? 3 15 2
(a) Rectangular weir (b) Triangular weir θ
Where,   = Weir angle of inclination with the
(c) Trapezoidal weir (d) Ogee - shaped weir 2
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 vertical.
Ans. (d) : Types of weir based on the shape of crest- Cd1 = Coefficient of discharge for rectangular portion.
Sharp crested weir– Crest is very sharp and most C d 2 = Coefficient of discharge for the triangles portion.
widely used.
Broad crested weir– Crest is rectangular and suitable Hence, the discharge over a rectangular notch is directly
for the large flows. proportional to H3/2.

Hydraulics 338 YCT

77. If the head of a liquid from the centre of the 81. The Moody chart, a logarithmic chart between
orifice is more than ____ times the depth of the friction factor and _______for a variety of
orifice, the orifice is called small orifice. relative roughness in a pipe flow.
(a) five (b) three (a) the discharge of the flow
(c) four (d) two (b) the density of the fluid
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-I (c) the velocity of the flow
Ans. (a) : A rectangular orifice is treated as a small (d) Reynolds number
orifice till the head above the centre of orifice is greater SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
than its vertical dimension. Ans. (d) : Moody's chart is used to calculate the friction
Small orifice–If the head of the liquid is more than five factor of commercial pipe.
times the depth of the orifice. • It is drawn between friction factor and Reynolds
number for various relative roughness.
Large orifice–If the head of the liquid is less than five
times the depth of the orifice.
78. Which one of the following is an advantage using
a triangular notch over a rectangular notch?
(a) Ventilation of a triangular notch
(b) The same triangular notch cannot measure a
wide range of flows accurately
(c) For heavy discharges, a triangular notch gives
more accurate results than a rectangular notch
(d) In a given triangular notch, only one reading
k s1 k s 2 k s3
is required to be taken for the measurement of • < <
discharge D1 D 2 D3
ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023 82. The velocity distribution in Laminar flow
Ans. (d) : • Using a triangular notch requires only one through a circular pipe flow the ____.
reading, i.e. head (H) is required to be taken for the (a) parabolic law (b) Linear law
measurement of discharge. (c) Logarithmic law (d) Hyperbolic law
• Ventilation of triangular notch is not necessary. UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-2
• For low discharge a triangular notch gives more Ans. (a) : The velocity distribution in Laminar flow
accurate results than a rectangular notch. through a circular pipe flow the parabolic law.
• The same triangular notch measure a wide range of
flows accurately.
• crest length of triangular notch is zero.
79. A triangular notch is preferred over a
rectangular notch because:
(a) its crest length is zero 83. A fluid is said to be Laminar when:
(b) it gives more accurate results for low discharge (a) the density of the fluid changes from point to
(c) it measures a wide range of flows accurately point
(d) All of the above (b) the fluid particles move parallel to the
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-II boundary
Ans. (d) See the above explanation. (c) the fluid particles move in a perpendicular
direction
80. As suggested by William Froude, the frictional
(d) the Reynolds number is high
resistance for a turbulent flow through a pipe is
UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I
_____.
(a) independent of the velocity of the liquid layer Ans. (b) : A fluid is said to be Laminar when the fluid
particles move parallel to the boundary.
adjacent to the pipe
Laminar flow–Fluid particles move along well-defined
(b) independent of the density of the fluid path or stream line and all the stream lines are straight
(c) independent of pressure and parallel.
(d) independent of nature of the surface in • In this flow, no mixing of different layers take place,
contact hence momentum transfer is not observed hence shear
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II force is due to viscosity only.
Ans. (c) : On the basis of his experiments, William • Adjacent layer does not cross each other.
Froude gave the following laws of fluid fraction for 84. A current meter is used to measure
turbulent flows. the_________.
• Proportional to vn, where n varies from 1.5 to 2.0 (a) depth (b) velocity
• Proportional to the density of fluid. (c) discharge (d) time
• Proportional to the area of surface in contact DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
• Independent of pressure Ans. (b) : Current meter:– A current meter is an
• Dependent on the nature of the surface in contact. instrument use to measure the velocity of flowing water.
Hydraulics 339 YCT
85. When pipes of different diameters are 89. Which of the following minor losses in pipe
connected in series from end to end to form a V2
pipe line, the total head loss developed is equal flow is taken as 0.5 , where V is velocity of
2g
to ____
(a) Zero liquid in pipe?
(b) sum of major head losses in each pipe (a) Loss of head due to obstruction in the pipe
(c) Sum of local head losses and major head (b) Loss of head at the entrance of the pipe with
losses in each pipe sharp cornered entrance
(d) Sum of local head losses only (c) Loss of head due to friction
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III (d) Loss of head at the exit of the pipe with sharp
cornered exit
Ans. (c) : Pipes is series–
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III
Pipes in series or compound pipes are defined as the
pipes different lengths and different diameters Ans. (b) : Minor losses in pipe flow–
connected end to end (in series) to form a pipeline. It is due to local disturbance with pipe fittings–
0.5 V 2
1. Sudden contraction, h c =
2g
2. Sudden enlargement of pipe–
Q1 = Q2 = Q3
h =
( V1 − V2 )2 = V12 1 − A1 2 = V22  A2 − 12
2g  A 2  2g  A1 
(hL)total = hL1 + hL2 + hL3 EL
2g 
• Discharge through each pipe is same.
• The total loss of energy or head will be the sum of 0.5 V 2
3. Inlet loss, h i =
losses (local + major) in each pipe. 2g
86. The formula that is commonly used to calculate
V2
the water flow in pipe system 4. Exit loss, h ex =
(a) Manning’s (b) Hazen-Williams 2g
(c) Stokes (d) Chezy’s V2
5. Due to pipe bend and pipe fitting, h b / f = K
ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024 2g
Ans. (b) : The Hazen-Williams equation is commonly 90. According to Darcy’s formula, the loss of head
used to calculate the flow of water in a pipe. due to friction in the pipe is (where f = Darcy’s
System, it relates the flow rate, pipe diameter, pipe coefficient, l= Length of the pipe, v = Velocity
length and friction factor. of the liquid in the pipe, and d = Diameter of
87. Which of the following methods can be used to the pipe)
estimate major head losses in fluid flow (a) 3flv2/2gd (b) 4flv2/2gd
systems? 2
(c) flv /2gd (d) flv2/gd
(a) Darcy's Formula only GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
(b) Chezy's Formula only Ans. (b) Major losses due to friction–
(c) Both Darcy's Formula and Chezy's Formula
Darcy-Weisbach formula
(d) Neither Darcy's Formula nor Chezy's Formula
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 10/10/2023 4flv 2
hf =
Ans. (c) : 2gd
Where,
f = Coefficient of friction
l = Length of the pipe
v = Velocity of the liquid
d = diameter of the pipe
Flv 2
hf =
88. The major loss of energy in long pipes is due to 2gd
.............. Where,
(a) Sudden expansion of pipe F = Darcy friction factor (4f).
(b) Sudden contraction of pipe 91. What is the Reynolds number value for the
(c) Friction in pipe flow to be Laminar in soils?
(d) Bend in pipe (a) Less than 2000 (b) Less than unity
AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023 (c) Greater than 4000 (d) 2000 to 4000
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I
Hydraulics 340 YCT
 Ans. (b) 94. At any point energy gradient line indicates the:
Type of Laminar Transition Turbulent (a) Piezometric height of fluid
flow (b) Energy in the fluid
Flow in Re < 2000 2000 < Re< Re > 4000 (c) Head loss in the fluid
pipe 4000 (d) None of the above
Flow Re < 1000 1000 < Re< Re > 2000 UKPSC JE 08/05/2022 Paper-II
between 2000 Ans. (b) : Energy Gradient Line (EGL)–It is a
parallel graphical representation of total energy head
plate
Flow in Re < 500 500 < Re< Re > 2000  P v2 
 + + z  along the length of a pipe containing the
open 2000  ρg 2g 
channel fluid.
Flow Re < 1 1 < Re < 2 Re > 2 Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL)–It is a graphical
through soil
representation of variation of piezometric head
92. The ratio (hf/L) represents the slope of the
 P 
 ρg + z  at different points along the length of a pipe
................ (where hf/L is loss of head per unit
length of pipe).  
(a) Pressure head containing the fluid.
(b) Velocity head • HGL is always parallel and lower than TEL.
(c) Elevation head
(d) Hydraulic grade line
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2
Ans. (d) : The ratio (hf/L) represents the slope of the
hydraulic grade line (HGL)-
h
i = f (Loss of head per unit length of pipe)
L

95.When pipes are connected in series, then:

(a) Pressure will be low
(b) Discharge will be more
93. In Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulic Gradient Line (c) Pressure will be medium
(H.G.L.) represents the sum of (d) Discharge will be constant and pressure will
(a) pressure head and kinetic head be high
(b) kinetic head and datum head SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning)
(c) pressure head, kinetic head and datum head Ans. (d) : Pipe in series–Pipe in series or compound
(d) pressure head and datum head pipe are defined as the pipe of different length and
UPSSSC Combined Technical 26/03/2023 different diameter connected end to end (in series) to
Ans. (d) : Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL)–It is a form a pipeline.
graphical representation of variation of piezometric ● pipe are connected in series, then discharge will be
 P 
head  + z  at different points along the length of a constant and pressure will be high.
 ρ g 
pipe containing the fluid.
• HGL is always parallel and lower than TEL.

Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
hLAB = hL1 + hL2 + hL3
• Discharge though each pipe is same and pressure will
be high.
• The total loss of energy or head loss will be the sum of
the losses in each pipe.

Hydraulics 341 YCT

96. Which of the following is NOT the remedial (d) The velocity of flow in the main line is equal
measure to prevent water hammer through pipes? to the sum of the velocities in each of the
(a) Drain your pipes and refill them to create new parallel pipes
air chambers DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II
(b) Installing water hammer arrestors Ans. (b) : When pipe in series–
1. The loss of head in each pipe is different
(c) Creating vacuum by closing valve
Ht = h1 + h2 + h3 + .......
(d) Tighten mounting straps to hold pipes in 2 The rate of discharge in each pipe is equal and
place pressure will be high.
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I Qtotal = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
Ans. (c) : Water hammer in pipes–When the flowing When pipe in parallel–
water is suddenly brought to rest by closing the valve or by 1. The rate of discharge in the main line is equal to the
any similar cause, there will be sudden rise in pressure due sum of the discharge in each of the parallel pipe.
to the momentum of water being destroyed. Qmain = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ......
A pressure wave is transmitted along the pipe. A sudden 2. Head loss in each parallel pipe is same
rise in pressure has the effect of hammering action on Ht = h1 = h2 = h3 .......
the walls of the pipe. 99. For pipes arranged in series below option is
True
• This phenomenon is known as water hammer.
(a) Head loss must be same in all pipes
Following measure to reduce or eliminate water (b) Velocity must be same in all pipes
hammer– (c) Flow must be different in different pipe
(i) Reduce the pressure of water supply by fitting a (d) Total loss of head of entire system is
pressure regulator. summation of the losses in all individual pipe
(ii) Install an air chamber. NBCC JE 09/05/2022
(iii) Installing water hammer arrestors. Ans. (d) Pipe in series–
(iv) Drain the pipe and refill them to create new air
chambers.
(v) Tighten mounting straps to hold pipes in place.
97. Power transmitted through pipes, will be • Discharge through each pipe is same.
maximum when? Q1 = Q2 = Q3
1 • Head loss will be the sum of the losses in each pipe.
(a) head loss due to friction = total head of
2 h ℓ = h L1 + h L2 + h L3
inlet of pipe
• Pipes are connected in series to increase the pressure
1 of the same discharge.
(b) head loss due to friction = total head of
4 Pipe in parallel–
inlet of pipe
(c) head loss due to friction = total head of inlet
of pipe
1
(d) head loss due to friction = total head of
3
inlet of pipe
(e) Answer not known • The rate of flow in the main pipe is equal to the sum
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023 of rate of flow through branch pipe.
Ans. (d) : The power transmitted through a pipe is Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
maximum when the loss of head due to friction is given • The loss of head for each branch pipe is same.
by (H = Head supplied) h L1 = h L2 = h L3
H
hf = • Pipes are connected in parallel to each other to
3 increase the discharge at the same pressure.
98. Which of the following conditions is valid in the 100. Froude number (Fr) can be expressed as:
case of flow through parallel pipes? (a) Fr = √(Fi/Fp), where Fi is inertia force and Fp
(a) The loss of head in each parallel pipe is is intensity of pressure
different (b) Fr = √(Fi/Fg), where Fi is inertia force and Fg
(b) The rate of discharge in the main line is equal is force due to gravity
to the sum of the discharges in each of the (c) Fr = √(Fi/Fs), where Fi is inertia force and Fs is
parallel pipes surface tension
(c) The rate of discharge in the main line is not (d) Fr = √(Fi/Fe), where Fi is inertia force and Fe
equal to the sum of the discharges in each of is elastic force
the parallel pipes DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III
Hydraulics 342 YCT
Ans. (b) : Froude number is the ratio of inertia force to (c) Greater than critical depth
the gravity force. (d) Equal to critical depth
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
Froude number = Inertia force = Fi
Gravity force Fg Ans. (d) : Normal depth–Normal depth is depth at
which uniform flow will occur in an open channel. In
Froude number has the following applications–
other words for a uniform channel of infinite length of
• Used in cases of river flows, open-channel flows,
spillways, surface wave motion created by boats. carrying a constant flow rate. Flow in the channel would
• It can be used for flow classification. be at a constant depth at all point along the channel and
this would be the normal depth.
101. Which of the following dimensionless number Critical depth–Critical depth occurs when the flow in a
controls the significance of the surface tension channel has a minimum specific energy.
force?
1/ 3
(a) Mach number (b) Euler's number  q2 
(c) Froude number (d) Weber number y c =  
DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III  g 
Ans. (d) : The dimensionless number that controls the ● For a critical channel normal depth is equal to critical
significance of the surface tension force is called the depth.
Weber number. 105. For a given open channel, if the Chezy's
Inertia force coefficient (C) is decreased, then how will it
Weber number = affect the discharge (Q) of the flow?
Surface tension
(a) Q will increase
We = V (b) Q will decrease
σ (c) Q will remain constant
ρL (d) Q will become zero
102. _____ is defined as the square root of the ratio SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the Ans. (b) : Discharge through open channel–
pressure force.
(a) Euler's number (b) Weber's number Q = AC mi
(c) Mach's number (d) Froude's number where,
SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024 C = Chezy's coefficient
Ans. (a) Important Dimensionsless number– m = hydraulic mean depth
Number Definitions Equation i = hydraulic gradient
Reynolds Inertia force Fi ρVL • From above equation, if Chezy's coefficient (C) is
Number = decreased, then the discharge (Q) will decrease.
Viscous force Fv µ • Dimension of C = M0L1/2T–1
Euler's 106. Where do you locate the hydraulic jump in a
Inertia force Fi V
Number = channel?
Pressure force Fp p/ρ
(a) A hydraulic jump is located where the flow
Froude depths upstream and downstream of the jump
Inertia force F V
Number i
= satisfy the equation for the sequent depth ratio
Gravity force Fg L.g (b) A hydraulic jump is located where the
Weber Inertia force discharge is less
Fi V
Number = (c) A hydraulic jump is located where the flow
Surface tension Fs σ / ρL depths upstream and downstream of the jump
Mach are parallel to each other
Inertia force Fi V V
Number = = (d) A hydraulic jump is located where the flow
Elastic force Fe C K /ρ depths upstream and downstream of the jump
103. The dimension of Manning's roughness coefficient are perpendicular to each other.
‘n’ is. DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
(a) L−1/3T (b) L−2/3T Ans. (a) : Hydraulic jump–A hydraulic jump occurs
(c) L−1/6T−1 (d) L−1/2T−2 when flow changes from a super critical flow (unstable)
BMRCL 2023 to a subcritical flow (stable) there is a sudden rise in
Ans. (a) : Dimension of various term– water level at the point where the hydraulic jump
Term Unit/Dimension occurs. In general a hydraulic jump is formed at
Manning co-efficient (N) L−1/3T location where the upstream and downstream flow
Permeability (k) LT−1 depths satisfy the sequent depth equations.
0 3/4 -3/2
Specific speed of pump (Ns) ML T 107. Critical flow is defined as that flow at which:
Specific speed of turbine (Ns) M1/2 L-1/4T-5/2 (a) specific energy is minimum
Chezy constant (C) M0L1/2T-1 (b) specific energy is zero
104. For a critical channel, the normal depth is : (c) specific energy is maximum
(a) Smaller than critical depth (d) specific energy is one
(b) Zero DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III
Hydraulics 343 YCT
Ans. (a) : Critical flow–It is defined as that flow at (b) flow between parallel plates
which the specific energy is minimum or the flow (c) pipe flow
corresponding to critical depth is defined as critical (d) flow through soil
flow. SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Equation gives the relation for critical velocity in terms Ans. (a) : If Reynolds number is less than 500, the flow
of critical depth as is said to be laminar for the free surface flow.
V • Reynolds number for open channel flow as follows–
VC = g × h c or C = 1 Type of flow Reynolds number
gh c Laminar < 500
VC Transition 500-2000
where, = Froude number Turbulent > 2000
gh c 110. Which of the following is the vertical distance
Froude number, Fe = 1.0 for critical flow. of the lowest of the lowest point a channel
108. The equation for the specific energy curve is section from the free surface of water?
given by _____ where ‘E’ = Specific energy, ‘h’ (a) Wetted area (b) Wetted perimeter
= depth of flow, ‘g’ = Acceleration due to (c) Top width (d) Depth of flow
gravity and ‘q’ = discharge per unit width. SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
(a) E = h+(q3/2gh2) (b) E = h+(q2/2gh) Ans. (d) : The vertical distance of the lowest point a
2 2
(c) E = h +(q /2gh )2
(d) E = h+(q2/2gh2) channel section from the free surface of water is called
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I depth of flow.
Hydraulic mean depth/Hydraulic radius
Ans. (d) : Specific energy curve:– It is defined as the
curve which shows variation of specific energy with Wetted Area ( A )
(R) =
depth of flow from the specific energy of flowing liquid Wetted perimeter ( P )
V2 Area of the flow section ( A )
E =h+ = Ep + Ek Hydraulic depth (D) =
2g Top water surface width ( T )
2
q  Q 111. In which case is the hydraulic jump not
  ∵ b = q  possible?
E =h+ 
h
  (a) Initial speed>Critical speed
2g ∵ V = Q = q  (b) Initial speed<Critical speed
 b × h h  (c) Initial speed=Critical speed
q 2 (d) Independent
E=h+ Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
2gh 2 Ans. (b) : Hydraulic jump is not possible when the
E = Ep + Ek initial speed is less than the critical speed.
Where There is a transition that is created during the change. The
Ep = Potential energy of flow = h transiting appears as an undulating wave with the increase
in the initials flow. The transition become abrupt.
V2
Ek = kinetic energy of low = 112. If the Froude number is less than one, then the
2g flow in open channel is said to be :
E = Specific energy (a) Torrential flow (b) Sub-critical
h = depth of flow (c) Critical (d) Super critical
g = Acceleration due to gravity GAIL Jr. Associate (Technical) 13/05/2023
q = discharge per unit width Ans. (b) :
Type of flow Depth Velocity Froude
of of flow Number
flow
Subcritical/ y > yc v < vc Fr < 1
Tranquil streaming
or Tangential flow
Critical flow (At y = yc v = vc Fr = 1
this flow specific
energy in min)
Supercritical/ y < yc v > vc Fr > 1
Torrential/ Rapid
or shooting flow
109. If Reynolds number is less than 500, the flow is Where,
said to be laminar for the: yc = Critical depth
(a) free surface flow vc = Critical velocity
Hydraulics 344 YCT
113. The critical depth (hc) is given by, where q = (a) 1 : 2 (b) 1 : 1
Rate of flow per unit width of channel (c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 4
(a) (q2 / g)1/2 (b) (q / g)1/3 GSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023,
(c) (q2 / g)1/3 (d) (q2 / g)2/3 Ans. (a) Rectangular Channel–
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 Area (A) = B × y --------------------- (i)
Ans. (c) : Critical depth (hc) - It is the depth of flow Perimeter (P) = B + 2y ------------- (ii)
corresponding to the minimum specific energy at the
section
v2  q 
E =h+  v = for unit width 
2g  h 
q2 q2 For most economical rectangular channel the perimeter
E =h+ 2
= 0 or 1 = 3 should be minimum for a given area.
2h g gh
 dP 
h3 =
q2  dy = 0 
g Now, from (i) and (ii)
1/ 3
 q2  A
hc =   P = 2y +
y
 g 
114. Hydraulic jump occurs when dP A
So, = 2– 2  =0
(a) Super critical flows meets with subcritical dy y 
flow By
A B
(b) Subcritical flows meets with subcritical flow =2 ⇒ 2 =2 ⇒y=
(c) Critical flows meets with super critical flow y2 y 2
(d) Critical flows meets with subcritical flow y 1
= = 1: 2
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023 B 2
Ans. (a) A hydraulic jump occurs when there is a 118. which of the following Froude number ranges
sudden change in the flow characteristics of water, indicates a oscillating jump?
typically in an open channel or spillway. (a) A.< 1 (b) 1.7-2.5
• A hydraulic jump occurs when a supercritical flow (c) 2.5-4.5 (d) 4.5-9
transition to a subcritical flow regime. GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022
• A hydraulic jump occurs due to a sudden decrease in Ans. (c) : Classification of jump based on Froude
flow velocity. This decrease in velocity causes an number–
abrupt increase in water depth and turbulence. Froude Types of jump Water surface
115. Which of the following is a critical flow flume Number (Fr)
used to measure discharge in open channel? 1-1.7 Undular/Unsteady Undulating
(a) Trapezoidal flume 1.7-2.5 Weak Small rollers
(b) Parshall flume form
(c) Modified San Dimas flume 2.5-4.5 Oscillating Water moving in
(d) San Dimas flume random manner
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 1 4.5-9 Steady Roller and jump
Ans. (b) • A Parshall flume is a critical flow flume used action
to measure discharge in open channels. >9 Strong Very rough and
• The parshall flume is a fixed hydraulic structures. choppy
• Parshall flume is used to measure the flow and control 119. What is the best side slope (n) for the most
the flow velocity. economic trapezoidal channel having depth d
116. External force driving the Open channel flow and base width b?
is: (a) 1/√3 (b) √3
(a) Pressure force (c) 1/√2 (d) √2
(b) Gravity Force SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
(c) Surface tension force Ans. (a) : Most economical trapezoidal channel–
(d) Viscous force
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 04/10/2023
Ans. (b) Water flowing in a channel with a free surface
is usually referred to as open channel flow and the
external force driving the open channel flow is gravity
force.
117. A rectangular channel will be the most
economical when the flow depth to bottom Area of trapezoidal section
width is in the ratio: A = (b + nd) d

Hydraulics 345 YCT

Where b = Width of trapezoidal channel. 122. The discharge through a trapezoidal channel is
d = depth of flow maximum when _____
n = slope of the side of the channel (a) half of top width = sloping side
(b) half of top width = half of sloping side
A
b = − nd (c) top width = 1.5 × sloping side
d (d) top width = 3.0 × sloping side
Wetted perimeter of channel p = b + 2d n 2 + 1 for the TNPSC AE 04/02/2024 Shift-III
most economical trapezoidal section, the depth of flow Ans. (a) : For most economical trapezoidal section–
d and area A are constant. Then n is the only variable
best side slope will be when section is most economical
or in other words p is minimum
dp
=0
dn
dp  A 
 − nd + 2d n 2 + 1  = 0
dn  d 
1 • Length of sloping side = Half the top width
d + 2nd × =0
n +1
2 b + 2nd
d × 1+ n2 =
2n = n 2 + 1 2
d
3n = 1
2
• m=R=
2
1 • θ = 60º
n=
3 • A circle of radius (r) should be inscribed in
120. The number of degrees of freedom for a trapezoidal section.
natural open channel flow with a mobile bed is • Semi circle touch the three sides of trapezoidal
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 5 section (P, Q, R).
GATE CE 04/02/2024 Forenoon 123. Which of the following is a CORRECT
Ans. (b) : definition to specific energy in Open channel?
● A general mobile boundary channel can be (a) Energy Flowing in both top and bottom
considered to have four degree of freedom. channels
● Mobile Boundary channel are those is in which the (b) Energy of flowing liquid with respect to the
boundary undergoes change due to continuous topmost channel
erosion or deposition. (c) Energy of flowing liquid with respect to
● In mobile channels depth, bed width, bed slope, bottom channel
platform (layout) changes with space and time (d) Energy of flowing liquid with respect to
depending upon nature of flow. Hence these
middle channel
channels are 4 degree of freedom.
Example–An alluvial channel is a mobile boundary SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
channel transporting the same type of material Ans. (c) : Total energy of a flowing fluid per unit
comprising the channel perimeter. weight-
121. A most economical section is one which for a V2
given cross-sectional area, slope of bed(s) and Total energy = Z + h + 2g
coefficient of resistance has–
(a) Maximum wetted perimeter If the datum is at channel bottom, (Z = 0)
(b) Maximum discharge V2
(c) Maximum depth of flow Total energy = h +
2g
(d) None of the above The above equation is known as the specific energy of
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 the flowing liquid.
Ans. (b) : Most economical section– So, the specific energy is defined as the total energy per
• A channel section is said to be economical when it unit weight of the liquid with respect to the bottom of
compass a maximum discharge for a given cross- the channel.
section area, resistance coefficient and bottom slope.
124. The difference between the total head line and
• Discharge is maximum when hydraulic radius (R) is
maximum and wetted perimeter is minimum (R = the hydraulic grade line in an open channel
A/P). flow represents ________.
(a) the total energy head
1
• Discharge, Q = A R 2 / 3S1/0 2 (b) the pressure head
n (c) the elevation head
• To keep the cost down or minimum, the wetted (d) the velocity head
perimeter, for a given discharge should be minimum. MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III

Hydraulics 346 YCT

Ans. (d) : Hydraulic grade line (H.G.L)- 127. In gradually varied flow theory, which one of
It is the summation of pressure head and datum head the following conditions is correct for S2 (steep
i.e.- slope) profile considering Y as the actual depth
P of the flow, Y0 is the normal depth and Yc is the
H.G.L = +z critical depth?
ρg (a) Yc > Y > Y0 (b) Yc > Y0 > Y
Total Energy line (T.E.L)/Energy grade line- (c) Y0 > Y > Yc (d) Y > Yc > Y0
It is the sum of pressure head, kinetic head and datum UPSC ESIC JE CIVIL Paper 8 October 2023
head i.e. Ans. (a) :
P v2 Channel Region Condition Type
T.E.L = + +z
ρg 2g Mild slope (M) 1 y > yo > yc M1
Difference between total energy line and hydraulic 2 yo > y > yc M2
grade line in open channel is called velocity head. 3 yo > yc > y M3
P v2 P Steep slope (S) 1 y > yo > yo S1
T.E.L – H.G. L = + +z− −z
ρg 2g ρg 2 yc > y > yo S2
3 yc > yo > y S3
v2
T.E.L − H.G.L = Critical slope (C) 1 y > yo = yc C1
2g
3 y < yo = yc C3
125. The term alternate depth is used in open Horizontal bed (H) 2 y > yc H2
channel flow to denote the depths 3 y < yc H3
(a) Having the same kinetic energy for a given
discharge Adverse slope (A) 2 y > yc A2
(b) Having the same specific force for a given 3 y < yc A3
discharge 128. The ratio of power developed by the runner to
(c) Having the same specific energy for a given the power supplied by the jet at the entrance to
discharge the turbine is known as :
(d) Having the same total energy for a given (a) Volumetric Efficiency
discharge (b) Hydraulic Efficiency
JKSSB JE 19/11/2023 (c) Mechanical Efficiency
Ans. (c) : Critical depth (yc)–The depth of flow at (d) Overall Efficiency
which the specific energy is minimum is called critical
depth. SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
Critical velocity (vc)–The velocity of flow at the Ans. (b) :
critical depth is known as critical velocity. Runner Power
(i) Hydraulic efficiency, ηh =
• For any other value of the specific energy there are Water Power
two possible depth, one greater than the critical depth
and the other smaller than the critical depth at which a • Water Power is also known as jet power.
given discharge can occur with the same specific (ii) Mechanical efficiency, η = Shaft Power
m
energy. These two depth for given specific energy are Runner Power
called the alternate depth.
Shaft Power
126. For most economical rectangular channel, (iii) Overall efficiency, ηo =
hydraulic mean depth should be------. Water Power
(a) half of depth of flow Q - ∆Q
(b) three times of depth of flow (iv) Volumetric efficiency, ηv =
Q
(c) two time of depth of flow
(d) equal to depth of flow 129. Which kind of turbine is a Pelton Wheel
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 turbine?
Ans. (a) : (a) Tangential flow turbine
(b) Radial flow turbine
(c) Outward flow turbine
(d) Inward flow turbine
PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
The discharge through the rectangular channel is Ans. (a) : In a tangential flow turbine the water flows
maximum when, along the tangent to the path of rotation of the runner.
width of channel, b = 2d Pelton wheel is a tangential flow turbine. It is the only
depth of flow, d = b/2 impulse type of hydraulic turbine now in common use.
Hydraulic Radius (R) or hydraulic mean depth,
130. Which of the following is an impulse turbine?
d
m= (a) Pelton (b) Francis
2 (c) Kaplan (d) All of the above
Area, A = 2d2 RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
Hydraulics 347 YCT
Ans. (a) (d) A Pelton wheel turbine is an axial flow
• Pelton wheel turbine is a tangential flow impulse reaction turbine
turbine. HPPSC AE 08.10.2023
• Draft tube is not part of the pelton wheel turbine. Ans. (b) : Classification of Hydraulic turbine
• In reaction turbine at the inlet of the turbine, the water according to the–
possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure energy. 1. Type of energy at inlet–
131. A turbine is called reaction turbine if at the Energy
inlet of the turbine the total energy is Type of turbine available at Example
(a) Kinematic energy only inlet
(b) Kinetic energy and pressure energy Impulse turbine Only kinetic Pelton turbine
(c) Pressure energy only energy
(d) None of these Reaction turbine Both kinetic Francis,
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-2 energy and fourneyron,
Ans. (b) : Type of energy at inlet– pressure kaplan, propeller
Type of Energy available energy
Example
turbine at inlet 2. Direction of flow through runner–
Impulse Only kinetic energy Pelton turbine Type of flow Example
turbine Tangential flow turbine Pelton turbine
Reaction Both kinetic energy Francis, Radial flow turbine Francis, Fourneyron
turbine and pressure energy fourneyron,
kaplan, propeller Axial flow turbine Kaplan, Propeller
132. If T = mean torque in N-m and N = rpm of the 135. The unit power Pu of a turbine developing a
shaft, then the power in watts (P) transmitted power P under a head H is equal to:
by shafts is: (a) P/H5/2 (b) P/H1/2
3/2
2πNT 2πNT (c) PH (d) P/H3/2
(a) P = (b) P = CGPSC AE (Civil) 28/08/2022
120 60
2πNT πNT Ans. (d) : Model Relationship for Turbine–
(c) P = (d) P = P
30 60 Unit Power, Pu = 3/ 2
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I H
Ans. (b) The power in watt transmitted by shafts is– N
Unit speed, N u =
2πNT H
P= watts {In SI unit}
60 Q
2πNT Unit discharge, Q u =
P= horsepower {In M.K.S unit} H
4500
N P
133. Kaplan and Francis are specific speed, Ns=
(a) very high head and low discharge turbine H5 / 4
(b) low head and low discharge turbines N P /ρ
(c) high head and high discharge turbines Shape Number, S =
(d) high discharge and low head turbines ( gH )5 / 4
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-I 136. The specific speed (Ns) of a turbine is defined as
Ans. (d) Kaplan turbine is used for high discharge and the speed of a geometrical turbine that
low head, while Francis turbine is used for medium develops unit power (P) when working under a
discharge and medium head. unit head (H) and is given by :
Types of Discharge Head Example
N P N P
turbine (m) (a) NS = (b) N S =
High head Low > 300 Pelton turbine H H5 / 4
Medium head Medium 60-300 Francis turbine NP N P
Low head High < 60 Kaplan & (c) NS = 5/ 4
(d) N S =
H P5 / 4
Propeller DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I
turbine
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation
134. Identify the correct statement with respect to a
137. In hydraulic pumps, what is meant by the term
Pelton turbine.
"Total Head"?
(a) A Pelton wheel turbine is radial flow impulse
(a) Friction head
turbine
(b) Sum of elevation head and pressure head
(b) Pelton wheel turbine is a tangential flow
(c) Pressure head
impulse turbine
(d) Velocity head
(c) A Pelton wheel turbine is radial flow reaction
turbine OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024
Hydraulics 348 YCT
Ans. (b) : In hydraulic pumps the term total head means (ii) Reciprocating or Positive displacement Pump- If
sum of elevation head and pressure head. the Mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic
• The head against which a centrifugal pump has to energy by Sucking the liquid into a cylinder in
work is called as manometric head. which a piston is reciprocating (moving Backwards
and forwards) Which exerts the thrust on the liquid
138. The specific speed (Ns) of a pump is a
and increases its hydraulic energy (Pressure
dimensionless parameter that relates:
energy) the pump is known as Reciprocating pump.
(a) Pump efficiency and power
● These are the pumps whose flow is pulsating.
(b) Pump size and speed
(c) Pump material and cavitation 141. The specific speed of mixed flow pump is from
(d) Pump head and capacity ............
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II (a) 200 to 800 (b) 800 to 1000
(c) 1000 to 4000 (d) 4200 to 9000
Ans. (d) : Specific Speed- It is defined as the speed of a
Bihar DLRS 29.08.2023
geometrically similar pump that would deliver one
cubic meter of liquid per second against the head of one Ans. (d) :
meter i.e., it relates pump capacity and its head, and is Specific Type of
Application
given by speed range impeller
N Q 500-4200 Radial High head, low flow rate
Ns = 3 / 4 4200-9000 Mixed Intermediate
H
Where, >9000 Axial Low head, high flow rate
NS = Specific speed 142. A pump is defined as a device which converts
Q = Discharge (a) Hydraulic energy to mechanical energy
H = Head under which the pump is working (b) Mechanical energy to hydraulic energy
N = Speed at the pump (c) Kinetic erg to mechanical energy
139. A positive displacement pump, such as a (d) None of the above
reciprocating pump, achieves its pumping MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-II
action by: Ans. (b) A pump is defined as required to circulate
(a) creating a pressure difference through water through the pipes and fitting is our system.
continuous rotation • A pump is defined as a device which converts
(b) trapping and displacing a fixed volume of fluid mechanical power into hydraulic energy and
(c) transferring kinetic energy to the fluid hydraulic pump is a mechanical device that converts
(d) utilising centrifugal force to accelerate the fluid mechanical power into hydraulic energy converts
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III mechanical power into hydraulic energy.
Ans. (b) : Positive displacement pump is the • Pumps operates, it perform two functions. Pumps
reciprocating pump, pumping action is achieved by operated by some mechanism typically reciprocating
application of force by a piston to a liquid within a or rotary and consume energy to perform mechanical
cylinder. The liquid moves out of the cylinder through work moving the fluid.
an outlet value during forward piston movement. 143. Reciprocating pumps are suitable for
● A positive displacement pump like a reciprocating (a) low discharge and high head
pump moves fluid by repeatedly trapping and moving a (b) high discharge and low head
fixed volume of fluid through a system. (c) high discharge and high head
140. In which of the following type of pumps does a (d) low discharge and low head
moving boundary force the fluid along by JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 06/10/2023
volume change? The pumping proceeds in steps Ans. (a) : Reciprocating pumps are suitable for low
thereby resulting in a pulsating type of flow. discharge and high head.
(a) Impeller pumps • The reciprocating pumps are further classified as
(b) Centrifugal pump single acting and double acting.
(c) Positive displacement pumps • The single acting pump discharges water only on its
(d) Negative displacement pumps forward stroke while the double acting pump
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III discharge on its return stroke as well.
Ans. (c) : On the Basis of Mechanical operation of 144. A centrifugal pump is superior to a
principle pumps are classified as. reciprocating pump because-
(a) It is a high-speed pump
(i) Centrifugal Pump- If the Mechanical energy is
(b) It is more economical
converted into hydraulic energy. by means of
(c) It gives smooth flow
centrifugal force acting on the liquid the pump is
(d) All of above
known as centrifugal pump.
Chhatt. Office Professional Asst. 2023
Hydraulics 349 YCT
 Ans. (d) : Comparison between centrifugal pumps Ans. (d) : Before starting a pump, its impeller and
and reciprocating pumps– suction pipe have to be filled with water in order to
Centrifugal pumps Reciprocating pumps remove any air, gas, from the water way of pump.
1. The discharge is 1. The discharge is • This process of removal of air from pump is termed as
continuous and smooth. fluctuating and priming.
pulsating. • If priming is not done, air pockets inside the impeller
2. It handles large 2. It handles small may give rise to vortices and cause discontinuity of
quantity of liquid. quantity of liquid only. flow.
3. Centrifugal pump 3. Reciprocating pump 148. Select the correct relationship among specific
needs smaller floor requires large floor speed (Ns), pump speed (N rev/min), discharge
area and installation area and installation (Q m3/s) and head per stage (H m) for
cost is low. cost is high. hydraulic pumps?
4. The operation of 4. The operation of (a) H3/4 Ns = N√Q (b) H1/4 Ns = N√Q
centrifugal pump is reciprocating pump is (c) Ns √Q = NH3/4 (d) H3/4 Ns = N3√Q
smooth and without complicated and with TSPSC Poly. Tech. 04.09.2023
much noise. much noise. Ans. (a) Specific speed of pump–It is defined as the
5. The maintenance cost 5. The maintenance cost speed in revolutions per minute of a geometrically
is low. is high. similar pump of such a size that under corresponding
6. Efficiency is high. 6. Efficiency is low. conditions it would deliver one litre of liquid per second
145. The efficiency of a centrifugal pump is maximum against a head of one metre.
when its blades are N Q
(a) straight Specific speed, Ns =
H3/ 4
(b) bent forward 3/4
(c) bent backward or H Ns = N Q
(d) bent forward first and then backward 149. Which of the following is a type of pump based
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-II on the type of power?
Ans. (c) : The efficiency of a centrifugal pump is (a) High-lift pump (b) Steam engine pump
maximum when its backward (c) Low-lift pump (d) Centrifugal pump
β < 90 SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
• This slope of blade prevent overloading of impeller Ans. (b) : Pumps on the basis of type of power is
motor. classified as–
• Forward blade produces higher pressure ratio, lower (i) Steam engine pump
efficiency and have lower operating range. (ii) Diesel engine pump
146. In a single acting reciprocating pump, what is (iii) Electrically driven pump.
the formula of discharge of the pump per • Pumps on the basis of type of service is classified as–
second? (where, A = cross-sectional area of the (i) Low lift pump
piston or cylinder, N = rpm of the crank, L = (ii) High lift pump
length of the stroke) (iii) Deep well pump
(a) ALN/60 (b) ALN/50 (iv) Booster pump.
(c) ALN/80 (d) ALN/100 150. .............. of a pump is defined as the difference
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21/01/2024 between the actual discharge and theoretical
Ans. (a) : • For double acting reciprocating pump discharge of the pump.
discharge get doubled– (a) Plunger slip (b) Diaphragm slip
2 LAN (c) Negative slip (d) Deviation slip
Q= CRPF SI 25/06/2023
60
Ans. (c) : Negative slip of the reciprocating pump–
• For single acting reciprocating pump discharge–
• Slip is equal to the difference of theoretical discharge
LAN
Q= and actual discharge.
60 Slip = Qth – Qact.
147. The purpose of Priming is to • If actual discharge is more than the theoretical
(a) Drive out water from sump discharge, the slip of the pump will become negative.
(b) Fill the suction pipe with water In that case, the slip of the pump is known as
(c) Fill the delivery pipe with water negative slip.
(d) Drive out air or gas or vapour from suction • Negative slip occurs when delivery pipe is short,
pipe, casing and part of delivery valve suction pipe is long and pump is running at high
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I speed.

Hydraulics 350 YCT

 HYDROLOGY Inlet dia. of collector 12.7 cm (5 inch)
Area 100 cm2 or 200 cm2
Components of Hydrological Cycle- Rainfall measurement Per day 8: 30 AM
Evaporation A process by which water goes Height 30.5 cm
into the atmosphere from a water (2) Recording type rain gauge
body. (i) Tipping bucket type (Used for remote area)
Precipitation In this process water reaches to the (Cylinder dia. 30.5 cm)
earth surface from the atmosphere. (ii) Weighing-bucket type
(It gives a plot of the accumulated rainfall against the
• Liquid precipitation elapsed time as mass curve of rainfall)
Ex. Rainfall. (iii) Float/ Natural siphon type(Used in India)
• Frozen precipitation- Ex. (Adopted as standard recording type rain gauge)
Snow, Hail, Sleet and Freezing Minimum Rain Gauge Density or Network Density-
rain. Type of region Rain gauge Density
Transpiration Water goes into atmosphere from Plain region 1 per 520 km2
the body of the plant. Region having avg. 1 per 260 - 390 km2
Run-off Water flows on earth surface under elevation 1000 m
gravity action. Hilly region 1 per 130 km2
Catchment/Water Area of land draining into a stream Types of Rain Intensity in, mm/h
shed /Basin area or a water course of a given Light rain < 2.5
location Moderate rain 2.5 -7.5
Interception It is a loss, Which occurs during Heavy rain 7.5-10
rainfall some part of rainfall water Very heavy 10 - 50
gets stopped by some obstacle Torrential > 50
(leaves of Plants, building roofs).Forms of Precipitation-
Percolation In this process water moving from Rain It is measured in terms of water depth in
a soil zone to a deeper soil strata. mm, cm, m.
The process of water going down Water drops size- 0.5 - 6 mm
Infiltration
through the pores of the soil is Snow Snow is made up of ice crystals which
Fall usually combines to form flakes.
called infiltration. Average density- 0.1 gm/cm3
Hydrologic cycle- Drizzle It is the fine sprinkle of numerous water
Precipitation = Evaporation + Runoff droplets of size less than 0.5 mm and
or P = E + R falling at intensity less than 1 mm/h.
Glaze When rain or drizzle comes in contact with
Water Budget OR Hydrological Budget cold region and free to form an ice coating
Equation- is known as Glaze or freezing rain.
This equation is based on conservation of mass. Virage Rain drops evaporate before reaching the
a). For a given catchment in a time interval of ∆t earth while passing through dry air.
Inflow − Outflow = Storage Sleet Density of ice is more than snow and
transparent in nature is known as sleet. It is
P − R − E − T − G = ∆S frozen rain drops.
Note- Hail Lumps of ice > 8mm.
Inflow > outflow = Storage↑ Index of Wetness (W.I.)-
Inflow < outflow = Storage↓ Rainfall in a year
Index of wetness = × 100
Types of rain gauge- Average annual rainfall
Instrument used to measure rain water is called Rain
gauge/pluviometer/hyetometer/ombrometer/ W.I. > 100% - Good Year
odometer. W.I. = 100% - Normal Year
(1) Non recording rain gauge- Symon's rain gauge
(Extensively used in India) W.I. < 100% - Bad Year

Irrigation Engineering 351 YCT

Rain deficiency- Double mass To check and correct
• Wetness index also indicate deficiency of rainfall in curve inconsistency of rainfall data
a particular year. It is plotted in "Reverse
% Rain deficiency = 100 – % index of wetness chronological order".
Rainfall Deficiency Type of Deficiency Calculation of Average rainfall depth-
30 - 45 % Large (i) Arithmetic Less accurate but quick
45 - 60 % Serious mean method method
> 60 % Disastrous (ii) Thiessen More accurate than
polygon method arithmetic mean method
Instruments used in measurement (iii) Isohytel method Most accurate
Relative humidity Psychomotor
• Depth Area duration curve-
Humidity Hygrometer It is used to determined the maximum amount of
Temp and Humidity Thermohygrometer precipitation of various duration over areas of
various size.
Intensity of Radiation Pyrheliometer
n
Wind speed Anemometer P = p0e − KA
Rainfall depth Ombrometer/Pluviometer P = Αverage depth
Transpiration Phytometer p0 = Highest storm at storm centre
Evapotranspiration Lysimeter • Depth ↓ with↑Area
Evaporation Atmometer EVAPORATION
Hydraulic conductivity Permeameter Factors Affecting Evaporation Losses-
Infiltration capacity Rainfall simulator Vapour According to Dalton's law
Note- Annual average rainfall in India is 1.20 m Pressure E L ∝ (e w − ea )
PET − AET If ew > ea - continuous evaporation
• Aridity Index AI = × 100
PET If ew < ea - No evaporation
PET→ Potential Evapotranspiration Temperature E and e ∝ T
w
AET→ Actual Evapotranspiration
Wind speed Removable rate of vapour over the
Condition AET water body will increase by
Ratio
PET increasing wind speed.
In clayey soil 1 Atmospheric 1
If water supply to the plant is 1 Pressure E∝
Atmospheric Presure
adequate.
If water supply to the plant is <1 Humidity 1
inadequate. E∝
Humidity
Note- Area of the Amount of evaporation is directly
AET Water proportional to the area of water
Ratio of is between (0 − 1)
PET Surface body.
At permanent wilting point, AET = 0 EL = Rate of Evaporation( mm / day)
AET can be measured by an Lysimeter. Pan coefficient- Used for calculating lake
Note- (Used for measure Agricultural drought) evaporation.
% Value Types Arid region
Lake evaporation = Pan coefficent × Pan evaporation
0 Non arid
1-25% Mild E Po = k Pan × E Pan
26-50% Moderate
Types of pan Pan coefficient
> 50% Severe/High
Class A evaporation pan 0.70
Run off
• Run off co-efficient- k = ISI pan (modified class A) 0.80
Rain fall Colarado sunken pan 0.78
k = 0.46 in India USGS floating pan 0.80
Unit Hydrograph- It is given by Le Roy K Sherman. Evapotranspiration measurement method-
Hyetograph It is a graph b/w rainfall intensity A. Penman's Equation- Based upon energy balance
v/s time interval and mass transfer
Mass curve Graph b/w Accumulated rainfall B. Blaney Criddle method- Mayar's equation measured
v/s time Evaporation
Irrigation Engineering 352 YCT
 Measurement of Evaporation- It is based on the time delay b/w the
A. Mayer's & Dune's equations for calculating the precipitation and the runoff.
Lake evaporation- Base It is the delayed flow that reaches to a
 V flow stream as groundwater flow is called
E L = C(e w − ea ) 1 +  base flow.
 10 
Total surface runoff = Direct surface
V = Wind velocity in m/h measured about 25ft runoff + Base flow.
above the water surface.
B. Empirical formulae Direct It is the rain water that runs off
runoff immediate after the rainfall.
• Mayer’s formula-
Based on the dalton’s law. Note-
Flow mass curve is a plot of the cumulative
 V 
Evaporation, E = K m (e w − ea ) 1 + 9  discharge volume against time plotted in
 16  chronological order.

{
K m = Coefficiant
For large deep water − 0.36
For small shallow water − 0.50
Flow mass curve is integral part of the hydrograph.
Flow duration curve of a stream is a plot of
discharge against the percentage of time the flow
V9 = Monthly wind velocity (Kmph) at height of
9m above the ground. was equaled or exceeded.
Method to Reduce Evaporation- HYDROGRAPH
1. By reducing surface area of water body- Hydrograph related term-
2. By using chemicals Rising limb In is also known as concentration
Cetyl Alcohol (C16H33OH) or stearyl (C18H37OH) curve that represent the increase in
alcohol.
discharge due to gradual building up
By Increasing salinity (Salty Concentration)
of storage in channel and over the
Infiltration index-
Average infiltration rate is called infiltration index. catchment surface.
It is two types. Recession It represent the withdrawal of water
(i) φ- Index- limb from the storage built up in the basin
It is the average rainfall above which rainfall during the earlier phases of the
volume = Run off volume. hydrograph.
• φ - Index derived from rainfall hyetograph Lag Time Time elapsed between centroid of
P−Q (tl) storm to the point of peak flow.
φ - Index = cm/hr
t Note-
P = Total rainfall depth The shape of rising limb depends on catchment
Q = Total run off depth characteristic and rainfall characteristic.
t = Rain fall duration The shape of falling limb depends only on catchment
2. W- Index- characteristic.
In a attempt to refined the φ-index, the initial losses At the time of equilibrium the S-curve will represent
are separated from the total obstructions and on a runoff discharge given by–
average value of infiltration rate called W-index.
A 3
• W - Index is more accurate than φ-Index Q0 = 2.78 m /sec. A = in km2, T = in hour
T
P − Q − IL
W − Index = cm / hr Unit Hydrograph-
tw • The theory of unit hydrograph was developed by
Note- L.K. Sherman in the year of 1932.
φ - Index ≥ W - index • Assumption of unit hydrograph is time invariance
and linear response.
f = fp when i ≥ f p
Effective rainfall hydrograph (ERH)-
f = i when i < f p Effective rainfall is also known as excess rainfall.
f = actual rate of filtration, fp = filtration capacity Effective rainfall = Total rainfall – total losses
Important Terminology-
Surface The flow of water occurring on the Volume of runoff
runoff ground surface when excess rainwater, Effective rainfall =
storm water or other sources is known as Catchment area
surface runoff or overland flow. Area of direct runoff hydrograph
Inter It is the lateral movement of water in the = Area of ERH × Catchment area
flow unsaturated zone or vadose zone, that Estimation of the magnitude of peak discharge-
first returns to the surface or enters a i. Unit hydrograph technique
stream prior to becoming groundwater. ii. Flood frequency studies
Irrigation Engineering 353 YCT
iii. Rational Method- Important Terminology-
Suitable for small size (< 5000 ha.) catchment. Flood In a reservoir to determine the
peak value of runoff, Routing maximum rise in water surface and the
1 discharge in the downstream channel
Q P = × k × Im × A A in hectares when particular flood passes through
36 it.
k = Coefficient of runoff Muskingum It is used hydrologic channel routing.
Im = Mean rainfall intensity in cm/h Methods
A = Drainage area of the basin/Area of catchment Prism It is the volume that would exist if the
If Im is in mm/hour, QP = 0.2778 k.A. Im Storage Uniform flow occurred at the
iv. Empirical Formula- downstream depth, i.e., the volume
Suitable for larger area of catchment. formed by an imaginary plane parallel
The empirical formulae are applicable only in the to the channel bottom drawn at the
region from which they were developed. outflow section water surface.
Empirical formula for estimation of flood discharge- Wedge It is the wedge like volume formed
Dicken Formula Storage between the actual water surface
Q P = C.A 3 / 4
Suitable for North profile and the top surface of the prism
and Central parts of Q P = High flood/Peak storage.
India. Note-
discharge in cumec.
A= Catchment area in Km2 Hydrologic routing methods employ essentially
Ryve’s Formula equation of continuity.
Q P = C.A 2 / 3 Hydraulic routing employ continuity equation with
Suitable for Southern
India specially equation of unsteady flow.
Inglis’ Formula St. Venant differential equation used in hydraulic
124A
Suitable for Western QP = ≅ 123 A routing.
Coast in Maharashtra A + 10.4
CLASSIFICATION OF
Modified Myer’s IRRIGATION
Q P = 177P A
Formula Water distribution technique-
* P is the fraction that the Free/wild Used over rolling land where borders,
flood how at that stream or ordinary checks, basins and furrows are not
Fanning's flooding feasible.
Q P = C.A5 / 6 • Water application efficiency is low
Formula
(For American C ≃ 2.54 and most suitable for close
Catchment) growing crops.
Gumbel's Method- • It is most suitable for rolling
This method is useful for the calculating the value of terrain where other method not
flood discharge for a high recurrence interval. suitable.
Determination of discharge for different Border Applied where land is divided into
frequency floods using probability Statistical Flooding no. of long parallel strips separated by
method– low levees.
Probability •Size of strip- 10 to 20 m width &
m 100 to 400 m length
p=
N +1 Check Entire field is divided into number of
Recurrence interval flooding leveled plots surrounded by levees.
1 • Similar to ordinary flooding.
T=
p • Suitable for more and less
permeable soil.
Probability of p = 1/ T Basin It is the special types of check
occurrence or
flooding flooding specially adopted for garden
exceedance
and orchard.
Probability of Non- q = 1− p Furrow For row crops deep furrow is widely
occurrence or non irrigation used.
exceedance
• In furrow irrigation less evaporation
Risk n
occurs.
 1
R = 1 − (1 − p ) = 1 − 1 − 
n

 T • Depth of furrow 8 to 30 cm.

1 1
Reliability
 1
n • to of land surface wetted.
R e = (1 − R ) =  1 −  5 2
 T Ex- Potato, Sugarcane etc.

Irrigation Engineering 354 YCT

 Contour Used for mountainous or land with φ = Permanent wilting point (P.W.P)
method very steep slope. • Readily available moisture depth to plant-
Sprinkler It is the artificial rain in which γ d .d
irrigation optimum quantity of water is used. d 'w = [ F.C. − P.W.P ]
γw
• Used for light soil.
• Used for Tea & coffee γ d .d
• Used for easily erodible soil d 'w = [ F.C. − mo ]
γw
Drip/trickle Water is directly supplied to the root
irrigation zone of plants. d 'w = S.d ( F.C. − mo )
Concentration of salt- m0 = Readily available moisture content
Classification Electrical Irrigation requirements of crop-
conductivity (1) Consumptive Irrigation requirement -
(µMho/cm) CIR = Cu – Re
Low saline water, C1 100 - 250 (2). Net Irrigation requirement -
Medium saline water, C2 250 - 750 N.I.R. = C.I.R.+ Le
High saline water, C3 750 - 2250 = Cu – Re + Le
Very high saline water, C4 > 2250 (3). Field Irrigation requirement -
Proportion of sodium ion concentration-
N.I.R
[ Na + ] F.I.R. =
S.A.R. = ηa
Ca ++ + Mg ++ (4). Gross Irrigation requirement-
2 F.I.R. N.I.R
• SAR > 2000 ppm are injurious to all crop. G.I.R. = =
ηc ηa .ηc
Classification of water on the basis of SAR-
Where,
Type of water SAR
value Cu = Total consumptive use
Re = Effective rainfall
Low sodium water, S1 0 - 10
Le = Leaching requirement
Medium sodium water S2 10 - 18
Note-
High sodium water, S3 18 - 26
Very high sodium water, S4 > 26 GIR > FIR > NIR > CIR
Soil Water- Canal System and Irrigation Efficiency-
Capillary It is available water that held in (i) Water Conveyance Efficiency-
water soil against the gravity force. Wf
Hygroscopic It is not available for the plant and ηc = × 100
Wr
water can't be easily removed from soil
particle. Where, Wf = Water delivered to the field.
Wr = Water delivered from the reservoir
Gravitational This water is not held by soil.
water (ii) Water Application Efficiency-
(Maximum for sub surface irrigation)
Important formula-
• Field capacity- Ws
ηa = ×100
It is the maximum amount of moisture held by a Wf
soil against gravity. Where Ws = Water stored in the root zone
Weight of water stored in soilof unit area (iii) Water Use Efficiency-
F.C. =
Weight of samesoilof unit area Wu
ηu =
γw n Wf
F.C. = n = Where, Wu = Water use consumptively
γd G
(iv) Water Storage Efficiency-
Where,
dw = Depth of water stored in root zone Ws'
ηs =
γd = Dry unit weight of soil Wη
• Available moisture depth to plant- Where, Ws' = Actual water stored in the root
γ d .d zone.
dw = [F.C. − P.W.P.] Wη = Water needed to store to bring the
γw water content up to field capacity.
Available moisture for plant = F.C. – φ (v) Water Distribution Efficiency
Irrigation Engineering 355 YCT
 For wheat Tr = 300 to 600
 y
ηd = 1 −  × 100 For rice Tr = 600 to 800
 d Important terminology-
Where, Field capacity Maximum amount of moisture
y = Avg. of the absolute values of deviation which can be held by soil against
from the mean gravity.
d − d + d 2 − d + d 3 − d + ........ • Soil is not saturated but still a
= 1 very wet condition
n Permanent It is the state of soil when plants
d = Average depth during irrigation wilting point fail to extract sufficient water for
d + d 2 + d 3 + ......... (PWP) their requirements.
= 1 Saturation Water required to fill all the pore
n
capacity spaces between soil particles by
(vi) Consumptive Use Efficiency- replacing all air held in pore
Wcu spaces.
ηcu = × 100 Water content at which the plant
Wd Temporary
wilting point wilts at day time, but recovers
Where, Wcu = Water used by plant during night or when water is
consumptively. added to soil.
Wd = Net amount of water depleted from Crop period The total time period that elapse
root zone from the instant of its showing to
the instant of its harvesting.
Base period (B) Time between the first watering
of a crop from the time of its
sowing to its last watering before
harvesting.
Note- Base period < crop period
Paleo Irrigation • It is the watering done prior to
the sowing of a crop.
• It is done to prepare the land
for sowing and to add enough
moisture to the soil.
Kore watering • It is the first watering after the
plants have grown a few
centimeter high.
• Kore watering required max.
discharge in limited time.
Kore depth Depth of water applied during
kore watering.
• Frequency of irrigation- Outlet factor It is the duty of canal water at the
Available or readily available moisture depth d 'w outlet.
= Crop Ratio Irrigated area of Kharif seasons
Consumptive use Cu =
Irrigated area of Rabiseason
• Water depth required in the field,
Duty (D) It is defined as the number of
Net irrigation requirement NIR hectare or land area irrigated for
= =
Water application efficiency ηa given crop for its full growth by
Duration of Indian crop season- supplying of 1 m3/sec of water
continuously during the entire
Kharif June - September base period.
(Mansoon crops)
Delta (∆) It is total depth of water required
Rabi October - March
for a crop during the entire
Zaid April - June period of the crop's.
Note- Capacity factor-
Cash crop - Cotton (8 month), Coffee, Tea, It is the ratio of mean supply discharge to the full
Sugarcane, Spices. supply discharge.
Perennial crop - (Time taken 1 year) - Sugarcane
Transpiration ratio (Tr) = Mean discharge
• Cv =
Total mass of water transpired by plant Design discharge
Mass of dry matter produced • G.C.A = Culturable area + unculturable area

Irrigation Engineering 356 YCT

• C.C.A = G.C.A. – unculturable area Groynes– It is embankment type structure
G.C.A = Gross commanded area constructed transverse to the river flow, extending
• Irrigated area = C.C.A × Irrigation Intensity from the bank into the river.
Relation b/w Duty and Delta- • A groynes aligned perpendicular to the bank line
known as ordinary or normal groyne.
8.64B 864B
∆= m or ∆ = cm • A groyne pointing upstream called repelling groyne.
D D • A groyne pointing down stream called attracting
B = base period in days groyne.
D = Duty in hectares/cumec • A spacing of 2 to 2.5 times, the length of groyne is
Important Irrigation Canal- generally adopted for convex bank, while spacing
Watershed or Designed along the watershed line equal to the length of groyne is mostly adopted for
ridge canal and it can irrigate both side of concave bank.
canal under gravity flow. Ideal shape of canal-
• It is economical and minimum • For lined canal - Trapezoidal
cross drainage work required.
• For unlined canal or Alluvial soil - Semicircular
Contour/single Irrigate only one side of canal and
bank canal aligned parallel to the contours of • Best section of canal, when it is in - Partially cutting
the country. and filling
• Provided in hilly area. Regime channel-
A channel is said to be in a stage of regime if there is
• Required maximum cross
drainage work. neither silting nor scouring in the channel.
Design parameter of lacey's theory-
Side slope Aligned at right angle of the
1/ 6
canal contours and runs parallel to  Qf 2 
1. Velocity, V = 
 140 
natural drainage. V = Velocity in (m/sec.)
• Cross drainage works are  
completely eliminated. Q = Discharge in cumec (m3/sec)
Inundation Directly taken from rivers to • Lacy's regime velocity equation, v = 10.8R 2 / 3s1/ 3
canals control the water level in river
during flood.
Feeder canal Constructed to feed two or more • Silt factor, f = 1.76 d mm
other canals.
River training works- 5  V2 
• Aggrading River- This is because of silting. 2. Hydraulic mean depth, R =  
2  f 
• Degrading River- This is because of scouring.
Meandering of River-
Meandering of a river is due to erodibility of the 3. Wetted perimeter, P = 4.75 Q
bed and banks of stream. 1/ 3
 q2 
Meander belt M 4. Lacey's regime scour depth = 1.35   (for any river)
Meandring Ratio = = B  f 
Meander length M L
1/ 3
q (for alluvial
Meander Length M L = 65.8 Q dominant Lacey's regime scour depth = 0.48  
f 
Cut of Ratio- 1.7 ≤ C.O.R. ≤ 3.0 river)
f 5/3
Curved length of cut off 5. Bed slope, S0 =
• C.O.R / Tortusity = 3340 Q1/ 6
Straight length of cut off
• Dominant Discharge - Note-
According to Lacey's theory, eddies generate from
1 2 9 canal bed and side both or total wetted perimeter.
Qdominant = or of Q max = .Q max
2 3 16 Kennedy's Theory-
(i) Critical velocity, v0 = 0.55my0.64
Where, y = Trial depth
m = Critical velocity ratio
(ii) Area, A = (B + ny)y

Q
Where, A = , Q = Discharge (m3/sec.)
vo

Irrigation Engineering 357 YCT

 Note-
(iii) Perimeter, P = B + 2y n 2 +1 Afflux-
A Rise in the maximum flood level upstream of the
(iv) Hydraulic mean depth R = weir caused due to construction of the weir across
P the river is known as afflux.
(v) Actual velocity, v = C R × s
Canal outlet or modules -
(i) Non-modular outlet- Discharge depend upon
difference of head between the distributary and the Components of diversion head works-
water coarse. Ex- Open sluice, Drowned pipe outlet.
(ii) Semi-module (Flexible module)- Discharge is
independent of water level of the water coarse but
depend only water level of distributary. Ex- Pipe
outlet, ventiriflumes, open flume.
(iii)Rigid module or modular outlet- Discharge is
constant, Ex- Gibbs module, khanna module.
Flexibility
dq / q
F=
dQ / Q
Sensitivity-
dq / q
S=
dy / y
1. Divide wall-
• The outlet is proportional when its flexibility equal to It is a wall constructed at right angle to the axis of
unity weir/Barrage.
DIVERSION HEAD WORKS It is constructed for the purpose of creating still
pond.
Introduction- It is divides the river width into weir portion and
The permanent structure constructed at the head of under sluice pocket.
canal in order to divert the river water towards the
canal is known as diversion head works or canal Function of divide wall-
head works. (i) It gives a silt pockets in front of canal head so that
Most suitable location of canal head works is silt gets deposited in it and clean water enters in
trough stage of the river. canal.
It is constructed normal to the river flow. (ii) Divert the main stream of river toward canal head.
Purpose- (iii) Keeps the cross current away from the weir.
(i) To raise the water level on its U/S side. 2. Under sluiced/scouring sluices-
(ii) To control the entry of silt into canal. The openings provided on the same side as the off
(iii) To regulate the water supply into canal. taking canal is called under sluice.
(iv) Provides same storage of water for a short periods Crest of under sluice is less than crest of weir and
etc. is higher than 1 - 1.5 m.
(v) It prevents the river flood from entering the canal. Sill of under sluice from crest of canal head- below
Weir or Barrage- the 0.9 - 1.8 m.
A structure constructed across the river to raise
water level and divert the water into canal is called While in case of silt excluder- 1.8 m.
weir. Function of under sluice-
Length of weir is normal to the stream flow. (i) To control silt entry into canal.
Barrage is same as weir except is consist of large (ii) To scour the silt deposited in the river bed above
gate that can be open or closed to control the the approach canal.
amount of water. (iii) To pass normal discharge without operating the
Surplus weir- shutter gate of the weir.
It is used to discharge excess water from the 3. Fish Ladder-
reservoir and acts as a safety device. A structure constructed just the side of divide wall
It is classified as based on the foundation and U/S, which enables the fish to move freely and safely in
D/S, ground surface- the river.
Type A Masonry weir with vertical drop. Fish ladders are the Baffle walls that provides
Type B Rock fill weir with a sloping apron. smooth flow of water by dissipating flow energy.
Type C Masonry weir with a sloping apron. Mostly pool type and channel type fish ladder is
Type D Masonry weir with stepped apron. used.
Irrigation Engineering 358 YCT
Note- (i) Safety against piping or undermining-
Canal head work has nothing to do with a safety Safe creep length, L = C.H L
ladder.
Head regulator of canals are constructed at off take C = Bligh's coefficient of creep
point. H 1
Radial gates- To prevent piping failure, ≤
L C
It is used to regulate the water level and flow
discharge in irrigation canals. (ii) Safety against uplift pressure-
Lock gates- h
It is used for changing the water level in a canal or Floor thickness, t ≥
G −1
a river for navigations.
Where, h = Ordinate of the H.G.L. above the top of
4. Canal head regulator/head sluice-
floor.
It is provided at the head of the off taking canal (99
- 110°) for the following purpose.  h 
t = 1.33  
(i) To control silt entry in canal.  G −1 
(ii) To prevents the river flood from entering the canal.
(iii) Regulate the water supply entering the canal. 4
't' is increased by or 33% as factor of safety.
FSL of canal at its head with respect to parent 3
channel is kept 15 cm lower. Note-
5. Silt prevention work- In hydraulic structure, uplift pressure on upstream
This types of works are constructed at the bed of floor determined by Bligh's theory as compared to
canal and at a location after the head regulator Khosla's theory is same.
respectively. Types of soil Creep co-efficient
It is two types- Sand mixed with boulder, 5-9
(i) Silt excluders- gravel, loam soil
It is constructed on the river bed, upstream side of Coarse grained sand 12
the head regulator. The object is to remove silt that (southern and central India)
has entered in the stilling basin through scouring Coarse grained sand 15
basin. (Northern India)
(ii) Silt ejector- Light sand and mud 18
It is constructed on canal bed at a little distance
1. Limitation of Bligh's theory-
down stream from the head regulator. This device
extract the silt from the canal water after the silted (i) Bligh's observed no difference between horizontal
water has travelled a certain distance in the off-take & vertical length of creep and efficiency of outer
canal. and inner face of sheet pile and short & long
intermediate sheet pile wall.
Efficiency of excluders and ejectors-
(ii) As per Bligh's head loss is proportional to creep
I u − Id length but it is not the case in actual.
η= × 100
Iu (iii) He did not indicate any significance of
exit/hydraulic gradient at the exit of the floor.
Iu = Silt intensity in canal upstream of the ejector (iv) Bligh's did not indicate the significance of
Id = Silt intensity in canal down stream of the providing a cut off at down stream side of the
ejector. hydraulic structure.
Theory of seepage- 2. Lane's weighted creep theory-
Bligh's theory of seepage flow- Lane's observed that vertical creep length is more
It is associated with design of hydraulic structure effective in causing head loss in comparison to
on permeable state. horizontal length of the creep.
(i) Loss of head, HL ∝ Length of creep Assumption
(ii) Equal weightage no distinction between horizontal Slope steeper than 45° are taken as vertical (d).
and vertical creep. slope less than 45° are taken as horizontal (l).
(iii) Length of path travelled by percolating water is Therefore he suggested the weighted factor of
called creep length. 1
(iv) Percolating water follows the outline of the base of for horizontal creep and 1.0 for vertical creep.
the foundation of hydraulic structure. 3
Hydraulic gradient, i = H L / L , 1
Thus, Lane's creep length, Ll = 1.L v + .L H
Reciprocal of hydraulic gradient is called Bligh's 3
coefficient of creep. As per Lane's theory-
Design Criteria- (i) To prevent piping failure-
Design of impervious floor sub surface flow, the H 1
hydraulic gradient is constant throughout the ≤ Where, C1 = Lane's creep coefficient
Ll C1
impervious length of the apron.
Irrigation Engineering 359 YCT
(ii) To prevent uplift failure- Alignment of canal should be kept along the
h watershed because of less cross drainage work
t≥ t = Floor thickness required.
G −1 At watershed line less number of natural drainage
3. Khosla's theory- available.
(i) Seepage water does not creep along the bottom Note-
contour of pucca floor but follows the flow path. As soon as possible C.D. work should be passes
(ii) Piping of the floor is started from the tail end from the drains at 90° to be economical.
i exist ≥ i e piping failure Types of cross drainage work-
(iii) Intermediate sheet piles is smaller in height than 1. Canal passing over the natural drainage.
the outer ones is found to be in effective in causing Ex.- (i) Aqueduct
head loss. (ii) Syphon aqueduct
(iv) Outer face of end sheet pile is much more effective (i) Aqueduct, FSL > CBL > HFL-
than the inner face of the horizontal length of floor. HFL of drain is sufficiently below the bottom/bed
of the canal.
H 1
Exit gradient, G E = × The maximum uplift pressure due to seepage
d π λ occurs when the canal is running full but there is
no water flowing in the drain.
1 + 1 + α2
where, x = and  = b/d
2
From above equation
If d = 0, GE is infinite
Exit gradient depend on-
(i) b/d ratio (ii) H/d ratio
Khosla's theory of dependent variables is used to
design of weirs & barrages, cross regulators and
head regulators.
Exit gradient in the absence of down stream cut-off
is infinity. (ii) Syphon aqueduct, FSL > HFL > CBL-
As per Khosla's, to keep the structure safe against HFL of drains is higher than canal bed and water
piping, exit gradient to be provided should lie b/w passes through aqueduct barrels under syphonic
0.15 and 0.20 action.
Correction adopted in Khosla's theory- Water surface level of flood is depressed when it
1. For mutual interface of piles- passes under the canal trough; the bed of the
D d + D drainage is also lowered.
C = 19   CBL = Canal Bed Level
b'  b 
2. Canal passing below the natural drainage.
Where,
Ex.-(i) Super passage or trough (ii) Canal syphon
b' = Distance b/w two pile lines.
b = Total floor length (i) Superpassage, HFL > DBL > FSL-
d = Depth of the pile on which the effect is • FSL of canal is sufficiently below the bottom of
considered the drain trough.
D = Depth of the pile line • Canal water flows freely under gravity.
2. For the slope of floor-
(+ve for down slope and –ve for up slope)
3. For the floor thickness-
Note-
As per Khosla's theory, the undermining of the
floor starts from the tail end because at the tail end
head loss is maximum.
It is essential to have a deep vertical cut off at the
downstream end to prevent undermining.
CROSS DRAINAGE WORK
Cross Drainage (C.D.) Work- (ii) Canal Syphon or syphon, HFL > FSL> DBL-
A cross drainage work is a structure which is • FSL of canal is sufficiently above the bed level of
constructed at the intersection of canal and a drainage trough so that canal flows under syphonic
natural drains, so as to dispose the drainage water action under the trough or canal bed is below the
without intercepting the continuous canal supply. drain.
Irrigation Engineering 360 YCT
• Barrel acts as a inverted syphon through which Ans. (b) : Ill-effects of Irrigation–
canal water flows under gravity. Due to excess application of water, seepage and leakage
• In this case canal bed is depressed and a ramp is from canal, marshy land may be formed leading to
provided at exit to minimize silting phenomenon. breeding place of mosquitoes.
• In unlined irrigation canal, excessive seepage of water
through bed and sides takes places which raises the
water table of the surrounding areas. Soil in the root
zone of the crop is saturated and becomes alkaline
which is harmful to the crops and plants. Thus the
nearby area may be waterlogged
• Temperature of the command area of an irrigation
projects may be lowered and damp climate,
prevails, which adversely affect the health of the
community living in this area.
3. Medium irrigation projects are those costing-
3. Canal water and drainage water intermingle (a) More than Rs. 50 million
with each other- (b) Between Rs. 50 Million and Rs. 2.5 million
Ex.- (i) Level crossing (c) Less than Rs. 2.5 million
(ii) Inlet & outlet. (d) Rs. 1.0 million
It is more inferior to superpassage and aqueduct. CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/05/2022
(i) Level crossing- Ans. (b) In India, irrigation works are classified into
Generally provided when a large canal and huge major, medium and minor irrigation works. Since 1951,
drainage (such as a stream or river) approach each the major irrigation projects were defined as those
other practically at the same level. costing more than Rs 5 crores (50 million), medium
(ii) Inlet and outlet- irrigation as those casting between Rs 5 crores and Rs.
25 lakhs (2.5 million) and minor irrigation works
A canal inlet is constructed when CD flow is small
costing less than Rs. 25 lakhs.
and its water may be absorbed into the canal
without causing appreciable rise. However, if the 4. ________ is defined as the ratio of the actual
operating period of a distributaries to the crop
canal is small, an outlet may be constructed
period.
to pass out the additional discharge which has (a) Time factor (b) Crop ratio
entered into the canal. (c) Duty (d) Capacity factor
Fluming of canal– DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III
The contraction in the waterway of the canal is Ans. (a) : Time factor– The ratio of actual operating
term as fluming of canal. period of a distributary to the crop period is called the
It will be reduce the length of barrels or width of time factor of the distributary.
the aqueduct. Full supply coefficient– It is defined as the area
Questions Asked in Previous Years estimated to the irrigated during the base period divided
by the design full supply discharge at the head of canal.
1. Which irrigation method has the highest This is also known as duty on capacity.
irrigation efficiency? Capacity factor–The capacity factor for a canal is the
(a) Sprinkler irrigation (b) Drip irrigation ratio of the mean supply discharge in a canal during a
(c) Border strip irrigation (d) Furrow period to its design full capacity.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I 5. The ratio of area estimated to be irrigated
Ans. (b) : Drip irrigation–It is also known as trickle during the base period to the design of full
irrigation. supply discharge at the head of the canal is?
(a) Time factor
• In this method water is applied slowly and frequently
(b) Capacity factor
to keep the soil moisture in the root zone soil of the
(c) Full supply coefficient
plant within the desired range. (d) Nominal duty
• In this method has the highest irrigation efficiency. DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III
2. There are numerous benefits of irrigation like Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
increase in food production, development of the 6. Which of the following are the necessities of
area and social upliftment of the people. One of irrigation?
the harmful effects of irrigation is _________. (a) Less rainfall, non-uniform rainfall,
(a) Control of floods commercial crops with additional water,
(b) mosquito breeding and incidence of malaria controlled water supply
(c) protection from famine (b) Heavy rainfall, non-uniform rainfall,
(d) ruralisation commercial crops with additional water
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning) controlled water supply
Irrigation Engineering 361 YCT
 (c) Less rainfall, uniform rainfall, commercial crops Ans. (b) : Length of the border strip– Depends on
with additional water, controlled water supply how quickly it can be wetted over its entire length.
(d) .Less rainfall, non-uniform rainfall, This however, depends on–
commercial crops with additional water, (i) infiltration of rate of the soil
uncontrolled water supply (ii) longitudinal slope of the field and
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 (iii) Available size of the stream.
Ans. (a) : The following necessity of irrigation- Soil types Length of run
(i) Less rainfall (ii) Non-uniform Rainfall Sandy and sandy loam soils 60 to 120 m
(iii) Growing a number of crops during a year Medium loam soils 100 to 180 m
(iv) Growing perennial crops Clay loam and clay soils 150 to 300 m
(v) Commercial crops with additional water 11. In which of the following types the land is
(vi) Controlled water supply divided into a number of strips for water
7. In the context of irrigation, what is the primary distribution?
purpose of a Bandhara? (a) Free flooding (b) Border flooding
(a) Water storage (b) Navigation (c) Basin flooding (d) Check flooding
(c) Power generation (d) Flood control AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024 Ans. (b) : Border strip flooding– Border strip
Ans. (a) : Bandhara irrigation– Bandhara irrigation irrigation (or simply border irrigation) is a controlled
system comes under the minor irrigation system, it is an surface flooding method of applying irrigation water. In
area mostly up to a few hectors around 500-2000. A this method, the farm is divided into a number of strips
small structure is constructed across a small stream or which can be 10-20 meters wide and 100-300 meters
river as an obstruction to water storage and raise the long. These strips are separated by low levees (borders).
The strip are leveled between levees but sloped along
water table on upper side of the stream.
the length according to natural slope.
8. Which irrigation method scatters water
12. Which of the following does NOT form the
throughout the land with the help of component of bandhara irrigation system?
gravitational pull and is suitable for areas with (a) Low dam or Bandhara
a parallel slope or flat surface? (b) Scouring sluice
(a) Surface Irrigation (b) Drip Irrigation (c) Stilling basin
(c) Sub-Irrigation (d) Center Pivot Irrigation (d) Canal System
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024 CRIS JE 19/02/2023
Ans. (a) : Surface irrigation– Surface irrigation is Ans. (c) : Bandhara irrigation– Bandhara is a special
defined as the group of water application techniques type of irrigation scheme, some where in between
where water is applied and distributed over the soil inundation type and permanent type of irrigation. It is
surface either by gravity or by pumping. essentially a minor irrigation scheme wherein small
• More than 75% of irrigation lands in India is supplied streams which otherwise allow their flow to be wasted
water by surface irrigation methods. are dammed at placed by bandhara (small weirs) and
9. Sprinkler irrigation is the best method of canals are taken off from them for irrigation of small
irrigation for standing crops in ______ in fields. areas.
(a) heavy soil with low infiltration rate ● component of bandhare irrigation system.
(b) level surface (i) low dam or bandhara
(c) alluvial soil (ii) scouring sluice
(d) undulating sandy soil (iii) canal system
SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning) The two types of Bandhara systems–
Ans. (d) : Sprinkle irrigation method– (i) Solid Bandhara– Permanent constriction with no
allowance to change.
• It is suitable when land is steep and soil is easily
erodible. • Flood water cannot be controlled in this.
• In arid areas with uneven land surface most suitable • Acts as solid weir
method of irrigation is sprinkler irrigation. • Height varies between 2.5-3.5 m and without gate
• For standing crops in undulating sandy fields, the height is 1.5 - 2.5 m
suitable method of irrigation is sprinkler irrigation. (ii) Open Bandhara– Permanent construction with
• Sprinkler irrigation is not suitable to rice because rice allowance to change needles as required.
has huge water requirements during its growth. • Flood water can be controlled by needles.
10. Which is the recommended length of run for • Act as fully open weir.
border strip and furrow methods of irrigation • Height can be varied by adding or removing needles.
for clay loam and clay soils? 13. The sprinkler irrigation method for water
(a) 100 to 180 m (b) 150 to 300 m distribution is most suitable:
(c) 30 to 80 m (d) 60 to 120 m (a) for crops with deep roots
DDA JE 18/10/2023 (Shift-III) (b) when the water table is very low
Irrigation Engineering 362 YCT
 (c) when the land topography is irregular 15. Which one of the following techniques of water
(d) when the land topography is regular distribution in the farms is sometimes called
SSC JE Civil 15/11/2022 Shift-I wild flooding?
Ans.(c) : Sprinkler irrigation– It consists of applying (a) Free flooding
the water in the form of a spray. The greatest advantage (b) Check flooding
of sprinkler irrigation is its adaptabilities to use under (c) Border flooding
conditions where surface irrigation methods are not (d) Furrow irrigation method
efficient. ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
• The sprinklers are used so spray the water into the air Ans. (a) : Free flooding– When water is applied to the
so that it break up into small water drops which fall to cropland without any preparation of land and without
the ground. any levees to guide or restrict the flow of water on the
field, the method is called uncontrolled or wild or free
flooding.
• In this method of flooding, water is brought to field
ditches and then admitted at one end of the field thus
letting it flood the entire field without any control.
This method is more useful where– • Free flooding generally results in excess irrigation at
• The land cannot be prepared for surface methods. the inlet region of the field and insufficient irrigation
• Slopes are excessive at the outlet end.
• Topography is irregular • Application efficiency is reduced and loss of water is
• Soil is erosive maximum because of either deep percolation or
• Soil is excessively permeable or impermeable flowing away for water from the field.
• Depth of soil is shallow over gravel or sand. • This method is suitable when water is available in
• When the water table is high. large quantities, the land surface is irregular (like
hilly areas) and the crop being grown is unaffected
14. Which of the following irrigation systems leads
to reduced evaporation? because of excess water.
(a) Drip irrigation (b) Basin flooding • This method can be used for both flat lands and
(c) Sprinkler irrigation (d) Furrow irrigation relatively steep lands
UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II 16. In controlled flooding irrigation, free flooding
Ans. (a) Drip irrigation– it is also known as trickle is done by which of the following methods?
irrigation, in this system comprises main line, sub line (a) Drip irrigation
laterals valves drippers or emitters pressure gauge, (b) Border strip method
water meter, filter, pump fertilizer tanks, vacuum (c) By individual ring
breakers and pressure regulator. (d) Zig-zag method
• It involves dripping water into the soil at very low MPPGCL JE 29/04/2023 Shift-II
rates from a system of small-diameter plastic pipes Ans. (b) : Border strip method– It is a controlled
fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers surface flooding method of applying irrigation water. In
• Drip irrigation has several advantages. It saves water, this method the farm is divided into a number of strip
enhance plant growth and crop yield, saves labour which can be 3 to 20 meter wide and 100 to 400 m long.
and energy, controls weed growth, causes no erosion These strips are separated by low levees (or borders).
to soil, does not require land preparation and also The strip are levelled between levees but sloped along
improves fertilizers application efficiency. the length according to the natural slope.
• This method of irrigation does have some economic • It is suited to soil of moderately low to moderately
and technical limitation as it requires high skill in high intake rates and low erodibility
design, installation, subsequent operation. • This method is suitable for all types of crops. Those
• Trickle irrigation enables efficiency water which require prolonged flooding which in this case
application in the root zone of small trees and widely
is difficult to maintain because of the slope
spaced plants without wetting the soil where no root
exists. • The length wise slope varies from 0.5 to 1.5%
• In arid regions, the irrigation efficiency may be as 17. Which irrigation project should usually have
high as 90 percent and with very good management it cultivable command area of more than 10,000
may approach the ideal value of 100 percent. ha out of which 2000 ha utilizes surface water
• In this method evaporation and loss of water due to resources?
the wind is negligibly low. (a) Major (b) Medium
• It is has high water application efficiency. (c) Minor (d) Ground
• This method do not use open ditches for water JKSSB JE (Civil) 20/03/2022
delivery. Ans. (a) : As per Ministry of statistics and programme
• This method most suitable for area having low implementation, GOI- (Chapter-12 Clause 12.3).
rainfall and strong wind Major projects– CCA > 10000 ha.

Irrigation Engineering 363 YCT

Medium projects–2000 ≤ CCA ≤ 10000 ha. 22. The number of days between sowing and
Minor projects–CCA < 2000 ha. harvesting of a crop is called the crop period. Base
• Minor irrigation projects have both surface and period is the number of days between the first
ground water as their source. watering at the time of sowing and the last water
• Major projects mostly exploit surface water source. before harvesting of a crop. If the base period and
18. Major projects of irrigation are those which the crop period are compared, _________.
have irrigation potential of more than (a) the base period is slightly less than the crop
(a) 5000 hectares (b) 10000 hectares period
(c) 20000 hectares (d) 30000 hectares (b) the base period is equal to the crop period
(c) the base period is slightly more than the crop
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 27/06/2022 Shift-III
period
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. (d) the base period is much higher than the crop
19. The total area enclosed by an irrigation canal period
that can be included in an irrigation project for DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
supplying water to agricultural land by a Ans. (a) : Base period–Time between the first watering
network of canals is known as _________. of a crop from the time of its sowing to its last watering
(a) culturable cultivable area before harvesting.
(b) gross command area Crop period–The total time period that elapse from the
(c) culturable command area instant of its showing to the instant of its harvesting.
(d) unculturable area Hence, the base period is slightly less than the crop
SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning) period.
Ans. (b) : Gross commanded area– It is the total area, 23. To improve the duty of water, the irrigation
bounded within the irrigation boundary of a project, canal should be ____________.
which can be economically irrigated without (a) alluvial canal (b) lined canal
considering the limitation of the quantity of available (c) unlined canal (d) carrier canal
water. It includes the cultivable as well as the un-
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
cultivable area. For example– Ponds, residential area,
roads, reserved forest etc. are the uncultivable area of Ans. (b) : Methods of Improving Duty of water-
the gross command area. (i) Suitable and efficient method of applying water
to the crop should be used.
20. Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR) is
(ii) Canals should be lined to reduce seepage loss.
estimated by
Water should be conveyed quickly to reduce
Where
evaporation loss.
Cu = Consumptive use
(iii) Constructing parallel canals to run side by side
Re = Effective rainfall
F.S.L is reduced to minimize the loss.
(a) CIR = Cu – Re (b) CIR = Cu + Re
(iv) Property ploughed and levelled crop land improves
(c) CIR = Cu / Re (d) CIR = Re / Cu
duty.
TNPSC AE Civil 11.07.2022
(v) It is better for canals not to align on sandy soil or
Ans. (a) : Consumptive irrigation requirement fissured rock to avoid losses.
(CIR)– (vi) The source of supply should provide good quality
CIR is calculated using consumption use (Cu) and
of water.
effective rainfall
(vii) Crop rotation, if practiced, improves duty
CIR = Cu – Re
(viii) Volumetric assessment of water with water tax
• It is defined as the amount of irrigation water required
compels the farmers for economic use of water
to meet the evapo-transpiration needs of a crop during
which improves duty.
its full growth.
(ix) The farmers must also be trained to apply correct
21. For an irrigation project, culturable command
area (CCA) = quantity of water at right time.
(a) Culturable command area (CCA) = Gross 24. Identify the crop which does NOT belong to
command area (GCA) Kharif or Rabi crops.
(b) Culturable command area (CCA) = (a) Rice (b) Coffee
Unculturable area = Gross command area (c) Potato (d) Jowar
(GCA) DSSSB AE 28.11.2022 Morning
(c) Culturable command area (CCA) = Gross
command area (GCA) – Unculturable area Ans. (b) : Crops of Kharif season– Crops grown
(d) Culturable command area (CCA) = Gross between May to August called kharif season crops.
command area (GCA) + Unculturable area Kharif crop is also known as mansoon crop. It include
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I rice, maize, jowar, bajra, groundnut, spiked millet, great
Ans. (c) : Culturable Command Area (CCA)–The millet, pulses etc.
portion of the GCA which is culturable or cultivable. • Kharif crop are sown by the beginning of south-west
CCA = GCA – Uncultivable area mansoon and they are harvested in autumn.
Irrigation Engineering 364 YCT
Crops of Rabi– Crops grown between October to 28. The watering applied to the fields before
March called Rabi crops, Rabi crops include wheat sowing the crops is termed as
barley, peas, mustard, potato and gram etc. (a) Paleo watering
Note- (b) Culturable watering
• Sugarcane is perennial crop (c) Kor watering
• Cotton is eight months crops. (d) Nominal watering
KPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
• Cash crops - Jute, Tobacco, Coffee
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
25. In tropical regions with high temperatures, a crop
with a shallow root system will likely have a: 29. Consumptive use refers to the loss of water as a
(a) The answer depends on the specific crop type result of
(a) Evaporation and transpiration
(b) Higher water requirement compared to a
deep-rooted crop (b) Crop water requirement
(c) Evaporation and infiltration
(c) Lower water requirement compared to a
deep-rooted crop (d) Evaporation and transpiration from the
cropped area
(d) Similar water requirement to a deep-rooted crop
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
Ans. (d) : Consumptive use of water by a crop is the depth
Ans. (b) : Tropical regions with high temperatures is of water consumed by the plant in the process of
higher water requirement to deep rooted crop as a interception, transpiration, and evaporation, during crop
compared to the shallow root system. As soil worming growth.
advances downward progressively deeper soil layers • Interception refers to precipitation that does not reach
become suitable for root growth. In temperature the soil, but is instead intercepted by the leaves and
requires, soil temperature often limits the rate of rooting branches of plants.
depth increase and maximum depth attainable.
30. Which quality of water can be safely used for
26. In the relation ∆ = 8.64 A/D, D is the duty in most crops on most soils with some leaching
hectare/cumecs, A is the number of days of the may be required in soils with low permeability?
base period and ∆ is ______. (a) Excessive salinity (b) Low salinity
(a) Duty in meters (c) High salinity (d) Moderate salinity
(b) Depth of water in cms JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil)
(c) Area of the irrigation Ans. (b) : The salt concentration is generally
(d) Depth of water in meters measured by determining the electrical conductivity
Kerala PSC (PWD) Overseer 14/07/2023 of water. Salt concentration and electrical
Ans. (d) Duty– Duty represents the irrigating capacity conductivity are directly proportional to each other.
of a unit of water. • Electrical conductivity is expressed in micro mhos
• It is the relation between the area of a crop irrigated per centimeter.
and the quantity of irrigation water required during the Electrical
entire period of the growth of that crop. conductivity
Class Use
Delta– It is the total depth of water required by a crop at 250C in
during the entire period the crop is in the field. mhos/cm
Relation between duty (D) delta (∆) and base period < 250 Low Can be used for all
(B) – salinity crops
8.64B 250-750 Medium Can be used if
Delta ( ∆ ) = meters salinity leaching is done
D
Where, 750-2250 High High salt tolerant
plant can be grown
∆ = Depth of water in meter
with special
B is in days measure to control
D is in hac/cumec salinity
27. The initial watering done on the land to >2250 Very high Not suitable for
provide moisture to the soil before sowing any salinity irrigation
crop is called 31. The soluble salt present in irrigation water
(a) Kor watering (b) Paleo when expressed in parts per million (PPM), the
(c) Base watering (d) Delta amount in excess of is _______ harmful to
UPSC CRT AE 28/08/2022 plants.
Ans. (b) : Paleo– It is the first watering before sowing (a) 700 PPM (b) 800 PPM
the crop. This is done is order to add sufficient (c) 600 PPM (d) 500 PPM
moisture to the unsaturated zone of the soil and is DDA JE 19/10/2023 (Shift-I)
required for the initial growth of the crop. Ans. (a) : Salt concentration– Irrigation crops with
Kor watering– Crops require maximum water during saline water can result in less yield and decreased
first watering after the crops have grown few centimeters quality. Plants very greatly in their tolerance to saline
this first watering is known as Kor watering. water.
Irrigation Engineering 365 YCT
• Salt concentration is expressed as ppm or mg/ Ans. (c) : Watershed canal– When canal aligned
Salt concentration criteria– along the ridge line or watershed line of an area is
Salt concentration Property called as watershed or ridge canal.
≤ 700 ppm Suitable for all plants • Watershed canal is running at the peak altitude of
700-2000 ppm harmful to some plants the area.
> 2000 ppm Injurious to all plants • By this canal, irrigation on both sides of the canal
32. Which of the following terms is used to upto a larger extent of the area is possible.
designate the losses due to Evapotranspiration • There is no interception of natural drains on ridge
and water that is used for the metabolic lines hence, no cross drainage works are required for
activities of plants?
this type of canal.
(a) Estimated use (b) Regional use
(c) Reference use (d) consumptive use 36. Which of the following type of canals is aligned
UPMRC AM (Civil) 02/01/2023 roughly at right angle to the contours of
Ans. (d) Evapotranspiration or consumptive use– country.
The water use by crops includes evaporation and Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023
transpiration into one term evapotranspiration, as it is Or
difficult to separate these two losses in cropped fields. The canal aligned at right angles to the
The term consumptive use is used to designate the Contour of a Country is known as
losses due to evapotranspiration and the water that is (a) side slope canal (b) contour canal
used by the plant for its metabolic activities. Since the (c) water shed canal (d) branch canal
water used in the actual metabolic process is SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
insignificant the term consumptive use is generally
Ans. (a) : Side slope canal– It is a channel aligned
taken equivalent to ET.
roughly at right angles to the contours of the country
33. When an economical canal cross-section is and is neither on the watershed nor in the valley. Such a
formed partly in cutting and partly in filling, channel would be roughly parallel to the natural
such that the quantity of earth in cutting is
drainage of the country and, hence, it does not intercept
equal to the quantity of earth in filling, the
depth of cutting under that situation is known any cross-drainage. However, it has very steep bed
as __________ . slope, since the direction of the steepest slope of the
(a) Economical depth (b) Balancing depth ground is at right angles to the contours of the country.
(c) Critical depth (d) Uniform depth 37. The ratio of mean supply of canal to its full
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I capacity is known as _____ factor.
Ans. (b) : Balancing depth–A canal section will be (a) Efficiency (b) Discharge
economical when the earth work involved at a particular (c) Capacity (d) Supply
section has an equal amount of cut and fill. Usually a Kerala PSC Poly. Lect. 07/07/2023
canal section has a part in cutting and part in filling. If Ans. (c) Capacity factor– It is the ratio of the mean
the amount of cut is equal to the amount of fill, it has to supply discharge to the full capacity discharge. It is
be paid for once only. value varies from 0.9 to 0.95 for kharif season.
• Quantity of earthwork in cutting = Quantity of Full supply coefficient– The number of hectares
earthwork in filling irrigable per cumec of the canal capacity at its head is
34. As per Kennedy's theory, the ratio of the mean known as full supply coefficient.
velocity 'V' to the critical velocity 'VO' is known 38. According to Kennedy's theory, if the velocity
as the critical velocity ratio. It is denoted by
'm'. If m > 1, ___________ will occur. of the flow is such that there is no silting or
(a) neither scouring nor silting scouring action in the canal bed, then that
(b) scouring velocity is known as ______________.
(c) silting (a) critical velocity (b) normal velocity
(d) both scouring and silting (c) mean velocity (d) absolute velocity
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Critical velocity ratio (m) is the ratio of Ans. (a) : Kennedy's theory–Critical velocity in a
actual velocity (Va) to critical velocity (Vo) in the channel is the mean velocity which is sufficient to
channel. prevent the channel from scouring and silting.
If, m > 1 scouring will occur • Any velocity greater than critical velocity causes
m < 1 silting will occur scouring in the channel and any velocity less than
m = 1, there will be no silting and scouring. critical velocity causes silting in the channel.
35. A watershed canal is ............. Vo = 0.55 m.D0.64
(a) irrigates only one side • Critical velocity ratio (m) is the ratio of actual
(b) most suitable in hilly areas velocity (Va) to critical velocity (Vo) in the channel.
(c) avoids the cross-drainage works If, m > 1 scouring will occur
(d) generally aligned parallel to the contours of m < 1 silting will occur
the area
m = 1, there will be no silting and scouring.
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
Irrigation Engineering 366 YCT
39. Which of the following is correct about the (c) downstream of canal head regulator
identification of cohesive non swelling soil (d) All of the above
(CNS) material for lining of canals on an HPPSC AE 08.10.2023
expansive soil? Ans. (c) Silt ejectors- Silt ejectors are those device that
(a) The permissible deformation of the CNS extract the silt from the canal water after the silted water
layer is 50 mm. has travelled a certain distance in the off-take canal.
(b) In exceptional cases, swelling pressure of • These works are, therefore, constructed on the bed of
CNS soil less than 10 kN/m2 is acceptable. the canal, and a little distance downstream from the
(c) The CNS material has gravel content greater head regulator.
than 30% 43. Identify the canal regulation structure, used for
(d) The soil with liquid limit less than 30% and closing the supply to the downstream of the
parent canal during repairs.
plasticity index less than 15% is considered as
(a) head regulator
suitable. (b) cross regulator
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I (c) stream regulator
Ans. (b) : According to IS 9451 : 1994, Clause 4.2.3- (d) distributary regulator
CNS Material:– CNS material should be non-swelling SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
with a maximum swelling pressure of 10kN/m2 when Ans. (b) : Cross regulator- Cross regulator is used for
tested in accordance with IS-2720 (part-41)-1977 at closing the water supply to downstream of the parent
optimum moisture content and maximum cohesion canal during repairs.
(unconfined compression strength on saturated Head regulator- A head regulator provided at the head
compacted soil remoulded at OMC and compacted to of the off-taking channel, controls the flow of water
standard proctor density) should be 10kN/m2 when entering this new channel.
tested according to be IS 2720 (Part-10) : 1991. 44. Which of the following is NOT the component
40. What is the permissible velocity (m/s) for burnt of diversion head work?
clay tile and brick lining? (a) Fish ladder (b) Weir proper
(a) 1.4 to 1.6 (b) 1.6 to 1.8 (c) Abutment (d) Under-sluices
(c) 1.5 to 1.7 (d) 2.0 to 2.5 SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III Ans. (c) : Component part of diversion head work–
• Weir or barrage,
Ans. (b) : As per IS 10430 : 2000 clause 8.8.5,
• Divide wall or divide groyne
The maximum permissible velocities for guidance
• Fish ladder
for some types of lining are given below–
• Pocket or approach channel
Maximum • Scouring sluices
Types of canal lining permissible • Silt prevention devices
velocity
• Canal head regulator
1. Stone pitching lining 1.5 m/sec • River training works (Marginal bunds and guide banks).
2. Burn clay tile or brick lining 1.8 m/sec 45. Headwork's is an assemblage of the following
3. Cement concrete lining 2.7 m/sec hydraulic structures:
41. Which of the following canal structures is used (a) a weir, guide banks, head regulator
to remove surplus water from an irrigation (b) a dam, embankments, spillway
channel into a natural drain? (c) a syphon, spurs, bank revetment
(a) Canal fall (b) Canal outlet (d) None of the above
(c) Canal escape (d) Canal regulator UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-II
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 Ans. (a) See the above explanation.
Ans. (c) : Canal escapes– Canal escape is a structure 46. Silt excluder is provided
constructed in an irrigation channel for the disposal of (a) In the canal on the downstream of the head
surplus water from the channel. It is also called surplus regulator
water escape or canal surplus escape. (b) In the river on the downstream of the weir
• Sometimes escapes are provided in the head reaches (c) In the river adjacent to the head regulator
of main canals to scour out bed silt deposited in the (d) In the river far off from the weir on the
head reaches. upstream side
Types of outlets (modules)– The various available GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
types of outlets can be classified into three classes- Ans. (c) : Silt excluder– Silt excluder is a device by
which silt is excluded from water entering the canal. It
• Non-modular outlets
is constructed in the bed in front of head regulator.
• Modular outlets The fundamental principle on which a silt control
• Semi-modular outlets device acts lies in the fact that in a flowing stream
42. Silt ejectors are constructed at: carrying silt in suspension, the concentration of silt
(a) downstream of head regulator charge in the lower layer is greater than in the upper
(b) upstream of head regulator ones. Hence, the device is so designed that the top and
Irrigation Engineering 367 YCT
 bottom layers are separated without any disturbance. Ans. (c) : Sensitivity– It is defined as the ratio of the
The top water is then led towards the canal while the rate of change of discharge through the outlet to the rate
bottom water containing high silt charge is wasted. of change of water level in the distributary channel,
47. Cross regulators are provided referred to as the normal depth of the channel.
(a) To raise the water level to its upstream during Numerically it can be expressed as–
the period of low discharge in the parent dq/q
channel S=
dG/y
(b) To help in closing the supply to down stream G = Gauge of distributary channel above the outlet.
of the parent channel
y = Normal depth or FSD
(c) To absorb fluctuations in the various sections
of the canal system 50. Which term indicates the ratio of irrigation
water that is available at the outlets to the
(d) All the above
fields, to irrigation water supplied from the
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-2 diversion point into the main canal?
Ans. (d) : Cross regulators – A cross-regulator is (a) Water distribution efficiency
provided on the main canal at the down stream of the (b) Water conveyance efficiency
off-take to head up the water level and to enable the off- (c) Water use efficiency
taking channel to draw the required supply. (d) Water application efficiency
Function of cross-regulator– ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
(i) The effective regulation of the whole canal system Ans. (b) :Water Conveyance Efficiency (Ec) – it is
can be done with help of cross-regulation. measure of efficiency of water conveyance system from
(ii) During the periods of low discharge in the parent canal network to water courses and field channels. It is
channel, the cross regulates raises water level of the u/s the ratio of water delivered in fields at the outlet head to
and feeds the off take channel in rotation. that diverted into the canal system from the river or
(iii) It helps in closing the supply to the D/S of the reservoir. Water losses occur in conveyance from the
parent channels point of diversion till it reaches the farmer's fields
(iv) They help in absorbing fluctuations in various which can be evaluated by water conveyance efficiency.
sections of the canal system. W
48. A canal fall is a control structure E c = f ×100
Wr
(a) located at a place where the country slope is
flatter than the canal bed slope Where,
(b) located where design bed slope and natural Ec = Water conveyance efficiency
ground slope is mismatched Wf = Water delivered to the farm by conveyance system
(c) the location of which is independent of the Wr = Water introduced into the conveyance system
command to be served from the point of diversion.
(d) designed to secure raising of water surface on 51. A structure which extracts silt from a canal is
its upstream called:
AP ECET 20.06.2023 (a) Silt excluder (b) Silt ejector
(c) Silt outlet (d) Groyne wall
Ans. (b) : Canal fall– Whenever the available natural
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-II
ground slope is steep than the designed bed slope of
the channel, the difference is adjusted by constructing Ans. (b) Silt ejectors- Silt ejectors, also called silt
vertical 'falls' or 'drops' in the canal bed at suitable extractors, are those devise which extract the silt from
the canal water after the silted water has travelled a
intervals, in water to retain this drop, a masonry
certain distance in the off take canal. These works are,
structure is constructed such type of structure is called therefore, constructed on the bed of the canal, and a
as canal fall or canal drop. little distance downstream from the head regulator.
• Canal drops are required to dissipate excess land 52. ______ is a structure carrying the discharge of
slope. natural stream across a canal intercepting the
• Canal fall is classified as– stream.
(i) Ogee fall (ii) Stepped fall (a) Discharge-balancing work
(iii) Vertical fall (iv) Rapid fall (b) Escape channel
(v) Montague fall (vi) Inglis or Baffle fall (c) Cross-drainage work
49. The ratio of rate of change of discharge (d) Cross-regulator work
through the outlet to the rate of change of MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II
water level of the distributary is referred as : Ans. (c) : Cross drainage work– A cross drainage
(a) Flexibility of outlet work is a structure carrying the discharge from a natural
(b) Proportionality of outlet stream across a canal intercepting the stream.
(c) Sensitivity of outlet 1. Types of cross drainage work carrying canal
(d) Setting of outlet across the drainage :
NWDA JE 21/05/2023 (a) Aqueduct (b) Syphon aqueduct

Irrigation Engineering 368 YCT

2. Cross drainage works carrying over the canal : 57. An irrigation structure constructed over the
(a) Super passage (b) Canal siphon. drainage water for passage of canal water
3. Canal and normal drain intersect each other : safely is known as
(a) Level crossing (b) Inlet outlets. (a) Super passage (b) Inlet and outlet
53. The primary purpose of a cross-drainage (c) Level crossing (d) aqueduct
structure in a canal network is to :
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023
(a) store excess rainwater
(b) divert water for irrigation Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
(c) provide water supply for domestic use 58. In a level crossing, the canal and the drainage
(d) facilitate the crossing of natural streams and meet each other at _____ level.
rivers (a) a parallel (b) a different
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III (c) a cross (d) the same
Ans. (d) : See the above Explanation. GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
54. What is the primary purpose of cross-drainage
structures in irrigation and drainage Ans. (d) Level crossings– The schematic plan of a level
engineering? crossing which is constructed in the circumstance when
(a) To control erosion along riverbanks the beds of the canal and drainage are particularly at the
(b) To provide a separate passage for canals same level. Level crossings are suitable for canals of all
intersecting transportation routes or natural sizes. They are specially suited to crossings of very
drains. large drains when the cost of other cross drainage works
(c) To divert groundwater for agricultural use would be very high.
(d) To resist the flow of surface water
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Cross drainage– Cross-drainage work refer
to the infrastructure and techniques used to facilitate the
smooth passage of water across natural or artificial
obstacles, such as roads railways, canals or
embankments. These works are crucial in ensuring the
efficient management of water resources and preventing
flooding or waterlogging in the surrounding area.
55. Sub-surface drains or underground tile drains
are required for soils with __________. 59. Which system of tile drainage is adopted,
(a) poor internal drainage capacity and high where seepage water from high level canals,
water table reservoirs create wet areas at lower level and
(b) high internal drainage capacity and high develop problems?
water table
(c) high internal drainage capacity and low water (a) Double main system
table (b) Intercepting system
(d) poor internal drainage capacity and low water (c) Herring bone system
table (d) Grid iron system
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I DDA JE 18/10/2023 (Shift-III)
Ans. (a) : Artificial subsurface drainage is required on Ans. (b) : Systems of the design– Various system of
many agricultural land to remove excess precipitation
laying out tiles are followed depending on topography
and or irrigation water in order to provide a suitable soil
environment for plant growth and a soil surface capable of the land.
of physically supporting necessary traffic. Whereas It is classified as–
subsurface drains are needed for soil having poor (i) Intercepting system– This system is adopted where
internal drainage, capacity and high water table. seepage water from high level canals, reservoirs or
56. In the cross drainage Hydraulic structure lands that create wet areas at lower level and develop
which carries a canal above drainage is termed problem. In this tile drainage system not any lateral
as ? drain.
(a) Drainage duct (b) Super Passage duct
(ii) Herring bone system– This system is adopted in
(c) Aquifer (d) Aqueduct
ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024 land that slopes from both sides and the line in between
is in depression.
Ans. (d) : Aqueduct– When the full supply level (FSL)
of a canal is much higher than the high flood level (iii) Grid iron system- In this case the field drains are
(HFL) of a stream which, in turn is lower than the parallel to each other on each side of the lateral.
bottom of the canal trough, the canal is carried over the
stream by means of a bridge-like structure, which is
called an aqueduct.
The stream water passes through the space below the
canal such that the HFL is lower than the underside of
the canal trough.
Irrigation Engineering 369 YCT
 Ans. (a) : Super-passage- A super-passage is like an
aqueduct, but carries the stream overt the canal. The
canal FSL is lower than the underside of the stream
trough and hence, the canal water flows with a free
surface.
63. A cross drainage work is termed as a canal
syphon if it carries the canal
(a) Below the drainage and the canal FSL is more
than the bed level of the drain
(b) Above the drainage and the drainage HFL is
above the bed level of the canal
(c) Below the drainage and the canal FSL is
below the bed level of the drain
(d) Above the drainage and the drainage HFL is
below the bed level of the canal
UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II
Ans. (a) When the canal bed level is much lower, but
60. Identify the diversion structure that acts as an the FSL of the canal is higher than the bed level of the
artificial barrier across a river or estuary to drainage. A canal syphon is preferred. Canal system is a
prevent flooding, aid irrigation or navigation, structure with a closed conduit, designed to run full and
or generates electricity by trial power. usually under pressure to carry the canal water under
(a) Reservoirs (b) Weir the drainage.
(c) Barrage (d) Dams 64. If the level of canal bed and high flood level of
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 17/10/2023 river have the RL's of 110 m and 111.0 m
respectively, then this type of cross drainage
Ans. (b) Weir– A weir is an ungated barrier across a
work is called
river to raise the water level in the river. It raises the
(a) Level crossing (b) Super passage
water level in the river and diverts the water into the
(c) Aqueduct (d) Siphon aqueduct
offtaking canal situated on one or both sides of the river
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-I
banks just upstream of the weir.
Ans. (d) : Syphon aqueduct– When the highest flood
• Weirs are usually aligned at right angles to the
level of river or drainage is higher than bed level of
direction of flow in the river.
canal then siphon aqueduct is prepared.
• To increase the water level, the weir crest is raised
• It is an aqueduct in which the bed of the stream is
above the river bed. Part of the rising of the water depressed when it passes under the canal trough, and the
level is obtained by shutters provided at the top of stream water flow under pressure below the canal.
the weir crest. Ex- Level of canal bed = 110.0 m
Barrage– Barrage is a gate-controlled weir with its High flood level of river = 111.0 m
crest at a lower level. The crest of a barrage is usually at We know, HFL of river > bed level of canal, then
a lower level and the ponding up of the river for siphon aqueduct is preferred.
diversion into the offtaking canal is achieved by means 65. Syphon aqueduct is a cross drainage work
of gates (instead of shutters). provided to carry canal over a natural drain
• Barrage offer better control on the river outflow as when
well as discharge in the offtaking canal. (a) Canal bed is well above the H.F.L. of the
• Because of the lower crest level of a barrage, the natural drain
afflux during floods is small. (b) Canal bed is below the HFL of the natural
61. A weir is a___ barrier. drain
(a) gated (b) ungated (c) Canal bed is at the same level as the bed of
(c) controlled (d) 3-gated the natural drain
(d) None of the above
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-2
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
62. What is the purpose of a super-passage in 66. The purpose of providing the downstream
irrigation engineering? sheet pile in a barrage is
(a) To cross the canal below the natural stream (a) To stop failure due to sliding
(b) To divert the water from the river to the canal (b) To control failure due to piping due to high
(c) To cross the natural stream at relatively same value of exit gradient
level (c) To stop failure due to uplift pressure
(d) To cross the canal over the natural stream (d) To control failure due to scour
DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023 GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022
Irrigation Engineering 370 YCT
Ans. (b) : In a barrage, sheet, piles are situated both 70. The canal fall with a combination of a convex
upstream and downstream of the barrage in order to curve and a concave curve, which is provided
reduce uplift pressure and prevent piping. for carrying the canal water from a higher level
• Upstream sheet pile is more effective in reducing to a lower level, is known as ______.
uplift while the downstream sheet pile is more effective (a) sarda fall (b) stepped fall
in reducing piping. (c) rapid fall (d) ogee fall
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
67. Silting takes place at the ____ bank of Meander
River. Ans. (d) : Ogee fall–In this type of fall, an ogee curve
(a) Convex (b) Concave (a combination of convex curve and concave curve) is
provided for carrying the canal water from higher level
(c) Straight (d) Virgin
to lower level.
NWDA JE 27/06/2023 • This fall is recommended when the natural ground
Ans. (a) : Normally in meanders of large rivers, there is surface suddenly changes to a steeper slope along the
active deposition (silting) along the convex bank and alignment of the canal.
undercutting along the concave bank. 71. Sodium clay can be used in the core of earthen
• The concave bank is known as cut off bank which dams because it has _________
shows up as a steep scrap and the convex bank presents (a) low porosity (b) low permeability
a long, gentle profile and is known as slip off bank. (c) high permeability (d) high strength
68. In which stage of river, its training is not SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
required? Ans. (b) : It is a centrally provided fairly impervious
(a) rocky stage (b) boulder stage wall in the dam. It is check the flow of water through
(c) trough stage (d) delta stage the dam section. It may be of compacted puddle clay.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-II masonry, or concrete built inside the dam. Sodium clay
Ans. (a) Rocky stage- can be used in the core of earthen dams because it has
• In this type, the river is usually in fast flow steep low permeability. Only clay cannot use because it
gradient and confined in a narrow valley in hilly or swells and shrinks too much.
mountainous regions. 72. Which of the following type of dams transfers a
major part of the water load to its abutments
• Erosion is typically high here, but the solid bed rock
horizontally.
hinders significant meandering and changes to the river
(a) Concrete gravity dam
channel, while the intensity of flow may cause some (b) Arch dam
issues, usually this is not the stage that requires (c) Earth dam
intensive river training. (d) Concrete buttress dam
69. In spillways, the entrance structure that leads MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
the reservoir water up to the control structure Ans. (b) : Arch dams– An arch dam is a dam curved in
is called: plan and carries at major part of its water load
(a) chute channel horizontally to the abutments by arch section. This part
(b) control structure of water load depends primarily upon the amount of
(c) approach channel of the chute spillway curvature. The balance of the water load is transferred
(d) discharge channel to the foundation by cantilever action. The thrust
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I developed by the water load carried by arch action
essentially requires strong side walls of the canyon to
Ans. (c) : Approach channel of chute spillway:– An resist the arch forces. The weight of arch dam is not
entrance channel called an approach channel, counted on to assist materially in the resistance of
trapezoidal in shape with side slopes 1:1 may be external loads. For this reason uplift on the base is not
constructed so as to lead the reservoir water upto the an important design factor.
control structure (low ogee weir). It is also called the • Arch dams are particularly adopted to the gorges
discharge channel or discharge carrier is generally kept where the length is small in proportion to the height.
straight in plain. • For a given height, the section of an arch dam is
The friction head lost in the entrance channel upto the much lesser than a corresponding gravity dam.
spillway crest can be calculated by manning's formula, Hence, an arch dam requires less material and is,
given as therefore, cheaper.
n 2 .V 2 .L • Because of much less base width, the problems of
h f = Sf × L = 4 uplift pressure are minor.
R 3 • It requires very strong abutments of solid rock
Where n = Manning's coefficient of roughness capable of resisting arch thrust.
V = Velocity in channel • Hence, it is not suitable in the location where strong
R = Hydraulic mean depth abutments are not available.
L = Length of channel • It is also known that the volume of concrete used is
Sf = Mean energy slope between two points minimum when the central angle 133034'.

Irrigation Engineering 371 YCT

73. Generally, the cross-section of a gravity dam 77. For full reservoir condition in a gravity dam,
has the shape: the critical combination of vertical and
(a) trapezium (b) rectangle horizontal earthquake accelerations to be
(c) square (d) parallelogram considered for checking the stability is
CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023 (a) vertically upward and horizontally
Ans. (a) : Gravity dams are trapezium shaped to downstream
balance the hydrostatic pressure that increase with (b) vertically downward and horizontally
depth. A gravity dam is a structure that is built in such a downstream
way that the resisting force is the self weight of the (c) vertically upward and horizontally upstream
dam. (d) vertically downward and horizontally
74. For the prevention of piping failure in dam, the upstream
value of exit gradient should be: Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
(a) ie = ic (b) ie < ic Ans. (d) : For full reservoir condition in a gravity dam,
(c) ie > ic (d) ie is not equal to ic the critical combination of vertical and horizontal
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III earthquake accelerations to be considered for checking
Ans. (b) : For piping and exit gradient–Provision of the stability is vertically downward and horizontally
downstream cut-off sheet pile will cause major losses upstream.
on downstream side, hence below the dam, uplift force
becomes more, hence for uplift pressure and piping we
use both upstream and downstream sheet pile.
G −1
i cr =
1+ e
Exit gradient
i
Factor of safety = cr
i exit
The prevention of piping failure in dam, the value of
exit gradient should be ie < ic.
75. In order to allow the seepage water to escape 78. In the context of dam analysis, what type of
without dislocating the soil particles a/an loading occurs when the applied force does not
_______ is provided at the downstream end of pass through the centroid of the dam cross-
the impervious floor of a weir. section?
(a) launching apron (b) graded filter (a) Axial loading
(c) inverted filter (d) pervious floor (b) Eccentric loading
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I (c) Torsional loading
Ans. (c) : Inverted filter–An inverted filter invariably (d) Concentrated loading
reduces the possibility, of piping as it allows free flow OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024
of seepage water through itself without allowing the Ans. (b) : In dam analysis eccentric loading occurs
foundation soils to be lifted upward. when the applied force does not pass through the
The filter, therefore, consists of layers of materials of centroid of the dam cross section.
increasing permeability from bottom to top.
79. Which factor directly affects the amount of
• The design criteria to satisfy these condition to potential energy stored in the water of a
prevent filter from discolation under surface flow, hydroelectric dam?
concrete or masonary blocks are laid over the filter (a) The salinity of the water
material. (b) The speed of water flow
76. Identify the spillway which is classified (c) The height of the water column
according to the most prominent feature? (d) The temperature of water
(a) Fuse plug spillway JSSC JDLCCE JE 17/10/2023 (Gen. Engg.)
(b) Side channel spillway Ans. (c) : Most hydro-electric power comes from the
(c) Orifice of sluice spillway potential of dammed water driving a water turbine and
(d) Tunnel/Culvert spillway generator.
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 • The height of the water column directly affects the
Ans. (b) : The contour weir of a side channel spillway amount of potential energy stored in the water of a
is located alongside and approximately parallel to the hydroelectric dam.
upstream portion of the spillway discharge channel 80. Identify the type of forces that cause instability
which itself may be either an open channel, a closed in gravity dams?
conduit, or an inclined tunnel. (a) Instantaneous load
It is classified according to the most prominent features. (b) Self-weight of the dam
Irrigation Engineering 372 YCT
 (c) Horizontal thrust of tail water H
(d) Uplift pressure (b)
µG
DDA JE 19/10/2023 (Shift-I)
Ans. (d) : Forces acting of gravity dam– Depending H H
(c) Lesser of and
upon the situation, the dam is subjected to the following G µG
forces– H H
• Water pressure (d) Greater of and
G µG
• Earthquake forces
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
• Silt pressure
Ans. (d) : We know,
• Wave pressure For gravity dam, base width-
• Ice pressure
H
• Silt weight of the dam (i) From tension failure, B >
Note–The most common and important forces are water G−K
pressure and silt weight of the dam. H
For neglecting uplift pressure k = 0, B >
• Uplift pressure cause instability in gravity dam. G
81. In gravity dam, the line of the upstream face of H
dam, or the line of the crown down of dam if (ii) From sliding failure, B >
the upstream face is sloping, is taken as the µ (G − K )
reference line for layout purpose. This line is H
known as _______. For neglecting uplift pressure, k = 0, B >
µG
(a) Base line of the dam
(b) Top Flow line of the dam Hence, base width of gravity dam is greater of
(c) Range line of the dam H H
and
(d) Seepage line of the dam G µ G
TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023 84. The line within an Earthen dam section below
Ans. (a) : The line of the upstream face of the dam or which there is a positive hydrostatic pressure is
the line of the crown of the dam if the upstream face in known as:
sloping, is taken as the reference line for layout (a) Phreatic line (b) Top flow line
purposes, etc and is known as the "Base line of the (c) Seepage line (d) All of the above
dam" or the axis of the dam. Kerala PSC (PWD) Draftsman 15/06/2023
• When suitable conditions are available, such dams can Ans. (d) : Phreatic line– Phreatic line indicates the
be constructed upto great heights. The base width to surface of seepage water within the body of earth dam
height of high gravity dams is generally less than 1:1. and this line is also known as seepage line or saturation
82. In which one of the following types of falls, the line.
energy dissipation on a straight glacis remain • Phreatic line is fined as an imaginary line within a
incomplete due to vertical component of dam section, below which there is a positive hydrostatic
velocity remaining unaffected? pressure and above it there is a negative hydrostatic
(a) Montague type falls (b) Gravity falls pressure.
(c) Inglis falls (d) Baffle falls 85. Ogee spillway also known as ...........
ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II (a) Straight drop spillway
Ans. (a) : Montague type falls– In the straight glacis (b) Shaft spillway
type fall, energy dissipation is not complete. (c) Siphon spillway
• Therefore, montague developed this type of profile (d) Overflow spillway
where energy dissipation takes place. The profile of Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift 2
montague type fall is parabolic.
Straight glacis fall– It consists of a straight glacis Ans. (d) : Ogee spillway- A spillway having its
provided with a crest wall, for dissipation of energy of downstream and is in the form of reverse curve (S-
flowing water, a water cushion is provided. shaped curve in section) which turns the flow into the
• Curtain walls are provided at toe and heel. apron of stilling basin or into the spillway discharge
channel is called ogee, spillway it is also known as
83. Neglecting uplift pressure, the base width of an overflow spillway and is improvement over straight
elementary profile of a gravity dam shall be
drop spill way.
taken as:
• Ogee spillway is widely used in India.
where, H = depth of water
G = specific gravity of material 86. Which one of the following, in a gravity dam, is
the major resisting force?
µ = coefficient of friction
(a) Uplift pressure (b) Water pressure
H (c) Wave pressure (d) Self-weight of dam
(a)
G MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-III
Irrigation Engineering 373 YCT
Ans. (d) Forces acting on a gravity dam– 90. Which of the following relationships represents
Followings are the forces acting on a gravity dam– the hydrological cycle?
• Water pressure (a) Precipitation = Evaporation × Runoff
• Self weight of dam (b) Precipitation = Evaporation – Runoff
• Uplift pressure (c) Precipitation= Evaporation/ Runoff
• Pressure due to earthquake (d) Precipitation = Evaporation + Runoff
• Ice pressure MH Solapur M.C JE Class2, 17.02.2024
• Wave pressure Ans. (d) : The total water supply of earth is
• Silt pressure constant circulation from earth to atmosphere and back
• Wind pressure to the earth, the earth's water circulating system is
Self-weight of the dam– The weight of the dam is known as the hydrological cycle.
major resisting force for analysis purposes, generally, Precipitation (P) = Evaporation (E) + run-off (R)
unit length of the dam is considered. The total weight W 91. What is the energy source for precipitation and
of the dam acts the CG of its section. evaporation?
87. Which of the following is used to dissipate (a) Gravitational energy
excess Kinetic energy of the water? (b) Perennial energy
(a) Canal escape (c) Thermal energy
(b) Energy regulator (d) Kinetic energy
(c) Energy dissipater HSSC JE 18.02.2024
(d) None of the above Ans. (c) : The hydrologic cycle is a process of
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-II within the earth's hydrosphere. Water moves into and
Ans. (c) Energy dissipaters– Water falling over a from the various reservoirs on over and under the
spillway or coming out from an outlet or from an intake surface of the earth, and in the process transforms into
has a very high kinetic energy due to the high velocity its various phases of solid, liquid and gas with the total
of flow. It is necessary to completely dissipate the mass of water remaining constant.
excessive kinetic energy before it meets the unlined part • The hydrologic cycle largely depends on the solar
of the channel. It is provided at the foot of the spillway energy to the earth because hotter temperatures result in
and outlet works for bringing about this dissipation of more evaporation, precipitation and higher humidity.
kinetic energy.
92. Atmometer is used to measure
88. A Lysimeter is used to measure : (a) Evaporation (b) Traspiration
(a) Evapotranspiration (b) Runoff
(c) Evapotranspiration (d) All of above
(c) Precipitation (d) Evaporation
Chhatt. Office Professional Asst. 2023
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
Ans. (a) : Atmometer– Atmometer is device used
Ans. (a) : Lysimeters– A lysimeters is a special
for measurement of evaporation.
watertight tank containing a block of soil and set in a
field of growing plants. • The atmometers are provided with some special
• The measurement of evapotranspiration for a given type of surface. These surfaces are kept wet from
which water loss is recorded.
vegetation type can be carried out in two ways either
by using hypsometers or by the use of field plots. • In pitch atmometer a graduated glass tube 1.5 cm in
diameter and 30 cm long with one end open is used.
• The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as
• The atmometers suffer with the drawback that they
in the surrounding field.
overestimate the evaporation due to wind effect and
• Evapotranspiration is estimate in terms of the underestimate evaporation. due to radiation effect.
amount of water required to maintain constant
93. The Earth's water circulatory system is known
moisture conditions within the tank measured either
as
volumetrically or gravimetrically through an
(a) Precipitation cycle (b) Hydrological cycle
arrangement made in the lysimeter.
(c) Water cycle (d) None of the above
• Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive.
KPSC AEE 16/06/2023
89. In which of the following studies is hydrology Ans. (b) : The earth's water circulating system is
NOT important? known as the hydrologic cycle.
(a) Assessment of water resources • Hydrologic cycle is the process of transfer of
(b) Study of floods moisture from the atmosphere to the earth in the form of
(c) Study of Rainfall characteristics precipitation, conveyance of the precipitated water by
(d) Study of hydrophobic materials streams and rivers to ocean and lakes etc, and
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 evaporation of water back to the atmospheric.
Ans. (d) : The following studies are hydrology:- The hydrologic cycle consists of the following
(i) Assessment of water resources processes–
(ii) Study of floods • Evaporation and transpiration (E)
(iii) Study of rainfalls characteristics • Precipitation (P)
Irrigation Engineering 374 YCT
 Ans. (d) : Ground water flow or base flow-
It is that portion of precipitation, which after
infiltration percolates down and joints the ground water
reservoir which is ultimately connected to the ocean
Inter flow or sub- surface runoff- A portion of
precipitation infiltrates into surface soil and depending
upon the geology of the basins runs as sub-surface
runoff and reaches the streams and rivers.
97. Which of the following types of rain gauge is
used for measuring rain in remote hill areas?
(a) Tipping bucket type
(b) Weighing bucket type
94. The study of water in all its forms (rain, snow (c) Floating type
and water on the earth’s surface), and from its
origins to all its destinations on the earth is (d) Simon's rain gauge
called _________. ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
JSSC JDLCCE JE 10/10/2023 (Civil) Ans. (a) In tipping bucket type rain gauge, the rain
OR water is first caught in a collector and passed through a
The science that deals with the occurrence, funnel. The funnel discharge the water into a two bucket
circulation and distribution of water of the earth compartment when some amount of rain (0.10 – 0.25
and the earth's atmosphere is known as______. mm) gets filled up in one compartment the bucket tips,
(a) environment (b) oceanography emptying into a reservoir and moving the second
(c) hydrology (d) hydraulics compartment into place beneath the funnel.
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening) The movement of the tipping of the bucket can be
Ans. (c) : Hydrology– The occurrence, distribution and transmitted electrically over a distance, so such gauges
movement of water on earth including that in the can be installed in hilly or inaccessible area.
atmosphere and below the surface of the earth is defined 98. In the context of measurement of rain fall,
as hydrology. which of the following is type of non-automatic
• Except for deep ground water, the total water supply rain-gauge?
of earth is in constant circulation from earth to (a) Float Type
atmosphere and back to earth. (b) Weighing Type
• The process of transfer of moisture from the atmosphere
(c) Symons' Type
to the earth in form precipitation, conveyance of
precipitated water by streams and rivers to ocean and (d) Tipping Bucket Type
lakes etc. known as hydrological cycle. SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
Precipitation (P) = Evaporation (E) + Runoff (R) Ans. (c) : Rain gauge can be broadly classified into two
95. The instrument which measures the variation categories.
of humidity with time is called (i) Non-recording rain gauge
(a) hygrometer (b) Hydrometer (ii) Recording rain gauge
(c) Thermohydrometer (d) Thermohygrometer Symon's Raingauge;- The non recording gauge
GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022 extensively used in India is Symon's gauge it essentially
Ans. (a) : A hygrometer is an instrument used to consists of a circular collecting area of 12.7 cm
measure the amount of water vapour in air, in soil, or in diameter connected to a funnel. The rim of the collector
confined spaces. Humidity measurement instrument is set in a horizontal plane at a height of 30.5 cm above
usually rely on measurement of some other quantity ground level.
such as temperature, mass etc. in a substances as a 99. An isohyet is a line joining points of
moisture is absorbed. (a) equal temperature (b) equal humidity
96. Identify the hydrological process given in the (c) equal rainfall depth (d) equal evaporation
following description: CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
'The portion of precipitation, which after Ans : (c) :
infiltration, percolates down and joins the • An isohyet is a imaginary line joining points of
ground water reservoir which ultimately
equal rainfall depth.
connected to ocean.'
(a) Transpiration runoff • In the isohyetal method, the catchment area is drawn
(b) Sub-surface runoff to scale and the raingauge stations are marked. The
(c) Surface runoff recorded values for which area average P is to be
(d) Ground water flow run off determined are then marked on the plot at appropriate
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III stations.

Irrigation Engineering 375 YCT

• Neighboring stations outside the catchments are also Ans. (d) : Convective precipitation : Convective
considered. precipitation is caused by natural rising of warmer
ligher air in colder, denser surroundings the difference
in temperature may result from unequal heating at the
surface, unequal cooling at the top of the air layer, or
mechanical lifting when air is forced to pass over a
denser colder air masses. Convective precipitation is
spotty and its intensity may vary from light showers to
cloud bursts.
103. Precipitation in the form of irregular pellets or
lumps of ice of size more than 8 mm is known as
_______.
• The area between adjacent isohyets is measured (a) hail (b) sleet
using a planimeter. (c) fog (d) glaze
100. The process of losing water from the leaves of UPRVNL JE (Civil) 23/12/2022
plants is termed as _______. Ans. (a) : Rain– It is a precipitation in form of water
(a) Surface evaporation drops of size greater than 0.5 mm and less than 6 mm.
(b) Water surface evaporation Drizzle are fine droplets of water whose size is less
(c) Transpiration than 0.5 mm and intensity is less than 1 mm/hr.
(d) Precipitation Sleet–These are frozen rain drops of transparent
RITES AM 05/05/2024 nature.
Ans. (c) : Transpiration–Water loss through the leaves Hail– The showery precipitation in the form of
of plant is termed as transpiration. irregular pallets or lumps of ice of size more than 5 mm is
Evaporation–It is the conversion of liquid to the called hail.
vapour phase. Snowfall– The fall of larger snow flakes from
Precipitation–It is the deposition of water on the clouds on ground surface is called snowfall.
earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, hail, frost etc. Glaze– When droplets of water comes in contact
101. The mechanical lifting of moist air over with cold ground (about 00C) is freezes and converted
mountain barriers causes heavy precipitation into ice, which is called glaze.
on the windward side is a type of ..............
104. The standard Symons type rain gauge has a
(a) convectional precipitation
collecting area of diameter
(b) convective precipitation
(a) 12.7 cm (b) 10 cm
(c) orographic precipitation
(c) 5.08 cm (d) 25.4 cm
(d) cyclonic precipitation
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-2
RITES AM 05/05/2024
Ans. (c) : Orographic precipitation– The moist air Ans. (a) : Symon rain gauge– It is most common type
masses may get lifted up to higher altitudes due to the of non-automatic rain-gauge, and is used by
presence of mountain barriers and consequently meteorological department of government in India.
undergo cooling, condensation and precipitation. Such a • It consists of cylindrical vessel 12.7 cm (or 5") in
precipitation is known as orographic precipitation. diameter with a base enlarged to 210 mm (or 8")
Thus, in mountain ranges, the windward slopes diameter.
have heavy precipitation and the leeward slopes have 105. Which of the following term describes the
light rainfall. movement of water through soil layers and
rock formations and reach ground water table?
(a) Run off (b) Evaporation
(c) Percolation (d) Transpiration
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
Ans. (c) : Percolation is the process by which water
moves downward through the soil under gravitational
forces. The rate of percolation depends on the water
102. ___________ is caused by natural rising of content and the hydraulic conductivity.
warmer lighter air in colder denser 106. By which method one can determine the
surroundings. average depth of rainfall over an area?
(a) Frontal precipitation (a) Isogonal Method
(b) Orographic precipitation (b) Symon's Method
(c) Cyclonic precipitation (c) Arithmetic Mean Method
(d) Convective precipitation (d) All of these
JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil) PGVCL VS JE 20/01/2022
Irrigation Engineering 376 YCT
Ans. (c) : Arithmetical mean method– When the 1
= × 100 × 60 × 3600
rainfall measured at various stations in catchment show 2
little variation, the average precipitation over catchment = 10800000 m3.
area is taken as arithmetic mean of station values. Total rainfall
P + P ........Pn Effective rainfall depth =
P= 1 2 catchment area
N
108 × 105
107. Calculate the infiltration loss, if the intensity of =
rainfall is 2 cm/hr and duration of rainfall is 3 500 × 106
= 0.0216 m
hrs. Evaporation loss is 8 mm & corresponding
runoff is 3.6 cm. = 2.16 cm
(a) 24 mm (b) 8 mm 110. If the base period of a 6 hr. unit hydrograph of
(c) 28 mm (d) 16 mm a basin is 84 hr. then, the base period of a 12
CG Vyapam Sub Engineer 08/05/2022 hr. unit hydrograph of the same basin will be
(a) 90 hr. (b) 168 hr.
Ans. (d) : Given,
(c) 72 hr. (d) 84 hr.
P = 2 × 3 = 6 cm
UPPSC AE 29.05.2022 (Paper II)
E = 8 mm = 0.8 cm
Runoff = 3.6 cm Ans. (a) : The 12 hour unit hydrograph will be
Total infiltration loss = (P – E – R) obtained by adding the ordinates of 6 hr. and ordinates
= (6 – 0.8 – 3.6) of 6 hr. Unit hydrograph and then dividing the
ordinates by 2. So the base period for 12 hour unit
= 1.6 cm
hydrograph will be 84 + 6 = 90 hr.
= 16 mm.
111. The Western Ghats of India experiences
108. A river has an average surface width of 20 m
precipitation of 200 cm. The corresponding
and length 60 km. If the evaporation measured
runoff by using Inglis formula is
in the vicinity of river by a US Class- A Pan is
(a) 121.5 cm (b) 139.5 cm
0.50 cm/day, Pan coefficient is 0.7, then the
(c) 148 cm (d) 111.8 cm
volume of water evaporated in a month of 30
days in m3 is GPSC G.E.S. (Pre) 28/07/2021
(a) 108 × 103 (b) 180 Ans. (b) : Given precipitation = 200 cm
Inglis formula for Ghats regions of western India.
(c) 12.6 × 106 (d) 126 × 103
R = 0.85P – 30.5
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II
= 0.85 × 200 – 30.5
Ans. (d) : Length of river (L) = 60 km = 60 × 103 m R = 139.5 cm
width (B) = 20 m
112. A catchment of area 500 hectares has runoff
Pan coefficient (Cp) = 0.7
coefficient of 0.5. A storm of duration larger
Evaporation ratio (E) = 0.50 cm/day than the time of concentration of the catchment
Total evaporation = Cp × V and of intensity 3.6 cm/h causes a peak
= 0.7 × ( 60 × 103 × 20 × 0.5 × 10 −2 ) × 30 discharge of :
= 4200 × 30 (a) 5 m3/s (b) 10 m3/s
3
= 126000 m3 = 126 × 103 m3 (c) 25 m /s (d) 50 m3/s
GPSC DEE (GWSSB) 04.07.2021
109. A direct runoff hydrograph due to an isolated
storm was triangular in shape with a base of 60 Ans. (c) : Given,
hr. and a peak of 100 m3/s. If the catchment Catchment of area = 500 ha
area is 500 km2, the effective rainfall of the Runoff coefficient (K) = 0.5
storm is Rainfall intensity (PC) = 3.6 cm/h
(a) 1.08 cm (b) 2.16 cm Peak flood discharge,
(c) 21.6 cm (d) 10.0 cm 1
QP = ×K.PC.A
UKPSC AE Paper-2 25.04.2022 36
Ans. (b) : 1
= × 0.5 × 3.6 × 500
36
= 25 m3/sec
113. The total rainfall in a catchment, area 1200
km2 during a 6 hour storm is 16 cm while the
surface runoff due to storm is 1.2 × 108 m3. The
φ index is :
Discharge = 100 m3/sec (a) 0.1 cm/hr (b) 1.0 cm/hr
Time = 60 hr. (c) 0.2 cm/hr (d) 1.6 cm/hr
Total rainfall = area of hydrograph UPPCL AE 29.08.2021
Irrigation Engineering 377 YCT
Ans. (b) : Given, Ans. (d) : Direct method of discharge measurement,
Catchment area = 1200 km2 = 1200 × 106 m2 there are following method :
Rainfall = 16 cm • Area velocity method
Time duration = 6 hours • Moving boat method
Surface runoff = 1.2 × 108 m3 • Dilution technique
surface runoff • Electromagnetic method
Runoff intensity = • Ultrasonic method.
catchment area
Indirect method of discharge measurement :
1.2 × 108 1. In this method, we include such technique which find
= = 0.1m
1200 × 106 the discharge with the help of relationship between
= 10 cm discharge and depth.
P − R 16 − 10 6 2. The broad classification of this method are :
φ − index = = = = 1cm / hr. • Flow measurement structure
t 6 6
• Slope area method.
114. A mean annual runoff of 1 m3/s from a
catchment of area 315.36 km2 represents an 117. A unit hydrograph has one unit of–
effective rainfall of_________________. (a) Rainfall duration (b) Rainfall excess
(a) 100 cm (b) 1.0 cm (c) Direct runoff (d) Peak discharge
(c) 100 mm (d) 3.17 cm CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 05-12-2021 Ans. (b) : Unit Hydrograph- A unit hydrograph is
defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting
Ans. (c): Given that, from one unit depth (1cm) of rainfall excess occurring
Mean annual Run-off = 1 m3/s uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate for a
Catchment area = 315.36 km2 = 315.36 × 106 m2 specified duration (D hours).
Mean annual rainfall This method was first suggested by Sherman in 1932
Effective rainfall =
Catchment area and has undergone many refinements since then.
1× 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 118. The rising limb of a hydrograph represents:
= (a) Decreasing flood potential
315.36 ×106
1 (b) Rising stream discharge
= m = 10cm = 100mm (c) Decreasing groundwater levels
10 (d) Increasing precipitation intensity
115. A watershed of 600 ha in area experienced a MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
rainfall of uniform intensity 2.0 cm/hour for a
Ans. (b) : The rising limb of the hydrograph represent
duration of 8 hours. If the resulting surface
the rapid increase in resulting from rainfall causing
runoff is measured as 0.48 Mm3, the average
surface runoff and them later through flow. The rising
infiltration capacity during the storm is
limb of a hydrograph represent rising stream discharge.
______________.
• The falling limb is when discharge decreases and the
(a) 1.5 cm/hour (b) 0.75 cm/hour
rivers level falls.
(c) 1.0 cm/hour (d) 2.0 cm/hour
HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 05-12-2021
Ans. (c) Given,
Catchment area = 600 ha = 600 × 104m2
Rainfall intensity = 2 cm/h
Time duration = 8 hour
Surface runoff = 0.48 Mm3 = 0.48 × 106 m3
Total rainfall = 2 × 8 = 16 cm
0.48 × 106
Intensity of runoff = = 0.08 m = 8 cm
600 × 104
Loss due to infiltration = 16 – 8 = 8 cm AB = Rising limb & DE = Falling limb
8 119. ............... is the direct runoff hydrograph
Average infiltration capacity = = 1cm / hr.
8 resulting from one centimeter of excess rainfall
116. The following is not direct stream flow generated uniformly over a catchment area at a
determination technique : constant rate for an effective duration.
(a) Dilution method (a) S-curve
(b) Ultrasonic method (b) Hyetograph
(c) Area velocity method (c) Unit Hydrograph
(d) Slope area method (d) Mass curve analysis
CSEB JE 03.03.2024 MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III
Irrigation Engineering 378 YCT
 Ans. (c) : Unit hydrograph– A unit hydrograph is 124. The graphical representation of rainfall
defined as the hydrograph of direct runoff resulting intensity with time is known as ............
from one unit depth (1 cm) of rainfall excess occurring (a) hyetograph (b) draw down graph
uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate for a (c) hydrograph (d) unit hydrograph
specified duration (D hours). AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
120. In unit hydrograph, the magnitude of effective Ans. (a) : Hyetograph– A hyetograph is a plot of
rainfall is the intensity of rainfall against the time interval.
(a) 1.50 mm (b) 1.05 inch
(c) 1.0 cm (d) 0.5 cm
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-I
Ans. (c) : See the above Explanation.
121. A unit hydrograph consists of a hydrograph of
direct runoff resulting from the following
mentioned below which takes place uniformly • The hyetograph is derived from the mass curve and
over the basin at a uniform rate during a is usually represented as a bar chart.
specified period of time • It is a very convenient way of representing the
(a) One cm of rainfall characteristics of a storm and is particularly
(b) Ten cm of rainfall important in the development of designs storms to
(c) One cm of effective rainfall predict extreme floods.
(d) Ten cm of effective rainfall • It is the plot of the rainfall intensity drawn on the
ordinate axis against time on the obscissa axis.
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
125. Hydrograph is a graphical represents of ____
Ans. (a) : See the above Explanation.
(a) Surface run-off
122. What do you call a graph which is plotted for (b) Ground water flow
discharge versus time? (c) Rainfall
(a) Snow graph (b) Hydrograph (d) Catchment response corresponding to a
(c) Rain graph (d) Fluid graph particular storm
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 Kerala PSC (PWD) AE 07/06/2023
Ans. (b) : Hydrograph–Hydrograph is a graph that Ans. (d) : Hydrograph–A hydrograph is a graphical
shows plot of discharge in a stream against time (in representation of stream flow characteristics (i.e.,
hours or days). Hydrograph is the graphical discharge, stage or velocity) with respect to time at a
representation of runoff and time. specific point in a river or other channel.
• It is a response of a given catchment to the rainfall
input.
126. The shape of recession limb of a hydrograph
depends upon
(a) Basin characteristics only
(b) Storm characteristics only
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
Ans. (a) :

123. The concept of unit hydrograph was first

introduced by
(a) Dalton (b) Sherman
(c) Snyder (d) Thiessen
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Ans. (b) : Theory of unit hydrograph- The problem of
predicting the flood hydrograph resulting from a known
storm in a catchment has received considerable
attention. A large number of methods are proposed to
solve this problem and of them probably the most MA = Base flow recession
popular and widely used method is the unit hydrograph AB = Rising limb
method. BC = Crest segment
• This method was first suggested by Le-Roy K⋅ CD = Falling limb
Sherman in 1932. DN = Base flow recession

Irrigation Engineering 379 YCT

Flood hydrograph has three characteristics regions- • Where t0 is the time at the beginning of curve and Q is
Rising limb (AB)– Curve joining point A, the starting the discharge rate. Since the hydrograph is a plot of Q
point of the rising curve and point B, the point of vs t, it is easy to see that the flow mass curve is an
inflection. It is concave in shape and the shape depends
integral curve of the hydrograph.
both upon the rainfall and the catchment parameters. 129. There are ______ levels of coastal flooding.
Crest segment (BC)– Between the two points of
(a) three (b) five
inflection B and C with a peak D, for large catchments
(c) four (d) two
it generally occurs sometimes after the rainfall has
ended. GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II
Falling limb or recession limb– Curve CD starting Ans. (a) :There are three levels of coastal flooding :
from the second point of inflection C and the shape (i) Minor– Low likelihood of property damage and not
depends only an catchment parameter (Basin directly life-threatening.
characteristics only) as the rainfall has ceased by them.
(ii) Moderate– Elevated likelihood of property damage
127. The amount of effective rainfall increase with and possibly life-threatening.
(a) increase in water holding capacity of soil (iii) Major– Significant likelihood of property damage
(b) increase in deep percolation ratio and seriously life-threatening.
(c) increase in infiltration rate 130. Dicken's formula for estimating the flood
(d) increase in permeability rate discharge is expressed as:
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-2 (where, Qp = maximum flood discharge in m3/s,
Ans. (c) : Effective rainfall–Effective rainfall is that A = catchment area in km2, CD = Dickens
part of the rainfall that becomes direct runoff at the constant with value between 6 to 30)
outlet of the watershed. It is thus the total rainfall in a (a) Qp = CDA3/4
given duration from which abstraction such as (b) Qp = CDA4/3
infiltration and initial losses are subtracted. (c) Qp = CD3/4A
• If increasing effective rainfall– (d) Qp = CD4/3A
(i) Reducing surface run-off
SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
(ii) Increasing infiltration (exception rice culture)
Ans. (a) : Dicken's formula– Qp = CDA3/4
(iii) Building water storage structures.
(iv) Minimizing deep percolation losses. Where,
Qp = Maximum flood discharge (runoff) in m3/sec
128. The flow mass curve is a graphical
representation of A = Catchment area is (km2)
(a) Cumulative discharge and time CD = Dickens constants with value between 6 to 30
(b) Discharge and percentage probability of flowThe following are some guidelines in selecting the
being equaled or exceeded value of CD
(c) Cumulative discharge; volume and time in Region Value of CD
chronological order North India plains 6
(d) Discharge and time in chronological order North Indian hilly regions 11-14
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 Central India 14-28
Ans. (c) : Flow mass curve– Coastal Andhra and Orisha 22-28
131. The Hydrologic flood routing methods employ
the equations of:
(a) Energy Equation only
(b) Both momentum and continuity equations
(c) Equation of Continuity only
(d) Equation of motion only
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : The passage of a flood hydrograph through a
• The flow-mass curve is a plot of the cumulative reservoir is defined as un unsteady flow phenomenon.
discharge, volume against time plotted in
chronological order. • In open channel hydraulics, the continuity equation
is used in all hydrologic routing as the primary
• The ordinate of the mass curve, V at any time t is
thus equation.
t
• The continuity equation states that the difference
V = ∫ Q.dt between the inflow and outflow rate is equal to the
t0 rate of change of storage.

Irrigation Engineering 380 YCT

 STRESS & STRAIN True Strain ( εT ) -
Stress- Deformation under applied load of a material is
Stress is the internal resistance or counterforce of a known as true strain.
material to distorting effects of an external force or Change in instanteneous dimension
load. εT =
Dimension after loading
Applied load P
Stress, σ = =  lf  A   di 
Cross-Sectional area A ε T = ln   = ln  i  = ln  
Unit- N/m2, MPa l
 i   Af   df 
Elasticity-
It is the property of material by virtue of which it
return back to its original dimensions during
unloading.
Hooke's law-
Hooke's law is valid for homogeneous, isotropic and
linearly elastic material.
Every material obeys Hooke's law within its limit of
proportionality i.e.
Stress(σ) ∝ strain (ε) or σ = E.ε
Elastic constant-
(i) Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
Longitudinal stress σ
E= =
Longitudinalstrain ε
Strain- Note-
Strain is the deformation or displacement of material Modulus of elasticity is based on Hooke's law.
that results from an applied stress. or Displacement
per unit length (cause of stress). Material will be more elastic if E is more.
(ii) Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus (G)-
Change in length δl It is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within
Strain (ε) = =
Original length l elastic limit i.e.
Shear Modulus,
Normal strain is measured with the help of
extensometer/wire strain gauge. Shear stress τ
Unit- Dimensionless quantity. G= =
Shear strain φ
Types of strain-
(i) Tensile strain (ii) Compressive Strain (iii) Bulk or volume modulus of elasticity-
(iii) Volumetric strain (iv) Shear strain The ratio of normal/direct stress to volumetric strain
Engineering/convectional/Nominal stress (σE ) – is defined as bulk modulus i.e.
Direct or hydrostatic stress σ
Applied load K= =
σE = Volumetric strain εv
Cross-sectional area before loading
Engineering strain (ε E ) - −∆P ∆P
K= = −V
∆V ∆V
Change in dimension
εE = V
Original dimension Where, –ve sign shows decrease in volume.
True/Actual/Natural stress ( σT ) - Volumetric strain-
It is related to the study of the plastic behavior of The ratio of the change in volume of a body to its
material and follows power's law. original volume is known as volumetric strain i.e.
Applied load Change in volume ∆V
σT = εv = =
Cross section area after loading Original volume V

Mechanics of Structures 381 YCT

 P σ Relation Between Elastic Modulii-
= (1 − 2µ ) = (1 − 2µ ) 9KG 1
b.t.E E • E = 2G(1 + µ), • E= , • µ=
Where, l = Length of bar, b = Breadth of bar 3K+G m
t = Thickness, P = Axial force 3K − 2G
• E = 3K(1 – 2µ), • µ=
Relation between stress and strain- 6K + 2G
For any engineering material ⇒ 0 ≤ µ ≤ 0.5
Limit µ G K
Minimum Limit 0 E/2 E/3
Maximum Limit 0.5 E/3 ∞
ELONGATION IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF BAR-
(i) Due to axial load-
Type of bar Elongation δl
Prismatic bar Due to external load
Pl σl
δl = =
AE E
σ1 σ
Strain in x-direction, ε x = −µ 2
E E
Circular tapered bar 4Pl
σ2 σ1 δl =
Strain in y-direction, ε y = −µ π d1d 2 E
E E
Poisson's Ratio (µ)-
The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is
known as Poisson's ratio. Rectangular tapered bar b 
Pl loge  2 
Range - [–1 to 0.5]  b1 
A Poisson ratio less than –1 would correspond to a δl =
(b2 − b1 )Et
material that when compressed in a given direction,
shrinks more in transverse direction than in the t= thickness
given direction. Composite bars P = P1 + P2
Poisson's ratio, Change in length
Lateral strain 1 P1L PL
µ=− = δl1 = δl2 = = 2
Longitudinal/ Linear strain m A1E1 A 2 E 2
Where, A1E1
• m = Modular ratio (lie between 3 - 4). P1 = ×P
A1E1 + A 2 E 2
∆d d − d o
• LateralStrain = = (Circular section) A2E2
do do P2 = ×P
A1E1 + A 2 E 2
∆l l − lo
• Linear Strain = = (ii) Due to self weight-
l lo
Material Poisson's Ratio Types of bar Elongation due to self weight
Human Tissues –1 (W)
Cork 0
Prismatic bar γl 2
Wl
δlp = =
Glass 0.18 - 0.3 2E 2AE
Cast Iron 0.23 - 0.27 wl 2 ρgl 2
= =
Elastic Material 0.25 - 0.40 2E 2E
Steel 0.27 - 0.33 (w or γ = ρg)
Rubber 0.50
Wrought Iron 0.30 Uniform tapering or Wl γl 2 ρgl 2
conical bar δlc = = or
Concrete 0.10 - 0.20 6AE 6E 6E
Mild steel 0.286 or
Aluminium (Pure Alloy) 0.33 1 Wl 1
Copper 0.33 - 0.36 δlc = × = × δlP
3 2AE 3

Mechanics of Structures 382 YCT

Prismatic bar due to PL WL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
external load (P) δl = +
AE 2AE (i) Brittleness-
& self weight It is the property of breaking of a material with little
permanent distortion. If percentage of carbon
increases, brittleness of material increases.
Ex - High carbon steel, concrete, glass, ceramic
material.
For Brittle material-
Ultimate Stress
Modulus of Elasticity for different types of F.O.S. =
Material- Working Stress
Material Young's Modulus (E)
Max. load
(MPa) Where, Ultimate stress =
Steel 2×105 Area
Copper 1.17×10 5 Note-
If, plastic deformation < 5% - material is brittle.
Cast Iron 1.7×105
5 If, plastic deformation ≥ 5% - material is ductile.
Timber (wood) 0.10×10
Rubber comes under the brittle material.
Aluminum 0.70×105 (ii) Hardness-
Glass 0.80×105 The ability of a material to resist deformation,
Stress-strain diagram for mild steel- penetration, indentation and scratching is known as
hardness.
(iii) Malleability-
It is a property of a material by which it can be
hammered/beaten in the form of thin sheet without
breaking.
Ex.- Aluminium, Copper, Gold, Silver and Iron.
Note- Malleability ∝ Ductility
(iv) Ductility-
Ductility is the ability of a material by which it can
drawn or plastically deformed without fracture or
• OA - Proportionality limit, (here, stress ∝ strain). ductility is the property of the metal due to which it
• OB - Elastic limit but OB is Non-linear. can be stretched into thin wire without breaking.
• C - Upper yield point (here elasticity is finished). Ductile materials has long plastic elongation range.
• D - Lower yield point (also known as yield stress fy). Maximum ductile material shows necking zone
before breaking point.
• DE- Constant stress region.
(v) Toughness-
• EF - Necking region, material starts offering Ability of a material to withstand stress (resist
resistance against deformation. fracture due to high impact loads) without fracture is
• FG -Strain hardening region, material starts offering known as toughness.
resistance against deformation. (vi) Endurance Limit (EL)-
• G - Breaking point Endurance limit or fatigue limit is the stress level
Proof Stress - below which an infinite number of loading cycles
Proof stress of a material can be defined as the stress can be applied to a material without causing fatigue
at which the material undergoes plastic deformation. failure.
It is determined as the stress corresponding to 0.2% 1
Endurance strength = × ultimate strength.
of strain from the stress strain curve of the material. 2
Working/ permissible stress- If σind ≤ EL, then infinite life (i.e. ≥ 106 cycle).
Maximum allowable stress at which material can be If σind > EL, then finite life (i.e. 103 to 106 cycles).
subjected to under service load.
Factor of safety-
In case of mild steel
yield stress
Factor of Safety =
working stress
Note-
Ultimate stress > yield stress > working stress
S-N Diagram
Mechanics of Structures 383 YCT
(vii) Creep- σ 2p
It is time dependent and permanent deformation of a Modulus of Resilience =
material when subjected to a constant load or stress. 2E
It is a temperature dependent quantity. Where,
Stages of creep- σp = Proof stress
Primary Starts at a rapid rate and slows with (xiii) Relaxation-
Creep time. Stress relaxation is the time dependent decrease of
Secondary It has a relatively uniform rate the stress in a material under constant strain at
Creep constant temperature. It is similar to creep of
Tertiary Tertiary creep has accelerated creep concrete. This loss is commonly in the order of 2 to
Creep rate and terminates when the 8% of the initial stress.
material rupture. (xiv) Tenacity-
It is the properties of material, to resist tensile force
without failure. OR
Ultimate strength of material due to tensile force is
called tenacity.
Types of material-
Homogeneous It has same elastic properties at
Material any point in a given
direction

Isotropic Properties of a material are

Material identical at a given point in
(viii) Fatigue Strength- any direction
When a material is subjected to cyclic or repeated Ex.- Steel, Al, Cu.
loading, failure occurs before the yield strength is Orthotropic A material which has different
known as fatigue strength. material properties in all three
(ix) Stiffness (k)- mutually perpendicular
Stiffness is related to the resistance of a material planes.
against deformation due to applied load. Ex. Rolled metals, many
k ↑ - Deflection ↓ crystals.
(x) Resilience-
Strain energy stored due to strain within elastic limit Anisotropic Anisotropic materials are
by the elastic material is called resilience. material direction dependent. It have
The resilience of a material is considered when it is different properties in all
subjected to shock loading. direction at a point in the
body
σ2 Ex.- Wood, Glass , Water
UR = ×V
2E Number of Elastic Constant for various
(xi) Proof Resilience- Materials-
The maximum strain energy stored by the material Types of Total number of No. of
upto elastic limit without creating a permanent Material dependent Independent
distortion is known as proof resilience. Elastic Elastic
Proof resilience = Modulus of resilience × volume of Constants Constant
the body (E.G.K & µ)
σ 2p Homogeneous 4 2
i.e. UP = ×V and
2E
(xii) Modulus of resilience- Isotropic
Proof resilience per unit volume is called modulus of Orthotropic 12 9
resilience.
Modulus of resilience = Shaded area of a material in Anisotropic ∞ 21
stress-strain curve upto elastic limit
Stress-Strain Curve for Different Types of
Material-

Mechanics of Structures 384 YCT

(i) Brittle material (ii) Elasto-plastic (iii) Perfectly A point load is one with its weight significantly
material plastic concentrated in one places on the beam.
material

(ii) Uniformly distributed load-

The magnitude of the load remains uniform
throughout the whole structure or beam is known as
(iv) Elastic plastic (v) Elastic-Plastic (vi) Ideal rigid uniformly distributed load.
strain material material
hardening
material
(iii) Gradually Varying load-
The load which will be spread over the length of the
beam such a way that the rate of loading will vary
from point to point throughout the length of the
beam is known as gradually varying load. It is also
known as triangular load.
(vii) Linear elastic (viii) Ideal fluid (ix) Rigid linearly
material plastic
behavior

SHEAR FORCE & BENDING

MOMENT
Shear force is an internal force acting perpendicular to Types of support reactions-
the longitudinal axis of a structural member. Support Reaction
Beam- Roller/simple/ Rocker
Beam is a structural member which have uniform movable support
cross section and sufficient length as compared to
lateral dimension and subjected to transverse shear Hinged or pin support
load.
TYPES OF BEAM- Fixed or built in
support

Link support

Shear Force-
The algebraic sum of the vertical forces at any
section of beam to the right or left of the section is
known as shear force. One which shows variation in
shear force along the length of beam is known as
Note- shear force diagram.
Fixed or built in beam is also known as encaster
beam. Beam is subjected to bending moment.
Types of loading-
(i) Concentrated or point load-
A point load is a force applied at a single point on a
beam or structure. OR
Mechanics of Structures 385 YCT
Note- Various types of beam and their SFD and
Maximum bending moment occurs where shear BMD
force changes its sign from positive to negative.
Continuous beam having UDL-
+Ve bending moment provides sagging curve while
–Ve bending moment provides hogging curve.
Degree of SFD & BMD Diagram for various loading–
Loads SFD BMD
Point Constant Linear

UDL Linear Parabolic SFD-

UVL Parabolic Cubic

Parabola
Important points-
Types of beam (S.F.)max and (B.M.)max
BMD-
1. Fixed beam with wL
S.F.max =
triangular load 4
5wl 2
B.M.max, =
96

2. Fixed beam with UVL wl 2

B.M.max.B =
20
wl 2
B.M.max.A =
30

Point of Contraflexure-
A point where bending moment changes its sign or
gives zero bending moment is known as point of SSB having moment at centre-
contraflexure or point of contra shear.
Point of Inflexion-
It is the point where shear force changes its sign.
Note-
In case of overhanging beam no. of contra flexure
SFD-
point is two.
Equal Overhanging beam with U.D.L-

BMD-

Maximum B.M occurs at a distance, L = 2 2 a

Over hanging part, a = 0.207L
Distance between support, b = 0.586L

Mechanics of Structures 386 YCT

 MOMENT OF INERTIA
Moment of inertia and centre of gravity of different cross section-
Cross-Section C.G. Moment of Inertia Section Modulus
I
Z=
Y
1. Rectangular Section b bd 3 bd 2
x= I xx = Zxx =
2 12 6
d db3 b2d
y= I yy = Z yy =
2 12 6
bd 3
I base =
3
2. Hollow Rectangular Section
x=
B  BD3 − bd 3   BD3 − bd 3 
2 I xx =  Zxx = 
6D

12  
D
y=  DB − db3 
3
 DB − db 
3 3
2 I yy =   Z yy =  
 12   6B 

3. Square Section a a4 a3
x=y= I xx = I yy = Zxx = Z yy =
2 12 6
a4
I base =
3

4. Rhombus a a4 a3
x=y= I NA = I XX = I yy = Zxx = Z yy =
2 12 6 2

5. Triangular section b bh 3 bh 2
x= IG = I xx = Z xx =
3 36 24
h bh 3
y= From base I base =
3 12
2h
y= From top bh 3
3 ITop =
4
6. Solid Circular Section D πD 4 πD3
x=y= I xx = I yy = Zxx = Z yy =
2 64 32
πD 4 πD3
I zz = Zzz =
32 16
5πD 4
I base =
64

7. Hollow Circular Section D π(D 4 − d 4 ) π(D 4 − d 4 )

x=y= I xx = I yy = Zxx = Z yy =
2 64 32D
π(D − d )
4 4
I zz =
32

Mechanics of Structures 387 YCT

 π(D 4 − d 4 )
Zzz =
16D

8. Solid Semi Circular Section D πD 4 πR 4 πD 4

x= or R I yy = Ibase = or Z yy = ZPQ =
2 128 8 64
4R
y= πD 4
3π IXX = or .1098R 4
457

9. Quarter Circular Section 4R I xx = I yy = 0.0549R 4

x=
3π
πD 4
y=
4R ( IG )XX = ( IG )YY = Zxx = Z yy = 0.549R 3
256
3π

10. Trapezoidal Section

h  2a + b  h 3  a 2 + b 2 + 4ab  IG
y max = y =   IG =   ZG =
3 a+b  36  a+b  y max

STRESSES IN BEAMS w ( w × e)
σ min = σ d − σ b = − y
Assumption of pure bending or simple bending- A I
(i) Material of the beam is homogenous, isotropic and Shear Stress-
obeys Hook's law. Shear stress due to shear force is a type of stress. That
(ii) Transverse section of beam is symmetrical about a acts coplanar with cross section of beam.
line passing through C.G. in the plane of bending. Shear stress equation-
(iii) Transverse sections plane before bending remains V.Ay
plane after bending. Shear stress, τ =
(iv) Each and every layer of the beam is free to expand I.b
or contract, independently. Where,
(v) Radius of curvature is very large as compared to V = Transverse shear force
the cross-sectional dimension. b = Width of section
(vi) Buckling is neglected and loads are applied in the Ay = First moment of Area
place of bending. y = Distance of CG of section from N.A.
MR σ E τmax τmax τ NA
• Bending/flexure equation- = = Ratio of , , for different cross section
I y R τavg τ NA τavg
• Combined direct and bending stress : τ max τ max τ NA
Load acting eccentrically to one axis : Cross-Section
τ avg. τ NA τ avg.
M × y ( w × e) y
σb = =
I I 3/2 1 3/2
Rectangular/square
w ( w × e) Circular 4/3 1 4/3
σ max = σ d + σ b = + y
A I Triangle 3/2 9/8 4/3
(When σb is compressive) Diamond 9/8 9/8 1

Mechanics of Structures 388 YCT

 Shear stress distribution for different section- ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES
A truss is a structure composed of slender member
joined together at their end points. Economical
L L
spacing of the trusses - to
4 5
It is a structure that consists of members into
 2  connected triangles so that the overall assembly
• For rectangular section, τ = V  d − y 2  behaves as a single object.

2I  4 

 Degree of static indeterminacy of truss-
V
• For circular section, τ = (r 2 − y 2 ) Ds = m + r − 2j
3I
Note– Ds < 0 Truss is unstable
Ds > 0 Statically Indeterminate or redundant
τmax = 1.5τavg For rectangular section Ds = 0 Statically Determinate truss

τmax = 1.5τavg – For triangular section m = 2j – 3 Perfect, simple or statically

determinate stable truss
m < 2j – 3 Deficient or unstable truss
τmax = 1.33τavg – For circular section m > 2j – 3 Redundant or indeterminate truss
Composite and I section Where,
m = Number of members
r = Number of support reaction
j = Number of joints
Space frame truss (3D)-
It is a three dimensional truss structure composed of
linear axial members arranged in geometric pattern
and joined at pin connections.
Assumptions of Truss-
For I-section- All members are connected at their ends by the
frictionless or smooth pins.
Shear stress in flange , τf Width of Web, b w
= Members are straight and subjected only to axial
Shear stress in Web , τ w Width of flange , b f forces.
Self weight of the members are negligible.
V Deformation of members under loads are negligible.
τ=  b (D 2 − d 2 )  + b w (d 2 − 4y 2 )
8I.B  f All loads are applied only at the joints.
for τ max , y = 0 Moment should not developed in any condition.
T and L section Types of truss
Based on Geometry (Planer truss 2D)-
(i) Simplest truss or plane truss-
The simplest truss is two dimensional and includes
three axial members arranged in a triangle form and
connected at three joints.
A basic triangle truss unit is the form of a simple
truss.

Rhombus section-

(ii) Compound truss-

It is a structure composed of two or more simple
trusses connected to form a single rigid body.

4V.y 9V
τ= (3d − 4y) τmax =
d4 4d 2

Mechanics of Structures 389 YCT

(iii) Complex truss- 3. Graphical method or Tension factor method-
A truss that cannot be categorized as a simple truss Method of joint is used as the basis for a graphical
or a compound truss is considered as complex truss. analysis of trusses
There are no join where only two bars meet. Willot Mohr's method is a graphical method which
is used for calculation of deflection of truss.
Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Truss-
1. Maxwell unit load method-
This method is extensively used in the calculation of
deflection of beams frames and trusses.
Procedure-
(i) Choose redundant such that its removal does not
make structure unstable.
(ii) Then remove redundant and find out member forces
Concept of zero force in Member- due to external loading.
Member that supports no loading but aid in the
(iii) Remove external loading and apply the unit force
stability of the truss is called zero force member.
(equal and opposite) at joint and connecting the
It is a member in a truss which, given a specific load
removal member to calculate the member force (K).
is at rest neither in tension nor in compression.
(i) If three members are meeting at a joint and two (iv) Net member force F = P + KX
members are collinear (i.e. line of action of force is
∂U
same) then the force in third member is zero. (v) Minimize the strain energy by = 0 , Where
(ii) If panel shear force is zero in any panel, then force ∂X
in the inclined member in that panel will be always F2 dX
zero. U=Σ
2AE
(iii) It is used to increase stability and rigidity of the truss
and to support various loading conditions. n −1 PKL
−Σ
(vi) So, X = AE
n −1
K2L
Σ
AE
2. Castigliano's Method-
P 2L ∂U PKL
U=Σ Then, δ= =Σ
2AE ∂W AE
Statically determinate truss- Where, P = P1, P2, P3 ..... force in all member due to
1. Method of Joint- applied load W.
Equilibrium conditions of joint is considered in this
L = L1, L2...... length of all member
method.
Joint analysis should be starts at the joint where at K = K1, K2, K3 ......
least one known and no more than two unknown K = Force in all member due to unit load applied at
forces is available. the point where we want to find displacement.
Apply equilibrium condition at particular joint (∑Fx In any statically determinate structure, due to
= 0, ∑Fy =0) and find force. temperature change or sinking and yielding of
This method is most suitable when force to be find support, fabrication errors stress are not developed
in all members. anywhere in the structure while In a statically
2. Method of section- indeterminate structure these are developed in the
Equilibrium conditions of the section of a truss is structure or some part of structure due to temperature
considered. change.
• Find the support reaction Lack of fit in truss-
• Cut the member under considering by a section and Lack of fit is an occurrence in trusses in which there
consider equilibrium ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0 is a difference between the length of a member and
Note- the distance between nodes it is supposed to fit.
For method of section- Internal forces develop in a redundant frame due to
It is most suitable when forces in only few members lack of fit.
to be determine not in each member. It is occurs due to incorrect length of members.
Section line must not cut more than 3 member It is cause of extra force on the truss member.
(because we do not have more than 3 equilibrium ∂U Q2L
equation). =∆ Where, U = ∑
∂X 2AE
Cut the member such that all member do not meet at
one joint, if they meet at one joint one equation is Q = Force induce in the member which is '∆' too short
useless (i.e. ΣM = 0) or '∆' too long is pulled by force 'X'.
Mechanics of Structures 390 YCT
Note- 3. Strain energy due to impact loading-
Sag tie is used to reduced deflection and moment
generally.
Method of Tension coefficient -
This method is developed by R.V. south well in 1920.
For this method analyze the problem of plane and
space truss.
It is defined as the tension per unit length of the
member. This method is based or methods of joints
and equilibrium.
T T = Tension or pull force P 2 EAh P 2  2P 
Tension coefficient, t = σ impact = + + 2 If h = 0 σ =
l l = length of member A P A  A 

STRAIN ENERGY 2EPh

When, δl < h σimpact =
AL
The energy stored in a material due to elastic
deformation is called strain energy. It is a scalar 4. Strain energy due to self weight-
1 1 1 PL P 2 L
quantity. Strain Energy, U = P.δ U self = Pδ = P × =
2 2 2 2AE 4AE
5. Strain energy due to self weight and applied load-
Where P = applied load, δ = Elongation of the body
Strain energy = Work done P2L P2L
U= +
Unit - Joule or N-m 2AE 4AE
Strain energy for different conditions Where, Applied weight = Self weight.
Types of Strain Strain energy (U) 3P 2 L
U= or U = 3 × U self
loading energy, (U) in constant variables 4AE
general case Strain Energy for Different types of Beam
Axial/Direct L 2
P dx P2L σ2 Types of Beam Strain Energy
load (tension ∫0 2AE 2AE
or
2E
× Volume
W 2l 3
or
compression) 6EI
Bending L
M 2 dx M 2L
∫ 2EI 2EI
0 w 2l 5
40EI
Direct shear L
P 2dx P2L τ2
∫0 2AG 2AG
or
2G
× Volume
W 2 l3
Transverse L
kV dx 2 2
kV L 96EI
shear ∫
0
2AG 2AG
Torsion- w 2l 5
1. For a solid L
T 2 dx T2L τ2 240EI
shaft ∫0 2GJ or
2GJ 4G
× Volume

2. For a hollow - τ2  R 2 + r 2  W 2 l3
.  .Volume
shaft 4G  R 2  384EI
Strain Energy due to various types of loading-
1. Strain Energy due to Gradual Loading- w 2l 5
Strain energy, U = σ 2 /2E × Volume 1440EI
2. Strain energy due to sudden loading-
σ2 M 2l
σsudden = 2 × σgradual U = 4×
× Volume
2E 2EI
U = 4 × Strain energy due to gradual loading

Mechanics of Structures 391 YCT

 Questions Asked in Previous Years 5. In an object, if longitudinal strain is tensile, the
lateral strain will be
1. The ratio of change in length to original length is :
(a) Tensile
(a) Axial strain (b) Shearing strain
(b) Compressive
(c) Volumetric strain (d) Poisson's ratio
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III (c) Zero
(d) Either tensile or compressive
Ans. (a) : Axial strain:- It is the ratio of change in
length to original length is called axial strain. (e) Answer not known
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
∆L
ea = Ans. (b) : We can say that tensile stress results in
L tensile strain in a linear direction and compressive
Volumetric strain:- It is the ratio of change in strains in lateral directions.
volume to the original volume of the test specimen.
∆V
ev =
V
2. A prismatic bar is acted up on by two co-axial
forces of magnitude F and 2F, as shown in the
figure below.
6. In Thermal Stress if the body is allowed to
expand or contract freely. ________ will be set
The amount of stress induced is............. up in the body.
(a) 2F/A (b) 3F/A (a) Tensile stresses
(c) F/A (d) 0 (b) Compressive stresses
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I (c) Shear stresses
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation (d) No stresses
3. The unit of the radius of gyration is ............. (e) Answer not known
(a) sec (b) mm TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
(c) kg (d) lbs Ans. (d) : Thermal stresses– Thermal stresses are the
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 stresses included in a body due to change in
Ans (b) : Radius of gyration (R)– The radius of temperature. Thermal stresses are set up in a body,
gyration is given as follows- when the temperature of the body is raised or lowered
I = AR2 and the body is not allowed to expand or contract freely.
I But if the body is allowed to expand or contract freely,
R= no stresses will be set up in the body.
A
Where, 7. Identify the mechanical property of a material
A = Area of the cross section with the following description.
I = Moment of inertia The property which permits a material to be
The unit of the radius of gyration– drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section,
I under the action force
R= (a) Isotropy (b) Toughness
A (c) Ductility (d) Malleability
mm 4 ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
R=
mm 2 Ans. (c) : The property of the material or a structure
indicating the extent to which it can deform beyond the
R = mm 2
limit of yield deformation before failure or fracture is
Unit of the radius of gyration (R) = mm
termed as ductility.
4. Which unit is used for engineering stress?
(a) Newton (N) • In the other hand the property which permits a
(b) Megapascals (MPa) material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced
(c) Inches (in) section, under the action force ductility.
(d) Both (A) and (C) 8. The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 is called:
Ans. (b) : Stress– Stress is a physical quantity that (a) Bulk modulus
expresses the internal forces that neighboring particles (b) Young's modulus of elasticity
of a continuous material exert on each other. (c) Poisson ratio
• SI unit of stress in N/m2 or Pa. (d) Modulus of rigidity
• Megapascals is unit of engineering stress (N/mm2). MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III
Mechanics of Structures 392 YCT
Ans. (c) : Poisson's ratio :- The ratio of lateral strain to Ans. (a) : Strain (ε) :- It is defined as the ratio of
longitudinal strain is known as Poisson's ratio. change of dimension of the body to the original
1 Lateral strain dimension is known as strain.
µ=  = Change in dimension
m Longitudinal strain Strain(ε) =
Original dimension
9. The maximum stress on a column, when the
load is suddenly applied, equal to ∆ ℓ ∆ b ∆d
ε= = =
Where, ℓ b d
W = Weight of the column ⇒ It is dimension less unit.
L = Length of the column 12. Modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of
A = Cross-sectional area (a) Shear stress to Shear Strain
E = Young's modulus (b) Linear stress to linear strain
2WL WL (c) Lateral strain/linear strain
(a) (b)
AE AE (d) Linear strain/lateral strain
WL 4WL CSEB JE 03.03.2024
(c) (d) Ans. (b) : Modulus of Elasticity (or Young's
2AE AE
(e) Answer not known Modulus):- The ratio of tensile stress or compressive
stress to the corresponding strain is a constant. This
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
ratio is known as Young's Modulus or Modulus of
Ans. (a) : Impact load / sudden apply load = 2 × Elasticity and is denoted by E.
Gradually applied load
Tensilestress Compressivestress
Maximum stress in column due to gradually applied load E= or
Tensilestrain Compressivestrain
WL
σgradually = σ
AE E=
Maximum stress in column due to sudden applied load - ε
2 × Wsudden × L 13. If a material has identical elastic properties in
σsudden = all directions, it is said to be
AE
(a) elastic (b) isotropic
2WL
σsudden = (c) homogeneous (d) orthotropic
AE UPSC ESIC JE CIVIL Paper 8 October 2023
Where,
Ans. (b) : Isotropic– If its physical properties are
W = Weight of the column
identical in all directions (independent of orientation) it
L = Length of the column
is called isotropic. An isotropic material has two
A = Cross-sectional area independent elastic constants.
E = Young's modulus. Elastic– If the material recovers it original shape after
10. Poisson’s ratio for structural steel is _______. the load is removed it is called elastic.
(a) 0.3 (b) 0.2 14. Unit of strain is:
(c) 0.15 (d) 0.35 (a) No unit (b) N
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 (c) N/mm
2
(d) N-mm
Ans. (a) : Value of Poisson's ratio– BMC Tech. Asst. (Civil) 22/10/2023
Material Poisson's ratio (µ) Ans. (a) : The strain is defined as the ratio of change in
Cast iron 0.20-0.30 dimension to the original dimension.
Wrought iron 0.30 δℓ
Steel 0.27-0.30 Strain =
ℓ
Aluminium (pure or alloy) 0.33 Strain has no unit, hence it is a dimensionless.
Brass 0.34 15. ............. is the property of the material
Bronze 0.34 undergoes deformation at constant stress over
Copper 0.33-0.36 a period of time.
Rubber 0.45-0.50 (a) Creep (b) Ductility
11. The ratio of change of dimension of the body to (c) Resilience (d) Fatigue
HPCL Officer 23/12/2023
the original dimension is known as ............
(a) strain Ans.(a) : Creep– It is defined as the property of a
material by virtue of which it undergoes a slow and
(b) stress permanent deformation under constant stress.
(c) both strain and stress Generally, occurs in a material when it is subjected to
(d) neither strain nor stress high temperature for a long period of time. Example-
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 boilers, steam turbine blade, furnace part etc.
Mechanics of Structures 393 YCT
Fatigue– When a material is subjected to repeated 20. The work done in producing strain on a
stresses. It fails at stress below the yield point stresses. material per unit volume is called
Such type of failure of material is known as fatigue. (a) Resilience (b) ductility
16. The strain at right angles to the direction of (c) Elasticity (d) Plasticity
applied load is known as ______.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
(a) Lateral strain (b) Shear strain
(c) Longitudinal strain (d) Young's strain Ans. (a) : Resilience – It is an ability of a material to
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27.05.2023 absorbs energy when elasticity deformed and to return it
Ans. (a) : Lateral strain– The strain at right angles to when unloaded.
the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. • The strain energy stored in a specimen when
Note– restrained within the elastic limit is known as resilience.
• If longitudinal strain is tensile, the lateral strain will σ2 ε2E
be compressive. U= × Volume , U= × Volume
• If longitudinal strain is compressive, then lateral 2E 2
strain will be tensile. 21. Which of the following materials is more
17. ______ is the ratio of tensile stress or elastic?
compressive stress to the corresponding strain (a) Rubber (b) Steel
is a constant. (c) Glass (d) Wood
(a) Modulus of Elasticity UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
(b) Modulus of Rigidity Ans. (b) : Steel is the more elastic material than other
(c) Modulus of Hooke’s material. Steel has the greatest elasticity the linear
(d) Modulus of Shear stress-strain curve of steel is the sharpest of any
CSPTCL JE 03.03.2024 material. A stiffer material has a higher elastic
Ans. (a) : Modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus)– modulus.
The ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to the 22. The property by virtue of which a deformed
corresponding strain is a constant. This ratio is known body springs back to its original position after
as modulus of elasticity. It is denoted by E.
removing the external force is known as
Tensile stress Compressive stress (a) Plasticity (b) Elasticity
E= or
Tensile strain Compressive strain (c) Ductility (d) Tenacity
σ JSSC JDLCCE JE 10/10/2023 (Civil)
E=
ε Ans. (b) : Elasticity :- It is the property of body by the
18. Poisson’s ratio for linear elastic, homogeneous virtue of which it deforms by the application of
and isotropic materials: deforming force and returns original shape after
(a) linearly varies with respect to stress removal of deforming force. Elastic limit is the point up
(b) is not same for tension and compression to which if the load is removed, original volume and
(c) remains constant throughout shape are regained.
(d) is in the range of 0 to 1 Plasticity :- It is the property of body by the virtue of
Kerala PSC Poly. Lect. 07/07/2023 which it deforms permanently and never regain original
Lateral strain shape after removal of deforming force. Material those
Ans. (c) : Poisson's ratio = − show plasticity are called plastic materials.
Longitudinal strain
• The negative sign indicate that the radius of the bar 23. The ratio of shear stress to the corresponding
decrease when it is stretched. shear strain within the elastic limit, is known as
• Poisson's ratio is a dimensionless and a unit less ------.
quantity. (a) modulus of elasticity
• Poisson's ratio for linear elastic homogenous and (b) factor of safety
isotropic material remain constant throughout. (c) poisson's ratio
19. Load acting per unit area is known as (d) modulus of rigidity
(a) Strain (b) Deflection DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
(c) Elastic modulus (d) Stress Ans. (d) : Modulus of Rigidity (G) :- The modulus of
TSPSC ARCHITECTURE Engg. 05.09.2023 Shift-II
rigidity is often called the shear modulus, as it refers to
Ans. (d) : Stress– When some external system of forces
or loads act on a body, the internal forces (equal and the resistance to shear exhibited by a material when
opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which loaded. It is the ratio between shear stress to shear
resist the external forces. This internal force per unit area at strain. It is denoted by 'G'.
any section of the body is known as unit stress or simply a Shear Stress τ
stress. It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma(σ). Modulus of rigidity G = =
Shear Strain φ
P
Stress(σ) = 24. The ratio of direct stress to the corresponding
A volumetric strain is found to be constant for a
1 MPa = 1×106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2 given material when the deformation is within
1 GPa = 1×109 N/m2 = 1 kN/mm2 a certain limit. This ratio is known as .............
Mechanics of Structures 394 YCT
 (a) Poisson's ratio (b) Young's modulusAns. (b) : Ductile :- It is the ability to be stretched. It is
(c) Section modulus (d) Bulk modulus often characterized as the materials ability to be pulled
CRPF SI 25/06/2023
into a wire.
Ans. (d) : Bulk modulus :- It is defined as ratio Ductile material :- Brass, copper, aluminium, mild
steel etc.
between the normal stress acting on the element of fluid
Brittle material :- Glass, ceramic, graphite etc.
mass to the volumetric strain caused due to stress. It is
also called Bulk modulus of elasticity. 28. The Hook's law states that within the elastic
–dP limit of a material
K=
 dV  (a) Strain produced is directly proportional to
  stress
 V 
(b) Stress produced is inversely proportional to
where,
strain
dp = change in the normal pressure or stress acting on
(c) Stress and strain are equal
the element of mass.
(d) Stress is constant throughout the section of
dV the material
= Volumetric strain due to the pressure change.
V JKSSSB JE 06.12.2022 Shift II
• In SI units, the bulk modulus of elasticity is expressed
Ans. (a) : Hooke's law :- Which states that within the
in N/m2. elastic limit of material the strain ε produced is directly
25. Bulk modulus of a fluid is the ratio of____. proportional to stress σ producing it.
(a) shear stress of shear strain σ
(b) shear stress to volumetric strain σ∝ε, E =
ε
(c) normal stress to normal strain
(d) the increase in pressure to the volumetric 29. The modulus of elasticity of a material is:
strain (a) having the same unit as that of strain
UPPCL JE 22/06/2022 Shift-I (b) only defined in the linearly elastic region
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. (c) not referred to as Young’s modulus
26. The deformation of the bar per unit length in (d) equal to the slope of the strain–stress curve
the direction of the force is known as SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
(a) linear strain Ans. (b) : The modulus of elasticity of a material is
(b) lateral strain only defined in the linearly elastic region.
(c) volumetric strain • In the linear elastic region of the stress-strain curve,
(d) shear strain Hooke's law is valid.
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 30. For a linearly elastic, homogeneous, and
Ans. (a) : Linear Strain :- The ratio of axial isotropic material having modulus of rigidity-
deformation to the Original length of the body is G and modulus of elasticity- E, the range of G
known as longitudinal (or linear) strain. The is given as ______.
longitudinal strain is also defined as the deformation of E E
(a) 0 to (b) 0 to
the body per unit length in the direction of the applied 2 3
load. E E E E
(c) to (d) to
2 4 3 2
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (d) : The relationship between modulus of rigidity
(G) and modulus of elasticity (E).
E = 2G (1 + µ)
If µ is minimum (µ = 0)
Let,
E = 2G (1 + 0) = 2G
L = Length of the body
E
P = Tensile force acting on the body G=
δL = Increase in the length of the body in the 2
direction of P. If µ is maximum = (µ = 0.5)
δL E = 2G(1 + 0.5) = 3G.
Longitudinal strain = E
L G=
27. Which of the following is a ductile material? 3
The range of G
(a) cast iron (b) copper
E E
(c) glass (d) concrete ≤G≤
NBCC JE 09/05/2022 3 2

Mechanics of Structures 395 YCT

31. Young's modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus W = Self weight of bar
G and Poisson's ratio v are related as P = Applied load
(a) E = 2G(1 – 2v) (b) E = 3G(1 + 2v) A = Area of bar
(c) E = 3G(1 – 2v) (d) E = 2G(1 + v) E = Modulus of elasticity
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 33. A bar of length L, breadth b and thickness t, is
Ans. (d) : Relation between E, G & µ subjected to an axial pull of P. If ex is the strain
(i) E = 2G (1 + µ ) in the direction of pull, volumetric strain
produced is (m = Poisson's ratio)
(ii) E = 3K(1 − 2µ) (a) ex(1+2µ) (b) ex(1–2µ)
(c) ex(1+µ) (d) ex(1+µ)
9KG CHB JE 28/01/2023 Shift-I
(iii) E =
3K + G Ans. (b) :
Volumetric strain =
3K − 2G
(iv) µ = Change in volume / original volume.
6K + 2G △v
Where – εv =
v
E = Modulus of elasticity εv = ε(1 − 2µ)
G = Shear modulus
K = Bulk modulus Where,
v = µ = Poisson's ratio εv = Volumetric strain
ε = Longitudinal strain
32. A uniform rod of cross-sectional area A and
length L is subjected to an axial pull P. What is µ = Poisson ratio
the change in length of the rod? (Assume that 34. A body is loaded elastically so that strain in y-
Young's modulus of elasticity E remains the direction (ey) = 0 and = σz = 0. Take σx and σz as
same throughout the length) finite. What is the value of strain in z-direction
P PL (ey) in terms of stress in x-direction (σx),
(a) (b) Young's Modulus (E), and Poisson's ratio (υ)?
AEL AE
PA PE (a) ez = σxυ(1 + 2υ)/E (b) ez = σxυ(1 + 4υ)/E
(c) (d) (c) ez = σx(1 + υ)/E (d) ez = –σxυ(1 + υ)/E
LE AL
ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II
Ans. (d) : Given,
Ans. (b)
ey = 0 and σz = 0
σ y νσ x νσz
ey = − − =0
E E E
σy = ν σx
σ νσ y νσ x −ν ( σ x + σ y )
ez = z − − =
E E E E
Deflection of bar due to self weight,
−ν ( σ x + νσ x )
γL2  W W  =
δl = ∵ γ = =  E
2E  V A×L 
−σ x ν (1 + ν )
WL2 ez =
δl = E
AL × 2E 35. In a tension test on mild steel on UTM
WL (universal testing machine), at which stage of
δl = the test should the extensometer be removed
2AE
Axial elongation of prismatic bar due to external load- from the test specimen for its safety?
(a) Ultimate stress point
PL (b) Limit of proportionality point
δl =
AE (c) Yield point
Sudden applied load (d) Rupture point
2PL PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
δℓ =
AE Ans. (c) : Universal Testing Machine (UTM) :-
Where, • It is a machine that is used to perform standard tensile
δl = Elongation of bar and compressive tests on materials, components and
γ = Unit weight of bar structure. It can be used to tensile test, compressive test
L = Length of bar and shear test.

Mechanics of Structures 396 YCT

• A tension test on mild steel on UTM, the test should Ans. (c) : Volumetric Strain (ev) –
be extensometer be removed from the test specimen for • The hydrostatic stress cause change in volume of the
its safety for yield point. body and this change of volume per unit is called
36. Modulus of resilience may be defined as Volumetric Strain (ev).
(a) Strain energy per unit volume of the body Or
(b) maximum strain energy which can be stored
It is defined as the ratio between change is volume and
by a body without undergoing permanent
original volume of the body and is denoted by ev.
deformation
(c) proof resilience per unit volume of the body changein volume ∆V
ev = =
(d) strain energy stored when load is suddenly original volume V
applied ev = ex + ey + ez
CHB SDE (Building) 29/01/2023 i.e Volumetric strain equal the sum of the linear
Ans. (c) : Modulus of Resilience :- The area under normal strain in X, Y, Z direction.
stress-strain curve within elastic limit is called modulus
of resilience. It may be defined as proof resilience per 39. Modulus of Elasticity of structural steel is
unit volume of the body. ______.
Proof Resilience (a) 2.5 × 106 N/mm2 (b) 2.5 × 105 N/mm2
5 2
Modulus of Resilience = (c) 2.0 × 10 N/mm (d) 2.0 × 106 N/mm2
Volume
UPPCL JE 22/06/2022 Shift-I
σ2
M.O.R = Ans. (c) : Properties of structural steel -
2E • Unit mass of steel (ρ) = 7850 kg/m3
Where, σ = stress at elastic limit • Modulus of elasticity (E) = 2×105 N/mm2 or 2.0 × 105
E = modulus of elasticity N/mm2 or 200 kN/mm2 .
37. The area under the stress-strain curve • Poisson ratio, (µ) = 0.3
represents______.
• Modulus of rigidity (G) = 0.769×105 N/mm2
(a) Modulus of resilience
(b) Resilience • Coefficient of thermal expansion (α) = 12×10–6/ºC
(c) Proof resilience 40. The expression for Poisson's ratio in terms of
(d) Toughness of material Young Modulus (E) and bulk modulus (K) of a
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I material is :
Ans. (d) ⇒ Modulus of toughness (Ut) represents the 3K − E 6K
(a) (b)
entire area under the stress-strain diagram. It is the 6K 3E − K
ability to absorb energy upto fracture. 2k − E 3E − K
⇒ It indicates the strain-energy density of the material (c) (d)
3K 12K
just before it fractures.
JSSC JE (Civil) 23/10/2022
Ans. (a) : Relation between µ, E and k
E = 3K (1–2µ)
E
1–2µ =
3K
E
Modulus of Resilience :- The work done on a unit 1− = 2µ
volume of material when a simple tensile force is 3K
gradually increased up to the proportional limit of the 3K − E
material is known as modulus of resistance or it may be = 2µ
3K
defined as proof resilience per unit volume of the body.
Proof Resilience 3K − E
Modulus of Resilience = µ=
Volume 6K
σ 2EL 41. If modulus of elasticity (E) and modulus of
M.O.R. =
2E rigidity (G) for a certain material are known
Where, σEL = stress at elastic limit then Poisson's ratio of a bar is calculated using
E = modulus of elasticity relationship as
38. The ratio of change in volume to the original E E
volume of a body when the body is subjected to (a) µ = –1 (b) µ = – 1
2G G
a single force or a system of forces is called:
E 3E
(a) longitudinal strain (b) Poisson's ratio (c) 2µ = – 1 (d) µ = –3
(c) Volumetric strain (d) Lateral strain G 2G
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 MPSC MES 29/10/2022 Paper-1
Mechanics of Structures 397 YCT
Ans. (a) : Given, Ans. (a) : Strain energy due to bonding of the cantilever
Modulus of elasticity = E beam, which carry concentrated load–
Modulus of rigidity = G 1
U = ×w×δ
Poisson's ratio (µ) = ? 2
We know relation, 1 wL3 1 w 2 ℓ3
E = 2G (1+µ) = ×w× ⇒
2 3EI 6 EI
E
= 1+ µ 46. How many supports does a simply supported
2G beam comprise of?
E (a) Six (b) Two
µ= −1
2G (c) Four (d) Eight
42. The number of independent elastic constants PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
for homogeneous, isotropic and elastic material Ans. (b) : Simply supported beam– When the one
that follows Hooke’s law is support is roller and other hinged, the beam is known as
(a) 1 (b) 2 a simply supported beam.
(c) 3 (d) 9
PPSC JE 06/03/2022
Ans. (b) : Independent elastic constant–
Homogenous and Isotropic 2 47. The point of contraflexure (PoC) occurs where
Orthotropic 9 bending is ............. and at the point of change
between positive and negative.
Anisotropic 21
(a) Negative (b) Imaginary
43. Number of independent elastic constant for (c) Zero (d) Positive
anisotropic material as wood is.......... PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
(a) 14 (b) 2
Ans (c) : Point of contraflexure– It is the point on the
(c) 21 (d) 9
bending moment diagram where bending moment
SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 23/10/2021 changes the sign from positive to negative or vice-versa.
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. 48. A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to
44. A bar is subjected to an axial thrust load ‘W’ counter clockwise moment M0 at the free end.
and has the cross-section area ‘A’. The The shapes of B.M.D. and S.F.D. respectively
maximum shear stress induced in the bar is: will be
W 2W (a) Triangular, rectangular
(a) (b)
A A (b) Rectangular, line
W W (c) Partly rectangular, partly triangular
(c) (d) (d) Triangular, line
2A 4A
UPRVUNL AE 17/07/2022 Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
Ans. (c) : Ans. (b) : When a cantilever beam of length L is
subjected to counter clockwise moment M0 at free end,
then the shape of BMD and SFD respectively will be
rectangular and line.
W
Normal stress =
A
1
Maximum shear stress = × Normalstress
2
W
τmax =
2A 49. At the point of contraflexure ____ here B.M is
45. The strain energy U stored due to bending of bending moment
the cantilever beam of length L due to point (a) B.M is minimum (b) B.M. is maximum
load, W at the free end will be (c) B. M. changes sign (d) None of these
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
W 2 L3 W 2 L2
(a) (b) Ans. (c) : It is thus obvious that in an overhanging
6EI 6EI beam, there will be a point, where the bending moment
3 3
WL W 2 L3 will change sign from negative to positive or vice versa
(c) (d)
36EI 36EI such a point where the bending moment changes sign, is
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 15/03/2021 Paper-I known as a point of contraflexure.
Mechanics of Structures 398 YCT
50. For a beam, the variation of shear force under Therefore maximum bending moment occurs at the
uniformly distributed load is centre. Also the bending moment at supports in the case
(a) Linear (b) Cubic of simply supported beam is always zero.
(c) Quadratic (d) Uniform
• Maximum bending moment in a simply supported
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
beam subjected to a concentrated load occurs at load
Ans. (a) : A uniformly distributed load causes a linear
variation in shear force and a parabolic variation in location.
bending moment. 54. In which of the following types of beams the
51. The Point of contra flexure is a point where: end proportion extends more from the
(a) Shear force changes sign support?
(b) Bending moment changes sign (a) Cantilever beam
(c) Shear force is maximum (b) Overhanging beams
(d) Bending moment is maximum (c) Simply supported beams
KPSC AEE 16/06/2023
(d) Propped cantilever beam
Ans. (b) : Point of contra flexure :- The word contra
means against and flexure means bending. So, point of Bihar DLRS 29.08.2023
contra flexure is the point against bending. At this Ans. (b) : Overhanging beam– A beam having its end
point bending of the beam changes from sagging to portion extended beyond the support is known as a
hogging or vice versa. over-hanging beam. A beam may be overhanging on
So, point of contra flexure is the point where bending one side or on both sides.
moment diagram cuts the base after changing its sign
from positive to negative or vice-versa and therefore 55. Generally to which of the following should be
bending moment at this point is zero. extension of overhanging beams limited?
52. A beam supported on more than two supports (a) 10 m (b) 15 m
is called (c) 1 m (d) 100 m
(a) Simply supported beam Bihar DLRS 29.08.2023
(b) Fixed Beam Ans. (c) : Generally to 1m should be extension of
(c) Cantilever Beam
(d) Continuous Beam overhanging beams limited.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I 56. In ............... both the bending moment and
Ans. (d) : Continuously beam- A beam with more shear force are significant.
than two supports is called continuous beam. (a) Flexural cracks
(b) Shear cracks
(c) Diagonal tension cracks
Cantilever beam- A beam fixed at one end and free at (d) Flexure shear cracks
the other end is called a cantilever beam. Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift 2
Ans. (d) : Cracking in prestressed concrete beams
subjected to overloads depends on the local magnitude
of moment and shear in regions where the moment is
53. For a simply supported beam with a central large and the shear is small vertical flexural cracks
load, the Bending Moment is ______.
appear after the normal tensile stress in the extreme
(a) Least at the centre
concrete fibers exceeds the tensile strength of concrete.
(b) Maximum at the centre
(c) Least at the supports • Where both the moment and shear force are relatively
(d) Maximum at the supports large, flexural cracks which are vertical at the extreme
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023 fibres become inclined as they extend deeper into the
Ans. (b) : Simply supported beam subjected to a beam owing to the presence of shear stress in the beam
concentrated load at the centre– web. These inclined cracks, which are often quite flat in
It is to be noted that the maximum bending moment a prestressed beam are called flexure-shear cracks.
occurs at the point where shear force changes the sign 57. The shape of the shear force diagram of a
from positive to negative. cantilever beam subjected to uniformly
distributed load is
(a) Rectangle (b) Triangle
(c) Parabola (d) Circular arc
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
Ans. (b) : A cantilever subject to UDL over its entire
span–
• The shape of the shear force diagram of a cantilever
beam subjected to uniformly distributed load is triangle
and BMD is a parabola.
Mechanics of Structures 399 YCT
 (c) Bending moment is constant
(d) Bending moment is zero
JKPSC AE 14-05-2023
Ans. (a) : Shear span–Shear span is between the point
of concentrated load to its reaction force in a beam,
therefore it is the zone where shear force is constant.
61. Which of the following is correct relation
between shear force and bending moment?
d2 M dM
(a) 2
=F (b) =F
dx dx
dM d2 F
(c) =M (d) =M
dx dx 2
58. In fixed beams, the moment at the supports is DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
generally _____. Ans. (b) : Relationship Between W, F and M
(a) Minimum Rate of change of shear force is equal to rate of loading
(b) Constant along the length dF
(c) Zero =W
dx
(d) Maximum • Rate of change of bending moment is equal to shear
JSSC JDLCCE JE 10/10/2023 (Civil) force.
Ans. (d) : Fixed-end beams– dM
• The moment developed at the ends of the fixed beam =F
dx
wℓ2 62. Consider the simply supported beam subjected
subjected to UDL are
12 to the two-point loads of equal magnitude at a
The moment developed at mid span of the fixed beam distance of L/3 from supports. The middle
portion of the beam is
wℓ2
when subjected to UDL (a) in pure shear
24 (b) having bending & shear
59. The shear force diagram of a loaded beam (c) in pure bending
shown in the figure below is that of............. (d) having maximum shear force
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (c) :

(a) A simply supported beam with isolated

central load
(b) A simply supported beam with uniformly
distributed load
(c) A cantilever with an isolated load at the free
end
(d) A cantilever with a uniformly distributed load • The middle portion of the beam is in pure bending.
M.P. NHM Sub Engineer Civil 20-09-2023 63. The point of contra flexure occurs in
Ans. (d) S.F.D. and B.M.D. diagram for cantilever (a) Cantilever beams
with UDL. (b) Simply supported beams
(c) Fixed beams
(d) Overhanging beams
NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-I
Ans. (c) : Point of contraflexure–The point on a beam
where the bending moment changes sign and is zero is
called the point of contraflexure or the inflection point.
• It occurs in fixed beam in which direction of bending
changes sign from positive to negative or negative to
positive.
• It also occurs in overhangs beams but it is not
60. Which of the following zone is true in shear always.
span? 64. Full form of UVL
(a) Shear force is constant (a) Uniformaly Versatile load
(b) Shear force is zero (b) Uniformaly Varying load
Mechanics of Structures 400 YCT
 (c) Uniformaly Vertical load wℓ
At mid span BM =
(d) Uniformaly distributed load 8
NBCC JE 09/05/2022 (iii) Fixed beam with uniform varying load with zero
Ans. (b) : UVL stands for Uniformly Varying load :- intensity at left side A and maximum at the other side.
A Uniformly varying load is also called the triangular
load which starts with zero intensity at one end of the
beam and varies linearly to other end of the beam.
65. Point of contraflexure will not occur in case of
____.
(iv) Fixed beam with maximum intensity of load at the
(a) a propped cantilever loaded by U.D.L.
center.
(b) a simply supported beam loaded by U.D.L.
(c) simply supported beam loaded by U.D.L. and
propped in centre
(d) a fixed beam loaded by U.D.L.
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-III 5wℓ 2
Ans. (b) : Point of contraflexure will not occur in case 96
of a simply supported beam loaded by U.D.L. 67. How do the shear force and bending moment
profile change when there is a uniformly
distributed load between two points?
(a) The shear force changes linearly and the
bending moment changes as per parabolic law
(b) The shear force changes as per parabolic law
and the bending moment changes linearly
(c) The shear force changes as per parabolic law
and the bending moment changes as per cubic
law.
(d) Both shear force and bending moment
changes linearly.
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
Ans. (a) :
• The beams are subjected to various loading patterns
66. A rigidly fixed beam of span 'l' carries UDL of • This constitutes different slopes for the shear force
'w' per unit, the fixed end moment is and bending moment diagrams
wl 2 wl 2 Load pattern Slope of shear Slope for
(a) (b) force Bending
8 10
moment
wl 2 wl 2
(c) (d)
12 16
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : The moment developed at the ends of the
wℓ 2
fixed beam when subjected to udl are
12
• The moment developed at mid span of the fixed beam
wℓ 2
when subjected to udl is
24
(ii) Fixed beam with point load at center.
68. Maximum bending moments for a simply
l/4 supported beam with point load W and span 'ℓ'
wl/8
at the mid span is-
Wl 2 Wl 2
(a) (b)
8 2
Wl Wl
wℓ (c) (d)
At fixed end BM = 4 8
8 BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
Mechanics of Structures 401 YCT
 Ans : (c) 70. Find the bending moment at a distance L/4
from end A of simply supported beam as shown
below.

wL2
(a) (b) Zero
32
R A + RB = W wL2 3.wL2
Moment about point A (c) (d)
8 32
Wl SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
−R A × 0 − + RB ×l = 0
2 Ans. (d) : We know,
W Σfv = 0
RB =
2 RA + RB = w.L ...(i)
Then, moment taken at point 'A'
W W
∴ RA = W − = L
2 2 R B × L − w.L × = 0
W 2
BMxx = ⋅x From equation (i) RA = wL/2
2
Then, moment at L/4 distance from A side–
l
at point C, x = , L L L 1
2 MC = R A × − w × × ×
4 4 4 2
wl
( BM C )max = MC =
wL2 wL2 3wL2
− =
4
8 32 32
69. The shear force diagram of a beam is shown in
the figure, The absolute maximum bending 71. A moving load of 200 kN passes from support
moment in the beam is : (Assume moment at A A to B in a simply supported beam AB of span
is equal to zero) 10m. What is the maximum bending moment
developed at a section taken at 6m from A?
(a) 480 kNm (b) 240 kNm
(c) 360 kNm (d) 180 kNm
Kerala PSC Asst. Prof. 12/06/2023
Ans. (a) : From the above diagram if the load of 200 kN
starts moving on the span of 10 M, the maximum
bending moment comes when the load of 200 kN is at
exactly on point C which is 4 m from the left end.

(a) 4Pa (b) 5Pa

(c) 6Pa (d) 7Pa
JKPSC AE 02.10.2023
Ans. (b) : Loading diagram is

So, bending moment diagram is

6 × 4 12
Ordinate of point C = =
10 5
BMmax = 200 kN at point C × ordinate of ILD at point C
12
= 200 ×
5
BMmax = 480 kN

Mechanics of Structures 402 YCT

72. How much is the fixed end moment (clamping wl 2 wl 2
moment) M1 on the left support 'A' of the fixed (b) M A = and M B =
beam given in the figure? 6 3
2
wl
(c) M A = M B =
12
2
wl wl 2
(d) M A = and M B =
6 8
UPRVNL JE (Civil) 23/12/2022
Wab 2 Wa 2 b 2 Ans. (c) See the above explanation.
(a) 2
(b) 2 74. Find the wrong statement about Conjugate
L L
2 beam theorem.
Wba Wab
(c) (d) (a) It is derived from unit load method
L2 L (b) It is useful in finding the deflection
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-I (c) It is derived from moment area theorem
Ans. (a) (d) It is applicable even if beam is not having
Sr. Moment at fixed point of zero slope
Beam
No. end DSSSB JE (Tier-2) 27/09/2023
−PL Ans. (a) : Conjugate beam method– Conjugate beam
M AB =
8 method is an extension of the moment area method
1. which is based on the integration of the Euler-Bernoulli
+ PL
M BA = bending equation.
8
• The BMD of real beam for the given loading in
−Pab 2 conjugate beam.
M AB =
2. L 2
• The slope at any section of a loaded beam relative to
+ Pa 2 b its original axis, is equal to the shear force in the
M BA = 2 conjugate beam at its corresponding section.
L
75. For a beam subjected to couple at its centre 'C'
− wL2
M AB =
3. 12
+ wL2
M BA =
12
− wL2 (a) B.M. changes at 'C'
M AB = (b) S.F. is unaltered at 'C'
30
4. (c) Both (1) and (2) hold
+ wL 2
M BA = (d) None of the above
20 Karnataka KPSC 16/06/2023
−5 2 Ans. (a) :
M AB = wL
96
5.
+5 2
M BA = wL
96
+ Mo
M AB =
6. 4
+ Mo
M BA =
4
M o b ( 3a − L )
M AB =
7. L2
M o a ( 3b − L )
M BA =
L2
73. The fixing moments in a fixed beam carrying a
uniformly distributed load is given by ______
(Where w = uniformly distributed load per unit
∑ fy = 0
length, I = span of the beam, MA = moment at
end 'A' and MB = moment at end 'B'). RA + RB = 0
wl 2 wl 2 ∑ MA = 0
(a) M A = and M B =
3 6 R ×L+ M = 0
B

Mechanics of Structures 403 YCT

 M Then, taking moments about point 'A'
RB = −
L RB × L – M = 0
∑ fy = 0 M −M
RB = , RA =
M L L
RA = • Hence, it shows the shear force act on simply
L
Mx = RA ×x supported beam subjected to moment everywhere is
at A, x = 0, MA = 0 same.
L M −M
A = , Mc = Which is S.F. =
2 2 L
BM change at C point.
76. The below given diagram belongs to– 78.
If one support of a fixed-ended beam settles,
then what is the nature of the end moments?
(a) One will be clockwise and another will be
anticlockwise.
(b) Both will be either clockwise or
anticlockwise.
(c) No moments will be induced at the ends.
(a) BMD for a simply supported beam with an (d) The moments will be 3EI/L and in same
eccentric point load sense.
(b) BMD for a cantilever beam subjected to a ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
couple
(c) BMD for a simply supported beam subjected Ans. (b) : Fixed beam
to a couple at its mid-span
(d) BMD for a simply supported beam carrying a
gradually varying load
M.P. NHM Sub Engineer Civil 20-09-2023
Ans. (c) : Simply supported beam subjected to
concentrated moment at its mid span

−6EI∆
M AB =
ℓ2
6EI∆
M BA = 2
ℓ
Case-2
When one end fixed and other is pined are-
(i) A pin support settle down

77. Find the value of shear force at one-fourth of

the given span from the left support as shown
in the below diagram.

(ii) Fixed support settle down

M M
(a) ( + ve) (b) ( + ve)
2L L
M M
(c) ( − ve) (d) ( − ve)
2L L
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
Ans. (d) : From force equilibrium– 79. If a uniformly varying load with a certain
ΣFy = 0 varying intensity is acting on a beam for a
R A + RB = 0 particular span, the variation (shape) of the
bending moment will be_____.
(a) parabolic (b) cubic parabola
(c) linear (d) semicircular
DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-II
Mechanics of Structures 404 YCT
 Ans. (b) : 83. When a cantilever beam is loaded with
Type of Loading Shear force Bending concentrated loads, the bending moment
for beam diagram moment diagram will be a
diagram (a) Horizontal straight line
(b) Vertical straight line
(c) Inclined straight line
(d) Parabolic curve
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27.05.2023
Ans. (c) : When cantilever beam is loaded with
concentrated loads, the bending moment diagram will
be a triangle straight line and shear force diagram is a
rectangle.

80. A uniform beam of span 'l' is rigidly fixed at

both supports. It carries a uniformly
distributed load w per unit length. The bending
moment at mid span is
wl 2 wl 2
(a) (b)
8 12
wl 2 wl 2
(c) (d)
16 24
AP ECET 20.06.2023
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. 84. In a simply supported beam carrying a udl (w)
81. A fixed beam carries a point load W at mid- along full span (L), the maximum bending
span. If the length of the beam is L, then the moment at centre would be
net bending moment at mid-span is (a) w L2/4 (b) w L2/8
WL WL 2
(c) w L /12 (d) w L2/16
(a) (b)
8 4 JSSC JDLCCE JE 14/10/2023 (Civil)
2
WL 3WL Ans. (b)
(c) (d)
12 8
UPSC AE (CIVIL) 19/09/2021
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
82. For a beam subjected to uniformly distributed
load for the whole span, the shape of Bending
Moment Diagram will be
(a) Hyperbola (b) Triangular
(c) Parabola (d) Uniformly varying
KPSC AEE 16/06/2023
Ans. (c) : A beam subjected to UDL for the whole span,
the shape of bending diagram will be parabolic or 2nd
degree and shear force is triangle or 1º.

RA + RB = wL
∴ Moment about point A
L
w × L × = R BL
2
wL
RB =
2
wL wL
R A = wL − =
2 2
Mechanics of Structures 405 YCT
∴ Bending moment at xx – Ans. (a) :
wL w.x 2
BM xx = .x −
2 2
Bending moment of (x = L/2)
2
wL L w  L 
BM c = ⋅ −  
2 2 2 2
wL2 wL2
BM c = −
4 8
wL2
BM c =
8
85. What is the Shear force for given figure, of a
1
cantilever beam and loading? RA + RB = wℓ ______(i)
2
ΣMA = 0
1 2ℓ
RB×l – wℓ × = 0
(a) -M (b) 0 2 3
(c) +M (d) None of these wℓ
RB =
JKSSSB JE 06.12.2022 Shift II 3
Ans. (b) : put value of RB in equation (i)
wℓ
RA =
6
∵ When SF is zero then BM is max.
1 wx × x
Vx = R A – =0
2 ℓ
wℓ 1 wx 2
=
6 2 ℓ
ℓ
x=
3
When a moment is applied at the free end of a
cantilever it will be transferred by constant magnitude 1 wx x
Mmax = RA×x – .x
to the fixed end so, the bending at any point will be 2 ℓ 3
equal to the externally applied moment. As there is no wℓ ℓ 1 wℓ ℓ ℓ
= × − × ×
forces on the span, the shear force will be zero. 6 3 2 3ℓ 3 ×3 3
86. A simply supported beam having length l
wℓ 2 wℓ 2 wℓ 2
carrying uniformly varying load (zero at = − =
support A and w per unit length at support B), 6 3 18 3 9 3
as shown in the figure. The value of maximum 87. Which among the following is correct about the
bending moment in the beam is given by: bending moment and shear forces at center,
respectively?

wl2 wl3
(a) (b) (a) M kN-m, M kN
9 3 7 3
(b) M kN-m, 0
wl3 wl 2 (c) ML kN-m, M/2 kN
(c) (d)
9 3 7 3 (d) 0, M kN
UPPCL JE 22/06/2022 Shift-I JKSSB JE 28/10/2021 Shift-III
Mechanics of Structures 406 YCT
Ans. (b) : 89. The minimum slenderness ratio of a short
column is ______.
(a) 9 (b) 12
(c) 3 (d) 6
DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (c) :
L eff
Slenderness ratio =
Lateral dimension
λmax ≤ 3 = Pedastal
3 < λmax < 12 = Short column
λmax ≥ 12 = Long column
Bending moment = M kN-m 90. As per Euler's theory, buckling of the long
Shear force at centre = 0 column occurs when ________. (Given, P =
88. In a fixed beam subjected to UDL throughout, Applied axial load and Pcr = Crippling load by
the point of contraflexure occurs at Euler's theory)
(a) 0.21 L from each end (a) P is of any value (b) P > Pcr
(b) at the two fixed ends (c) P = Pcr (d) P < Pcr
(c) 0.667L from each end
(d) L /2 from either ends SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
DSSSB JE (Mains) 19.03.2021 (Evening) Ans. (b) : As per Euler's theory, buckling of the long
Ans. (a) : column occurs when "P > P cr".
• Buckling load is low for long column and high for
short column.
• It depends upon the dimension of members and its end
condition.
• The effective slenderness is considered to be greater
than actual maximum slenderness ratio to account for
'shear deformation effects'.
91. Slenderness ratio of the column will be
At section x-x from left support, _______.
wx 2 wL wL2 Where l = Effective length & r = radius of
Mx = − + .x − .....(i)
2 2 12 gyration
At a point of contra flexure B.M. will be zero. (a) l/r (b) l * r
wx 2 wL wL2 (c) ( l + r) 2
(d) Sqrt(l/r)
− .x + =0
2 2 12 SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
L2 Ans. (a) : Slenderness ratio is the ratio of the effective
x 2 − Lx + = 0
6 length of a column and the least radius of gyration of its
L 2 cross section.
L ± L2 − 4 ×1× • It is used extensively for finding out the design load as
x= 6
2 ×1 well as in classifying various columns in short/
L 1  intermediate/long.
= 1 ±  effective length
2 3 Slenderness Ratio =
L L least radius of gyration
x1 = − = 0.211L
2 2 3 l
λ=
x2 = 0.7886 L rmin
92. For a column, the ratio of least unsupported
length and smallest radius of gyration of the
cross-sectional area is
(a) Euler ratio (b) Poisson’s ratio
(c) Column ratio (d) Slenderness ratio
So, the distance of point of contraflexure from either SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
support is 0.211 L. Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.

Mechanics of Structures 407 YCT

93. As per Euler's theory, for which of the 97. In the analysis of structures, Euler's formula
following end conditions is the longest effective holds good for____.
length of a column obtained? (a) squat columns
(a) When both the ends of the column are hinged (b) principal rafters in trusses
(b) When one end of the column is fixed and the (c) long columns
other end is hinged (d) trusses with long span
(c) When one end of the column is fixed and the DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III
other end is free Ans. (c) : Euler's formula holds goods for long columns
(d) When both the ends of the column are fixed π2 EI
Euler's equation P = 2
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I ℓe
Ans. (c) : • Rankine's formula used for long, short and
Type of column effective Euler's buckling intermediate column.
end condition length loading Assumption are made in Euler's column theory–
Both end hinged ℓ=L π2 EI (i) The column is initially straight and load is applied
axially.
L2 (ii) The cross-section of the column is uniform
One end fixed and ℓ = 2L π2 EI throughout its length.
other end free (iii) The column material is perfectly elastic,
4L2 homogeneous and isotropic and obeys Hooke's law.
Both end fixed L 4π2 EI (iv) The length of the column is very large as
ℓ=
2 L2 compared to its lateral dimensions.
One end fixed and (v) The direct stress is very small as compared to the
ℓ=
L 2π2 EI bending stress.
other end hinged 2 L2 (vi) The column will fail by buckling alone.
94. If both ends of columns are hinged, then what (vii) The self-weight of column is negligible.
will be the relation between effective length and (viii) Euler's formula is used for calculating the critical
actual length of column? (where, l = actual buckling load for long column.
length, Le = effective length) 98. The ratio of the effective length of a member to
l the radius of gyration of the cross-section about
(a) Le = l (b) L e = the axis under consideration is called:
2
(a) Poisson's ratio (b) Bulk modulus
l
(c) Le = 2l (d) L e = (c) Slenderness ratio (d) Effective length
2 UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I
MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-II Ans. (c) : The ratio of the effective length of a member
Ans:(a) See the above explanation to the radius of gyration of the cross-section about the
95. The square root of the ratio of moment of axis under consideration is called slenderness ratio.
inertia of cross section to its cross sectional ℓ
area is called Slenderness ratio = eff
r
(a) Second moment of area
99. In order to have exactly zero tensile stress at
(b) Section modulus
one extreme fibre of a solid circular section
(c) Radius of gyration
(dia-D) subjected to combined direct
(d) Slenderness ratio
(compressive) and bending stresses, a normal
KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023 point load is needed to be placed ________.
Ans. (c) : Radius of Gyration (K) – (a) at a radial distance D/4 from the centre
We define the radius of gyration (K) as (b) at a radial distance D/6 from the centre
I (c) beyond a distance of 3D/8 measured towards
K= the core from the periphery
A
(d) at a radial distance D/3 from the centre
I = AK2
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Where, I = Moment of Inertia of the cross section of
the column. Ans. (c) :
For zero tensile stress–
A = area of the cross section.
P M.y
96. What is the relationship between radius of − =0
gyration (k), moment of inertia (I) and cross- A I
sectional area (A) of plane figure? P P.e D
− × =0
(a) A2k = I (b) Ak2 = I πD / 4 πD / 64 2
2 4
2 2
(c) A k = I (d) Ak = I
D
DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023 e=
8
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
Mechanics of Structures 408 YCT
Normal point load out at, Ans. (d) :
D D 3D Type of column effective Euler's buckling
− =
2 8 8 end condition length loading
So, the normal point load is needed to be place beyond a Both end hinged ℓ=L π2 EI
3D
distance of measured toward the core from the L2
8
periphery. One end fixed and ℓ = 2L π2 EI
100. Which one of the following is NOT the other end free 4L2
assumption of Euler's column theory? Both end fixed L 4π2 EI
(a) The direct stress is very small compared to ℓ=
2 L2
the bending stress
One end fixed and ℓ=
L 2π 2 EI
(b) The self-weight of the column is considerable
(c) The cross-section of the column is uniform other end hinged 2 L2
throughout 103. Euler's crippling load for column of one end
(d) The column will fail by buckling only fixed and other end free condition is_______.
ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023
4π2 EI π2 EI
Ans. (b) : The following assumptions are made in the (a) (b)
Euler's column theory- l2 4l 2
(i) The column is initially perfectly straight and the load 2π2 EI π2 EI
is applied axially. (c) (d)
(ii) The cross-section of the column is uniform l2 l2
throughout its length. Kerala PSC Poly Lect. 07.07.2023
(iii) The column material is perfectly elastic, Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
homogeneous and isotropic and obey Hooke's law.
104. Euler's Crippling load for a column of length L
(iv) The length of the column is very large as compared
to C/S lateral dimension. with one end fixed and the other end hinged is
(v) The direct stress is very small as compared to the given by : (Assume uniform flexural rigidity EI
bending stress. for the column Section
(vi) The column will fail by buckling alone. 2π2 EI 4π2 EI
(vii) The self-weight of column is negligible. (a) 2
(b)
L L2
101. Buckling load for a given column depends upon
which of the following? π2 EI π2 EI
(c) (d)
(a) Length of column only 4L 2
L2
(b) Least lateral dimension only DSSSB JE Tier-I 29/06/2022 Shift-III
(c) Both of the above
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
(d) None of the above
APSC PWRD 23/07/2023 Paper-I 105. According to middle-third rule, eccentricity 'e'
Ans. (c) : Buckling load :- The load at which, long should be (where 'b' is width of base -
column starts buckling (bending) is called buckling load (a) b/3 (b) 2b/3 (c) b/6 (d) b/2
or crippling load. MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I
It depends upon the following factors- Ans. (c) : Middle third Rule :-
i) Amount of load.
ii) Length of column. Condition for no tension in the section :-
iii) End condition of column. In the case of rectangular section, the maxm intensities
iv) Dimension of column. of extreme stresses are given by :
v) Material of column. P  6e 
σ min = 1– 
102. The given expression for Euler's crippling load bd  d
(P) is applicable to which of the following
For no tension at base σmin ≥ 0
column end conditions? Consider that, L =
actual length of column, E = modulus of P  6e 
1–  ≥ 0
elasticity of material and I = moment of inertial bd  d
of column cross-section. 6e
1– ≥0
Elπ2 d
P=
4L2 d
e≤
(a) Both ends of the column are fixed 6
(b) One end is fixed and the other end is hinged or
(c) Both ends of the column are hinged b
(d) One end is fixed and the other end is free e≤
6
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III
Mechanics of Structures 409 YCT
106. A short column with external diameter D and d
internal diameter d, loaded by weight W on its For a maxm eccentricity of , there will be no tension
cross-section will have a maximum eccentricity 8
as in the section.
(a) (D2 – d2)/8d (b) (D2 + d2)/8D d d 2d d
2 2
∴ dia of core = + = =
(c) (D – d )/6D (d) (D + 2d)/6D 8 8 8 4
MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-II 108. The diameter of a kern of a solid circular
Ans. (b) : If beam is subjected to a compressive load P section within which stresses remain wholly
acting with an eccentricity e. compressive is
Thus, for no stress at extreme left fiber. (a) d/2 (b) d/3
Direct compressive stress + tensile bending stress = 0 (c) d/4 (d) d/6
P MY PGVCL VS JE 20/01/2022
− + =0
A I Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
D 109. In case of a column of actual length l with both
Pe ×
P 2 ends fixed, equivalent length, L is equal to :
− + =0
π 2 π
4
( D − d 2
) 64 ( D 4
− d 4
) (a) l (b)
2l
2
D
16e × l l
1 2 (c) (d)
=
D2 − d 2 ( D4 − d 4 )
2 2
UPMRC AM (Civil) 02/01/2023
( D2 + d 2 )( D2 − d 2 ) = 8e × D Ans. (c) : Effective length of column based on end
D2 − d2 condition.
D +d
2 2 Leff (As
e= Leff
End condition per IS
8D (theoretical)
code)
107. For no tension on a circular section column of One end fixed 2L 2L
dia 'd' the eccentricity should not exceed.
Other end free
d d
(a) (b) Both end hinged L L
6 8
Both end fixed L/2 0.65L
d d
(c) (d) One end fixed other in L / 2 0.8L
4 3 hinged
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27.05.2023
110. Effective length of a column fixed at one end
Ans. (b) : Core of a Solid circular section :-
and hinged at other end is-
(a) l/2 (b) l/ 2
(c) 2 (d) 2/3
TSPSC Poly. Lect. 04.09.2023
Ans. (b) See the above explanation.
111. For the same given length, cross-section and
material which column can carry highest load.
(a) Fixed at both ends
(b) Hinged at both ends
P My (c) Free at one end, fixed at other
σ min = 0 = −
A Ix (d) Fixed at one end, hinged at other
P P.e  d  APSC PWRD 23.07.2023 Paper-I
0= –  
π 2 π 4 2 Ans. (a) : For both end fixed column–
d d According to Euler's buckling
4 64
4P 64Pe d
0= – ⋅
πd 2 πd 4 2
4P  16e 
0= 2 1 − 
πd  d ×2
d
e=
8

Mechanics of Structures 410 YCT

According to Euler's buckling ℓ = length of column
π EI
2 C = Constant, representing the end condition of the
∵  Leff = 
L
Pe = column or end fixity coefficient.
L2e  2
End Conditions End fixity coefficient (c)
4π2 EI
Pe = Both ends hinged 1
L2e
Both ends fixed 4
When column both end fixed then carry highest load.
One end fixed and other 2
112. What is the Rankine's constant (a) value for hinged
Cast Iron?
One end fixed and end 0.25
(a) 1/1800 (b) 1/800 free
(c) 1/1600 (d) 1/600
115. The slenderness ratio of a column is zero, when
AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
(a) Its length is exactly equal to radius of
Ans. (c) : Rankine's constant and compressive gyration
strength of some material.
(b) Its length is half of the radius of gyration
Material σc N/mm2 Rankine (c) Its length is supported on all sides throughout
constant (α) its length
Wrought Iron 250 1 (d) Total load carried is less than half of the dead
9000 weight
Cast Iron 550 1 CGPSC AE (Civil) 28/08/2022
1600 Ans. (c) : When its length is supported on all sides
Mild Steel 330 1 throughout length or length is between the points of
7500 zero moments. Then the slenderness ratio of a column is
Strong timber 50 zero.
1
750 effective length(ℓ e )
λ=
113. Compressive stress for Rankine's formula [For Radius of gyration(r)
2 ℓ
Column] for Mild steel is =________N/mm λ= e
(a) 320 (b) 550 rmin

(c) 250 (d) 50 116. A beam in pure bending is subjected to equal

NBCC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 and opposite couples and no shear force. Which
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. type of shear stress is zero?
π EI
2 (a) Bending Stress
114. P = 2 is the equation for Euler's crippling (b) Longitudinal shear stress
l
load for a column if its (c) Transverse shear stress
(a) Both ends are fixed (d) Transverse and longitudinal shear stresses
(b) Both ends are hinged DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-II
(c) One ends fixed and other end is free Ans. (d) : Pure bending- The simples form of bending
(d) None of the above is the pure bending. Where the beam is free from shear
UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II force and the bending moment applied to the beam is
constant. A beam is subjected to pure bending when it is
Ans. (b) : Euler's Formula - According to Euler's
theory, the crippling or buckling load (Wcr) Under loaded in such a way that two equal and opposite
various end condition is represented by a general couples.
equation, 117. The maximum shear stress of a rectangular
Cπ2 EI cross-section of the beam is ––––
Wcr = (a) 1.5 times the average bending moment
λ 2
(b) 1.5 times the bending stress from the extreme
Cπ2 EA top fibre
=
( ℓ / K )2 (c) 1.5 times the bending stress form the extreme
E = Modulus of elasticity bottom fibre
A = Area of Cross-Section (d) 1.5 times the average shear stress
K = Least radius gyration of the cross-section MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III
Mechanics of Structures 411 YCT
 Ans. (d) : 120. The strain energy of a structure due to bending
Cross section Max. shear is given by
stress M 2 dx 1 M 2 dx
(a) ∫ (b) ∫
(i) Rectangle 3 EI 2 EI
τ max = τavg 2
2 2M dx 1 M 2 dx
(c) ∫ (d) ∫
EI 3 EI
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
Ans. (b) :
(ii) 3 (i) The strain energy of structure due to bending is given
τ max = τavg
2 M 2 dx
=1.5 τavg by, U= ∫ .
2EI
 h (ii) The strain energy of structure due to torsion is given
 at  T2L
 2 by, U= ∫ dx .
4 2GJ
τ NA = τavg 121. In the case of an I-section beam maximum
3
= 1.33 τavg shear stress is at
(a) The junction of the top flange and web
(iii) Circular 4 (b) Middle of the web
τ max = τavg
3 (c) Either (a) or (b)
or (d) None of the above
1.33 τavg GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
Ans. (b) : Shear stress distribution for I-section–
(iv) Diamond 9
τ max = τavg
8

118. The ratio between average shear stress and

maximum shear stress for a beam of circular
The shear stress at distance y from NA
cross-section is
F × Ay
(a) 0.75 (b) 0.66 τ=
(c) 1.33 (d) None of the above I× b
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I At the neutral axis, y=0 and hence shear stress is
Ans. (a) : Maximum shear stress in circular cross- maximum,
section of a beam is– F  B(D2 − d 2 ) bd 2 
τ max = +
τmax = 1.33 τavg I × b  8 8 
τavg 1 122. Shear stress is ________ at Neutral axis for
= = 0.75
τmax 1.33 rectangular section .
(a) Maximum (b) Minimum
119. The stresses introduced by bending moment
are known as: (c) Average (d) Zero
(a) Compressive stress (b) Bearing stress NBCC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022
(c) Tensile stress (d) Bending stress Ans. (a) :
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
Ans. (d) : Bending stresses– To resist load transverse
to its major axis the beam has to bend. Due to bending
of beam shear force and bending moment are set up at
all sections of beam.
Bending stress given by–
M×Y
Bending stress (σ) = Shear stress is distributed parabolically across the
I
So, bending stress is depend on bending moment rectangular section, shear stress will be maximum at
distance from the neutral axis and moment of inertia. neutral axis and will be zero at the extreme ends.

Mechanics of Structures 412 YCT

123. The nature of distribution of shear stress in a (d) compressive above the neutral axis and
rectangular beam is tensile below the neutral axis of the beam
(a) Linear (b) Parabolic cross-section
(c) Hyperbolic (d) Elliptic SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
Rajasthan Asst. Man. Civil Engg. (Dairy) 2021 Ans. (d) : When a cantilever beam is subjected to a
Ans. (b) : For Rectangular beam sagging bending moment (load acting upwards). The
cross-section above the neutral axis is subjected to
compressive stress and the cross-section below neutral
axis is subjected to tensile stress.

The nature of distribution of shear stress in a

rectangular beam is parabolic.
τmax = 1.5τavg
124. The maximum shear stress at the neutral axis
for circular section is given by: 127. The bending equation is written as
(a) 1/2 τavg (b) 3/4 τavg I σ E M σ2 E 2
(c) 2/3 τavg (d) 4/3 τavg (a) = = (b) = =
M y R I y R2
JKSSB JE 28/10/2021 Shift-I
M σ E M 2 σ2 E 2
Ans. (d) : For a beam of circular section, the shear (c) = = (d) = =
stress at a distance y from neutral axis is given by I y R I y R
F d 2
 16F 2 MH Solapur Asstt. JE Class-3, 17.02.2024
4 (
τ =  − y2  = d − 4y 2 ) Ans. (c) : Bending equation
3I  4  3πd
For maximum shear stress M σ E
= =
d I y R
y=
2 Where, M = Moment due to resistance
4F I = Moment of Inertia of the section about the
τ max =
π 2 neutral axis.
3× d
4 E = Young's modulus
4 R = Radius of curvature of neutral axis
τ max = τavg σ = Bending stress
3
y = distance from the neutral axis to the
125. The bending stress of a beam section is zero at:
extreme fiber of the cross section
(a) bottom fibre (b) top fibre
(c) centroid of section (d) depend upon MOI 128. A beam cross section has shape of an angle
JKSSB JE 27/10/2021 Shift-II section as given below. Which of the following
cross sections has the same nature of shear
Ans. (c) : The bending stress of a beam section is zero stress distribution as that of the below angle
at centroid of section.
section?

126. If a cantilever beam is subjected to an upward

point load at the free end, the nature of the
stresses developed will be: (a) (b)
(a) tensile above as well as below the neutral axis
of the beam cross-section
(b) compressive below as well as above the
neutral axis of the beam cross-section (c) (d)
(c) tensile above the neutral axis and
compressive below the neutral axis of the
beam cross-section SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning)
Mechanics of Structures 413 YCT
 Ans. (b) : Shear stress distribution for different cross- (c) Macaulay theorem
sections– (d) Betti's law
Cross-section Shear stress distribution MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-I
diagram Ans. (b) : Theorem of parallel axis–It states, if the
moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis through
its center of gravity is denoted by IG, then moment of
inertia of the area about any other axis AB, parallel to
the first and at a distance h from the center of gravity is
given by–
IAB=IG + ah2
where,
IAB = Moment of inertia about base
IG = Moment of inertia of the area about its center of
gravity
a = Area of the section
h = Distance between center of gravity of the section
and axis AB.

• It is symmetrical about x-axis by using parallel axis

theorem, the MOI of section about centroid obtained.
129. If the unit of rectangular Moment of Inertia is 132. The moment of inertia of a body is a
m4, what is the unit of Polar Moment of Inertia measurement of.
(a) m3 (b) m4 (a) its resistance against linear deformation
(c) m 2
(d) m (b) its resistance against translation
(c) its resistance against shear
ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024
(d) its resistance against rotation
Ans. (b) : MOI measures objects resistance to angular MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I
acceleration. Ans. (d) : Moment of inertia–It is a measure of the
Polar MOI measures resistance to torsion. resistance offered by a body to angular acceleration
I P = ∫ r 2 .dA about a given axis.
• It is the measurement of resistance against rotation.
where, I = mr2
r = distance of area (dA) from axis of rotation. I = Moment of inertia
∴ Unit of IP is m4. m = Mass of object
130. According to perpendicular axis theorem, the r = Radius of gyration
moment of inertia about an axis zz, which is 133. Polar moment of inertia about central axis of a
perpendicular to xx and yy is semi-circular lamina with radius R is given as
(a) Izz = Ixx+ Iyy (b) Izz = Ixx- Iyy ____.
I πR 4 πR 4
(c) Izz = Ixx- Iyy (d) I zz = xx (a) (b)
I yy 2 8
πR 4 πR 4
Kerala PSC Sub Engg. 12/07/2023 (c) (d)
4 16
Ans. (a) : According to perpendicular axis theorem, the
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning)
moment of inertia about an axis zz, which is
perpendicular to xx and yy is – Ans. (c) : Given,
Izz = Ixx+ Iyy
131. Which of the following theorem is used to find
the moment of inertia of an area about any axis
that is parallel to an axis passing through the
centroid and about which the moment of
inertia is known Moment of inertia of the circle:
(a) law of symmetric sections πr 4
Ix−x = Iy−y =
(b) parallel axis theorem 4
Mechanics of Structures 414 YCT
 I p = I xx + I yy =
πr 4 πr 4 πr 4
+ = (for circle)
(c) ∑ H ≠ 0 and ∑ V ≠ 0
4
Area moment of inertia of circle is:
4 2 (d) ∑ H = 0 and ∑ V = 0
SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
πr 4
Ip = Ans. (d) : There are two method of analysis of
2
determinate truss.
Area moment of inertia of a semi circle would be half of
that of a circle (i) Method of joint
(ii) Method of section
πr 4
I xx = I yy = Method of joint–Unknown forces at each joint are find
8 out using equilibrium,
By adding "xx" axis and "yy" axis ΣFH = 0
πr 4 πr 4 πr 4 ΣFV = 0
Ip = I x + I y = + =
8 8 4 • Since at each joint there are only two equilibrium
134. The second moment of semicircular area about equation, hence method of joint can be applied only
its vertical centroidal axis having its horizontal when the maximum no. of unknown forces at a joint is
as base is (where diameter D and radius R) not more than two.
(a) πD4/32 (b) πD4/64 136. Which of the following is NOT the assumption
(c) πD /128
4
(d) 0.11R4 made in the analysis of trusses?
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I (a) The members of truss are straight
Ans. (c) : (b) All the members of truss are pin jointed
Shape Moment of Inertia members
Circle πD 4 πr 4 (c) All the members of truss are flexible
I xx = = (d) Force are acting only on joints
64 4
DDA JE Civil 28/03/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (c) Assumption for the analysis of trusses–
(i) Truss member are straight and joint using smooth
pin.
(ii) All the load are applied on the joint.
Semi-circle πD 4 πr 4 (iii) Bending moment in all the member of truss is
I xx = =
128 8 zero.
(iv) All members are connected only at their ends.
(v) All members are converted only at their ends by
frictionless ball and socket joints in space trusses.
Quarter circle πD 4 (vi) Member are rigid.
I xx = 137. A diagram of a Truss drawn to scale and
256
marked with loads and support reactions is
known as?
(a) Truss diagram (b) Space diagram
Triangle BH 3 (c) Vector diagram (d) Load diagram
I xx = (e) Answer not known
36
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
Ans. (b) : Making a space diagram–
• The given truss or frame is drawn accurately to some
linear scale.
• The loads and support reactions in magnitude and
directions are also shown on the frame.
135. According to the method of joint for analysing
138. When a load crosses through a Pratt truss in the
the trusses, the analysis entails the use of free -
direction left to right, the nature of force in any
body diagrams of the joints with the diagonal member in the left half of the span
application of equilibrium equations _____for (a) Changes from compression to tension
each joint. (b) Changes from tension to compression
(a) ∑ H ≠ 0 and ∑ V = 0 (c) Always be in compression
(d) Always be in tension
(b) ∑ H = 0 and ∑ V ≠ 0 UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-I
Mechanics of Structures 415 YCT
Ans. (a) : When a load crosses at the rough type pratt then, 2j = m + r'
truss, then the load is at A1, the force in U1A2 will m = No. of member
compressive and when the load is at L2 the force in r' = The number of reaction component
U1L2 will be tensile. This will happen for all diagonal The following general statement can be made
member in left half. Reverse will be the case for concerning the relation between j, m and r.
diagonal member of right half. • 2j < m + r
These are more unknown than the no. of equilibrium
equation. The truss is statically indeterminate.
The degree of indeterminacy is n = m + r – 2j
139. Which method is not used for finding the • 2j = m + r
deflection of joints in pin-connected trusses? The truss is statically determinate and the unknown can
(a) Kani’s Method be obtained from 2j equation. The degree of
(b) Joint Displacement Method indeterminacy n = 0
(c) Williot-Mohr’s Method • 2j > m + r
(d) Angle Weight Method There are not enough unknowns. The truss is a
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-III mechanism and always unstable.
Ans. (d) : Willet-Mohr's method–The Williot-Mohr 142. Which of the following is not true for trusses?
diagram yield the resultant deflection of all joints by a (a) All the loads are applied only on the joints
single solution. (b) All the members only carry axial forces
Joint displacement method–This method is the most (c) Curved members can be used in trusses
suitable method for the dynamic analysis of structures. (d) Bending moment in all the members of
In this method the unknowns are the displacement. trusses is zero
Kani's method–This method involves distributing the HPSSSC JE CIVIL 10.09.2022
unknown fixed end moment to adjacent joints to satisfy Ans. (c) : Truss–Truss member are slender member
the condition of continuity of slope and displacement. carrying only axial tension or compression.
Angle Weight method is not used for finding the
deflections of joints in pin-connected trusses.
140. Truss members are subjected to only axial load as
(a) external load acts at member joints only
(b) all member joints are hinged joints
(c) truss structures are determinate structures
(d) self weight are ignored in the analysis Assumption–
MPSC MES 29/10/2022 Paper-1 (i) Truss member are straight and joint using smooth
pin.
Ans. (b) : Assumption for truss analysis–
(ii) All the load are applied on the joints.
• The weight of the members may be neglected.
(iii) Bending moment in all the member of truss is zero.
• Truss member are connected together at their ends only.
(iv) Self weight of member are negligible.
• The truss structure is loaded only at the joints and the
joints are hinged. 143. Among the following, which method is “NOT”
141. A truss, which possesses just sufficient number used for anlayzing Truss.
of members or bars to maintain its stability and (a) Macaulay`s Method
equilibrium under any system of forces applied (b) Graphical Method
at joints, is called a: (c) Method of Joints
(a) Statically determinate truss (d) Method of Sections
(b) Stable truss DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-II
(c) Both (A) and (B) Ans. (a) Truss–Truss member are slander member
(d) None of these carrying only tension or compression.
CGPSC AE (Civil) 28/08/2022 Analysis of truss–
Ans. (c) : A truss which possesses just sufficient 1. Method of joints
number or bar maintain its stability and equilibrium 2. Method of section
under any system of forces applied at joints is called a 3. Graphical method
statically determinate and stable truss. Macaulay's method–Macaulay's method is a technique
If the truss is statically determinate, used in structural analysis to determine the deflection of beam.
Mechanics of Structures 416 YCT
144. Which one of the following is not a common Ans. (a) : Determine and indeterminate truss–
type of bridge truss? 2D Truss–
(a) Fink Re = 3
(b) Pratt 1. If M = 2j – Re (Determinate truss)
(c) Howe 2. If M > 2j – Re (Indeterminate truss)
(d) Warren 3. If M < 2j – Re (Unstable truss)
UPSC CRT AE 28/08/2022 3D Truss–
Ans. (a) : Bridge truss– Some of the commonly used Re = 6
bridge trusses are as follow → Pratt, howe, warren, 1. If M = 3j – Re (Determinate truss)
parker, Baltimore, K-truss. 2. If M > 3j – Re (Indeterminate truss)
Roof truss– Some common type of roof truss are as 3. If M < 3j – Re (Unstable truss)
follow– Scissors, howe, pratt, Fan, Fink, warren, 148. Which of the following assumptions is NOT
sawtooth, bowstrings. made in the analysis of a simple truss?
145. Identify the INCORRECT assumption from (a) The members of the truss are connected at
among the following, adopted in the analysis of their ends by frictionless pins or hinges.
plane trusses by method of joints. (b) Self-weight of the truss members are
(a) The members of the truss are connected considered.
together at their ends by friction pins (c) The truss is loaded and supported only at its
(b) The external loads are applied only at the joints.
joints in the plane of the truss and not directly (d) The forces in the members of the truss are
on any member purely axial.
(c) The individual members of the truss are straight MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-I
(d) The members of the truss are connected Ans. (b) : Assumption–
together at their ends by frictionless hinges • The members of the truss are connected at their ends
SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023 by frictionless pins or hinges.
Ans. (a) : Truss–Truss members are slender member • The truss is loaded and supported only at its joints.
carrying only axial tension or compression. This • The forces in the members of the truss are purely
simplest type of truss is a triangle truss. axial.
Assumptions– • Self-weight of the truss members are negligible.
1. Truss member are straight and joint using smooth pin. 149. A False statement regarding the assumptions
2. All load acting only at joints. made for the analysis of trusses.
3. The external load are applied only at the joints in the (a) All members are connected only at their ends
plane of the truss and not directly on any member. by frictionless ball and socket joint in space
4. The individual member of the truss are straight. trusses
146. In assumptions made for truss structures, the (b) The centroidal axis of each member does not
members are joined by: coincide with the line connecting the centres
(a) smooth pins of the adjacent joints
(b) both smooth and rough pins (c) All members are connected only at their ends
(c) Neither smooth pins nor rough pins by frictionless in plane trusses
(d) rough pins (d) All loads and support reactions are applied
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III only at the joints
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation DSSSB AE 27/09/2021 Shift-III
147. Which of the following equations matches with Ans. (b) : Assumption for the analysis of trusses–
the below - mentioned condition of truss? (i) Truss members are straight and joint using smooth
Condition : The truss is internally stable and pin.
statically determinate space truss. (ii) All the load are applied on the joint.
(a) m = 3j – 6 (iii) Bending moment in all the member of truss is zero.
(b) m > 2j – 3 (iv) All members are connected only at their ends.
(c) m = 2j – 1 (v) All members are converted only at their ends by
(d) j < 2m – 3 frictionless ball and socket joints in space trusses.
DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023 (vi) Members are rigid.

Mechanics of Structures 417 YCT

DIRECT AND BENDING STRESSES Max. Limit of eccentricity of different
Direct stress- section–
Body is subjected to an axial tension or Section For no tension in the Shape of
compression, produces a direct stress. section limit of max. core
P eccentricity limit
Direct stress, σd = 1. Solid b d Rhombus
A e x −x ≤ , e y− y ≤
Rectangular 6 6
Bending stress- Section Side of core =
When a body is subjected to bending moment, then
b2 + d 2
stress, produces in the member is known as bending
stress. 6
It is known as middle
M third rule.
Bending stress, σ b =
Z 2. Square Cross a Square
section e≤
Combined stresses- 6
When a body is subjected to eccentric loading 'P' at Kernel size, a × a
a distance of 'e' then body undergoes combined 3 3
stresses.

3. Solid Circular d Circular

Section e max ≤
8
Dia. of core, d/4

It is known as middle
fourth rule.

4. Hollow Rectangular BD3 − bd 3 Rhombus

Section ex−x ≤
6D(BD − bd)
DB3 − db3
e y− y ≤
6B(BD − bd)
Maximum and minimum stress,
Maximum stress σ max = σd + σ b
Minimum stress σ min = σd − σ b
5. Hollow Circular D2 + d 2 Circular
When column is in rectangular shape then Section e max ≤
8D
Dia. of core, D + d
2 2
6M P
σb = σd = , d>b
bd 2 bd 4D
Max. and min. stress in column due to eccentric load-
P  6e 
σ max = 1 + 
A b 
Note- For no tension in the section eccentricity must not
=  1 − 
P 6e 2k 2
σ min exceed-
A b  d
Where, e = eccentricity, b = width of section Where, k = radius of gyration.

Theory of Structures 418 YCT

 SLOPE AND DEFLECTION Fixed end Free end
Internal hinge Interior roller
Deformation due to bending only. Internal pin Hinge
Strength and stiffness are the two main design
Free end Fixed end
criteria for a beam.
Deflection- Given load M
diagram
It is the vertical distance between the axis of beam EI
before and after loading at that point. 3. Double Integration method-.
Deflection is always zero at support. The First integration yields the slope and second
Slope- gives the deflection.
Angle between deformed beam to the actual beam at Differential equation for deflection curve.
the same point is called slope.
d2 y
EI = −M
dx 2
This equation is also known as basic formula of
slope and deflection.
dy
Ist Integration- EI = E.I.θ = − ∫ M + C1
dx

IInd Integration- EI.y = − ∫∫ M + C 2

Methods of slope and deflection-
1. Moment area method (Mohr's method)- Note-
It is a graphical method that relates slope and Moment area and double integration method are
deflection of beam. suitable for uniaxial or single load.
This method is more suitable where position of 4. Macaulay's method-
centroid of the bending moment area is known. It is very efficient for point load or discontinuous
It is more useful compared to double integral loading conditions. Macaulay's method is used in
method. structural analysis to find the deflection of beams,
A Ax Bending moment and curvature from Euler
θ= and y = Mohr 'sTheorem , Bernoulli beam theory. When distance 'X' moves
EI EI
Where A = Area of BMD over entire span d2y
where the load is applied. ± EI 2 = M xx
2. Conjugate beam method- dx
Conjugate beam method is developed by Heinrich Then Macaulay Brackets-
Mullar-Breslau in 1865. It is graphical method to
0, x < a 
find slope and deflection at particular point in (x − a) = 
n

(x − a) , x ≥ a 
n
statically determinate structure. In this method given
beam is firstly converted into conjugate beam. For different type of load-
This method provides very easy approach. When,
This method modified form of moment area method. n=0 - Point moment
Note– n=1 - Point load
Conjugate beam method can be directly used for SSB.
n=2 - Uniformly distributed load
Conjugate Beam-
n=3 - Uniformly variable load
An imaginary beam for which the load diagram is
Section is consider between two load.
M
the called conjugate beam. Suitable for several loads.
EI This method is also called method of singularity
M function.
If is +ve, loading is upward
EI 5. Super position method-
Conversion of actual beam into conjugate beam - The deformation (Slope or deflection) of a beam at
Actual Beam or Real Conjugate Beam any point is equal to the resultant of the
Beam deformations (Slopes or deflection). At that point
Hinged support Hinged support super position method is valid upto proportional
Roller support Roller support limit.
Slope at any point Shear force at that point 6. Strain Energy Method-
Alberto Castigliono's developed a method to find out
Deflection at any point Bending moment at that point
deflection of structures by strain energy. When
M/EI diagram due to Loading on conjugate beam
external loads are applied on elastic body they
applied load/curvature.
deform.
Theory of Structures 419 YCT
 ∂U ∂U 3. Propped Cantilever beam-
δ= and , θ = It is a beam with one end fixed and other is provided
∂P ∂M with simple / roller/pin support in order to resist
1 M2 deflection of beam.
Strain energy U = P.δ = ∫ xx dx It provides more rigidity than S.S.B and cantilever
2 2EI beam
Important Equation- (i) When point load act at the centre of beam then,
dy
Deflection, δ= EI.y Slope, θ = EI.
dx
d2 y d3 y
Moment, M = E.I. Shear, F = EI.
dx 2 dx 3
d4 y R L3
Load equation w = E.I. 4 Upward deflection due to prop reaction, y B = B
dx 3EI
Slope and deflection for different type of beam at
5PL3
different loading- Deflection due to load 'P' yB =
Special case- 48EI
1. S.S.B. with eccentric load- (ii) When U.D.L. Act-

Upward deflection due to reaction RB

R B L3
θA =
P.b
6EI.L
( L2 − b 2 ) , θB =
P.a
6EI.L
(L2 − a 2 ) yB ( ↑ ) =
3EI

P.ab 2 wL4
Deflection y =  L − (a 2 + b 2 )  Downward deflection due to load 'P' y B (↓) =
6EI.L  8EI
2. Cantilever beam- WL2
(i) Load P act at one third of the span then Bending moment at fixed end, B.M =
8
Type of beam and loading Slope Deflec
tion
Simply Supported Beam PL2 PL3
1. With point load at centre 16EI 48EI

P. ( L / 3) 2. With U.D.L. (w N/m)

3
PL3 wL3 5wL4
deflection at point 'C' y c = =
3EI 81EI 24EI 384EI

4 PL3 3. With triangular load 5wL3 wL4

Deflection at free end y B =
81 EI maximum at
192EI 120EI
centre and zero at both ends
2L
(ii) When Load 'P' act distance from support Cantilever Beam- PL2 PL3
3
1. With point load at its free 2EI 3EI
end
2. With U.D.L. (w N/m) wL3 wL4
6EI 8EI
3. With gradually varying PL3 PL4
8PL 3 load zero at free end and
Deflection at point 'C' y c = 24EI 30EI
81EI maximum at fixed end
4. Cantilever beam with point PL2 5 PL3
14 PL3 load at centre
Deflection at free end- y B = 8EI 48 EI
81EI

Theory of Structures 420 YCT

5. With U.D.L.(w N/m) from wL3 7wL4 7.
fixed end to centre of beam 7 23 2
48EI 384EI − wl 2 + wl
960 96
6. with U.D.L. (wN/m) from 7wL3 41wL4
centre of beam to free end
48EI 384EI 8.
7. with clockwise moment at ML ML2 MP
MP
its free end EI 2EI − +
4 4
Fixed Beam- PL3
1. Point load at its centre y= 9.
192 EI
2. With U.D.L (wN/m) M p b(3a − ℓ ) M p a(3b − l )
wL4 −
3. Triangular load max. at y max = ℓ2 l2
384 EI
centre and zero at both ends.
at centre
7wL4 10.
y max = or
3840EI
6EIδ 6EIδ
7 − +
× S.S.B l2 l2
32

FIXED BEAM
Fixed End Moment- 0 3EIδ
Loading Diagram MAB MBA (At hinged) +
L2
1.

PL PL CONTINUOUS BEAM
- +
8 8
When a beam has more than two supports, the
beam is called a continuous beam.
2.
The reactions in the supports of a continuous
beam cannot be directly obtained with the
wl 2 wl 2
- + equations of static equilibrium only, hence the
12 12 continuous beams are statically indeterminate.

3.

Pab 2 Pa 2 b
- +
l2 l2

wl 2 wl 2
-
30 20
4.
5.
Behaviour of a continuous beam
5 5
− wl 2 + wl 2
96 96

6.
− 11 wl 2 5
wl 2
192 192

Two-span segment of a continuous beam

Theory of Structures 421 YCT
 METHOD OF STRUCTURAL According to this method deflection
L MM1
ANALYSIS ∆=∫ .dx
o EI

or ∆ = ∫ σ ' ε.dv
Where σ' = Stress in the element due to the unit load
ε = Strain in an element due to given load system.
Real work method/Strain energy method -
Difference b/w Force and Displacement Method- The work done by the actual loads are considered.
(1) Force/Compatibility/ (2) Displacement/Stiffness n 1
Real work done by loads = u = ∑ 0 P.∆
Flexibility Method /Equilibrium Method 2
(i) In this method static (i) In this method kinematic 1. Consistent Deformation Methods-
indeterminacy of structure indeterminacy of structure (i) Find the degree of redundancy.
is considered. (DK > DS) is considered. (DS > DK) (ii) Primary structure that is obtained by removing the
(ii) Compatibility equation (ii) Equilibrium equations redundancy and loading the resulting beam with
are the main governing are the main governing external loading only.
equations for structural equations for structural (iii) Secondary structure that contains loading of
analysis. analysis redundant reaction only.
(iii) Force-displacement (iii) Force- displacement (iv) Redundant are found out by writing the
relations are represented in relation are represented in compatibility conditions.
the flexibility matrix. the stiffness matrix. 2. Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem-
(i) The deflection at (A) due to unit force at (B) is equal
(iv) Different forces (iv) Displacement and
to deflection at (B) due to unit force at (A)
(reaction, S.F., B.M.) are slopes are considered to be
considered to be unknown. unknown. Thus δ AB = δ BA
(v) The number of (v) The number of
compatibility equation equilibrium equation
needed is equal to degree needed is equal to degree of
of static indeterminacy kinematic indeterminacy (ii) The slope at (A) due to unit couple at (B) is equal to
Types of Force Method– the slope at (B) due to unit couple (A)
(i) Unit load method (virtual work method) θ AB = θ BA
(ii) Strain energy method (Real work method)
(iii) Column analogy method
(iv) Clapeyron's theorem (3- moment method)
(v) Flexibility matrix method
(vi) Castigliano’s Method (3) The slope at (A) due to unit load at (B) is equal to
deflection at (B) due to unit couple at (A)
(vii) Maxwell- Mohr equation.
(viii) Elastic centre method θ AB = δ BA
Types of Displacement Method–
(i) Moment distribution method (MDM)
(ii) Kani’s method
(iii) Slope-deflection method (iii) Betti’s Theorem-
(v) Stiffness matrix method/ Equilibrium method It is Generalized Maxwell Theorem:
(vi) Minimum potential energy method It states that displacement at a point due to point
Fundamental Assumption– load at another point is equal to the displacement at
Principal of Superposition– another point due to the load at the first point.
Total loading (or) displacement is equal the external This theorem is only valid for a stable structure
load acting separately. under the elastic limit
(i) Hook’s law is valid Betti's theorem relates the series of point loads with
(ii) Small displacement the deformation at other points while maxwell's
theorem can only be used for two points.
Various Force Methods-
Betti's theorem is used when loading conditions are
Unit load method - different.
It is based on the conservation of energy.
PA δ'A + PBδ'B = P'A δ'A + PB'δ B
"Total internal strain energy stored is equal to the total
external work done." PA, δΑ - First group of forces & displacement.
Derived from Castigliano's theorem PB, δΒ - Second group of forces & displacement,
Theory of Structures 422 YCT
 In Betti's Theorem- MOMENT DISTRIBUTION
The symbols (M) and (θ) can also denote couple and
rotation respectively.
METHOD
It is a structural analysis method for statically
M A θ 'A + M Bθ B = M A 'θ A + M B'θ B indeterminate continuous beams and plane frames
Thus according to Betti’s law we have general developed by Hardy cross (relaxation method).
Axial force and corresponding axial deformation are
equation,
neglected in M.D.M.
ΣP.δ '+ ΣM.θ = ΣP 'δ + ΣM '.θ Carry Over Moment (COM) -
4. Castigliano's Theorem- It is moment developed at one end due to applied
First Theorem- moment at other ends.
It is defined only when one side is subjected to a
The partial derivative of the total strain energy in a
moment (M).
structure with respect to the displacement at any one All COM are reacting moment but all reacting
of the load points gives the value of corresponding moment are not carry over moment.
load acting on the body in the direction of Carry Over Factor (COF)-
displacement" ,i.e. It is the ratio of COM and applied moment.
∂U ∂U M/2
=P =M i.e. for fixed end = = 1/2
∂δ ∂θ M
Far end Condition COM COF
Far end is fixed M/2 1/2
Far end is hinged 0 0
Second Theorem- For cantilever beam –M –1
For guided roller support –M –1
In any linear elastic structure partial derivative of the
Stiffness Factors (K)-
strain energy w.r.t. load at a point is equal to the
It is the moment or force required to produce unit
deflection of the point where load is acting , i.e.
M P
∂U ∂U rotation or deflection K = OR
=δ =θ θ δ
∂P ∂M
Relative Stiffness
5. Theorem of Least Work- It is the relative value of stiffness factor (k) and
For any statically indeterminate structure, the defined to simplify calculation.
redundant should be such that to make the total Condition Stiffness factor Relative
energy within the structure as minimum. It is a stiffness
special case of Castiglione's 2nd theorem. Far end is fixed 4EI I
Displacement Method- L L
Slope deflection method: [Developed by G.A. Far end is hinged 3EI 3 I 
Maney (1915)]  
L 4L
Important point-
i. To find slope deflection relationship, method of Cantilever beam ΕI 0
superposition is used. L
ii. Maney used the concept of stiffness factor or carry Guided roller support ΕI 1 I
over moment to develop slope deflection equation.
L 4L
iii. If far end is free i.e. for overhang portions of a beam
Far end is free 0
we can not write slope deflection equation because
Distribution factor (D.F.)-
there is no support at free end.
It is the ratio in which the applied moment (M) is
iv. The effect of axial force and axial deformation are distributed to various member meeting at rigid joint.
neglected in slope deflection method.
v. For continuous beam- Member stiffness K
D.F. =
Joint stiffness ΣK
2EI  3δ 
M AB = M FAB +  2θ A + θ B −  ∑K = Sum of member stiffness
L  l  Note-
2EI  3δ  Joint stiffness = ∑ member stiffness
M BA = M FBA + 2θ Β + θ A − 
L  l 
∑ D.F. = 1 Always
vi. No. of equation required in Slope deflection method If far end is free, then its stiffness factor, relative
to find unknown is equal to degree of kinematic stiffness (Z) and distribution factor (D.F.) = 0
indeterminacy (DK). DF is the property of rigid joint
Theory of Structures 423 YCT
 Portal frame - Standard Result-
If a joint moves vertically then it is called sinking. If 1
it is moves horizontally then it is called sway. Width of analogue column
1. Sinking of support- EI
(i) Beams fixed at both ends L
6EIδ Area of analogoue column
6EIδ EI
MA = 2 MB = 2
L L
L3
12EIδ 12EIδ Moment of inertia
VA = VB = 12EI
L3 L3
It is developed by Hardy Cross in 1930
It is ideally suited for computing stiffness and
carryover factor in beams and frames having
variable cross-section
Kani's Method-
It involves distributing the unknown fixed end
(ii) Fixed at one end freely supported at other- moments of structural member to adjacent joints in
order to satisfy the conditions of continuity of slopes
and displacements. It is also known as rotation
contribution method.
Three Moment method-
It is used to expresses the relation between bending
moments at three successive supports of a
3EIδ 3EIδ 3EIδ continuous beam, subjected to a loading an a two
MA = 2 MB = 0 VA = 3 VB = 3
L L L adjacent span with or without settlement of the
2. Portal frame with side sway- support.
Cause of side sway-
(i) Eccentric or unsymmetrical loading COLUMNS
(ii) Unsymmetrical outline of portal frame. A vertical structural member which carries axial
(iii) Different end connection of the column compressive loads is known as column.
(iv) Non-uniform section members of the frame. Strut-
(v) Horizontal loading on the column of the frame. A structural member subjected to axial compressive
(vi) Settlement of support of the frame. force is called strut.
(vii) A combination of the above. Strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical.
DIRECTION OF SWAY- Radius of gyration-
Case - 1 Imin = Ak min 2
If the structures and loading condition are symmetrical,
then the frame will not sway in any direction. I
k min = min
Case - 2 A
If any frame sway due to a load acting at a joint
Where,
only, then it is called pure sway
k = radius of gyration
Case -3
I = Area moment of inertia
If the load is symmetrical and structure is not
Slenderness Ratio (S.R.)-
symmetrical the frame sway towards weak column
side [i.e. column having less stiffness factor. It define the geometrical property of a compression
member.
Effective length l
S.R.( λ ) = = e
Least radius of gyration k min.
Slenderness ratio is also known as buckling factor in
case of strut.
Case - 4 1
If the frame is symmetrical and loading is not λ min ∝
symmetrical then cut the frame at centre and checks k min
deflection of cantilever frame in the same direction So, if λ is less then load bearing capacity of column
frame also sways. will be more.
COLUMN ANALOGY METHOD (CAM)- Buckling load-
This method is most suitable for the analysis of beam The maximum load at which the column just buckles
and curved member with two fixed support, rigid frame is called buckling load, critical load or crippling
upto degree of redundancy = 3 load.
Theory of Structures 424 YCT
 Buckling load is low for long columns and high for Assumptions-
short column. (i) Material is homogeneous, isotropic and follow
It depends upon the dimension of members and its Hooke's law.
end condition. (ii) Axis of the column is perfectly straight and uniform
Note- lateral dimension.
(i) If applied load < Buckling load → Static
equilibrium. (iii) Weight of column is neglected.
(ii) If applied load = Buckling load → Neutral (iv) Flexural rigidity (EI) is uniform
equilibrium.
(v) Pin joint are frictionless and fixed ends are rigid.
Note : –
(vi) Column fails by buckling alone.
Buckling load
Safe load = (vii) Compressive load is exactly axial and it passes
Factor of safety
through the centroid of the column section.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COLUMN- (viii) Limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
1. Classification based on slenderness ratio
Euler's equation-
S.R Types of column Fails in
< 32 Short column Crushing π2 EI min π2 EA
Pe / Pb or Pcr = =
32-120 Intermediate Combined, crushing and le2 λ2
column buckling Where,
>120 Long column Buckling Pe = Euler, buckling or crippling load
2. On the basis of L/D ratio- Imin = Least moment of inertia
 Length  Types of Column l e = Effective length
  Ratio
 Diameter  E = Young's modulus
<8 Short Column/Stocky Struts Limitation of Euler's formula-
8 - 30 Medium Column (i) It cannot be used in the case of short column
> 30 Long Column because the direct stress is considerable and hence
3. Column based on end conditions- cannot be neglected.
Effective length of column based on end condition- (ii) If, S.R > critical S.R buckling failure occurs.
End Condition Effective le (As Buckling / Euler Rankine formula or Rankine Gordon formula-
length per IS load This formula is valid for any column.
le Code) π2 EI 1 1 1
Pe = = +
le2
PR Pc Pe
One end Fixed 2L 2L π2 EI
and other end fc × A
4L2 PR =
Free 2
 f   l 
Both end L L π EI
2 1 +  2c  ×  e 
Hinged  π E   k min. 
L2
fc × A f c .A
Both end Fixed L/2 or 0.65L 4π2 EI OR PR = =
L 
2
1 + αλ 2
0.5L 1 + α  eff . 
L2
 k min . 
One end Fixed L 0.8L 2π2 EI
and other le = Where,
2 L2
Hinged Crushing load ,Pc = fc × A
or 0.70L
Pe = Buckling load
Calculated Load Carrying Capacity of Column- PR = Rankine load
Load carrying capacity of column is depends upon fc = Direct compressive stress
(i). End condition Where,
(ii). Lateral / cross-sectional dimension
f
(iii). Types of material α = Rankine constant = 2c
There are two method of calculating load carrying π E
capacity of column λ = Radius of gyration
Euler's Theory- Note : –
Direct stress induced in a long column In case of eccentric loading for long column secant
It is useful for long column only formula is used.
Theory of Structures 425 YCT
Value of 'fc' and 'a' for different material- Where,
Material fc Rankine's Constant α r = Number of unknown forces or support
2 reaction
(N/mm ) When both ends are e = Total number of equilibrium equation required
hinged to determine support reaction.
Cast Iron 550 1 Note-
1600 Each internal hinge contributes to one additional
equilibrium i.e, ∑m = 0
Wrought Iron 250 1 Dse = 0 Externally determinate structure
9000 Dse = Externally indeterminate
Mild Steel 320 1 Dse = r − 3 for truss and frame
7500 Types of structure No. of
equilibrium (e)
Timber 40 1
2D truss jointed plane frame 3
750 3D truss pin jointed space frame 6
Failure Graph- 2D frame rigid jointed frame 3
It is the Graph between failure stress and slenderness 3D frame rigid jointed space frame 6
ratio. 2. Internal Static Indeterminacy [Dsi]-
It refers to the geometric stability of the structure.
It deals with internal forces only (i.e. Axial force,
Shear force and Bending moment).
Types of Internal Static Indeterminacy
Structure
Beam Dsi = 0
Because there is no internal
indeterminacy for beam.
•If we know the support reaction, we
can find all internal force.
Truss D = m − (2 j − 3) for 2D
si

Dsi = m − (3j − 6) for 3D

Note- Frame
To find out the crippling load of columns the Dsi = 3C − R r for 2D
Johnson's parabolic formula and straight line Dsi = 6C − R r for 3D
formula is also used.
Where,
BASIC OF STRUCTURAL m = Number of member
ANALYSIS J = Number of joint in structure
STATIC INDETERMINACY (Ds)- C = Number of cuts required to open rigid closed
loops or Number of closed loop.
If available equilibrium for a structure is less than Rr = Number of released reaction
the unknown forces then this types of structure is • For simple truss Dsi = 0
called static indeterminacy. It deals with the Static indeterminacy formula-
unknown forces. Types of Static Indeterminacy
In this types of structure reactions cannot be Structure
evaluated by the application of static equilibrium Beam D = r−e
equation alone. s

Ds = Dse + Dsi Truss Ds = m + r − 2j For 2D

If Ds = m + r − 3j For 3D
• Ds = 0 structure is determinate
Frame Ds = 3m + r − 3j For 2D
• Ds > 0 structure is indeterminate
1. External Static Indeterminacy [Dse]- Ds = 6m + r − 6j For 3D
It deals with external support system or arrangement
of reaction only. If Rr is given then
Number of reaction in excess of equilibrium Ds = 3m + r − 3j − R r 2D
equation.
R r = Σ (n − 1) R r = Σ3(n − 1)
It is calculated by formula for Beam, Truss, Frame-
Ds e = r − e , Ds = 6m + r − 6 j − R r 3D

Theory of Structures 426 YCT

 Where, Normal Thrust & Radial Shear in Three Hinge arch-
n = Number of member connected to internal
hinge.
r = Number of support (External) reaction.
Note-
Cut the frame such that each part of the frame looks
like a stable cantilever frame
Ds = 3C - R'
Ds = 6C - R' For space frame
R' = Structure restrains added to make support as
fixed are to make all joints rigid.
Open structure or tree type structures has zero static • Normal thrust, N T = Vsinθ + Hcosθ
indeterminacy.
KINEMATIC INDETERMINACY (Dk)- • Radial shear, SR = +Vcosθ − Hsinθ
If the displacement components of the joint of a Note-
structure can not determined by compatibility If a three hinge parabolic arch is subjected to UDL
equations alone then it is called kinematic throughout its length, then SR and B.M = 0
indeterminate structure. everywhere in the beam but NT ≠ 0
Number of unknown displacement > Number of (a) Three Hinged Parabolic arch-
compatibility equation. Three hinged parabolic arch subjected to UDL on
Dk is the sum of degree of freedom in rotation and entire span is free from B.M
translation. Parabolic shape for three hinged arch is a funicular
Degree of freedom = Dk shape.
Types of Kinematic Indeterminacy
Structure
Beam wl 2
• When extensible D = 3J − r
k Horizontal thrust, H=
8h
• When inextensible-
wl
D k = 3J − R − Number of independent Reaction at support, V=
2
displacement presented
4h
Truss D k = 2J − R for2D  y= .x.[l − x]
l2
 for extensible
D k = 3J − R for3D 
Frame D k = 3J − R − 2D 
 For inextensible
D k = 6J − R − 3D 
Note-
If nothing is mentioned in the questions, then
assume that all member are extensible.
If members are inextensible then axial deformation (b) Three Hinged Circular arch-
of each member in its longitudinal direction is not y = R[cosβ − cosθ]
possible.
For inextensible, subtract number of independent
displacement prevented from kinematic
indeterminacy.
ARCH
Three Hinged arch-
A three Hinged arch is a statically determinate
structure, having a hinge at each abutment (or)
springing and also at the crown.

(c) 3-Hinged Semi-circular arch with UDL over

whole span-
wR
• H=
2

Theory of Structures 427 YCT

 wR 2 (iii) Three hinged semicircular arch carrying
• MX = - (sinθ − sin 2θ) B.M at x-x section concentrated load (W) at crown.
2
W
wR 2 H = VA = VB =
• M max =− [at θ = 30°] (Hogging) 2
8
• M C = 0 (at θ = 90° i.e at the crown)
• Point of maximum bending moment from the centre
R 3
of semicircle- OE =
2
R
• Distance from left support- x = (2 − 3)
2
Where R = Radius of semicircle

Influence line for radial shear and normal thrust -

(d) Parabolic Arch having abutment at diff. levels-

(i) When it is subjected to UDL over whole span-
l h1 l h2
l1 = l2 =
h1 + h 2 h1 + h 2

wl 2
HA = HB = 2
[Mc = 0]
2  h1 + h 2 

Temperature effect on three Hinge arch-

• There is decrease in horizontal thrust due to
temperature rise
• Due to only temperature change there is no
stresses produce in 3-hinges arch.

(ii) When subjected to concentrated load W at

crown-
wl
H= 2
 h1 + h 2   l 2 + 4h 2 
  (i) ∆h =  α T
 4h 
1
(ii) H ∝
h
δh
(iii) % decrease in horizontal thrust = ×100
h
Where, ∆h = Free rise in crown height
h = Rise of arch
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion
T = Rise in temperature in °C.

Theory of Structures 428 YCT

Note- W
Unloaded determinate structure (Ds = 0) always free H= = 0.318W (At crown due to point load W)
from thermal stress. π
TWO HINGED ARCH- 2. Semicircular Arch with UDL over whole span-
4 wR
HA = H B =
3 π
3. Two hinged semicircular arch with Uniformly
Varying Load-
2 wR
HA = ΗB =
3 π
4. Two Hinged symmetrical Parabolic arch carries
UDL of w on entire span-
Horizontal thrust (H) in two Hinged arch when there This type of arch is subjected to normal thrust only.
is no temperature change, no rib shortening and no
wl 2
yielding of support then HA = HB =
To Simplify Integration- 8h
I = IC secθ (Ds = 1)
IC = M.O.I. of c/s at crown.
I = M.O.I. at any section x – x.
2
 dy  dy
I = IC 1+   = tanθ
 dx  dx
If there is rib shortening, temperature increase in
temperature (t°C) and yielding of support-
M x y.dx
∫ EIC
+ α Tl
H=
y 2 dx  l 
∫ EIC +  AE  + K Note-
In case of parabolic symmetrical arch under UDL -
Where, wl 2
αTl is due to temperature increased In this condition H 2hinged = H 3hinged =
8
 l  Only compressive force will be resisted by this arch.
 AE  is due to rib shortening. In this condition there is no bending and shear forces
K = yielding of support/unit horizontal thrust. occurs in the arch so this shape of arch is called
Note- funicular arch.
In a Statically indeterminate parabolic arch if When half of the parabolic arch is loaded by UDL,
temperature increases then horizontal thrust increases. then horizontal thrust at support
If the effect of rib shortening and yielding of support wl 2
are considered then horizontal thrust decreases. H=
16h
1. Semicircular arch of Radius ‘R’ carrying load W
at a section, makes an angle β with horizontal.

W 2  W
HA = HB = sin β  At crown β = 90°, H =  When two hinged parabolic arch is subjected to
π  π varying UVL, from zero to w then,
Theory of Structures 429 YCT
 wl 2 (e) I.L.D. for radial shear (Np)-
Horizontal thrust H=
16h

Reaction locus for 2 hinged arch-

It is the line which gives the point of intersection of
the two reaction for any position for an isolated load.
A two hinged parabolic arch is under a concentrated (a) Parabolic arch-
load W at the crown. hf = ordinate of reaction locus of any point (P).
25 Wl 1.6h
H= hf =
128 h 1 + α − α2

Moving Loads on two hinged arch- (b) For semi-circular arch-

(a) General arch figure-

(b) I.L.D. for horizontal trust (H)-

πR
hf =
2
(c) I.L.D. for bending moment (Mp)- Here hf does not depends upon loading position.
• Locus of reaction of a two hinged semi-circular arch
is a straight line.
Temperature effect on two-hinged arch-
lαT
H=
l y 2 ds
(d) I.L.D. for normal thrust (Fp)-
∫o EI
4EIαT
(i) H =
πR 2
15 EIo αT
(ii) H = I0 = M.O.I of the arch at crown.
8 h2
H = horizontal thrust
Theory of Structures 430 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years 5. The maximum deflection of simply supported
beam occurs at zero
1. Macaulay's method is a method for finding the (a) bending moment location
.............. of a beam. (b) shear force location
(a) moment of inertia (b) slope and deflection (c) slope location
(c) shear stress (d) bending moment (d) shear force location and also zero bending
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 moment location
Ans (b) : Macaulay's method– It is a method used to MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
find deflection in which a single equation is formed for Ans. (c) : Simply Supported Beam–
all loads on the beam and the equation is constructed in • Maximum slope occurs at the ends of the beam.
such a way that the integral constants apply to all the
section of the beam. • A point of zero slopes occurs at the centre of the beam.
This is the point of maximum deflection ().
2. ______Method is used to find the deflection of
beam
(a) Macaulay’s method
(b) Double integration method S.S.B.
(c) Unit load method
(d) 1 and 2 only 6. Moment area method is applied to determine
(a) SF and BM at a point
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
(b) slope and deflection at a point
Ans. (d) : Method of determining beam deflection– (c) only deflection at a point
(i) Double integration method (d) bending stress and shear stress at a point
(ii) Area-moment method UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
(iii) Castigliano's theorem (strain-energy method)
Ans. (b) : Moment area method :- The moment area
(iv) Method of super position
method is most conveniently used for determining slope
(v) Conjugate beam method and deflection for beams in which the direction of the
3. In the double integration method, the slope is tangent at fixed end does not change in slope. The
obtained by integrating the basic differential method is applied easily to beams loaded with
equation: concentrated loads, because the moment diagram consist
(a) One time (b) Four time of straight lines. It is also known as Mohr's method. This
(c) Three time (d) Two time method is applicable to both beams and frames.
JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil)
Ans. (a) : Double integration method for slope and
deflection–
The bending moment at a point.
d2 y
M = EI 2
dx
Integrating the above equation 7. The slope at the fixed end of a cantilever beam
dy will be:
EI = ∫ Mdx ……… (i) (a) minimum (b) negative
dx (c) maximum (d) zero
and integrating the above equation once again MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I
EI.y = ∫ ( Mdx ) dx ………. (ii) Ans. (d) : The slope at the fixed end of a cantilever
It is thus obvious that after first integration the original beam will be zero.
differential equation, we get the value of slope at any
point on further integrating, we get the value of
deflection at any point.
Note– While integrating twice the original differential
equation, we will get two constants C1 and C2. The
values of these constants may be found out by using the
end conditions.
4. The double integration method is primarily
used for determining the : WL2
(a) Slope and deflection of beams • Slope at free end =
(b) Shear force only 2EI
(c) Bending moment only WL3
• Deflection at free end =
(d) Axial force in columns 3EI
JSSC JDLCCE JE 10/10/2023 (Civil) 8. The slope at the free end of a cantilever beam
Ans. (a) : Double integration method– It is also of length 'L' subjected to moment 'M' act the
known as integration method. It uses the equation of the free end is given by (El is flexural rigidity)
deflection curve in terms of bending moment. It is
primarily used for determining the slope and deflection ML2 ML
of beams. (a) (b)
EI EI
Theory of Structures 431 YCT
 ML ML Ans. (a) : The following method used for finding the
(c) (d)
2EI 3EI slope and deflection of beam–
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 31/07/2021 1. Macaulay’s method
2. Moment area method
d2y
Ans. (b) El 2 = M 3. Double integration method
dx 4. Conjugate beam method
dy • Macaulay’s method is also known as 'method of
EI = Mx + C1
dx singularity function'.
dy 11. The integration constant C1 used in
For cantilever =θ Macaulay's method of anlaysis is obtained by
dx
Mx applying _____to the integrated(1st integral)
θ= differential equation of given beam elastic
EI curve.
ML (a) Load factor
θ= (∵ x = L)
EI (b) Partial Factor of safety
9. Which of the following is the correct (c) boundary condition for deflection
 dy  (d) boundary condition for slope
explanation for slope   at any distance 'X' SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
 dx 
in a cantilever beam shown in the figure Ans. (d) : The integration constant C1 used in
according to the double integration method? Macaulay's method of analysis is obtained by applying
boundary condition for slope to the integrated (1st
integral) differential equation of given beam elastic
curve.
 d2 y 
M = EI ∫  2 
 dx 
Where, EI is the flexural rigidity of beam dy M
=∫
section. dx EI
dy W  M 
(a) =− (2l − x) So, Deflection y = ∫  ∫ + C 
dx 2EI  EI 
dy W
(b) =− (2lx − x )
2 12. A cantilever beam carries a load 'w' uniformly
dx 4EI distributed over its entire length. If the `same
dy W load is placed at the free end the same
(c) =− (2lx − x 2 ) cantilever, then the ratio of maximum
dx 2EI
deflection in the first case to that in the second
dy W case will be
(d) =− (2l − x)
dx 4EI 3 8
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I (a) (b)
8 3
Ans. (c) : Given,
5 8
(c) (d)
8 5
(e) Answer not known
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Ans. (a) : Cantilever beam-
(i) Deflection of cantilever beam than UDL
 dy 
Equation of slope   at any distance "x"
 dx 
W wℓ 4 Wℓ3
=− (2ℓx − x 2 ) δ1 = =
2EI 8EI 8EI
10. Which of the following methods used for (ii) Deflection of cantilever beam than point load-
finding the slope and deflection of beams is also
called the 'method of singularity function'?
(a) Macaulay’s method
(b) Mohr’s Theorem method
(c) Conjugate beam method
(d) Moment area method Wℓ 3
δ2 =
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 3EI
Theory of Structures 432 YCT
 Wℓ3 5wL4
y max =
Ratio = 8EI3 384EI
Wℓ
3EI
3
Ratio =
8
13. A propped cantilever of span `L' is subjected to
a moment `M' (sagging) at the propped end,
the reaction at the fixed end will be Therefore, in the double integration method for a simply
(a) M / 2L (b) 3M / 2L supported beam subjected to UDL over its entire span,
(c) M / L (d) 2M / 3L the slope and deflection calculation will require the
(e) Answer not known boundary condition as well as the symmetry condition.
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
wL4
Ans. (b) : Propped cantilever beam– 15. The value of maximum deflection i.e. is
8EI
true for which loading condition? (Where L is
the length of span, EI is the flexural rigidity)
(a) Simply supported beam with concentrated
load W at the centre
We know that, (b) Cantilever with u.d.l. across the complete span
ML2 R.L3 (c) Cantilever with concentrated load at free end
=
2EI 3EI (d) Simply supported beam with u.d.l. across
3M complete span
R=
2L PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
14. In the double integration method for a simply Ans. (b) :
supported beam subjected to UDL over its
entire span, the slope and deflection calculation
will require:
(a) the boundary condition as well as the 1.
symmetry condition wl3
(b) the boundary condition as well as the Slope, θ = 6EI
continuity condition
(c) only symmetry condition wL4
Max. deflection δ =
(d) only the boundary condition 8EI
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024
Ans. (a) : Method of determining deflection of beams–
• Double integration method
• Moment area method 2.
• Strain energy method WL2
• Conjugate beam method Slope ( θ ) =
2EI
Double integration method–It is also known as
integration method, it uses the equation of the deflection WL3
curve in terms of bending moment. Deflection ( δ ) =
3EI
d2 y 16. What is the deflection at the free end of a
EI 2 = −M
dx cantilever beam of length L subjected to point
load P as shown in the diagram where E is
dy
Integrating EI = EI.θ = − ∫ M Young's modulus and I is the moment of
dx inertia?
Integrating again EIy = − ∫∫ M
Case 1–Simply supported beam with UDL over the
entire length
d2 y  wL wx 2  PL2 PL3
∴ EI 2 = −M = −  x− (a) (b)
 3EI 6EI
dx  2 2 
4PL3 PL3
wL3 (c) (d)
θA = 3EI 3EI
24EI
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
Theory of Structures 433 YCT
Ans. (d) : Ans. (a) :
Beam Slope Deflection
WL2 WL3
2EI 3EI

Mxx = –Px
As we know, wL3 wL4
d2y 6EI 8EI
EI 2 = M xx
dx
d2y ML ML2
So, EI 2 = − Px
dx EI 2EI
dy Px 2 WL2 WL3
EI =− + C1 .....(1)
dx 2 16EI 48EI
Px 3
EI × y = − + C1x + C 2 .....(2)
6
wL3 5 wL4
Applying boundary condition –
dy 24EI 384 EI
x = L, =0
dx
PL2 PL2 18. If a simply supported beam of span l carries a
So, 0=− + C1 ⇒ C1 = point load W at the mid span, then downward
2 2 deflection under the load will be
& x = L, y = 0
Wl3 Wl3
PL3 PL2 (a) (b)
0=− + × L + C2 3EI 8EI
6 2 3
Wl 5 Wl3
PL3 PL3 PL3 (c) (d)
C2 = − + =− 48EI 284 3EI
2 6 3 MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-II
Then, deflection at free end, x = 0
Ans. (c) : See the explanation of the above question.
PL3
EI × y = 0 + 0 + C 2 = − 19. A cantilever beam have length 'L' and it is
3 subjected to uniformly distributed load 'w/unit
PL3 length', what will the deflection of beam at free
∴ y= (In downward↓) end?
3EI
wL3 wL4
17. The maximum slope and deflection for a (a) (b)
12EI 6EI
cantilever beam of length 'L' subjected to point 3
load 'W' at free end shown in the figure are : wL wL4
(c) (d)
Where, EI is the flexural rigidity. 24EI 8EI
DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
Ans. (d) : See the explanation of the above question.
20. A simply supported beam of span l carries a
point load W at the centre (as shown in the
given figure) and has a flexural rigidity of EI.
What are the maximum slope and deflection of
3 2 the beam?
WL WL
(a) deflection = and slope =
3EI 2EI
WL4 WL3
(b) deflection = and slope =
8EI 6EI
3
WL WL2
(c) deflection = and slope =
12EI 4EI Wℓ 2
2 (a) max.slope = and max. deflection at
WL WL3 6EI
(d) deflection = and slope =
3EI 2EI Wℓ 3
centre =
AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023 8EI
Theory of Structures 434 YCT
 Wℓ 4 Wℓ 3
(b) max.slope = and max. deflection at yfix 192EI 1
16EI = =
Wℓ 2
yssb Wℓ 3 4
centre =
16EI 48EI
Wℓ 2 y
(c) max.slope = and max. deflection at yfix = ssb
16EI 4
Wℓ3 yfix is less than that of the yssb.
centre = 22. In the given figure below, what will be the
48EI
3 propped reaction at point 'B'? EI is constant
Wℓ
(d) max.slope = and max. deflection at
48EI
Wℓ 2
centre =
16EI
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-II
Ans. (c) :
Beam Max. Slope Max. Deflection 5 2
(a) wl (b) wl
Wℓ 2 Wℓ3 8 3
16EI 48EI 3
(c) wl (d) wl
8
wℓ 3
5 wℓ 4 Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Ans. (d) : A propped cantilever beam A as fixed and B
24EI 384 EI is propped. Deflection at B = 0.

Mℓ Mℓ 2
EI 2EI
Wℓ 2 Wℓ 3
2EI 3EI

wℓ3 wℓ 4 So, deflection at B for cantilever beam with UDL is

equal to deflection at B for cantilever beam with
6EI 8EI upward reaction.
wl 4 l3
So, = ( RB ) ...(1)
wℓ3 wℓ 4 8EI 3EI
24EI 30EI RA + RB = wl ...(2)
By equation (1)
21. A fixed beam of length L carries a point load W 3wl 5wl  wℓ 2 
at the center. The deflection at the centre is RB = R A =  M A = 
8 8  8 
(a) One-fourth of the deflection of simply
supported beam 23. Clapeyron theorem is used to analyze which
(b) Half of the deflection for simply supported type of beams?
beam (a) Simply supported beam
(c) Double the deflection for a simply supported (b) Both continuous and fixed beams
beam (c) Fixed beam
(d) None of the above (d) Continuous beam
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-II DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-II
Ans. (a) Ans. (b) Clapeyron's theorem/three moment
equation method–
→ In this method is used for the analysis of fixed and
continuous beam. It is comfortably used for continuous
beam.
24. The maximum deflection of a fixed beam of
span-l carrying a concentrated load W at the
center is
Wl 3 Wl 3
(a) (b)
48EI 96EI
Theory of Structures 435 YCT
 Wl 3 Wl 3 d2 y
(c) (d) EI =M
192EI 384EI dx 2
MH Nagar Parishad JE 24/11/2023 d 3 y dM
EI 3 = =S
Ans. (c) : dx dx
Beam Slope Deflection
2
Wl 3 d 4 y dS d 2 M
Wl EI = = = W ( Load )
2EI 3EI dx 4 dx dx 2
27. Which method of structural analysis is based
wl 3 wl 4 on the principle of equilibrium and
6EI 8EI compatibility?
(a) Force method
ML Ml 2 (b) Moment distribution method
(c) Stiffness method
EI 2EI (d) Finite element method
RITES AM 05/05/2024
Wl 2 Wl 3 Ans. (a) :
16EI 48EI Force / Displacement/
Compatibility/ Stiffness Method
wl 3 5wl 4 Flexibility Method
24EI 384EI (1) In this method static (1) In this method
indeterminacy of Kinematics
structure is indeterminacy of
θA = θB = Wl 3 considered (Dk > Ds) structure is
0 considered (Ds > Dk)
192EI
θA = θB = (2) Compatibility (2) Equilibrium
wl 4 equation are the equation are the
0 main governing main governing
384EI
equation for equations for
structural analysis structural analysis
25. In which of the following equations are the (3) Force-displacement (3) Force displacement
deformations considered to be caused by relation are relation are
bending moment only? represented in represented in the
(a) Breslau Muller equations flexibility matrix stiffness matrix
(b) Slope deflection equations (4) Different forces (4) Displacement and
(reaction S.F, B.M) slopes are
(c) Mohr circle equations are considered to be considered to be
(d) Column analogy equations unknown unknown.
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023 28. The column analogy method is based on the
Ans. (b) : Slope deflection method– The slope analogy between:
deflection method is a method of displacement. (a) Columns and beams (b) Trusses and frames
• The slope deflection equation will give the relationship (c) Columns and trusses (d) Beams and frames
between bending moment rotation and deflections. RITES AM 05/05/2024
• In the slope deflection equation, the deformations are Ans. (d) : The column analogy method was introduced
by Prof. Hardy Cross of University of Illilnosis in the
caused by bending moment only. year 1932.
26. Which one expression gives the relation • He identified identical relations between moment in
between the load intensity (W) and the bending beams/frames and stresses in the eccentrically loaded
moment (M) at any section of the beam? columns and suggested the use of this analogy for the
analysis of beam and frames.
dM d3M
(a) =W (b) =W • This method is suitable for the analysis of
dx dx 3 indeterminate beams and frames, with
d2M dM indeterminancy not exceeding three.
(c) =W (d) ∫ =W • It is extensively used in the analysis of beams, frames
dx 2 dx and arches with fixed ends and is ideally suited for
AP ECET 20.06.2023 computing the stiffness and carry over factors in
Ans. (c) Relation between moment shear force and beams with varying cross-section.
intensity of loading. 29. Dynamic analysis of structures primarily
EIy = Deflection involves studying their response to:
dy (a) Static loads (b) Vibratory loads
EI = Slope (c) Wind loads (d) Temperature variations
dx RITES AM 05/05/2024
Theory of Structures 436 YCT
Ans. (b) : It is performed on a structure if load varies 33. Which of the following method is not classified
with time (earthquake load, wind load etc.) as force method?
• This analysis becomes important for flexible and (a) three moment theorem
important structure. (b) moment distribution
• In this process by which free vibration. (c) method of consistent method
(d) Castigliano's theorem
30. Which method of structural analysis is UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-1
particularly useful for analyzing continuous
Ans. (b) : Example of displacement method,
beams and frames?
(i) Slope deflection method
(a) Slope-deflection method (ii) Moment distribution method
(b) Matrix displacement method (iii) Stiffness matrix method
(c) Flexibility method (iv) Kani's Method
(d) Column analogy method (v) Equilibrium method
RITES AM 05/05/2024 Example of force method :
Ans. (a) : Structural analysis is particularly useful for (i) Castigliano's theorem
analyzing continuous beams and frames are Slope- (ii) Virtual energy method
deflection method. (iii) Clapeyron's three moment equations.
A slope deflection method is a stiffness method in (iv) Strain energy method
which the joint displacement are found by applying the (v) Column analogy method
equilibrium condition at each joint (vi) Flexibility matrix method
31. The moment-area method uses ........... diagram. (vii) Consistent deformation method
(a) difference of the area of moment and flexural 34. Number of unknown to be determined in the
rigidity stiffness method is equal to
(b) the area of moment multiplied by the flexural (a) static indeterminacy
rigidity (b) kinematic indeterminacy
(c) summation of the area of moment and (c) sum of static and kinematic indeterminacy
flexural rigidity (d) less than static indeterminacy
(d) the area of moment divided by the flexural AP PGECET 29.05.2023
rigidity Ans. (b) : Number of unknown to be determine in the
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 stiffness method is equal to kinematic indeterminacy.
Ans (d) : Moment area method is also known as Mohr's This method is suitable when DK<DS. The unknowns
method. are taken as joint displacement.
• In this method establishes a procedure that utilizes 35. Which of the following statements regarding
the area of the moment diagrams (actually, M/EI the advantages of fixed beams is incorrect?
diagram) to evaluate the slope or deflection at (a) The deflection of the beam at its center is
very high
selected points along the axis of a beam.
(b) The beam is stiffer, stronger and more stable
• This method is applicable to both beams and frames. (c) The slope at the two ends is zero
In this method continuity of slope is assumed. (d) The fixing moments are developed at the two
• This method is not applicable where there is a sudden ends, whose effect is to reduce the maximum
break in the continuity of slope such as an internal bending moment at the centre of the beam
hinge or internal links are present. MPPGCL JE 29/04/2023 Shift-I
32. The ratio of stiffness of a member meeting at a Ans. (a) : Fixed beam–
structural joint to the sum of the stiffness of
all members meeting at that joint is known as:
(a) carryover moment
(b) distribution factor
(c) carryover factor
(d) distribution moment wℓ 4
• Deflection at centre = (less value as compared
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 384EI
to SS beam)
Ans. (b) : The ratio of stiffness of a member meeting at
a structure joint to the sum of the stiffness of all • The beam is stiffener, stronger and more stable
members meeting at that joint is known as distribution • Slope at both end is zero θA = 0, θB = 0
factor.
wℓ 2
Stiffness of a member • Fixed end moment =
D.F = 12
Sum of stiffness of all member at joint wℓ 2
•Moment at centre =
Relative stiffness of a member 24
D.F = 36. In moment distribution method of structural
Sum of relativestiffness of all member at joint
analysis, the ratio of the moment induced at
Note–Summation of D.F for all member at a joint is fixed end to the moment required at free end is
one. known as :
Theory of Structures 437 YCT
 (a) Stiffness Factor 39. The moment distribution method was
(b) Moment Factor developed by ..............
(c) Carry-Over Factor (a) Breslau Muller (b) Hardy Cross
(d) Distribution Factor (c) Emil Julius Gumbel (d) Gasper Kani
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-II Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Ans. (c) The moment produced at the far end of the Ans. (b) : Moment distribution method was formulated
beam due to application of a moment at the near end is by Hardy Cross.
called carry over moment. Example of displacement method–
(i) Slope deflection method
Carry over moment (ii) Moment distribution method
Carry over factor =
Applied moment (iii) Stiffness matrix method
Standard cases of carry over factor– (iv) Kani's Method
(i) When far end fixed– 40. Identify the method which does NOT belong to
the category of displacement method.
(a) Moment distribution method
(b) Stiffness matrix method
(c) Slope deflection method
(d) Method of consistent deformation
(ii) When far end hinged– ISRO Scientist Engineer Civil 2023
Ans. (d) : Moment distribution method was formulated
by Hardy Cross.
Example of displacement method–
(i) Slope deflection method
37. The analysis of a Kinematically Indeterminate (ii) Moment distribution method
Structure by Stiffness Matrix method is also (iii) Stiffness matrix method
known as: (iv) Kani's Method
(a) Force method Force method–
(b) Displacement method 1. Castigliono's method
(c) Flexibility matrix method 2. Strain energy method
(d) Compatibility Method 3. Column analogy method
Chhatt. Office Professional Asst. 2023 4. Flexibility matrix method
Ans. (b) : Example of displacement method,/Stiffness 41. The carryover factor in a prismatic member
method- whose far end is fixed is _______
(i) Slope deflection method (a) 0 (b) 1/2
(ii) Moment distribution method (c) 3/4 (d) 1
(iii) Stiffness matrix method ISRO Scientist Engineer Civil 2023
(iv) Kani's Method Ans. (b) : Carryover factor–
(v) Equilibrium method Carry over moment
Example of force method : COF = =
(i) Castigliano's theorem Applied moment
(ii) Virtual energy method Standard cases for carry over factor–
(iii) Clapeyron's three moment equations. (i) When far end fixed–
(iv) Stain energy method
(v) Column analogy method
(vi) Flexibility matrix method
(vii) Consistent deformation method
38. Flexibility method is also known as (ii) When far end hinged–
(a) Energy method
(b) Equilibrium method
(c) Displacement method
(d) Force method (iii) For cantilever beam–
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
Ans. (d) :
Example of force method :
(i) Castigliano's theorem
(ii) Virtual energy method (iv)
(iii) Clapeyron's three moment equations.
(iv) Stain energy method
(v) Column analogy method
(vi) Flexibility matrix method
(vii) Compatibility method
Theory of Structures 438 YCT
42. The magnitude of fixed end moment for a span 44. The fixed end moments at A and B for the fixed
if one of the support sinks by δ is _____ beam of span L, subjected to a uniform varying
(a) 3EIδ/L2 (b) 2EIδ/L2 triangular load of w/unit length at the end A as
2 shown in the figure, respectively, are:
(c) EIδ/6L (d) 6EIδ/L2
ISRO Scientist Engineer Civil 2023
Ans. (d) :

WL2 WL2
(a) MFAB = and MFBA =
30 20
WL2 WL2
(b) MFAB = and MFBA =
20 30
2
WL WL2
(c) MFAB = and MFBA =
12 16
2
WL WL2
(d) MFAB = and MFBA =
4 4
Final end moment at A (left support)– UPPCL JE 22/06/2022 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Fixed end moment for UVL-
2EI  3δ 
M AB = M FAB +  2θA + θB − 
L  L
Final end moment (Right support)–
2EI  3δ 
M AB = M FAB +  2θA + θB + 
L  L
When both end are fixed– WL2 WL2
MFAB = and MFBA =
∴ θA = θB = 0 20 30
45. The method of moment distribution belongs to
If there is no external moment–
the group of ______ methods.
∴ M AB = 0 (a) Simple (b) Approximate
Fixed end moment developed at support A– (c) Essential (d) None of these
2EI  3δ  CGPSC AE (Civil) 28/08/2022
M FAB + − =0
L  L  Ans. (b) : Moment distribution method–
• The method of moment distribution belongs to the
6EIδ group of approximate method.
M FAB = 2
L • Essentially it consists of solving the simultaneous
43. The relative stiffness of a member at a joint equation in the slope deflection method of successive
whose farther end is hinged or simply approximate using is service of cycle each
supported is given by: conversing toward the precise final result.
46. What is the carry-over factor for a beam
(a) K =  
I 3
(b) K = hinged at both the ends ?
ℓ 4  
I (a) 1.5 (b) 1
ℓ (c) 0.5 (d) 0
3 I  4 UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022
(c) K =   (d) K = Ans. (d) :
4 ℓ  3  
I
Carry over moment
ℓ Carry over factor (COF) =
UPRVUNL AE 17/07/2022 Applied moment
Ans. (c) : Relative stiffness– Condition COF
(i) When farthen end is fixed, Far end is fixed 1/2
I Far end is simply supported /Hinge 0
Relative stiffness for member = 47. Distribution factor for a member depends on
L
(ii) When farthen end is hinged, the
(a) Stiffness and Loading
3I (b) Only stiffness factors
Relative stiffness for member =
4L (c) Only loading
I = Moment of inertia (d) Neither stiffness nor loading
L = Length of beam MPSC MES 29/10/2022 Paper-1
Theory of Structures 439 YCT
Ans. (b) : Distribution theorem–According to this − Pl Pl
theorem if a concentrated moment is applied at a rigid 8 8
joint which has more than 1 member meeting at that
joint, then the concentrated moment will be distributed wl 2 wl 2
to each member according to their distribution factor −
12 12
Stiffness of the member
Distribution factor =
Joint stiffness Mb ( 2a − b ) Ma ( 2b − a )
We say that distribution factor for a member depends on L2 L2
the stiffness factors.
48. In the displacement method of structural wl 2 wl 2
−
analysis, the basic unknowns are 30 20
(a) Displacements
(b) Force 51. In Moment distribution method, if the far end
(c) Displacements and forces of the beam has a hinged or roller support,
(d) None of these then flexural stiffness is equal to _____ Where
NBCC SITE INSPECTOR 11/07/2021 E = Modulus of elasticity, I = moment of inertia
Ans. (a) : Slope deflection method and moment and L = length of beam.
distribution method are displacement method in (a) 2EI/L (b) 3EI/L
structural analysis (c) EI/L (d) 4EI/L
• Number of equilibrium equation equal to the number ISRO Scientist Engineer Civil 2023
of rotational displacement component. Ans. (b) :
• We take θ and δ are unknown and writes slope
deflection equation for end moments.
49. The slope deflection method in structural Member Stiffness
analysis falls in the category of 4EI
(a) Force method OA
l
(b) Flexibility method
(c) Consistent-deformation method 3EI
OD
(d) Stiffness method l
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 26/09/2021 3EI
OC
Ans. (d) : Example of displacement method, / l
Stiffness method- EI
(i) Slope deflection method OB
(ii) Moment distribution method l
(iii) Stiffness method 52. Which of the following statement is not true
(iv) Kani's Method about moment distribution method?
(v) Equilibrium method (a) The moment at the end of a member is
Example of force method : considered Negative if it tends to turn the end
(i) Castigliano's theorem of the member clockwise and positive if it
(ii) Virtual energy method tends to turn it counterclockwise.
(iii) Clapeyron's three moment equations. (b) Moment distribution method of analysis is
(iv) Strain energy method applicable on beams and frames.
(v) Column analogy method (c) The degree of accuracy of the results depends
(vi) Flexibility matrix method on the number of successive
(vii) Consistent deformation method approximations.
50. The magnitude of fixed end moment in a fixed (d) It is an approximate method.
beam of span 'l' subject to a uniformly DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-I
distributed load 'W' per unit length is
Ans. (a) : Moment distribution method–
Wl 2 Wl 2
(a) (b) • In this case we solve the equilibrium equation
96 24 indirectly without finding the displacement using
Wl 2 Wl 2 gauss-soidel iteration method.
(c) (d)
20 12 • Moment distribution method of analysis is
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 31/07/2021 application on beams and frame.
Ans. (d) : • This is an approximate method.
M AB M BA • The degree of accuracy of the result depends on the
M M member of successive approximation.
• In this case the stand with, each joint are assume to
4 4 be fixed.
Theory of Structures 440 YCT
 WORKING STRESS METHOD 2.
Limit state of collapse-
The limit state of collapse is assessed from collapse
• Assumption of working stress method- of the whole or part of the structure.
i. A section which is plane before bending remains
plane after bending. Collapse limit deals with Shear, Flexure, Torsion,
ii. All tensile stresses are taken by steel. Tension and Compression.
iii. The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete Note-
under working loads is a linear or straight line. LSM of collapse deals with the safety of the
iv. The modulus of elasticity of steel and concrete are structure and the limit state of serviceability deals
constant. with the durability of the structure in LSM.
Es 280 Stress level in limit state method is more than the
• Modular Ratio, m = =
E 3σ working stress method.
c cbc

m depends only grade of concrete Assumptions in limit state of collapses under

Value of modular ratio (m) flexure-
Conc. Plain section normal to the axis remain plain after
i.
M-10 M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40
Grade bending, it means the strain distribution across the
Modular depth of the cross-section is linear (strain
31 18 13 11 9 8 7
ratio compatibility).
Direct tensile strength for different grades of Conc.- ii. Maximum strain in concrete, which occurs at
Conc. M-10 M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 M- outermost compression fibre is taken as 0.0035 in
Grade 45
bending.
Direct 1.2 2.0 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8
tensile iii. The stress-strain curve for concrete having parabolic
strength shape upto 0.002 strain and constant upto limit state
N/mm2 of 0.0035.
Permissible stress in concrete (N/mm2) - iv. For design purpose strength of concrete is assumed
Grade of Permissible stress in Permissible stress
Concrete compression in bond for plain
0.45 fck and for steel 0.87 fy.
bars in tension τbd v. The maximum strain in steel at failure-
Bending (σcbc) Direct (σcc) LSM WSM fy
M-10 3.0 2.5 - - ≮ + 0.002 .
1.15E s
M-15 5.0 4.0 1 0.6
M-20 7.0 5.0 1.2 0.8 vi. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected.
M-25 8.5 6.0 1.4 0.9 Characteristic strength -
M-30 10 8.0 1.5 1.0 Strength below which not more than 5% of test
M-35 11.5 9.0 1.7 1.1 result are expected to fall.
M-40 13.0 10 1.9 1.2 Allowable or Design strength and characteristic
LIMIT STATE METHOD strength-
The serviceability limit state is the design to ensure Strength Allowable/Design Characteristic
a structure is comfortable and useable. Concrete 0.45 fck 0.67 fck
The acceptable limit of safety and serviceability
Steel 0.87 fy fy
before failure of any structure is called limit state.
Types of limit state- Stress-strain curve for concrete-
1. Limit state of serviceability- Relation b/w stress-strain of concrete depends on
The condition under which the building analyzed concrete mixture, strength, age, creep and specimen
useful is called the limit state of serviceability. size.
It includes limit state of Deflection, Cracks, Stress-strain curve for concrete is-
Vibration, Settlement, Deterioration, Corrosion, (i) Parabolic from 0 to 0.002
Ponding , Fire resistance etc. (ii) Constant from 0.002 to 0.0035
Design of Concrete Structures 441 YCT
 Concrete is considered to have failed at maximum 0.9* value is considered when stability against
strain (0.0035) in stress strain diagram. overturning and reversal stress is critical where dead
loads contributes to stability.
Stress-strain distribution in singly reinforced
beam-
As per IS : 456 : 2000

Stress-strain relation for steel-

1. Strain distribution-
It varies as zero at neutral axis and maximum at the
extreme fibres.
Strain at constant stress of 0. 45 fck, εc = 0.002
Ultimate strain in steel at failure-
0.87f y
εst ≥ + 0.002
Es
For mild steel, the value of characteristic strength is
taken as yield strength and the design curve is Maximum strain for concrete, εcu = 0.0035
obtained after applying a factor of safety of 1.15 to 2. Stress distribution-
yield stress. It has a parabolic shape from A to E then linear from
fy E to C above the neutral axis.
i.e. Design strength = = 0.87f y Stress at N.A. is zero.
1.15
0.67f ck
For HYSD bars, the yield point is not distinct, hence Stress at 0.002 strain = = 0.446f ck ≃ 0.45f ck
yield stress is taken as 0.2% proof stress and factor 1.5
of safety is applied to it. Stress at top most fiber - 0.45 fck
Design strength for various grade of steel- Maximum stress in steel - 0.87fy.
Steel grade(fy) Design strength 3. Area of stress block-
(N/mm2) As per IS : 456 : 2000, from strain diagram-
250 217.5 (a) Area of parabolic section= 0.17fck.xu
415 361 (b) Area of rectangular section =0.19fck.xu
500 435 Area of stress block-
f ck or f y C R = 0.36f ck x u
Design strength =
γm 4. Depth of C.G. of stress block (from extreme
γm = Partial safety factor. compression fiber)-
Design load- c1 y1 + c 2 y 2
Design load is considered as characteristics load with y= , y = 0.42x u
c1 + c2
multiple of partial factor safety in limit state design.
Design load = Partial F.O.S. × Characteristics load 5. Moment of resistance-
Value of Partial Safety Factors For Various types (i) Compression section-
of loading - MR = Compression force .×Liver arm
As per I.S. 456 : 2000- = 0.36 fck .B. xu (d – 0.42xu)
Load Limit state of Limit state of (ii) Tensile section-
Condition collapse serviceability MR = Stress in steel × Area of steel × Lever arm
Dead Live E.Q.L D.L. L.L. E.Q.L MR = 0.87 fy. Ast (d – 0.42xu)
load load ./ ./ 6. Depth of Neutral Axis-
W.L. W.L. N.A. is the axis at which the stresses are zero and it
D.L. + L.L. 1.5 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 - is situated at the centre of gravity of section.
D.L. + W.L. 1.5/0.9 - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0
*
0.87f y .A st
D.L. + W.L. 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8 xu =
/E.Q.L. +
0.36f ck .B
L.L. Limiting depth of Neutral axis (xu max or xu Lim)
Where, 700d
D.L. = Dead load, L.L. = Live load, W.L. = Wind x u Lim =
load, E.Q.L. = Earthquake load. 1100 + 0.87f y

Design of Concrete Structures 442 YCT

Limiting depth of N.A. for Different grade of steel- Types of concrete section-
Steel grade fy Limiting depth (i) Under reinforced section
(N/mm2) (xuLim) In this types of section the percentage of steel
250 0.53d provided is less than balanced section.
415 0.48d Steel is fully stressed while stress in concrete is less
500 0.46d than σcbc.
550 0.44d In this type of section, the failure is ductile because
Max. percentage of reinforcement steel, (Pt Lim)- steel fails first and sufficient warning is given before
Limiting percentage of reinforcement- collapse.
Due to ductile failure and economy, under
A 0.414f ck .x u Lim reinforced sections are preferred by designers.
Pt Lim = st = (ii) Over reinforced section
B.d f y .d
Percentage of steel is greater than balanced section
Note- so, the section is uneconomical.
For balanced section, percentage of steel depends Stress in concrete reaches its permissible value
upon- while steel is not fully stressed.
(i) Yield strength of steel (fy) Concrete is brittle in nature, hence failure is known
(ii) Characteristics strength of concrete (fck) as compression or brittle failure. It is also known as
(iii) Geometry of the section sudden failure
Marginal value of moment of resistance for (iii) Balanced section or Economical section-
different grade of steel- A balanced sections is that section in which stress in
Steel Moment of Maximum concrete and steel reaches their permissible value at
grade resistance strain the same time.
(fy, (Mu Lim) The percentage of steel in reinforced balanced
N/mm2) N-mm section is greater than under reinforced section.
250 0.149 fck 0.00308
415 bd2 0.00380
500 0.138 fck 0.00417
bd2
0.133 fck
bd2
Analysis and design of singly reinforced
section
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF From the stress diagram-
1. Critical depth of neutral axis (CNA)-
SINGLY REINFORCED SECTION Critical neutral axis depth is such a depth where
The beam that is longitudinally reinforced only in stresses in concrete and steel attains its maximum
tension zone is known as singly reinforced beam. value at same time.
In such beams, the ultimate bending moment and the
mσcbc
tension due to bending are carried by the xc = ×d
reinforcement, while the compression is carried by mσcbc + σst
the concrete. 2. Actual depth of neutral axis(ANA)-
Neutral Axis of beam section-
Bx 2a
Neutral axis is an axis of beam where the stress is = mA st (d − x a )
zero. It is neither in compression nor in tension. 2
Note-
This expression suggest the value of neutral axis
depth factor does not depend upon the grade of
concrete. It depends only on the permissible stress in
reinforcement.
Increasing the quantity of steel ,the depth of neutral
axis increases.
3. Lever Arm (z)-
The perpendicular distance between the line of
action of the couple forming compressive and tensile
force in a reinforced concrete section is known as
Where, lever arm.
x = Depth of N.A.
 x 
dc = Effective thickness of cover Lever Arm, z =  d − a 
d = Effective depth  3 
Design of Concrete Structures 443 YCT
4. Moment of Resistance (MR)- (ii) If xa < xc
The ability of beam to resist bending moment is
σ
( M R )C = B.x a cbc  d − a 
known as moment of resistance. x
1 2  3 
Total compressive force , Fc = σcbc × x a × B
2 (iii) If xa = xc
Total tensile force-
σ σ  x 
FT = st .mA st = σst .A st M r = B.x a cbc  d − a 
m 2  3 
MR = Force × distance between two forces or
(i) If xa > xc
 x 
 xa  M r = σst .A st  d − a 
( M R )T = σst .Ast  d −   3 
 3 
Important data related to reinforced beam-
Types of section Neutral Axis Formula for N.A. Moment of Failure condition
condition Resistance
Under Reinforced section A.N.A < C.N.A. mσcb d  x  Steel failure/Ductile
Xc = M r = σst. A st  d −  failure
mσcb + σst  3
Xc depends only σst
Over Reinforced section A.N.A > C.N.A. bx 2 bxσcb  x  Concrete
= mA st (d − x) Mr =  d −  failure/Brittle
2 2  3
failure
Balanced section A.N.A= C.N.A. x = xc bxσcb  x
Mr = d − 
2  3
X = Actual N.A.
 x
or σst. Ast  d − 
 3

Important Parameter- Critical depth of neutral axis, (Xc)-

mσcbc
Parameter Formula Xc = ×d
σst + mσcbc
Neutral axis mσcb × d Actual depth of neutral axis, (Xa)-
x=
mσcb + σst bX 2a
+ (1.5m − 1)A sc (X a − d c ) = mA st (d − X a )
Lever arm  x 2
z = d − 
 3 Moment of Resistance, (MR)-
(a) For over reinforced section-
Resisting moment b.x.σcb  x
Mr = d −   x 
M r = .σcbc .B.x a  d − a  + (1.5m − 1) Asc .σc ( d − d c' )
2  1 3
Percentage of tensile A st 2  3 
Reinforcement P = × 100 (b) For under reinforced section-
b×d
DESIGN OF DOUBLY REINFORCED M r = σst A st (d − y)
SECTION  xa 
Analysis of doubly reinforced beam  C1 ×  + ( C 2 + d c )
y=
3 
section-
( C1 + C2 )
Where,
C1 and C2 are resultant forces of compressive
concrete and compressive steel.
Note-
As per IS:456:2000 ,Due to creep and shrinkage
effect a factor 1.5m is used for compression steel.
In doubly reinforced concrete beam-
Stress in compression steel < Stress in tension steel
Design of Concrete Structures 444 YCT
SHEAR, BOND & DEVELOPMENT Diameter of stirrups- 6 to 12 mm.
Hanging bar (anchor bar) dia. is provided 8 mm to
LENGTH 12 mm.
(i) Shear stress distribution for homogeneous Spacing between two stirrups should not greater
section- than lever arm.
V
Shear stress at any plane τ =
bd
Where,
V = Shear force
b = width of section

Spacing for vertical stirrups-

0.87f y A sv .d
Sv = (LSM), fy ≯ 415 N/mm2
Vus
As per IS : 456 : 2000 spacing between stirrups-
Shear stress is parabolic with zero at top and bottom σsv .A sv .d
and the max. Shear stress occurs at neutral axis S= (WSM)
(middle) that is- Vs
3V 1.5V Where,
τ= or Vs = Total shear force on section
2bd bd
σSV = Permissible stress in stirrups
When a rectangular concrete section b × d is loaded ASV = Area of one vertical stirrups
then shear stress distribution is parabolic. S = Spacing between stirrups
(ii) Shear-stress distribution in Heterogeneous d = Effective depth of section
section- Note-
When reinforced concrete section b × d is loaded
then shear stress distribution above the neutral axis S 
First stirrups provided at the half distance  v  of
is parabolic and below the neutral axis is  2
rectangular. above spacing.
(ii) Inclined bars of shear reinforcement-
In simply supported beam, bending moment is
maximum at mid span and zero at supports, but in
shear case shear force is maximum at supports and
minimum at mid span. Inclined stirrups are also
provided generally at 450.
0.87f y A sv .d(sin α + cos α)
Sv = (LSM), Sv ≮ (Sv)min R/F
Vus
As per IS : 456 : 2000 nominal shear stress-
σ .A .d(sin α + cos α )
V Sv = sv sv (WSM)
τv = Vs
b×d
As per IS 456 : 2000 the equivalent shear in torsion- (iii) Bent up bars-
Shear force taken by bent up bars,
(
V = V + 1.6 × T / B
e )
Vsb = 0.87f y A sb .sin α
Where,
V = Actual shear, T = Actual torsional moment
B = Width of beam
DEVELOPMENT/BOND LENGTH (LD)
Type of shear Reinforcement- (a) For tension bar-
In concrete beam following types of shear σst φ
reinforcement is provided- Ld = (For WSM)
4τbd
(i) Vertical stirrups-
It is the best in case of load reversal and provided 0.87f y φ
around the tensile reinforcement at suitable spacing Ld = (For LSM)
along the length of the beam. 4τbd
Design of Concrete Structures 445 YCT
(b) For compression bar- τbd increased by 25% l0
0.87f y φ (i) b f = + b w + 6D f
σ φ 6
Ld = st (for WSM) Ld = (for LSM)
5τbd 5τbd 1
,
Min. area of tensile reinforcement- (ii) bf = b w + × Clear spacing between beam
2
A st 0.85
≮p % = ×100 = ×100 = bw +
A B
+
b.d fy 2 2
Note- (b) For Monolithic L-beams
If Dia. of bar > 36 mm, then Lap splice should not
 l0
be used.  + b w + 3Df
If dia. of bar > 32 mm the lap splice should not be b f = Which is minimum 12
used as per amend. no. 3 I S-Code 456:2000 b + B
In this condition it is suitable to provide weld.  w 2
Permissible bond stress of concrete- (c) For Isolated T-Beam-
Grade of concrete M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 Which is less-
Design bond strength l
(τbd) 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9 (i) bf = 0 + b w
l0
• Above value are corresponding to plain bar +4
intension. b
• Above value are increased by 60% of HYSD bar. (ii) bf = b
• Above value are increased by 25% for bar under (d) For Isolated L-Beam-
compression. Which is minimum-
Anchorage value for various type of hook- 0.5 l0
(i) bf = + bw
Types of hook Anchorage value l0
0 + 4
45 bend 4φ b
900 bend 8φ (ii) bf = b
1350 bend 12 φ Where,
1800 bend or 16 φ bf = Effective width of flange
Standard/U- hook bw = Width of web
Lap length in tension- Df = Thickness of flange
L b = Actual width of flange
• For flexural tension, whichever more  d l0 = Distance between the points of zero
30 φ moments of the beam.
 2Ld For continuous beams- l0 = 0.7 leff
• For direct tension, whichever more 
30 φ For SSB l0 = Effective span
• Straight lapping length of the reinforcing bars must 2. Thickness of flange (Df)–
 200 Df = Thickness or depth of the slab
be greater than  3. Overall depth of T- beam (D)-
15 φ Span Span
 Ld It is generally taken as to
Lap length in compression, Whichever is more  10 20
 24 φ Types of load Over all depth
Note- Light loads Span Span
For the reinforcement bars with different diameters, to
15 20
the lap length must be calculated using the diameter Medium loads Span Span
of the smaller bar. to
Lap length for various members- 12 15
Members Lap length Heavy loads Span Span
to
Column 45 φ 10 12
Slab, Beam 60 φ 4. Width of web (bw)-
Width of web is the width of beam supporting to
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF slab.
T-BEAM Where T-beam is supported on column, the width of
the rib should not be less than width of column.
Dimensions of a T-Beam-
1. Effective width of the flange- 1 2
Then width of web (bw) = to of total depth or
(a) For Monolithic T-Beam- 3 3
Which is minimum- depth of rib.
Design of Concrete Structures 446 YCT
5. Depth of web- d w = d − Df Calculation of moment of resistance-
(i) If xa = xc, section will be balanced-
6. Reinforcement steel in T-Beam
(a) Minimum tensile reinforcement- σcbc  xc 
M R = bf × x c × d − 
0.85b w × d 2  3
A st = (ii) If xa > xc section will be over reinforced-
fy
Where, fy = Characteristic strength of steel (N/mm2) σcbc  xa 
M R = bf × x a d − 
(b) Maximum tensile or compression steel- 2  3 
A st = 0.04 b w × D (iii) If xa < xc section will be under-reinforced-
7. Transverse Reinforcement-  x 
As per IS : 456 : 2000, 23.1 total area of transverse M R = σst .A st  d − a 
 3 
reinforcement should not be less than 60% of main
bars provided in the middle part of slab. SLAB
Position of neutral axis Introduction-
(A) Actual Neutral Axis- There may be three position A molded layer of plain or reinforced concrete, flat,
of N.A. horizontal usually of uniform but sometimes of
(i) Within flange, (ii) At the flange and web variable thickness and supported by beams,
junction, (iii) outside flange or within rib. columns, walls other frame work is known as slab.
Effective span in different support condition
(Le)-
1. For S.S. beam/slab-
 w w
L + +
L e = Whichever is less  c 2 2
L c + d
Where,
w = Width of support
Case(I)– When neutral axis is in flange section- d = Effective depth
x a < Df 2. Continuous beam-
L
x a2 (a) If width of support, ws ≤ c then
bf . = m.A st ( d − x a ) 12
2
Lc + d
Case-(II)- When neutral axis is in web- Le = Min. of 
x a > Df c / cdistance b/w support
L
 Df  (b) If, ws > c then
bf × Df  x a −  = mA st (d − x a ) 12
 2  Lc + 0.5d
Case (III)- When neutral axis is at the bottom line of Le = Min. of 
flange-  L c + 0.5w
x a = Df 3. Cantilever beam/slab-
Le = Lc + d / 2
D 2f x a2
beff × = m A st ( d − Df ) or bf × = mA st (d − x a ) Check for deflection in beam and slab-
2 2
(i) Final deflection occurring including all the loads and
(B). Critical Neutral Axis- the effect of temperature, creep and shrinkage shall
span
not exceed and it is measured from cast level
250
of the support.
(ii) The deflection due to all the loads, temperature,
shrinkage and creep after the erection of partition
wall and the application of finishes shall not exceed-
 Span


Whichever is less  350
m.σcbc 
xc = .d
m.σcbc + σst  20 mm

Design of Concrete Structures 447 YCT

 Check of deflection in one-way slab-
Permissible deflection for beam section-
(i) For 10 m Span
Types of slab Max. ratio
of Span/Eff.
depth
One way slab 30
Two way slab 35
Continuous slab 40
12
Cantilever slab

(ii) If span is > 10m-

10 Design of one way slab-
Then above value is multiplied by
span Design strip-
Control/check of deflection in two way For design criteria, one meter width of slab is taken
in the direction of length.
slab- Min. reinforcement-
Support Basic ratio of span to
condition gross depth 0.15
(i) × BD (for Fe-250)
Mid HYSD/TMT 100
steel bar 0.12
Simply 35 28 (ii) × BD (for HYSD/TMT bars-250)
100
supported Distribution bars or temperature bar-
two way It is taken 0.15% of cross sectional area (b × D) or
slab
20% of main reinforcement area.
Continuous 40 32
In case of HYSD bar. It is taken 0.12% of cross
two way
slab sectional area ( b × D)
Note- Diameter of bars-
These value is taken 80% in case of HYSD/TMT (a) For main reinforcing min. dia.-
bars. 10mm - for mild steel
Condition- Load ≯ 3 kN/m2 8mm - for HYSD bars
Span ≯ 3.5m 1
Dia.of Main reinforcement bars ≯ × thickness of
Types of slab- 8
A monolithic reinforced concrete slab is essentially slab.
a statically indeterminate structure. (b) For distribution bar 6 mm to 10 mm dia. of bars
Classified according to the method of support as uses.
follows- Note-
1. One-way slab (spanning in one direction) In case of one way slab main R/f is provided along
2. Two-way slab (spanning in two direction) shorter span.
lx lx Max. area of reinforcement-
Amax. = 4% of B.D
lx 4
ly >2 ly = × BD
ly 100
B.D = Cross sectional area of slab
One-way slab Load Transfer-One way slab Max. Spacing of bars for slab-
lx lx Min. horizontal distance- Minimum of
(a) Equal to dia. of bar if the dia. is equal.
lx
(b) Dia. of larger bar if the dia. are unequal.
ly ≤2 ly (c) 5 mm more than nominal maximum size of
ly
coarse aggregate.
As per IS : 456 - 2000, Clause 26.3.3-
Two-way slab Load Transfer-Two way slab (i) For main bar-
1. One-way slab- 3d
A slab will be one way if- Minimum of 
(i) It is supported only on the two opposite sides. 300mm
(ii) For distribution bar-
L
(ii) > 2 Where, L = Longer span  5d
B Minimum of 
B = Shorter span 450mm
Design of Concrete Structures 448 YCT
 Cover- L
At the ends of reinforcing bars- (ii) If, ≤ 2.0
B
2φmain Note-
Whichever is more 
25mm In case of two way slab, the limiting deflection of
At bottom minimum cover- the slab is primarily a function of the short span.
φmain If two way slab, unsafe in shear, then increase the
Whichever is more  thickness of slab.
15mm
Important features regarding two-way slab-
Anchorage-
i. To control the cracking of corners wire mesh is
For mild steel bar at sides standard hook is provided,
provided at the corner of slab.
but for HYSD bars hook is not required for
ii. Main reinforcing bars are provided in both
anchoring.
directions.
L
Main bars provided till d depth at support. iii. Distribution bars are not provided in tow way slab.
3 iv. The deflected shape is like a dish or saucer.
Design steps- vi. Special torsion reinforcement at the corner has to be
Span- provided to check the cracking of corners.
Clear span + Effective depth of slab vii. Shorter span is taken to obtained the thickness of
Le = Which is Minimum 
C/C distance between support slab.
Thickness of slab- Types of slab and Design
To control deflection, minimum thickness for one- condition method
way slabs is taken as following-
1. Simply supported at Grashoff
Support Simply One end Both ends Cantilever the four edges with Rankine
types supported Continuous continuous corners not held down method
One way ℓ/20 ℓ/24 ℓ/12 ℓ/10 and carrying UDL.
slab
2. Simply supported on I.S Code
Generally slab thickness should not be less than 90
the four edges with method
mm.
corners held down. Marcus's
Generally thickness of one way slab always >Tow
method
way slab in case of same loading condition.
Pigeaud's
Depth of Slab-
method
Mr 3. Slab with edge fixed I.S code
d req. =
Q.b or continuous and method
Main reinforcing steel- carrying UDL

a st ×1000 Design method of slab-

A st = (a) Rankine Grashoff theory-
S
In this method assume that load on the slab is shows
Where,
between strips of unit width running in the two
π directions parallel to the side of the slab.
ast = area of one bar = × φ2
4 Load distribution-
Distribution Reinforcement-
 L4 
0.15 × bD Load at shorter span, w B =  4 × w
A st = L +B
4

100
Spacing of bars-  B4 
Load at longer span, w L =  4 4 
×w
a ×1000  a st1
2
 S L +B 
S = st   = 1
A st  a st  S2 Long span (L)
 2  If r =
Short span (B)
2. A slab will be two way-
(i) If, a slab supported by beams on all the four sides  r4   1 
and the loads are carried by the support along with then, w B =   w , wL =  w
1+ r 1+ r
4 4
 
both directions

Design of Concrete Structures 449 YCT

Moment distribution- Advantages of flat slab-
A flat slab reduces the overall height of the
 r  wB
4 2
(i) For shorter span, M B =  4 
structure.
1+ r  8 It is directly supported on columns without any
beams
2
 1  WL These slabs are capable of lifting concentrated loads.
(ii) For longer span, M L =  4 
1+ r  8 It required less form work.
This gives a better appearance and diffusion of light.
Shear force- Better fire resistant than other floor system.
1 Terms related to flat slab-
(i) Shorter span, VB = w.B
3 (i) Drop panel-
The thickened part of a flat slab over the supporting
 r  column is known as drop panel.
(ii) Longer span, VL =   w.B
 2+r  Drop panels increases the shear strength, negative
moment capacity and stiffness of the slab.
(b) IS Code method- It also reduce the deflection.
Case- I, Simply supported slab when corners are free Min. thickness of a flat slab - 125 mm
to lift - Min. thickness of flat slab-
Moment in both direction Without drops ≮ L/36
M B = α B .w B . L2B With drops ≮ L/32
Width of middle strip, where drop is used
M L = α L .w B . L2L = Width of panel – width of drops.
(ii) Capital/ Column Head-
Where, In slabs, columns are provided with an extended
αB, αL - Bending moment co-efficient head known as capital or column head.
Negative moment are not developed in this case Column head is used to increase rigidity of the slab
Case- II, For any types of slab with edges and column connection.
corners are prevented from lifting- Dia. of column head = 0.25 le (on each side)
It reduce the punching shear.
M B = α B .w. L2B
AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS
M L = α L . w. L2L A column is defined as a vertical compression
member which carrying axial load.
Where, Short column fail in compression while long column
Value of αB is +ve, and αL is -ve in buckling.
Flat Slab- Classification of column-
Flat slab is a one-way or two way slab system that 1. Based on shape-
built monolithically with the supporting columns (i) Rectangular
and is reinforced in two or more direction without (ii) Square
any provision of beams. (iii) Circular
It is supported on columns monolithically built with (iv) Polygon (Octagonal, Hexagonal)
slab. 2. Based on Slenderness ratio-
Note- • Slenderness ratio of reinforced concrete column is-
Critical failure is punching or two way shear
Effective length of column l
failure. λ= = e
Max. reinforcement spacing ≯ 2 × slab thickness. Least lateral dimension b min
Slenderness ratio Classification of column
S.R. ≤ 3 Pedestal
S.R. ≥ 12 Long column
3 < S.R. < 12 Short column
NOTE: If the column is supported on all sides
throughout its length then its S.R. will be zero.
3. Based on type of loading-
(i) Axially loaded column
(ii) Eccentric loaded column
4. Based on pattern of lateral reinforcement-
(i) Tied RCC columns
(ii) Spiral RCC columns
Design of Concrete Structures 450 YCT
 Minimum eccentricity- Helical or spiral bar–
(i) For rectangular section- (i) Dia. ≥
 nl0 B or D 1
 +  × dia of longitudinal bar
emin = Max.of  500 30 Maximum of  4
 20 mm 6mm
Note- (ii) Pitch-
For any column if the lateral size 'B' is less than 400 • Maximum pitch ≤
mm its minimum eccentricity will be more than  Coredia
0.05D. 
(ii) For non-rectangular section- Minimum of  6
 75 mm
 l0
 • Minimum pitch ≥
e min = Max.of  300
 20 mm  3φsp
Minimumof 
B = Least lateral dimension  25 mm
l0 = Unsupported length of column Note-
Load carrying capacity of spiral column is more than
NOTE: Minimum eccentricity should not be less 5% of tied column.
than 20 mm in any case.
Lap length of bar >| 36 mm × dia. of bar
Reinforcements for Columns-
1. Longitudinal Reinforcement- If dia. of bar is greater than 36 mm, it is suitable to
Minimum 0.8% of gross cross-section area of weld.
column. Lap length in the column is kept equal to the
Maximum 6% of the gross cross-section area. development length but it should not be less than 24φ.
It is generally 4% taken due to concreting problem. Lap length-
Pedestal with plane concrete 0.15% of gross cross φσsc
Lap length Ld =
section area. 4τbd
Minimum Dia. – 12mm
Range of main bar Dia. – 12 to 50 mm. Lap length in continuous column-
Note- In continuous column lap length is provided at floor
If the size of a column is reduced above the floor, level or beam connection.
then the main bars of the columns continues up or Minimum lap length of column-
bend inwards at the floor level or stops just below for main bars- 24φ
the floor level and separates lap bars. for dowel bars - 48φ
Minimum number of bars in column- Least radius of Gyration (rmin)-
Rectangular column 4 Imin
rmin =
Circular column with helical 6 A
reinforcement 8 Where,
Octagonal column
Imin = Least moment of inertia
Spacing for periphery >/ 300 mm. A = Cross sectional area of column
2. Transverse reinforcement If,
Purpose:
i. To avoid buckling of longitudinal bars and hold them lef
< 40 - Short column
in their position. rmin
ii. To increase resistance of column against shear and lef
torsion. > 40 - Long column
iii. Transverse reinforcement are provided in the rmin
form of tie bars and helical/spiral bar. Maximum Unsupported Length
Tie bar– • When laterally restrained at ends-
(i) Dia.
1 l0 ≯ 60b
≥ Maximum of  4 × dia of longitudinal bar

6mm • When one end of the column is unrestrained-
(ii) Pitch 100b 2
l0 ≯
Least lateraldimension D
≥ Minimum of 16φ
l0 = Unsupported length
300 mm
 b = Least lateral dimension
(φ = longitudinal bar dia) D = Depth of the column section
Design of Concrete Structures 451 YCT
 Terminology related to column- Reduction Factor
(i) Actual length-  l 
Distance between both ends of column is known as Cr = 1.25 − eff  If (λ ≥ 12)
 48b 
actual length.
(ii) Effective length (leff)-  l 
Cr = 1.25 − eff  If (λ > 40)
Distance between the point of zero moment or point of 160 r
 min 
contra flexure is called effective length of column.
The effective length of the column depends upon its Where, b = Least lateral dimension of column
end conditions. r min = Least radius of gyration
Effective length of column for different end conditions Note-
End conditions Effective Symbol Cr is always < 1
of the column length leff Strength of long column-
Both ends are leff= 0.65 L (i) For the tied column-
fixed P = Cr [ σcc × A c + σsc × A sc ]
(ii) For spiral/helical reinforcement-
One end fixed leff= 0.80 L P = 1.05Cr [ σ cc × A c + σsc × A sc ]
and other is
hinged (iii) Strength of long column-
P =  0.4f ck A c + 0.67f y A sc  × Cr
Both ends are leff = L Minimum size of RCC column should be kept 200
hinged
mm for earthquake resistance.
FOOTING
The portion of the foundation which transfers the
One end fixed leff = 2 L load of the structure to soil and it is remains contact
and other free with soil is called footing.
R.C. footing is recommended where bearing
capacity of soil is less.
Cover Minimum cover for footing - 50 mm
(i) 40 mm or φmain which is more If RCC footing is not to extend in the plot of the
(ii) When column size is less than 200 mm and dia of neighbouring house, then strap footing is preferred.
bar is less than 12 mm - 25 mm Isolated column footings-
(iii) In case of fire or water attached structure - 50 mm Isolated footings are the most commonly used
Axially loaded short column- footings for reinforced cement concrete column
A reinforced concrete column is subjected to an because it is simple and most economical.
axial load when the line of the resultant thrust of An isolated footing is used to support a single
loads supported by the column coincident with the column.
line of C.G. of the column in longitudinal direction This types of footing is used when-
is known axially loaded short column. Columns are not closely spaced
Strength of short column Loads on footings are less
(i) By elastic theory method The safe bearing capacity of the soil is generally
Strength of column, P = σcc .A c + m.σcc × A sc high.
If there is no footing is to be provided to the wall the
or P = σ cc (A c + mA sc ) width of the foundation should be equal to 3 times,
Where the thickness of wall.
σsc = Stress in compression steel = mσcc Reinforcing details of isolated footing-
σcc = Stress in concrete. Minimum reinforcement < 0.12% of gross sectional
Ac = Net area of concrete section = (A – Asc) area.
Asc = Area of steel Minimum diameter of bar < 10 mm.
(ii) Load factor method of B.I.S. method-
(a) Strength of column- Spacing-
P = σcc .A c + σsc .A sc 300mm
Minimum of 
(b) For helical reinforcement- 3d
P = 1.05 [ A c × σcc + Asc × σsc ] Dowel Reinforcement-
Dowels are commonly used as interface
Axially loaded long columns- reinforcement between column and footing. It is set
A long column or slender column buckles more in the footing prior to casting the footing concrete
easily hence it has less strength than a short column and are subsequently spliced to the longitudinal bar
for the same sectional area. in the column.
Design of Concrete Structures 452 YCT
 Dowel bars in RCC footing extend into the column (i) Punching/Two way shear failure-
at a distance equal to development length. These It is also known as diagonal tension failure of
length is an example of development bond. foundation.
Foundation fails due to formation of inclined cracks
around the perimeter of the column.
Critical section- d/2 from the face of column.
Ex. - Section at 2-2
(ii) One-way shear failure-
Critical section- d' from the face of the column.
Ex.- Section 1-1
(iii) Flexure failure or vertical shear/ B.M.
calculation-
Critical section- At the face of column.
Ex.-Section 3-3
Dowel bar is used to transfer the load of column to Mu
During design of footing flexural strength =
the footing . bd 2
Lap of dowel bars should not be less than 48φ. Where,
• Min. number of dowel bar- 4 Mu = Ultimate or factored moment
• Min. area- 0.5% of grass cross sectional area of b = Width of footing, d = Depth of footing
supported column. Permissible punching shear stress for
• Dia. of dowel bar- < dia. of column bar +3mm footing–
τcp = k s .0.16 f ck for W.S.M.
Dimensions of Isolated footing-
(i) Depth of foundation- τcp = k s .0.25 f ck for L.S.M.
Depth of foundation according to Rankin formula-
2
P 1 − sin φ  0.5 + βc
D= k s = Which is minimum 
γ 1 + sin φ  ≤ 1
Where, Short sideof column
D = depth of foundation, βc =
Long sideof column
P = safe bearing capacity of soil
γ = Unit weight of soil (kN/m3), φ = Angle of repose Permissible bearing stress of footing-
(ii) Area of foundation- σ br = 0.25f ck For W.S.M.
P+w W
A= or A = Total load W = p + w σ br = 0.45f ck For L.S.M.
P P
Where, W = Self weight of footing NOTE: Maximum bearing should not exceed.
(iii) Thickness of block footing- A1
Thickness of block footing is depend on bending σ br = 0.45f ck
moment and shear. A2
As per I.S : 456-1978 , Minimum thickness of Where A1 = Maximum area of supporting surface
footing on piles at its edge - 150 mm
that is similar to and concentric with loaded area.
Failure of Isolated footing-
Following are the different types of failure of A2 = Loaded area at the column base.
foundations: A1
• Factor × ≤2
A2
Important points-
i. According to IS 456 : 2000 the thickness of
reinforced concrete footing on piles at its edge
should not be less than 30 cm.
ii. If footing is resting on soil then it should not be less
than 15 cm.
iii. The weight of foundation is assumed to be 10% of
the total superimposed load.
iv. If the width of the footing for two equal columns is
restricted the shape of the footing generally adopted
is rectangular.
v. Self weight of the footing is not considered for
calculating the upward pressure on footing.
Design of Concrete Structures 453 YCT
 Design Steps of Footing- 3. The number of concrete mix grades specified as
1. Calculate superimposed load, P . per IS 456 (2000) is _________ .
2. Total area = P + 0.1 P ( For footing) = 1.1 P (a) eight (b) fifteen
3. Area of footing required- (c) one (d) two
Total load MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
A req = Ans. (b) : The number of concrete mix grades as per
Safe bearing capacity of soil
IS 456 : 2000 is 15
P For Various Grades of Concrete (IS 456 : 200)
4. Net soil pressure over block, p net =
A Group Grade Specified
5. Calculate bending moment and find out effective depth characteristic
6. Calculate total depth (effective depth + cover ). Compressive
M strength of 150
7. Calculate steel reinforcement , A st = mm cubes at
σ st .z 28days (N/mm2)
Note- Ordinary concrete M 10 10
As per IS : 456 - 2007. M 15 15
Non- dimensional slenderness ratio- M 20 20
fy Standard concrete M 25 25
λ= M 30 30
f cr
M 35 35
Where, fcr = Critical bending compressive stress. M 40 40
Questions Asked in Previous Years M 45 45
M 50 50
1. What will be the maximum free water-cement
ratio for reinforced concrete of M30 minimum M 55 55
Grade of concrete with normal weight High strength M 60 60
aggregates of 20 mm nominal maximum size? concrete M 65 65
(a) 0.55 (b) 0.50 M 70 70
(c) 0.45 (d) 0.40 M 75 75
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I M 80 80
Ans. (c) : As per IS 456: 2000 Note- According to IS 456 : 2011 M 60 is considered
Reinforcement concrete with normal weight aggregate
of 20 mm maximum size. in standard concrete.
Minimum Maximum 4. As per IS 456:2000, minimum grade of
Minimum concrete to be used for RCC work under any
cement free water
Exposure grade of exposure condition–
content cement
3 concrete
(kg/m ) ratio (a) M 10 (b) M 15
Mild 300 0.55 M 20 (c) M 20 (d) M 30
Moderate 300 0.50 M 25 CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
Severe 320 0.45 M 30 Ans. (c) : As per IS 456 :2000 minimum grade of
Very severe 340 0.45 M 35 concrete to be used for RCC work under any exposure
condition shall not be less then M 20.
Extreme 360 0.40 M 40
5. The short-term deflection is calculated using
2. A measure of tensile strength of extreme fibre
(a) MI of cracked section (b) gross MI
in bending of R.C. beam is
(c) effective MI (d) None of the above
(a) Modulus of sub grade
PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
(b) Young's modulus
(c) Bulk modulus Ans. (c) : Short term deflection is calculated using the
(d) Modulus of rupture effective moment of inertia (MI). Short term deflection
of prestressed members are also known as instantaneous
(e) Answer not known
deflections governed by distribution of bonding moment
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
through the span and flexural moment throughout the
Ans. (d) : Tensile strength of concrete in flexural span and flexural rigidity of member, these theorems
strength or modulus of Rupture. are applied for determining the deflections due to
modulus of Rupture = 0.7 Fck prestressing force, imposed loads and self weight.
• Tensile strength of plain concrete is obtained by the 6. Deflection can be controlled by using the
splitting test appropriate
2p (a) aspect ratio (b) modular ratio
splitting tensile strength (fct) = (c) span/depth ratio (d) water/cement ratio
πdL PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
Design of Concrete Structures 454 YCT
Ans. (c) : Deflection can be controlled by using the 10. Which method of deigning RCC structures/
appropriate span/depth ratio. elements is also termed as ultimate load method?
• Basic values of span to effective depth ratio for spans (a) Limit state method
up to 10 m. (b) Load factor method
Type of beam Span/depth ratio (c) Working stress method
Cantilever beam 7 (d) Modular ratio method
Simply supported beam 20 ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
Continuous beam 26 Ans. (b) : Ultimate load method (ULM)–The ultimate
7. According to IS 3370 - 2 : 2009 the permissible load method (ULM) was evolved in 1950 as an alternative
stress in M30 grade of concrete under direct to the WSM. It is more economical than WSM
compression (N/mm2):
• The method is based on the ultimate strength of
(a) 10 (b) 8
(c) 9 (d) 11.5 reinforce concrete at ultimate load.
JKPSC AE 02.10.2023 • The ultimate load is obtained by enhancing the
Ans. (b) : IS 3370-2 : 2009, applicable specifically to service load by some factor referred to as load factor
reinforced concrete structure for the storage of liquid. for giving a desired margin of safety. Hence the
Permissible stress method is also referred to as the load factor method
Grade of Permissible or the ultimate strength method.
under direct
concrete stress (σcbc)
compression (σd) 11. According to IS : 456 : 2000, if 46 cubic metres
M-25 8.5 6 quantity of M25 grade of concrete is required
M-30 10.0 8 at a site, the minimum number of cube samples
M-35 11.5 9 that should be taken from the site are____.
M-40 13.0 10 (a) 9 (b) 8
(c) 4 (d) 7
M-45 14.5 11
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
M- 16.0 12
50 Ans. (c) : The minimum frequency of sampling of
8. In RCC work, which material is not used? concrete of each grade shall be in accordance with
(a) Aggregate (b) Cement the following.
(c) Bricks (d) Sand Quantity of concrete in Number of samples
PGCIL JE 05.12.2023 the work, m3
Ans. (c) : In RCC work, bricks are not used as a 1-5 1
material. 6-15 2
Ingredient of RCC– 16-30 3
• Cement 31-50 4
• Coarse aggregate 51 and above 4 plus one additional
• Steel sample for each
• Water additional 50 m3 or part
• Fine aggregate of them
9. According to IS : 456 – 2000, in limit state 12. The distance measured from the exposed
method of design of RCC structures, which of concrete surface to the nearest surface of the
the following is the mismatched pair of reinforcing bar is known as
environmental conditions & minimum grade of (a) Clear cover (b) Normal cover
reinforced concrete required?
(c) Effective cover (d) Nominal cover
(a) Extreme –M40 (b) Very Severe – M35
(c) Mild – M15 (d) Moderate – M25 DSSSB AE 27/09/2021 Shift-III
TSPSC AE 18/10/2023 Ans. (a) : The cover is measured as the thickness from
Ans. (c) : As per IS code 456 : 2000, clause 6.1.2, the outer surface of the concrete to the nearest surface
8.2.4 and 9.1.2– of the reinforcement, sometimes referred as clear
Reinforce concrete– cover.
Min. Max. free Nominal cover for different members–
Min. Slab - 20 mm
cement water
Exposure grade of Beam - 25 mm
content cement
concrete
Kg/m3 ratio Column - 40 mm
Mild 300 0.55 M20 Footing - 50 mm
Moderate 300 0.50 M25 • Nominal cover is the distance from the outer
Severe 320 0.45 M30 surface to the stirrups.
Very severe 340 0.45 M35 • Effective cover is the distance from the outer
Extreme 360 0.40 M40 surface to mid of main reinforcement.
Design of Concrete Structures 455 YCT
13. In concrete mix design the target mean Ans. (d) : As per IS : 456-2000, Stripping time of
compressive strength (f'ck) of concrete is given form works–
by- f'ck = fck + 1.65 S Minimum period
As per IS 10262 : 2019, what is the assumed Types of formwork before striking form
value of standard deviation (S) for M65 grade work
of concrete for concrete mix design? Vertical formwork to 16-24 hrs
(fck=required characteristic compressive columns, walls, beams
strength of concrete at 28 days, in N/mm2.) Soffit formwork to slabs 3 days
(a) 3.5 (b) 6 (props to be refixed
(c) 5 (d) 4 immediately after removal of
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 27/06/2022 Shift-III formwork)
Ans. (b) : As per IS : 10262 : 2019 and IS : 456-2000, Soffit formwork to beam 7 days
Table 8 (Clause 9.2.4.2) (Props to be refixed
Grade Standard deviation immediately after removal of
(N/mm2) formwork
M10 Props to slab -
M15 3.5 • Spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days
M20 • Spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
M25 4.0 Props to beams and arches -
M30 Spanning up to 6 m 14 days
M35 Spanning over 6 m 21 days
M40 16. Choose appropriate Mixed design Grades (as
M45 5.0 per IS : 456-2000) for ordinary concrete :
M50 (a) M20, M25, M30 (b) M35, M45, M55
M55 (c) M10, M15, M20 (d) M45, M50, M55
M60 UPSSSC JE 16/04/2022
M65 Ans. (c) : As per IS : 456-2000, Clause 6.1,
M70 Ordinary Concrete - M10, M15, M20
M75 6.0 Standard Concrete - M25, M30, M35, M40, M45, M50,
M80 M55
Note: As per Amendment - 4 grade above M60, High Strength Concrete - M60, M65, M70, M75, M80
standard deviation shall be established by actual 17. The amount of overlapping between two bars is
trials. called:
(a) Gap length (b) Hook length
14. As per IS 456:2000, the maximum free water
(c) Lap length (d) Extension length
ratio of concrete with normal weight aggregates
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I
of 20 mm nominal maximum size to be used in
RCC structures at mild exposure condition is Ans. (c) : Lap length– Amount of overlapping between
(a) 0.55 (b) 0.4 two bars is known as lap length.
(c) 0.50 (d) 0.60 The lap length including anchorage value of hooks
shall be -
DDA JE 28/03/2023 Shift-III
(i) For flexural tension Ld or 30d (whichever more)
Ans. (a) : As per IS : 456-2000, Clause 6.1.2 For direct tension - 2Ld or 30φ (whichever more)
S. N. PCC RCC
(ii) For compression - Ld or 24φ
Min. Max. Min. Min. Max. Min.
Exposur cement
(iii) Straight length of lapping of bars shall not be less
W/C Grade cement W/C Grade
e content of content of than 15φ or 200 mm.
kg/m3 concrete kg/m3 concrete 18. Select the INCORRECT use of IS 13920:1993,
(i) Mild 220 0.60 – 300 0.55 M 20 adopted in all the reinforced concrete structures
(ii) Moderat 240 0.60 M 15 300 0.50 M 25 that satisfy one of the following four conditions
e (a) The structure is located in Seismic Zone IV or V
(iii) Severe 250 0.50 M 20 320 0.45 M 30 (b) The structure is located in Seismic Zone III and
(iv) Very 260 0.45 M 20 340 0.45 M 35 has importance factor (I) of greater than 1.0
Severe (c) The structure is located in Seismic Zone II
(v) Extreme 280 0.40 M 25 360 0.40 M 40 and is more than 10 storeys high
15. As per IS 456 : 2000, what is the minimum (d) The structure is located in Seismic Zone III
period before striking formwork for vertical and is an industrial structure
formworks to columns, walls and beams? DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
(a) 7 days (b) 7 hours Ans. (c) : Provision of this code (13920 : 1993) shall be
(c) 16 – 24 days (d) 16 – 24 hours adopted in all reinforced concrete structure which
PCMC JE CIVIL 28/05/2023 satisfy one of the following four conditions.
Design of Concrete Structures 456 YCT
1. The structure is located in seismic zone III and has 0.87f y × φ φ.0.87fy
the importance factor (I) greater than 1.0. Ld = or Ld = for LSM
2. The structure is located in seismic zone IV or V. 4τbd 4.τbd
3. The structure is located in seismic zone III and is an where,
industrial structure. τbd → design bond stress
4. The structure is located in seismic zone III and is 22. As per IS 456-2000, the minimum cover
more than 5 storey high. required for the design of a water tank in
19. As per IS:456:2000, the deflection including the severe exposure condition should not be less
effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage than
occurring after erection of partitions and the (a) 30 mm (b) 45 mm
application of finishes of RC structures should (c) 50 mm (d) 75 mm
NOT normally exceed ______. GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
(a) Span/250 mm or 40 mm whichever is less Ans. (b) : As per IS 456 : 2000, minimum cover
(b) Span/350 mm or 20 mm whichever is less required for the design of a water tank in severe
(c) Span/350 mm or 40 mm whichever is less exposure condition should not be less than 45 mm.
(d) Span/250 mm of 20 mm whichever is less • Nominal cover for other exposure conditions.
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 Nominal concrete cover
Ans. (b) : IS : 456-2000, Clause 23.2, Exposure
in mm not less than
(a) The final deflection due to all loads including the Mild 20
effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage and Moderate 30
measured from the as-cast level of the supports of Severe 45
floors, roofs and all other horizontal members, should Very severe 50
not normally exceed span/250.
(b) The deflection including the effect of temperature Extreme 75
creep and shrinkage occurring after erection of partitions Notes–
and the application of finishes should not normally • For main reinforcement upto 12 mm diameter bar for
exceed span/350 or 20 mm which ever in less. mild exposure the nominal cover may be reduced by 5
mm.
20. In reinforced concrete flexural members, the
long term deflection due to shrinkage, creep • For exposure condition severe and very severe
and temperature effect may be as large as reduction of 5 mm may be made where concrete grade
______ times the short term deflection due to is M 35 and above.
dead and live loads. 23. As per IS: 456-2000, partial safety factor for
(a) 3 (b) 4 Dead Load in limit state of collapse for load
(c) 5 (d) 6 combination DL+LL is:
(a) 1.5 (b) 1.2
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
(c) 0.8 (d) 1.0
Ans. (a) : In reinforced concrete flexural members, the TSPSC AE 18/10/2023
long term deflection due to shrinkage creep and
Ans. (a) : Load factors for loads under various load
temperature effect may be as large as 3 times the short combination.
term deflection due to dead and live loads.
Load Limit state at Limit states of
21. The length of embedment necessary to develop Combination collapse serviceability
the full tensile strength of the bar, controlled
DL LL WL DL LL WL
by either pull-out or splitting is known as
________. DL + LL 1.5 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 -
(a) development length (b) clear length DL + WL 1.5 or - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0
(c) hook length (d) free length 0.9
MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-II DL+LL+WL 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
Ans. (a) : The length of embedment necessary to Here D.L = Dead load, LL = Live Load When
develop the full tensile strength of the bar, controlled by only D.L and L.L. is considered from above table-
either pull-out or splitting is known as development • Load combination for limit state of collapse-
length. = 1.5 (D.L + L.L)
Bond between concrete and steel can be determined by • Load combination for limit state of serviceability-
pull out test. = D. L + L.L
24. According to IS 456 for limit state of
serviceability, the partial factor of safety for
the combination of dead load and wind load is
(a) 1.1 (b) 1.0
(c) 1.25 (d) 1.5
JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil)
Development length (Ld) Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
φσst 25. As per IS : 456-2000, a simply supported beam
Ld = for WSM shall be considered as a deep beam if the ratio
4τbd of its effective span to overall depth is less than
Design of Concrete Structures 457 YCT
 (a) 1.5 (b) 2
(c) 2.5 (d) 3
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
Ans. (b) : According to IS 456 : 2000 Cl 29.1, A beam
shall be deemed to be deep beam when the ratio of
ℓ
effective span to overall depth is less than-
D
ℓ (Where, A and E are the dimensions as per the
(i) < 2.0 for a simply supported beam drawing, d = bar diameter)
D (a) 2 (A + E) + 24d (b) A + E – d – R
ℓ (c) 2A + E + 28d (d) 2A + E + 12d
(ii) < 2.5 for a continuous beam
D JSSC JE 03/11/2022
26. For concrete completely immersed in sea Ans. (c) :
water, the minimum grade of concrete to be Length of Hooks-
used is- L Here, one hooks
(a) M 40 (b) M 35 Height = 14d
(c) M 30 (d) M 25 2 × (14d) = 28d
Kerala PSC (PWD) AE 07/06/2023 Total length of Bar- [l1 + 2l2 + 28d]
Ans. (c) As per IS : 456-2000, clause 6.1.2 Total length = 2A + E + 2 × 14 d
= 2A + E + 28d
Environ-mental Nominal min. grade min.
condition cover of concrete grade of 30. The design shear strength of concrete in the
for PCC concrete RCC beam does NOT depend on the:
for RCC (a) grade of steel
(b) cross-sectional dimension of the beam
Mild 20 – M20 (c) area of steel
Moderate 30 M15 M25 (d) grade of concrete
Severe (along 45 M20 M30 SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
the sea coast) Ans. (a) : The design shear strength of concrete in the
Very severe 50 M20 M35 RCC beam are depend on–
(spray sea water) 1. Cross-sectional dimension of the beam
Extreme (tidal) 75 M25 M40 2. Area of steel
27. AS per IS 456 : 2000, the minimum grade of 3. Grade of concrete
concrete for plain concrete in severe exposure 31. As per IS : 456-2000, the depth of neutral axis
conditions is of a balanced reinforced concrete section :
(a) M15 (b) M20 (a) depends on grade of steel only
(c) M25 (d) M30 (b) depends on grade of concrete only
UPSC ESIC JE CIVIL Paper 8 October 2023 (c) depends on both grade of steel and grade of
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. concrete
(d) independent of both grade of steel and grade
28. According to safety and Serviceability of concrete
Requirements of a prestressed concrete Indian ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
standards, the final deflection on horizontal Ans. (a) : limiting value of neutral axis depth is given by
members is NOT to be greater than _____for
the span of length (I).  xu  0.0035
(a) L/125 (b) L/250   =
 d lim 0.0055 + 0.87f y
(c) L/300 (d) L/330 Es
Kerala PSC (PWD) AE 07/06/2023
•Hence, balanced or limiting depth of neutral axis is
Ans. (b) : As per IS 456 : 2000, clause 23.2, dependent on grade of steel only.
The final deflection, due to all loads including the
32. Which of the following statements is correct
effects of temperature creep and shrinkage and measure with respect to under reinforced section?
from the as cast level of the supports of floors, roofs, (a) The actual neutral axis will be above the
and all other horizontal members should not normally critical neutral axis of the balanced section
exceed span/250. (b) The actual neutral axis will coincide with the
• The deflection including the effects of temperature, critical neutral axis of the balanced section
creep and shrinkage occurring after erection of (c) The moment of resistance obtained from the
partitions and the application of finishes should not compressive force will be equal to the
normally exceed span/350 or 20 mm whichever is less. moment of resistance obtained from the
29. What will be the approximate total length of tensile force.
reinforcement bar measured along centre line, (d) The actual neutral axis will fall below the
for the given arrangement in the following critical neutral axis of the balanced section.
figure? Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
Design of Concrete Structures 458 YCT
Ans. (a) : Under reinforced section : - An under 3d − n 4d − n
reinforced section is the one in which steel percentage (c) (d)
(Pt) is less than critical or limiting percentage (Pt lim). 3 3
Due to this, the actual N.A is above the balanced NA. MHPSC Mains 23.04.2023
Ans. (c) :
χa < χc
33. If the actual neutral axis of a beam lies above
the critical neutral axis, then the beam is said
to be a/an:
(a) under reinforced section
(b) critical section
(c) over reinforced section
(d) balanced section The lever arm in a singly reinforced beam is the
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 distance between the centroid of the compression zone
Ans. (a) See the above explanation. and the centroid of the tension zone.
d − n 3d − n
34. If the depth of neutral axis for singly reinforced Lever arm = =
rectangular section is represented by "Kd" in 3 3
working stress design, then the value of "K" 36. Which of the given following method is ensured
for balance section where 'D" is the effective adequate safety by suitably restricting the
depth, σst , permissible stress in steel in tension stress in the materials (i.e. concrete and steel)
and σcbc is permissible stress in induced by the expected working loads on the
structures.
steel in bending compression. (a) Working stress method
(a) Depends on σst only (b) Ultimate load method
(b) Depends on σcbc only (c) Limit state method
(c) Depends on Both σst , and σcbc (d) None of these
JKSSSB JE 06.12.2022 Shift II
(d) Is independent of Both σst and σcbc Ans. (a) : Working stress method– It is based upon
JKSSB JE 19/11/2023 linear elastic theory. This method ensured adequate safety
Ans. (a) : by suitably restricting the stress in the materials induced by
the expected working loads on the structures.
Ultimate load method– It is based on the ultimate
strength of reinforced concrete at ultimate load is
obtained by enhancing the service load by some factor
called load factor for giving a desired margin of safety.
It is also referred to as the load factor method.
37. What is the minimum percentage of steel
required in tension reinforcement in a beam
where Fe415 steel is used?
From stress distribution diagram– (a) 4% of gross area of beam
(b) 0.205% of gross area of beam
σst (c) 0.205% of effective area of beam
m = σcbc (d) 0.34% of gross area of beam
d − xc xc JKSSB JE 29/10/2021 Shift-I
σst d − xc Ans. (c) : According to IS 456:2000 clause 26.5.1.1–
= ( x c = Kd ) The minimum area of tension reinforcement shall be not
m × σcbc xc less than that
σst d − Kd
= A s 0.85
=
m × σcbc Kd bd fy
m × σcbc  280 
K=  m = 3σ 
0.85
As = bd
σst + m × σcbc  cbc  fy
280 for different grade of steel minimum tension
K= reinforcement-
3 σst + 280
Grade of Minimum reinforcement
K is depends on σst only steel
35. The lever arm in a singly reinforced beam is Fe-250 0.34% of effective area of
equal to ______ (Where d = Distance between beam
the top of beam and the centre of steel bars n = Fe-415 0.205% of effective area
Depth of neutral axis below the top of beam) of beam
d−n 2d − n Fe-500 0.17% of effective area of
(a) (b) beam
3 3
Design of Concrete Structures 459 YCT
38. In working stress method, for concrete, Ans. (c) : The WSM assumes strain compatibility
modular ratio, m = _______/ (3 × σcbc). whereby the strain in the reinforcing steel is assumed to
(a) 285 (b) 284 be equal to that in the adjoining concrete to which it is
(c) 280 (d) 289 bonded.
MPSC MES 29/10/2022 Paper-1 • Consequently the stress in steel in linearly related to
Ans. (c) : In working stress method, for the stress in adjoining concrete by a constant factor
concrete modular ratio- called the modular ratio defined as the ratio of the
modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.
280
m= E
3σ cbc m= s
Ec
σcbc = permissible bending stress. Where,
39. Which of the given condition is ensured in RC Es = 2 ×105 N/mm2
members due to the proper bond between Ec = 5000 f ck N/mm2
reinforcing steel and surrounding concrete?
(a) Stress compatibility fck = Characteristic compressive strength
(b) Force compatibility 42. Generally, in R.C.C sections for beams, the
(c) Strain compatibility depth of the neutral axis usually determines the
(d) Bending compatibility type of section. For an over reinforced section,
the actual neutral axis lies;
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I (a) Along the top fibre of the section
Ans. (c) : Strain compatibility is ensure in RC members (b) Above the critical neutral axis
due to the proper bond between reinforcing steel and (c) Below the critical neutral axis
surrounding concrete. (d) In the same line along the critical neutral axis
• Strain compatibility means that the steel and concrete UPRVUNL AE 17/07/2022
must have similar deformations under stress to ensure
Ans. (c) : Over reinforced section - The permissible
that the bond between the two materials is maintained
maximum stress of concrete is reached first to its
and the structure remains stable. maximum value as compared to a permissible
• If the steel and concrete have different strain responses maximum stress of steel.
cracks can form in the concrete and the bond between
the steel and concrete can weaken leading to structural χa > χc
failure. • In this section the area of steel is provided more than
40. Usually stiffness of a simply supported beam is the area of steel for the balance section. So, for an over
satisfied if the ratio of its span to depth does reinforced section, the actual neutral axis lies below the
not exceed which one of the following: critical neutral axis.
(a) 10 (b) 20 • It should be noted that compression failure is sudden
(c) 26 (d) 7 and therefore not desirable. The code recommends that
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 if xu/d is found to the greater than the limiting value, the
Ans. (b) : beam, should be redesigned.
Ratio of span to 43. For a balanced section, the relation between the
Member effective depth depth of neutral axis (xu) and the limiting
(stiffness) depth of neural axis (xu,lim) is given by:
(i) Simple supported beam 20 (a) Depth of neutral axis (xu) < Limiting depth of
neutral axis (xu,lim)
(ii) Continuous beam 26 (b) Depth of neutral axis (xu) > Limiting depth of
(iii) Cantilever beam 7 neutral axis (xu,lim)
(iv) One way slab 30 (c) Depth of neutral axis (xu) = Limiting depth of
(v) Two way slab 35 neutral axis (xu,lim)
(vi) Continuous slab 40 (d) Depth of neutral axis (xu) ≤ = ≤ Limiting
(vii) Cantilever slab 12 depth of neutral axis (xu,lim)
41. In the working stress method of design of DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
reinforce concrete, the stress in steel is linearly Ans. (c) :
related to that in the adjoining concrete by a xu < xu Lim Section is under reinforced
constant factor known as: xu = xu Lim Section is balanced
(a) modular ratio, being the ratio of modulus of xu > xu Lim Section is over reinforced
elasticity of concrete to that of steel 44. In stress block diagram for a rectangular
(b) safety factor, being the ratio of characteristic section of singly reinforced beam in limit state
strength of steel to concrete method, the centroid of compressive force lies
at a distance of______ from the extreme
(c) modular ratio, being the ratio of modulus of compressive fiber.
elasticity of steel to that of concrete Where Xu = Depth of neutral Axis
(d) section factor, being the ratio of modulus of (a) 0.50 Xu (b) 0.42 Xu
section of concrete to steel (c) 0.36 Xu (d) 0.45 Xu
SSC JE Mains 04.12.2023 DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
Design of Concrete Structures 460 YCT
Ans. (b) : 47. As per IS 456 : 2000, the limiting value for
neutral axis depth measured from extreme
fibre of a singly reinforced RCC beam with
rectangular cross section is___. Consider the
grade of steel as Fe-500 and ‘d’ is effective
depth of beam section.
(a) 0.46 d (b) 0.53 d
(c) 0.48 d (d) 0.44 d
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
Strain diagram Stress diagram Ans. (a) : As per IS 456 : 2000, the limiting value for
neutral axis depth measured from extreme fibre of a
In stress block diagram for a rectangular section of singly reinforced RCC beam with rectangular cross
singly reinforced beam in limit state method, the section for different types of steel grade.
centroid of compressive force lies at a distance of
0.42xu from the extreme compressive fiber. 1. Fe250 → 0.53 d
2. Fe415 → 0.48 d
45. Find the correct statement regarding the
3. Fe500 → 0.46 d
assumption of limit state design under
compression member as per IS 456:2000. where, d is effective depth of beam.
(a) The maximum compressive strain in concrete Note-As per commission correct answer is option (c)
in axial compression is 0.02. 48. In limit state method what is the partial safety
(b) The maximum compressive strain in concrete factor for steel?
in axial compression is 0.002. (a) 1.5 (b) 1.15
(c) The minimum compressive strain in concrete (c) 0.87 (d) 0.446
in axial compression is 0.0002. SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
(d) The minimum compressive strain in concrete Ans. (b) : As per IS 456: 2000
in axial compression is 0.002. For steel
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III (1) Characteristic strength fy
Ans. (b) : Design for the limit state of collapse in (2) No size factor due to homogeneity of steel.
flexure shall be based on the assumptions– (3) Partial factor of safety = 1.15
• Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after fy
(4) Design stress = = 0.87f y
bending. 1.15
• Maximum compressive strain in concrete in axial 49. For Fe 415 steel, the value of ratio of limiting
compression is 0.002. depth of neutral axis (Xumax ) to depth d is :
• Maximum compressive strain in case of bending (a) 0.53 (b) 0.45
compression is 0.0035. (c) 0.48 (d) 0.46
• Maximum strain at highly compressed extreme fiber PSSSB JE 2024
in a section subjected to axial compression and Ans. (c) : Limiting depth of neutral axis (xulim)–
bending and when there is no tension in the section is 0.700
0.0035–0.75×strain at least compressed extreme fiber. X u lim = ×d
• Tensile strength of concrete is neglected. 0.87f y + 1100
• Maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the R u=
section at failure shall not be less than Steel Grade Xulim/d M u lim Pt lim
fy bd 2
0.002 +
1.15E s Fe 250 0.53 0.148 fck 0.088 fck
46. For a balanced beam section, the limit state is Fe 415 0.48 0.138 fck 0.0479 fck
reached when: Fe 500 0.46 0.133 fck 0.038 fck
(a) there is the simultaneous crushing of concrete Here, d = effective depth of beam, b = width of beam
and breaking of steel 50. In limit state design, the limiting depth of
(b) there is the simultaneous yielding of both neutral axis for Fe-250 for beam having
concrete and steel effective depth 'd' is ..............
(c) there is the simultaneous crushing of concrete (a) 0.43 d (b) 0.48 d
and yielding of steel (c) 0.45 d (d) 0.53 d
(d) there is the simultaneous yielding of concrete MH Solapur M.C JE Class2, 17.02.2024
and breaking of steel Ans. (d) : As per IS 456 : 2000-
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III Steel Grade x u lim M u lim Max.
Ans. (c) : For a balanced beam section, the limit state is Strain
reached when there is the simultaneous crushing of Fe 250 0.53d 0.149bd2fck 0.00308
concrete and yielding of steel. Fe415 0.48d 0.138bd2fck 0.00380
Balanced sections–A balanced section is that in which Fe500 0.46d 0.133bd2fck 0.00417
stress in concrete and steel reach their permissible value 51. As per IS-456 : 2000, for limit state of collapse
at the same time and the actual Neutral axis is also (compression), the maximum compressive strain
equal to the critical neutral axis. in concrete in axial compression is taken as
Design of Concrete Structures 461 YCT
 (a) 0.0035 (b) 0.01 54. As per IS-456-2000, for ultimate limit states,
(c) 0.75 (d) 0.002 the partial factor of safety assigned for
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 concrete is ______.
Ans. (d) : In case of axially loaded column the (a) 1.15 (b) 1.87
maximum strain in concrete is taken as 0.002. (c) 1.5 (d) 1.0
• The maximum strain in concrete at the outer most ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
compression fiber is taken as 0.0035 in bending Ans. (c) : As per IS-456-2000, for ultimate limit states,
when NA lies within the section. the partial factor of safety assigned for concrete is 1.5
• Maximum compressive stress in concrete assumed to be and for steel is 1.15.
uniform across the section is taken equal to 0.44 fck 55. Identify the INCORRECT statement with
• As per IS 456 : 2000 Cl 6.2.4.1 the approximate respect to specifications on the partial safety
value of the total shrinkage strain for design may be factors for material strength, and are used in
taken as 0.0003. limit state design of RC structures
(a) A partial safety factor ‘1.15’ is used for steel
under serviceability limit state
(b) A partial safety factor 1.5 is used for concrete
under ultimate limit state
(c) A partial safety factor ‘1’ is used for concrete
under serviceability limit state
(d) A higher partial safety factor has been
assigned to concrete compared with
reinforcing steel under the ultimate limit state.
52. According to IS 456 : 2000, the design bond SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
stress (in N/mm2 units) in limit state method of Ans. (a) : When assessing the strength of a structure or
HYSD bars (Fe415 grade) for M30 grade structural method for the limit state of collapse, the
concrete is: value of partial safety factor, γm should be taken as 1.5
(a) 1.5 (b) 1.92 for concrete and 1.15 for steel.
(c) 2.56 (d) 2.4 • A partial safety factor 1 is used for concrete under
MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-I limit state of serviceability.
Ans. (d) : As per IS 456 : 2000 clause 26.2.1.1, • A higher partial safety factor has been assigned to
• The bond strength is due to combined effect of concrete with reinforcing steel under the ultimate
frictional resistance adhesive resistance and limit state.
mechanical resistance for (deformed bars). 56. Assuming the stress block diagram of the
• Allowable bond stress is increased by 60% (for rectangular concrete beam section as per IS
WSM it is 40%) for deformed bars. 456-2000, the depth of the centre of
compressive force measured from the neutral
• For bars in compression τbd is increased by 25%. axis is given by: (Assuming Xu as the depth of
Grade of M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 neutral axis from top compression fiber)
concrete (a) 0.42 Xu (b) 0.36 Xu
τbd 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9 (c) 0.58 Xu (d) 0.67 Xu
(N/mm2) SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
M 30 = 1.5 N/mm2 Ans. (c) : Singly reinforced beam–
HYSD bars (Fe 415 grade)
Design bond stress = 1.5 × 1.60 = 2.4 N/mm2
53. As per the stress-strain curve of concrete in
bending compression, the design stress in
concrete at 0.002 strain is:
(a) 0.36fck (b) 0.42fck
(c) 0.45fck (d) 0.70fck
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-II
Ans. (c) : The stress distribution for strain varying from
0 to 0.002 is parabolic and, thereafter, for strain from where,
0.002 to 0.0035, it is constant, i.e., the curve has a Xu = Actual depth of neutral axis
rectangular shape. The compressive strength of concrete fck = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete
is a structure shall be assumed to be 0.67 times the fy = Yield stress of steel
characteristic strength. In addition to this, a partial • The centroid of the compressive force is at a distance
safety factor γm = 1.5 shall be applied. Thus, the of 0.42 Xu from the extreme compressive fiber.
maximum stress on the design curve which corresponds • The depth of the center of compressive force measured
to design compressive strength of concrete is : from neutral axis is Xu – 0.42 Xu = 0.58 Xu.
0.67f ck 0.67f ck 57. For design purposes, the compressive strength
f cd = = = 0.447f ck of concrete in the structure shall be assumed to
γm 1.5 be _____ times the characteristic strength of
Design of Concrete Structures 462 YCT
 concrete for design of flexure member using (a) 0.36 fck bXu (b) 0.54 fck bXu
limit state method. (c) 0.66 fck bXu (d) 0.8 fck bXu
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.67 Where Xu is depth of neutral axis,
(c) 0.87 (d) 1.50 fck is cube strength of concrete
DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023 TNPSC AE 02.07.2022
Ans. (b) : As per IS 456 : 2000 Ans. (b) : The total compressive force at time of
• For design purposes the compressive strength of failure of a concrete beam section.
concrete in the structure shall be assumed to be 0.67
times the characteristic strength.
• The partial safety factor γm = 1.5 shall be applied in
addition to this.
• Area of stress block = 0.36 fck xu
• Depth of centre of compressive force = 0.42 xu
• From the extreme fibre in compression
Where fck = Characteristics compressive strength
= Total area of stress block × Width
xu = depth of neutral axis.
= Area of rectangle + area of parabola
58. Which of the following expression is correct to
calculate the limiting moment of resistance in  3 2 4 
=  0.67f ck × x u + 0.67f ck × × x u  b
accordance with the limit state design of a  7 3 7 
singly reinforced rectangular beam? Consider 2.01 5.36
that the grade of steel is Fe500, fck = = f ck × x u b + f ck × x u b
characteristic compressive strength of concrete, 7 21
b is the width of beam and d is the effective = 0.54 fckxub
depth of beam. 62. In case of unavailability of space for providing
(a) Mu lim = 0.133 fck bd2 development length in an RCC beam which
(b) Mu, lim = 0.1498 fckbd2 option shall NOT be used to satisfy the criteria
(c) Mu, lim = 0.1573 fckbd2 of development length?
(d) Mu, lim = 0.1389 fck bd2 (a) Mechanical anchorages
DDA JE 28/03/2023 Shift-III (b) Hooks
Ans. (a) : As per IS : 456-2000, (c) Bends
Grade (xu)lim (Mu)lim (d) Chairs
Fe 250 0.53d 0.1480fck bd2 SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Fe 415 0.48d 0.138 fck bd2 Ans. (d) : In case of unavailability of space for
Fe 500 0.46 d 0.133 fck bd2 providing development length in an RCC beam–
59. Which is one of the most serviceability limit states? 1. Hooks
(a) Durability (b) Fatigue 2. Bends
(c) Deflection (d) Vibration 3. Mechanical anchorages.
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023 63. Which of the following steel reinforcement does
Ans. (c) : Deflection is one of the most important not act as a shear reinforcement in RCC
criteria considered in the SLS. Deflection refers to the beams?
deformation of structure under a load. (a) Bent up portion of longitudinal steel
60. The limit state method takes into account the (b) Stirrups inclined (at 45") to beam axis
safety______. (c) Stirrups perpendicular to beam axis
(a) at crushing load and serviceability at service loads. (d) Tension steel parallel to the beam axis
(b) at only ultimate load SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
(c) at ultimate load and serviceability at service Ans. (d) : Shear reinforcement will be necessary if the
loads.
nominal shear stress exceeds the allowable shear stress.
(d) at only serviceability at service load
• The code recommendations are–
JSSC JDLCCE JE 13/10/2023 (Gen. Engg.)
1. Shear reinforcement in the form of vertical bars,
Ans. (c) : Limit State Method :- It is makes a judicious known as stirrups.
combination of the working stress and ultimate state
method. Thus, avoiding the demerits of both. The 2. Shear reinforcement in the form of inclined bars
acceptable limit of safety and serviceability (45º).
requirements, before failure occur is called a limit state. 3. Shear reinforcement in the form of combination of
Three type of limit states are considered in the design - stirrups and inclined bars and bent up portion of
i) Strength limit state. longitudinal steel.
ii) Serviceability limit state. 64. As per IS 456:2000, the anchorage value of the
iii) Durability limit state. standard U-type hook is 'X' times of the bar in
61. The total compressive force at the time of RCC structures. The value of X is ........
failure of concrete beam section of width 'b' (a) 16 (b) 12
without considering the partial safety factor of (c) 20 (d) 8
the material is MH Latur MNC JE (Water supply) 23.02.2024
Design of Concrete Structures 463 YCT
Ans. (a) : Anchoring bars in tension– (a) 10% (b) 20% (c) 33% (d) 45%
Bends and hooks– Bends and hooks shall conform to SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
IS 2502. Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
(i) Bends– The anchorage value of bend shall be taken as 70. The maximum shear stress for the concrete
4 times the diameter of the bar for each 450 bend subject to grade of M25 is :
a maximum of 16 times the diameter of the bar. (a) 3.1 N/mm2 (b) 2.5 N/mm2
(ii) Hooks– The anchorage value of a standard U-type (c) 4.0 N/mm2 (d) 2.8 N/mm2
hook shall be equal to 16 times the diameter of the bar. MH WRD CEA 31/12/2023 Shift-I
65. Anchorage value of steel bar having dia. d and Ans. (a) : As per IS : 456-2000, Table 20
90o bend is : M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 & above
(a) 4d (b) 8d WSM 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.5
(c) 12d (d) 16d LSM 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 71. The nominal shear stress (τv) in a reinforced
Ans. (b) : concrete beam is given by :
Anchorage Extension V .b bd
Bend (a) u (b)
value (at least)
d Vu
450 4φ –
900 8φ 8φ V
(c) u (d) Vu.bd
1350 12φ 6φ bd
1800 16φ 4φ Where
Vu = Value of shear force
66. For an reinforcing bars under compression, the b = Width of beam section
average bond stress can be increased by d = Depth of beam section
(a) 35% (b) 65% (c) 50% (d) 25% DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
Ans. (c) : As per IS 456 : 2000 –
Ans. (d) : As per IS 456 : 2000 Cl. B 2.1.2, Allowable
bond stress in deformation bars may be increased by 60%
as compared to the allowable bond stress in plain bars.
• For bars in compression, the values of bond stress for
bars in tension shall be increased by 25%.
67. Shear reinforcement is provided to resist
(a) diagonal bending (b) diagonal tension b
(c) diagonal compression (d) None of these • The nominal shear stress (τv) in a reinforced concrete
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 V
beam is τv = u
Ans. (b) : Shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete bd
beam is provided to resist the diagonal tension and τv = Nominal shear stress
prevent cracking of beam. Vu = Shear force
• In the tensile zone of the beam due to shear, at or b = Width of beam section
near the supports diagonal tension, develops which d = Depth of beam section
can not be resisted by concrete alone. 72. If a R.C. beam is likely to fail in bond, then its
• Diagonal tension increase below the neutral axis bond strength can be increased most
where shear force is more and it decrease above the economically by
neutral axis. (a) Increasing the depth of beam
68. As per IS 456-2000, the development length of (b) Using thinner bars but more in numbers
each bar of bundled bars shall be that for the (c) Using thicker bars but less in numbers
individual bar, increased by 20 per cent (d) Providing vertical stirrups
for________. CHB JE (Building) 05/02/2023
(a) Two bars in contact Ans. (b) Bond strength of reinforced concrete section is
(b) Four bars in contact increased most economically by using more number of
(c) Five bars in contact thinner bars.
(d) Three bars in contact The following condition can also increased bond
DDA JE 2023 strength-
Ans. (d) : As per IS 456 : 2000, Clause 26.2.1.2 • HYSD bars or deformed bars used instead of plain
Bars bundled in contact- bars.
• The development length of each bar of bundled bars • By use of higher grade of concrete.
shall be that for the individual bar increased by 10 • Increase length of embedment, hooks or bends
percent for two bars in contact 20 percent for three bars provided.
in contact and 33 percent for four bars in contact. • Mechanical anchorage are employed.
69. The development length of each bar of bundled 73. The development length Ld is given by ____.
bars shall be increased by ____for 4 bars in where φ = nominal diameter of the bar, σs =
contact.
Design of Concrete Structures 464 YCT
 stress in the bar at the section considered at • According to IS 456: 2000 the design bond stress in
design load, and Tbd = design bond stress. limit state method for plain bars in tension–
φσs φσs Grade M2 M2 M3 M3 M40
(a) (b) of 0 5 0 5 and
4τbd τbd concret abov
4φσs σs e e
(c) (d) Design 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9
τbd 4φτbd
bond
NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-II stress
Ans. (a) : Bond Stress :- It is achieved by the (N/mm2)
development of tangential (shear) stress components Note–
along the interface (contact surface) between the (1) For deformed bar, these values shall be increased
reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete. The stress by 60%.
so developed at the interface is called bond stress and is (2) For bars in compression, the values of bond stress
expressed in terms of the tangential force per unit for bars in tension shall be increased by 25%.
nominal surface area of the reinforcing bar.
76. Design bond stress in limit state method (LSM)
φσst for plain bars in tension for M25 grade of
Ld = concrete is ..........
4τbd
(a) 1.4 N/mm2 (b) 1.8 N/mm2
where, τbd = bond stress (c) 1.2 N/mm 2
(d) 1.6 N/mm2
Ld = development length ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
φ = dia of bar Ans. (a) : As per Is 456 : 2000, Clause 22.2.1.1,
design bond stresses in limit state method for plain
bars in tension shall be as :
Grade M 40
of M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 and
74. The effective moment of inertia Ie of a cracked concrete above
section in RC beam is : Design
(a) Always less than MI of fully cracked and bond
gross uncracked section stress 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9
(b) Always more than MI of fully cracked and (τbd,
less than gross uncracked section N/mm2)
(c) Always more than MI of fully cracked and Note–
gross uncracked section (i) For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786 these
(d) Always equal to the MI of fully cracked values shall be increased 60 percent.
section (ii) For bars in compression, the values of bond stress
ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024 for bars in tension shall be increased by 25 percent.
Ans. (b) : The effective moment of inertia Ic of a 77. As per IS: 456-2000, what is recommended
cracked section in RC beam is always more than MI of value of design bond stress for plain bars in
fully cracked and less than gross uncracked section. tension for M 20 grade of concrete?
This is because the presence of cracks reduces the (a) 1.7 N/mm2 (b) 1.2 N/mm2
stiffness of the section, resulting in a smaller MI (c) 1.5 N/mm 2
(d) 1.4 N/mm2
compared to the fully uncracked section, but still
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
longer than the fully cracked section.
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
75. The value of average bond stress τbd depends
78. According to IS : 456-2000, Which of the
on_________. following equations is CORRECT for a one
(a) Steel strength and Area of bar way slab considering its ratio of longer span
(b) Concrete strength and Area of bar (Ly) to shorter span (Lx) ?
(c) Concrete strength and Steel strength (a) Ly/Lx > 2 (b) Ly/Lx < 2
(d) Concrete strength and type of bar (c) Ly/Lx > 3 (d) Ly/Lx = 3
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning) SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (d) : Design bond stress–Bond stress is the Ans. (a) : Aspect ratio– It is defined as ratio between
result of the bonding between the concrete surface and longer span (Ly) of the slab to shorter span (Lx) of the
the reinforcement steel.
L
• It varies depending upon the concrete and types of slab, Aspect ratio = y
reinforcement. Lx
• It plane rounded steel is used as reinforcement then • Types of slab based on aspect ratio
the bond stress will be less, if the same concrete is For one-way slab
used with HYSD steel as reinforcement then the bond Ly
stress is higher. >2
• The bond between steel and concrete is mainly due Lx
to pure adhesion resistance, frictional resistance, and For two-way slab
mechanical resistance.
Design of Concrete Structures 465 YCT
 Ly 83. What should be the minimum percentage of mild
≤2 steel reinforcement in either direction in slabs?
Lx (a) 0.15% of total cross sectional area
79. A reinforced concrete slab must be designed as (b) 0.10% of total cross sectional area
_______ in order to develop complete the yield (c) 0.20% of total cross sectional area
line pattern (d) 0.25% of total cross sectional area
(a) under reinforced (b) over reinforced RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023
(c) shear reinforced (d) balanced reinforced Ans. (a) : The minimum reinforcement (Ast)min in either
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III direction in slabs is given by
Ans. (a) : It is important to note that for complete yield 0.0015 Ag for Fe450
line pattern to develop the slab must be under reinforced (As t )min = 
so that sufficient rotation capacity is available for the 0.0012 Ag for Fe415
initiation and propagation of the yield lines. Where,
Ag - Gross area of the section (b×D)
Note– In the design of one-way slabs, this minimum
reinforcement is also to be provided for the secondary
reinforcement along the direction perpendicular to the
main reinforcement.
Yield line pattern in a simply supported slab 84. According to IS :456-2000. in a R.C.C slab the
80. Which section of reinforced concrete structure diameter of reinforcing bars should NOT
typically does NOT experience moment exceed
reduction due to moment redistribution? (a) one half of the total thickness of the slab
(a) continuous slab (b) Slab (b) one fourth of the total thickness of the slab
(c) Beam (d) Flat slabs (c) one eight of the total thickness of the slab
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I (d) one sixteenth of the total thickness of the slab
Ans. (a) : Considerable experimental evidence shows JKSSB JE (Civil) 20/03/2022
that a satisfactory design can be obtained on the basis of Ans. (c) : As per IS 456 : 2000 Clause 26.5.2.2, the
reasonably small adjustments to the elastic bending diameter of reinforcing bars shall not exceed one eight
moment distribution. of the total thickness of the slab.
• Continuous slab typically does not experience moment 85. According to IS 456-2000, When HYSD bars
reduction due to moment distribution. Moment are used, the minimum reinforcement in either
redistribution refers to the behaviour of statically direction of slabs is :
indeterminate structures that are not completely elastic (a) 0.25% of the total gross sectional area
but have some reserve plastic capacity. (b) 0.80% of the total gross sectional area
81. What should be the minimum thickness of a (c) 0.35% of the total gross sectional area
flat slab in any case? (d) 0.12% of the total gross sectional area
(a) 120 mm (b) 125 mm UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
(c) 130 mm (d) 140 mm Ans. (d) : Minimum reinforcement in slab– The mild
PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024 steel reinforcement in either direction in slabs shall not
Ans. (b) : As per IS 456 : 2000 Cl. 31.2.1 be less than 0.15 percent of the cross-sectional area.
• The minimum thickness of slab shall be 125 mm. However this value can be reduced to 0.12 percent
• The thickness of the flat slab shall be generally controlled when high strength deformed bars or welded wire fabric
by considerations of span to effective depth ratio. are used.
• The panels shall be rectangular and the ratio of the 86. As per IS 456 the maximum diameter of
longer span to the shorter span within a panel shall reinforcement bar in slab of overall thickness
not be greater than 2.0. ‘t’ should not be more than _______
82. The pitch of the main bars in a simply (a) t/5 (b) t/6
supported slab, should not exceed its effective (c) t/7 (d) t/8
depth by GPSC AAE (GMC) 19/09/2021
(a) Six times (b) Four times Ans. (d) : According to IS 456 : the maximum diameter
(c) Three times (d) Five times of the bar should be exceed one-eight the total thickness
RRC WR GDCE ALP/Technician 21.06.2023 of slab.
Ans. (c) : As per IS : 456-2000, Clause 26.3.3, • According to IS 456 : The minimum steel bars in
• The horizontal distance between parallel main footing should be as in RC slab : 0.15 percent for Fe
reinforcement bars shall not more than three times 250 and 0.12 percent for Fe 415.
the effective depth of solid slab or 300 mm 87. As per IS 456 : 2000, for 2 way slabs, with
whichever is smaller. shorter span (less than 3.5m) and imposed load
• The horizontal distance between parallel less than 3 kN/m2, the span to overall depth
reinforcement bars provided against shrinkage and ratio of continuous slabs, with mild steel
temperature shall not be more than five times the reinforcement is:
effective depth of a solid slab or 450 mm (a) 35 (b) 28
whichever is smaller. (c) 40 (d) 32
DSSSB AE 28.11.2022 Morning
Design of Concrete Structures 466 YCT
 Ans. (c) : As per IS 456 : 2000 Clause 24.1 - Ans. (b) : Minimum number of bars for
• For two-way slabs of shorter spans (upto 3.5) with reinforcement–
mild steel reinforcement the span to overall depth For rectangular column – 4
ratios given below may generally be assumed to For circular column – 6
satisfy vertical deflection limit for loading class upto 3 For octagonal column – 8
kN/m3.
Types of reinforcement 92. As per IS : 456, spacing of longitudinal bars
Type of measured along the periphery of the column
slab mild
Fe 415 shall not exceed
steel
Simply 35 28 (a) 200 mm (b) 400 mm
supported (c) 300 mm (d) 150 mm
Continuous 40 32 SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
88. The upper limit on percentage longitudinal Ans. (c) : As per IS : 456-2000, 26.5.3.1, a reinforced
reinforcement in an RCC column has been concrete column having helical reinforcement shall
kept in mind to serve which of the given have at least six bar of longitudinal reinforcement
option? within helical reinforcement.
(a) To limit the size of the column • The spacing of longitudinal bar measured along the
(b) To limit the ductility of the column periphery of the column should not exceed 300 mm.
(c) To cater easy placement and compaction of
concrete in the column 93. As per IS 13920-2016, minimum dimension of a
(d) To stop buckling of the column column shall be
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I (a) 300 mm (b) 200 mm
Ans. (c) : The upper limit on percentage longitudinal (c) 250 mm (d) 400 mm
reinforcement in an RCC column has been kept in mind AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
to serve to cater easy placement and compaction of Ans. (b) : As per IS 13920-2016, Cl. 7.1.2- The
concrete in the column. minimum dimensions of the member shall not be less
• The minimum reinforcement is 0.8% and maximum than 200 mm. However, in frames which have beams
reinforcement is 6% of the gross sectional area. with centre to centre span exceeding 5 m or columns of
89. When both ends of a column are restrained by unsupported length exceeding 4 m, the shortest
beams, the unsupported length should not dimension of the column shall not be less than 300 mm.
exceed 94. The limit of percentage of longitudinal
(a) 60 B (b) 60 D reinforcement in a column (where reinforcing
(c) 100 B2 D (d) 100 D2 B bars from the columns below, are to be
(e) Answer not known overlapped with those in columns under
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 construction) is given by
Ans. (a) : According to the IS 456:2000 (a) 0.15 to 2% (b) 0.8 to 4%
• Clause 25.3.1 said that the unsupported length (c) 0.8 to 6% (d) 0.8 to 8%
between end restraints shall not exceed 60B.
MH Nagar Parishad JE (Civil) 24/11/2023
where B → least lateral dimension of a column.
If one end of a column is unrestrained, its unsupported Ans. (b) : Minimum longitudinal reinforcement–
Column – 0.8% of gross cross section area.
100B2
• Length shall not exceed Maximum longitudinal reinforcement–
D • It is 6% of gross cross-sectional area of the column.
90. Into how many categories are columns • It can be reduced to 4% at lapped splice locations for
categorized ? better placement and compaction.
(a) Five (b) Two
(c) Three (d) Four Note– Minimum diameter of longitudinal bar = 12 mm
PGCIL DT 08/02/2024 • Minimum number of bars–
Ans (b) : Types of column- (i) For rectangular columns = 4
1. Short Column (ii) For circular column = 6
when λ<12 95. As per IS 456-2000, minimum longitudinal
2. long Column reinforcement in a rectangular column should be
when λ > 12 (a) 0.8% of cross sectional area
Where, λ = Slenderness Ratio (λ = effective (b) 4 bars of 12 mm
length/least column dimension) (c) Greater of (a) and (b)
91. Minimum number of longitudinal bars in (d) Lesser of (a) and (b)
R.C.C. column shall be ................. in UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-I
rectangular column and ............... in circular Ans. (c) : Design requirement for columns–
column. As per IS 456 : 2000
(a) Six, four (b) Four, six (i) The cross-section area of longitudinal reinforcement
(c) Four, four (d) Six, six shall not be less than 0.8% and not more than 6% of
SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024 the gross cross-sectional area of the column.
Design of Concrete Structures 467 YCT
(ii) Minimum number of longitudinal bars to be (a) 0.65 L (b) 1.00 L
provided is 4 for rectangular columns and 6 for (c) 1.50 L (d) 0.80 L
circular columns. DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
(iii) Minimum diameter of longitudinal bars is 12 mm. Ans. (a) : As per IS : 456-2000, Clause E-3, Table
(iv) Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the
28- Effective length of compression member -
periphery of the column shall not exceed 300 mm.
(v) The nominal cover for longitudinal bars shall not Degree of end Theoretical Recommend
be less than 40 mm, or less than the diameter of restraint of value of ed value of
such bar. compression effective effective
96. The diameter of longitudinal bars in a column member length length
should not be less than Effectively held in 0.5ℓ 0.65ℓ
(a) 8 mm (b) 10 mm position and
(c) 12 mm (d) 16 mm restrained against
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 rotation in both ends
Ans. (c) : Longitudinal reinforcement in column– As Effectively held in
per IS 456 : 2000 cl 26.5.3.1, in column the bars shall position at both 0.70 ℓ 0.80 ℓ
not be less than 12 mm in diameter ends, restrained
• Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the against rotation at
periphery of the column shall not exceed 300 mm. one end
• A reinforcement column having helical reinforcement Effectively held in
shall have at least six bars of longitudinal reinforcement position at both ends, 1.0 ℓ 1.0 ℓ
within the helical reinforcement. but not restrained
97. For longitudinal reinforcement, a reinforced against rotation.
concrete column having helical reinforcement Effectively held in
shall have atleast _____. position and 1.0 ℓ 1.2 ℓ
(a) six bars (b) four bars restrained against
(c) two bars (d) eight bars rotation at one end,
DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023 and at the other
Ans. (a) : As per IS : 456-2000, 26.5.3.1- restrained against
A reinforced concrete column having helical rotation but not
reinforcement shall have at least six bar of longitudinal held in position.
reinforcement within helical reinforcement. Effectively held in
• The spacing of longitudinal bar measured along the position and - 1.50 ℓ
periphery of the column should not exceed 300 mm.
restrained against
98. Cross sectional width and depth of a column, rotation in one end,
to resist the direct stress, is b and D,
and at the other
respectively. If the effective depth of the
columns is d then, According to IS 456:2000, partially restrained
the minimum area of longitudinal against rotation but
reinforcement in the column shall be: not held in position.
(a) 0.008bd (b) 0.006bD Effectively held in
(c) 0.008bD (d) 0.006bd position at one end 2.0 ℓ 2.0 ℓ
NBCC JE 09/05/2022 but not restrained
Ans. (c) : Cross sectional width and depth of a column, against rotation,
to resist the direct stress, is b and D, respectively. If and at the other end
the effective depth of the columns is d then, According restrained against
to IS 456:2000, the minimum area of longitudinal
rotation but not
reinforcement in the column shall be 0.008bD.
held in position.
99. The IS 456-2000 recommended value of the
effective length of an RCC compression Effectively held in
member having unsupported length L shown in position and 2.0 ℓ 2.0 ℓ
the figure, effectively held in position and restrained against
restrained rotation in both ends is: rotation at one end
but not held in
position nor
restrained against
rotation at the other
end.

Design of Concrete Structures 468 YCT

 (v) ISHB - IS heavy beam (used for column)
STRUCTURAL STEEL (vi) ISSC - IS column section
It is used for the manufacture of rolled steel sections. 2. Rolled steel channels sections-
It is classified as mild steel and high tensile steel of It consist one web and two flanges. The channel
weldable quality (As per IS : 2062) considered for section are commonly used as members subjected
the design. to axial compression in the shape of built-up
Advantages of steel structures- section of two channels connected by lattice or
batten plates.
• High strength per unit mass. (i) ISJC - IS junior channel
• Suitable for long span. (ii) ISLC - IS light channel
• It can be easily fabricated and produced massively. (iii) ISMC - IS medium weight channel (sloping
• It may be reusable. flange)
• Long life and high scrap value. (iv) ISMCP -IS medium weight channel (Parallel Flange)
• Steel members are gas and water tight, because of 3. Rolled Steel Angle Section-
high density. It is used as construction elements for connecting
beams to the columns, and purlins to the chords of
Physical properties of structural steel - trusses in the capacity of beam seats, stiffening ribs
Yield stress (fy) 220 - 240 N/mm2 and cleat angles.
Ultimate tensile strength 1.2 fy (i) ISA - Indian standard equal leg angle
Density (ρ) 7850 kg/m3 (ii) ISA - Indian standard unequal leg angle
Elongation (low carbon steel) 20% (iii) ISBA - IS bulb angle (Mostly used in ship
5 buildings)
Shear Modulus (G) 0.769 × 10 or 0.4 E 4. Rolled Steel T-section-
Poisson's Ratio (µ)- The tee sections are used to transmit bracket loads
(i) Elastic range 0.25 - 0.33 ≃ 0.30 to the column, and also to connect the plate with
(ii) Plastic range flat strip in a rectangular tank.
0.50 (i) ISNT - Indian standard normal T- bar
Permissible Stresses in steel members- (ii) ISLT - IS light T- bar
(iii) ISJT - IS junior T - bar
Type of Stress Permissible Factor of safety- (iv) ISHT- IS wide flange T- bar
stress (MPa)  yield stress (f y )  (v) ISST - IS long leg T- bar
 
 Working stress  Note:-
Axial compressive & 0.6 fy 1.67 ISPG - IS gate channel.
tensile stress By ISLB-300, maximum bending stress is resisted
by flange & maximum shear stress by web.
Max. bending stress in 0.66 fy 1.515 5. Rolled steel tube-
compression and tension It is available in the forms of light, medium and
Shear stress heavy section.
τv avg. 0.4 fy 2.5 It is used as column, strut or tension member in
τv max. 0.45 fy 2.22 tubular trusses.
It has equal radius of gyration in all direction.
Bearing stress (σb) 0.75 fy 1.33 6. Rolled steel bar-
Stress in slab base 185 - The rolled steel bars are used as ties and lateral
bracing.
TYPES OF SECTION (i) ISRO - Indian standard round bar
1. Rolled steel Section( Beam section) (ii) ISSQ - Indian standard square bar
The rolled steel beam are mainly employed to Note-
resist bending. They are also used in the built up If dia. of steel bar - φ ≤ 6 mm - called wire.
sections of columns. And if - φ > 6 mm - called bar
(i) ISJB-Indian standard junior beams(used in purlin) 7. Rolled steel flat-
(ii) ISLB - IS light weight beams (used in beam) Flat is used in the design of lacing (in built up
(iii) ISMB - IS medium weight beams (used in floor members), batten and tension member. It is also
beams and most appropriate for steel girder.) used as ties.
(iv) ISWB - IS wide flange beams (used in column.) Width of flat ≤ 400 mm
Design of Steel Structures 469 YCT
8. Rolled steel plate and sheet IS Codes
Plate - Width ≥ 900 mm These are the codes which can be referred during
Sheet - Thickness < 5 mm design of steel structures.
Use-Shells, Rectangular and circular steel tank and IS : 800 : 2007 - Code of practice for general
steel chimneys. construction in steel.
IS : 802 Part-2 : 1978 - Code of practice for use of
GRADES OF STEEL structural steel in overhead transmission towers -
Specified yield strength may be treated as fabrication, galvanizing, inspection and packing.
characteristic strength (N/mm2). IS : 806 : 1968 - Code of practice for use of steel
Mild steel (Fe 250)– Less commonly used because tubes in general building construction.
of their low strength. IS : 808 : 1989 - Dimension for hot rolled steel
HYSD (High yield strength deformed) bars. Fe 415, beam, column, channel and angle sections.
Fe 500, Fe 550, Fe 550. IS : 814 : 2004 - Covered electrodes for manual
TMT Bars– Thermo mechanically treat (TMT) metal arc welding of carbon and carbon manganese
steel specification.
Inner core– Soft and ductile
IS : 816 : 1969 - Code of practice for use of metal
Outer core– Very high tensile strength. arc welding for general construction in mild steel.
In steel, IS : 1161 : 1998 - Specification for steel tubes for
Carbon content ↑ ∝ Strength↑ ∝ Hardness↑ structural purpose.
1 1 CONNECTION
∝ ∝
Ductility Toughness
Types of steel % carbon
RIVET CONNECTION
Low carbon steel <0.15 % Rivet-
Medium carbon steel 0.31% - 0.60% Rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener made of
short metal pin with flat head that is used to fasten
High carbon steel (hard steel) 0.61% - 1.7% the metal pieces with each other. Generally rivet is
STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS made of high tensile steel or wrought iron.
The characteristic strength of steel is taken as the Rivet size is denoted by diameter of shank.
minimum yield stress or 0.2% proof stress specified
by various Indian standard.
In the case of HYSD bars it is taken as equal to
0.2% of proof stress.
In the case of mild steel it is taken as equal to
minimum yield strength.
Yield strength : It is stress shown by a specific
point on the curve obtained by drawing 0.2% offset
of the strain parallel to the initial elastic portion of Classification of rivet section
the curve. 1. According to shape of head
Fatigue strength : The fatigue strength is defined as
the stress at which steel fails under repeated
applications of load.
Impact strength : It is the measure of ability of the
steel to absorb energy at high rates of loading.
Types of Loads on structure-
(i) Dead loads (IS : 875-1987 part -I)
(ii) Live loads or imposed load (IS : 875-1987 Part - II)
(iii) Wind load (IS : 875 : 1987 Part -III)
(iv) Snow load (IS : 475 : 1987 Part -IV)
(v) Design load (IS 875 : 1987 Part-V) other than
earthquake load.
(vi) Seismic load (IS : 1893-1984)
(vii) Temperature effects
Design wind speed (VZ)-
VZ = Vb K1K 2 K 3
VZ = Design wind speed at a height Z min m/s.
Vb = Basic wind speed as given in code.
K1 = Probability factor or risk coefficient.
K2 = Height and structure size factor
K3 = Topography factor. Snap head rivets are preferred in structures.
Design of Steel Structures 470 YCT
 Counter shank head rivets are preferred in aircraft or Formula used for Nominal diameter-
automobile industries. Unwin's formula
d = 6.05 t mm
Strength Order-
Hand driven rivets < Power driven rivets. d = 1.91 t cm
Power driven field rivets < power driven shop rivets.
Rivets can be formed manually with an ordinary French formula d =1.5t + 4 mm
hammer. German formula
In hot riveting, shank of the rivet is subjected to d = 50t − 2 mm
shear stress and tensile stress. Where, t = Thickness of plate
In cold riveting, shank of the rivet is subjected to Pitch-
shear stress only. It is the c/c distance between any two adjacent rivets
Permissible stresses in rivets- measured parallel to the direction of applied force.
Max. permissible stresses in rivet and bolts Important Terminology related to rivet
(property class 4.6 of IS : 1367 - 1967)- connection-
Type of Rivet Axial Shear Beari Gauge Distance between two adjacent rows
tension (MPa) ng distance of rivets measured to the direction of
(MPa) (MPa) force
1. Power driven Gauge/ back It is an imaginary parallel line along
a. Shop rivets 100 100 300 line which rivets are placed along the
b. Field rivets 90 90 270 direction of force.
Edge Distance between the edge of a
2. Hand driven rivets 80 80 250
distance member or cover plate and the
3. Close to clearance 120 100 300 centre of the nearest rivet hole
turned holes Edge/end The distance between the center of
4. Bolt in hole 120 80 250 distance end rivet to the edge of plate in
clearance perpendicular direction of force is
2. According to place of fastening and use of power called end distance.
(i) Hand driven rivet (i) For hand flame cutting or rough
(ii) Power driven field rivet edge ≮ 1.7 d'
Rivet is heated and then applied in the field (ii) For machine flame cutting or
(iii) Power driven shop rivet smooth edge ≮ 1.5 d'
Note- Note-
Shop rivets are stronger than field rivets. If shank area considered then designs will be
Strength cold driven rivet is higher than hot driven economical.
rivet. If net area considered then designs will be safe.
Permissible stress for power driven filed rivet = 90% 5
Thickness of cover plate= times of main plate
of the power driven shop rivets. 8
IS : 1929-1982 & IS : 2155-1982 as appropriate for thickness.
rivets. Type of riveted joints-
IS : 1149-1982 is related to high tensile steel rivet. Lap joint-
Nominal diameter of rivet (d)- The joints between two members in which the ends/
It is the diameter of the shank of a rivet before edge are overlapped together to produced continuous
riveting. surface is called lap joint .
For a bolt the nominal diameter is same as the gross
diameter.
Effective or gross rivet diameter (d')-
Dia. of rivet or rivet hole after riveting is called
gross diameter of rivets.
Strength of rivet based on gross diameter.
D, is slightly more than dia. of nominal rivet. 4t thinner
For nominal dia ≤ 25 mm- Minimum lap ≮ maximum of
40mm
d' = d + 1.5 mm Butt Joint-
For nominal dia > 25 mm- If two members are placed end to end lie in the same
plane and joined together by two cover plates then
d' = d + 2 mm
this types of joint is called butt joint.
Design of Steel Structures 471 YCT
 4. Bearing failure of plates-
This type of failure occurs generally due to
insufficient end plates.

B. Failure of Rivet-
1. Shearing 2. Bearing
Difference b/w lap joint and butt joint- 1. Shear failure of rivets-
Lap joint Butt Joint In a shearing failure, rivet gets cut into two or more
Cover plate is not required Cover plate is required pieces.
Single shear occurs in lap joint while double shear in
butt joint.
Rivets undergo single Generally two way 2. Bearing failure of rivets-
shear shear occurs in butt In a bearing failure, rivet cross section changes from
joint. circular to elliptical.
Shank length is less Shank length is more. Rivet is crushed around the half circumference.
Axis of plates do not lie in Load at the joint is not
a line so bending moment eccentric
developed at the joint due
to eccentricity
Bending stress may be Bending stress are not
developed. developed.
Note-
Types of failure in rivet and plate joint Shearing and bearing strength of rivets > Tearing
system- strength of rivets.
A. Failure of plate- In the design of riveted joint shearing and bearing
failure of rivets and tearing failure of plates are
1. Shearing 2. Bearing 3. Splitting 4. Tearing considered.
It is due to failure of insufficient end distance Failure of plates occurred due to insufficient end
1. Shear failure of plates- distance.
Cracks are developed parallel to the direction of Strength of Riveted/Bolted joint-
applied force direction. Shearing π 2
It can be avoided by keeping the margin, m=1.5d strength In single shear- Ps = τ vf × × d'
4
π 2
In double shear- Ps = 2.τ vf × × d'
4
Bearing strength Pb = n.( d' × t ). σb
Tearing of plate Pt = σt.(p – d').t
2. Tension /Tearing failure of plates-
Tearing failure occurs when the rivets are stronger Rivet value Rv = Min. of (Pb or Ps)
than the plates. Efficiency of Min.strength of joint p − d ,
joint η= =
The cracks are developed perpendicular to the Strength of solid plate p
direction of applied force. Number of rivet Force
n=
Rivet value
Strength of solid P = p.d. σt
plate
Strength of joint Min. of ( Pb, Pt or Ps
3. Splitting of plates- Where,
τvf = Allowable shear stress in rivets
Splitting failure occur due to diagonal tension in the
d' = Effective diameter of the rivets
plate at the rivet level.
σb = Allowable bearing stress in the rivets
σt = Allowable tensile stress in plate
p = Pitch
t = Thickness of thinner plate
NOTE- As per I.S: 800, for having minimum pitch
η = 60%
Design of Steel Structures 472 YCT
 b −d' BOLT CONNECTION
Efficiency of joint, ηdiamond = Types of bolt
b
Where, b = Width of plate High It is used in structures such as high raised
d' = Rivet dia. Strength building, bridges, machines etc.
Note- bolts • Bolt size - 16 to 36 mm.
Minimum width of diamond riveted section = 3d' High The joint using HSFG bolts is called no-
For staggered pitch, pitch values in chain system is Strength slip connection/slip critical connection or
increased by 50%. Friction friction type connection.
Tack rivets- Grip • It provides a rigid joint.
It is used to make the sections act in unison, and to (HSFG) • No stress concentration in the bolts and
prevent buckling in compression members where therefore, the fatigue strength is more.
two or more members are in contact. Waisted (Shank dia. < 0.9 times the roof dia. of
Maximum pitch of tacking rivet/bolt in case of- shank bolt shank)
(i) Tension member ≯ 1000 mm • Preferred when the bolts are subjected
(ii) Compression member ≯ 600 mm to cyclic bending.
Members are not exposed to weather- Ribbed bolts It's more resistance to vibrations as
maximum pitch between any two adjacent rivets (fluted bolts) compared to ordinary bolts.
• Permissible stresses for ribbed bolts
32 t
(including tacking rivets) >/ Min. of  are same as that for rivets.
300 mm Turned bolts These bolts have high shear and
Member are exposed to weather- bearing resistance as compared to
unfinished bolts.
16 t
Min. of  • Specification for turned bolts are given
 200 mm IS : 2591 - 1982.
• In case of angle if leg size is > 125 mm provide two Interference They can be installed with ordinary
rows of tack rivet/bolting. bolts spud wrenches are used for structures
• In case web of channel > 150 mm provide two rows of like towers masts etc.
tack rivet/bolting. Black bolt/Ordinary bolt/Unfinished bolts-
Pitch of rivet It is the least expensive bolts, used for light
Minimum pitch for rivet joint- ≮ 2.5d structures subjected to static loads and for secondary
members such as purlins, bracings etc.
Maximum pitch of rivet joint in case of- It is not recommended for connections subjected to
16 t impact load, vibration and fatigue. '
1. Tension member ⊁ Min. of  The bolts are available from 5 mm to 36 mm in
 200 mm diameter and designated as M-5 to M-36.
12 t M-16 bolt of grade 4.6 it means-
2. Compression member ⊁ Min. of  M-16
 200 mm
16 mm size of nominal diameter of bolt.
(100 + 4 t) 4.6 means-
3. Gauge length (g) ≯ Min. of 
 200 mm. (i) Ultimate strength of bolt (fub) = 400 MPa
4. When the members are exposed to corrosion, then (ii) Yield strength of bolt (fyb) = 0.6 fub = 240 MPa
maximum edge distance ≯ (40mm + 4t). Nominal dia. of bolt (dn) Dia. of hole (mm)
where t = thickness of external thinner plate (mm)
Note- 12 dn + 1
When fasteners (rivets) are staggered at equal 13
interval and gauge does not exceed at 75 mm then 16
spacing or pitches between centers of rivets (point 1, dn + 2
2 and 3 )may be increased by 50%. 20
24
 24t 30
• Pitch in tension ≯ min of  dn + 3
300mm 36
18t Note-
• Pitch in compression ≯ min of  Bolts are most suitable to carry axial tension.
300mm
Note-
Slip Factor
The permissible stress in rivet under wind and Coefficient of friction in friction type joint is known
earthquake load condition as per IS : 800 can be as slip factor.
increased by 25%. Proof load
When thickness of cover plate is not given, then Initial tension in high strength friction grip (HSFG)
tcover plate ≮ 5/8 tmain (thinner). bolts is known as proof load of the bolt.
Design of Steel Structures 473 YCT
 Reduction factor in shear for large grip Throat thickness-
length (βlg)- It is the shortest distance from the root of the filled
When the grip length of a bolt increases, the bolt is weld to the face of the hypotenuse.
subjected to a greater bending moment due to shear Throat thickness = k × size of weld
forces acting on its shank. or t = k×s
Shear capacity of the bolt is reduced If, Total
thickness > 5 times nominal dia. of bolt It is depend upon
(i) Size of weld
8d (ii) Angle between fusion faces.
βlg = Where lg is grip length
3d + lg Fillet weld should not be used if the angle between
Reduction factor in shear for long joint fusion faces is less than 60° and greater than 120°.
for 0.75 ≤ βlj ≤ 1.0 Values of 'k' for different angles-
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
lj Angle b/w 60 -90 91 -100 101 -106 107 -113 114 -120
βlj = 1.075 fusion faces
200d Constant (k) 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50
Reduction factor for packing plates- When the cross-section of fillet weld is 450,
βpk = (1 − 0.0125t pk ) isosceles triangle is known as a standard fillet weld.
Where tpk = thickness of thicker packing plates. Sizeof fillet
For 45º fillet, = 2 :1
Note- Throat thickness
βlg ≯ βlj. Where, βlj = Reduction factor of long joint.
When the cross-section of the fillet weld is 300 and
lg ≤ 8d
600 triangle, it is known as a special fillet weld.
WELD CONNECTION a= Nominal design throat thickness
Welded joints- S= Effective design throat thickness
When two structural members are joined by means b= Horizontal leg length
of welds the connection is called a welded joint.
c= Vertical leg length
Temperature range for fusion 1450-1500°C.
Advantage of welded connection - Permissible Stress in welds-
1. Welded structure are lighter than riveted structures. Type of stress Permissible stress
2. Welded connection has a greater strength, (N/mm2)
sometimes equal to the strength of the parent metal Tension or compression on section 150
itself. through throat of butt weld
3. Repairing and further new connections can be done Bending stress in tension or 165
more easily than in riveting. compression
4. Welded joints are economical than riveted joints.
5. Better finish than riveted joints and lesser time Shear on section through throat of 108
consuming butt or fillet weld
Metal arc welding- Plug weld 108
The arc is shielded in order to protect molten metal Types of fillet weld-
from air either gas, vapor or slag only.
Types of weld joint-
(A) Fillet Weld-
Fillet welding refers to the process of joining to
pieces of metal together when members to be jointed
are in different plane (Perpendicular at an angle)
Fillet weld is also termed as concave fillet weld or
convex fillet weld or mitre fillet weld depending on
the weld face in concave or convex or approximately
flat.
It is used when the members to be jointed (i) Diagonal Fillet weld-
overlapped and each other. Its axis of weld is inclined to the direction of the
Strength of fillet weld ≥ main member jointed applied load.
Shear stresses are developed in fillet weld joint.
The gap between web plates and flange plates for
fillet welds ≯ 1.5 mm.
Full fillet weld is a weld where the size of weld is
same as the thickness of the thinner object jointed
together.
Design is done only for shear in fillet weld.
Size of deep penetration fillet weld is specified as
minimum ( Leg length + 2.4 mm).
Design of Steel Structures 474 YCT
(ii) End/Transverse fillet Weld- • Min. Length of end welds-
It is defined as the fillet weld placed at the ends of L1 ≮ 2s
member such that it is perpendicular to the direction
of applied load. s = size of weld
The transverse fillet welds are designed for shear Effective length of fillet weld,
strength. le = L – 2.s
(iii) Side fillet weld- It depends upon the size of weld and ≮ 4.s
Fillet weld whose axis is parallel to the direction of Minimum size-
applied load is known as side fillet weld. Size of fillet welds ≮ 3 mm. It depends upon the
thickness of thicker plate.
If thickness is not given then we assume size of
weld, s = 3 mm.

Thickness of thicker Minimum size of weld

plate (mm) (mm)
0 - 10 3
11 - 20 5
21 - 32 6
(iv) Intermittent fillet weld/Discontinuous weld/Pitch 33 - 50 8 first run
of welds- 10 for fillet size
It is used when the length of the smallest size fillet Maximum size of weld-
weld required to transmit stress is less than the It depends upon the thickness of thinner plate.
continuous length of the joint. (i) For square edge- s = (t – 1.5 mm)
4s 3
Effective length , le ≮ min. of  (ii) For rounded edge- s = .t or 0.75t
40mm 4
where t = thickness of thinner plate.
Clear spacing-
Strength of fillet weld-
≤ 12t or 200mm (for compression)
 P = ps × le × t
≤ 16t or 200mm (for tension)
(v) Plug and slot weld- ps = Permissible stress
An addition welds provided when sufficient welding le = Effective length

length is not available along the edges of the t = Throat thickness (t = k.s.)
members is called plug weld. Fu
In plug weld small holes are made in a plate & is P= LSM
3 × 1.25
kept over another plate to be connected and then
entire hole is filled with filler material. (1.25 for shop weld and 1.5 for field weld)
Plug and slot welds are designed for shear stress Max. Pitch of weld-
acting at throat, (i) In compression zone, 12 t or 200 mm.
In slot weld fillet welding is made along the (ii) In tension zone, 16 t or 200 mm.
periphery of hole. Method for inspecting welds-
3t (i) Magnetic Particle Method.
Minimum width of slot ≮ min.of  (ii) Dye Penetration method.
 25mm (iii) Ultrasonic method.
Strength of plug or slot weld = Permissible stress × (iv) Radiography.
cross - sectional area at throat (B) Butt welds-
Plug welds are not designed to carry loads. Size of the butt weld is specified by the effective
It is provided to prevent buckling or separation of throat thickness that is the thickness of thinner part
the parts. joint for complete penetration of butt weld.
Design criteria for fillet weld- Butt weld is usually designed for direct tension or
• Lap length l ≮ 5t1 compression.
tt = thickness of thinner plate Effective throat thickness-
(i) For complete penetration- taken as equal to the
• Longitudinal side fillet weld-
(i) Length of longitudinal side fillet weld– thickness of thinner plate (t)
(ii) For Incomplete penetration- ⊁ 5/8.t
L≮d
minimum length - 4.s
(ii) Distance b/w longitudinal side fillet weld–
Size of a butt weld is specified by effective throat
d ≯ 16tt thickness.
Design of Steel Structures 475 YCT
 Strength of butt weld- PIN CONNECTION
P = ( l.t ) f t WSM Pins are manufactured from mild steel bars with
diameters ranging from 9 to 330 mm. Pin
where l = Effective length connections are provided when hinged joints are
ft = Permissible tensile stress required i.e. for the connection where zero moment
t = Effective throat thickness (mm) or free rotation is desired.
f yw1.L w .t e When two structural members are connected by
Vdw = LSM means of a cylindrical shaped pin, the connection is
γ mw
called a pin connection.
Reinforcement- Pin hole surface smooth frictionless.
If the thickness of but weld is kept at least 1 mm Pins are provided in the followings cases :
more than the thickness of plate is called Tie rod connections in water tanks and elevated
reinforcement. pins.
Partial safety factor for materials (γm)- Truss bridge girders.
Resistance governed by Partial Safety factor Hinged arches.
yielding (γmy) 1.10
1.10
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER
buckling (γmb)
ultimate stress (γmu) 1.25 A structural member subjected to two pulling
(tensile) forces applied at its ends is called a tension
Resistance of connection Shop Field
member.
fabrications fabrications
The best tension member section will be as double
Bolts-friction type (γmf) 1.25 1.25
angle section on back to back gusset plate.
Bolts-bearing type (γmb) 1.25 1.25
Various forms of tension members and their
Rivets (γmr) 1.25 1.25 use-
Welds (γmw) 1.25 1.50 Tension Use
Defects of weld- member
Defect Causes Wires It is used for hoisting purposes and
Incomplete Weld metal does not extend to the as wires in steel stacks and towers.
penetration entire depth into the joint. Cables Cables are used in suspension
Cause- Low pre-heat, short arc length, bridges.
Low amperage etc. Bars It is used in bracing system, as sag
Incomplete Failure of the base metal to get rods to support purlins b/w trusses
fusion completely fused with weld metal. and to support girts in industrial
Caused by rapid welding. buildings.
Porosity Due to voids or gas pockets entrapped Rods Rods are used in wind bracing
in the weld during cooling. It results in system.
stress concentration and reduced Plates & flats Plates & flat bars are used in
ductility of the metal. component transmission towers, foot bridges
Slag Cause- and columns to keep correct
inclusions Due to improper cleaning, weld speed position.
is too fast, incorrect welding angle. Eye bars It is used where flexible end
Undercut Undercutting defect appears as a connections are desired.
groove in the parent metal directly Permissible stresses-
along the edges/toe of the weld.
Combined axial and bending tensile stresses-
Cause-
Excess welding current, very long arc σat.cal σ btx,cal σ bty.cal
+ + ≤1
Cracks Hot cracks occur due to presence of 0.6f y 0.66f y 0.66f y
i. Hot cracks sulphur, carbon, silicon and hydrogen
in weld metal. σat.cal = Calculated average axial tensile stress.
ii. Cold cracks Due to phosphorus and hydrogen σbtx.cal = Calculated bending tensile stress in
formation of cold cracks. extreme fiber when bending is about x-x
Note- axis & y - y axis respectively (MPa).
Partial factor of safety fy = Yield stress of steel (MPa).
For shop weld -1.25 Slenderness Ratio (S.R.) (λ)-
For field weld -1.50 Unsupported length (l )
Electric arc welding and oxy-acetylene gas welding λ=
Least radius of gyration (r)
is used to joint the structural member.
Design of Steel Structures 476 YCT
 Maximum slenderness ratio- (ii) For single angle, one leg connected to gusset
Member Maximum plate-
S.R. (λ)
A tension member in which a 180
reversal of direct stress due to loads
other than wind or seismic forces.
A member normally acting as a tie 350
in a roof truss or a bracing system
but subjected to possible reversal of
stresses resulting from the action of
the wind or earthquake forces.
Members always under tension 400
(other than pre-tensioned members)
3A1
Note– S.R. limits specified above are not applicable to A net = A1 + A 2 k1 , k1 =
cables. 3A1 + A 2
Allowable stress (σac) in axial tension for Where,
steel conforming to IS : 226 - 1975- A1 = (l1 – d – t/2 ) .t , A 2 = (l2 – t/2 ) .t
Form Thickness/Diameter σat = 0.6fy
A1 = Net cross-sectional area of the connected leg.
(MPa)
A2 = Gross cross-sectional area of unconnected leg.
Plates, angles, T ≤ 20 mm 150
and I-beams, (iii) For angle placed back to back-
20 to 40 mm 144
channels and flats > 40 mm 138 5A1
A net = A1 + A 2 k 2 , k 2 =
5A1 + A 2
Bars (round, ≤ 20 mm 150
square and > 20 mm 144 Where,
hexagonal)
A1 = 2  L1 − d −  × t ,
t
Net Sectional Area-  2
A net = A gross − n × sectionalarea of hole (iv) for T-section-
A1 = (B – 2d)tf , A2 = (D – tf)tw
Where, n = number of rivet hole
Where,
Note-
B = Flange width
Anet provided > Anet required d = Dia. of rivet
For rivets connected member, such as section should
tf = Flange thickness
be selected whose total area is about 40 to 50% more
than required net effected area. tw = Web thickness
The total area of the section selected for the weld Note-
connected member should be about 20 to 30% more The outstanding legs of the pair of angles should be
than required net effective area. tacked by rivets at a pitch not exceeding 1 m.
Net Area for plate- Effective net area-
(i) Chain reverting- The modified net area is called effective net area
Area of cross section 1-1- which is defined by following equation-
A net = (b – nd).t A e.net = k1. k 2 . k 3 . k 4 A net
Where Where,
b = With of plate k1 = Ductility factor
d = Dia. of rivet hole k2 = Hole forming factor
t = Thickness of plate
k3 = Geometry factor
(ii) Zig- zag or staggered Riveting-
In case of this riveting system, min. effective width k4 = Shear lag factor
of plate is calculated by deducting number of rivets Factor Value Value related
of every section. k1 1.0 For common
structural steel
  p2 p2 
A net =  b − n × d +  1 + 2   .t k2 0.85 For punched holes
  4g1 4g 2   1.0 For drilled holes
Where- K3 0.9 - 1.14 -
P1, P2 = Staggered pitch
As per IS: 800-2007 k3 = 1
g1, g2 = Gauge distance
n = Number of holes in zig-zag lines. k4 1.0 For flats and plates

Design of Steel Structures 477 YCT

LUG ANGLE 3. Block Shear Failure-
A short length of angle used to connect the gusset (a) For angles-
and the outstanding leg of main member is known Appropriate areas in shear & tension should be
Lug angle. considered for failure but in welded tension
If the load is heavy and number of weld/bolts length members, it is the gross area only that is involved.
required for the joint of connection the size of gusset (b) For plates-
plate required is uneconomical then it is used. Block shear failure is combined tension shear
The purpose of lug angle is to reduce the length of failure. It means failure plane includes both tension
connection to the gusset plate and to reduce shear (normal to the force) and shear (parallel to the force)
lag effect. failure planes.
Lug angle are not very effective to transfer the given (i) For shear yielding and Tension rupture
load due to eccentricity of C.G. of rivets.
A avg f y A f
Lug angles reduces the net area of main members Tdb1 = + 0.9 tn u
due to the additional bolt holes. 3γ mo γ m1
(ii) Tension yielding + Shear rupture
A tg f y A vn f u
Tdb2 = + 0.9
γ mo 3γ m1
Note-
Possibility of block shear failure increases with the
use of high bearing strength material and high
strength bolts, which results in fewer bolts and
smaller connection lengths.
Note-
In general, the total area of tension flange can be
Shear lag effect-
assumed to be about 20% more than the net area The non-uniform stress distribution that occurs in a
tension member adjacent to a connection, in which
obtained after deduction for rivet holes.
some elements of the members are not directly
σ bt = 1.2σ bc connected, is commonly referred to as the shear lag
effect.
Strength of tension member- Effect of shear lag is less for large length of
1. Net section rupture/ Fracture -
connection.
(i) For plates and threaded rods
It occurs when some part of members cross section
Design rupture strength
are not connected.
0.9A n f u A rectangular plate will not experience any shear lag
Tdn =
γ m1 effect when connected to a gusset plate.
When double angle member placed symmetrically to
(ii) For other tension member– gusset plate i.e. placed back to back on opposite side
Anfu of gusset plate, no shear lag effect is developed.
Tdn = α As per IS :800-2007, shear lag effect in flanges may
γ m1
be disregarded when -
An = Net effective area (a) For outstand member supported along one edge only-
fu = Ultimate strength of material
γm1 = Partial safety factor in rupture (1.25) L0
bo ≤
(iii) For Angles- 20
0.9A nc f u βA gross f y (b) For internal member, element supported along both
Tdn = + the edges-
γ ml γ mo
L0
Where, bi ≤
10
 W   b  f y 
β = 1.4 – 0.076    s   ≤ ( f u γ mo / f y γ m 1 ) ≥ 0.7 L0 = Length b/w points of zero moment.
 t   Lc  f u  bo = Width of the outstand flange.
Anc = Net area of connected leg bi = Width of an internal member.
t = Thickness of leg angle DESIGN OF COMPRESSION
Ago = Gross area of outstanding
Lc = Length of end connection MEMBER
W = Outstand leg width A member which carries an axial compression is
bs = Shear leg width known as compression member. Two types of
Agf y member- (i) Column (ii) Strut
2. Gross section yielding- Tdg = , γmo =1.1 Strut is a compression member used in the roof truss
γ mo
and bracing.
Design of Steel Structures 478 YCT
 Column, stanchion or post is a vertical compression Effectively held in position and 1.50 L
member supporting floors or girders in a building. restrained against rotation at one
Boom is the principal compression member in a end and at the other end partially
crane. restrained against rotation but
Buckling- not held in position.
Bending to be occurred in compression member due
to axial load is called buckling. Effectively held in position at 2.00 L
Effective Length of Columns- one end but not restrained
End restraints Effective Figure against rotation, and at the other
lengths end restrained against rotation
Effectively held in position at 1.00 L but not held in position.
both ends but not restrained Effectively held in position and 2.00 L
against rotation. restrained against rotation at one
end, but neither held in position
nor restrained against rotation at
Effectively held in position at 0.80 L the other end.
both ends and restrained against End condition :
rotation at one end.
• Both rotation and translation or
fixed

Effectively held in position and 0.65 L • Rotation free and translation

restrained against rotation at fixed
both ends.

• Rotation fixed and translation

Effectively held in position and 1.20 L free
restrained against rotation at one
end, and at the other end • Both rotation and translation are
restrained against rotation but free
not held in position.
Angle-struts end conditions and effective length-
Types of Section description End connections Effective Permissible Axial
section length (l) comp. stress
Discontinuous Single angle section One rivet or bolt L 0.8σac
Two or more rivet/bolt/weld 0.85L σac
Two angle section back to Two or more 0.7 L to 0.85 L σac
back both side of gusset rivet/bolt/equivalent weld
plate
Two angle section back to Each angle section connected by L 0.8σac
back one side of gusset one rivet/bolt
plate (section tacked) Each angle section connected by 0.85 L σac
two rivet/bolt or equivalent weld
Continuous One or two angle section Connected one or more 0.7 L to L σac
rivet/bolt/weld
Slenderness ratio (λ)- A member subject to compressive forces 250
It's the ratio of effective length to least radius of resulting only from combination with
gyration. It load carrying capacity will be less.
wind/earthquake forces, provided the
le deformation of such members does not adversely
λ =
rmin affect the stress in any part of the structure.
Maximum Slenderness ratio (λ) for Compression flange of a beam 300
compression member- A member normally acting as a tie in roof truss 350
Types of member λ or a bracing system but subjected to possible
A strut connected by single rivet at each end 180
reversal of stresses resulting from the action of
A member carrying compressive loads resulting 180
from dead and imposed loads wind or earthquake forces

Design of Steel Structures 479 YCT

Note- Properties of Lacings system-
Tension members, such as bracings, pre-tensioned to For laced column, Le= 1.05l or 5% in increased
avoid sag, need not satisfy the maximum slenderness actual length.
ratio limits. Bending moment in lacing member is zero.
S.R. Types of section le 12
λ ≤ λP Compact Max. slenderness ratio λ max = ≯ 111
t
λP < λ ≤ λr Semi compact Inclination Angle of lacing-
λr < λ Slender Rivets of bolt 400 to 700
Welding 600 to 900
Where,
ryy>rxx If θ decrease, length of lacing will increase.
λ= Slenderness ratio
Types of lacing system-
λ P = S.R. of upper limit for compact section 1. Single lacing system- Consecutive triangle are
λr = S.R. of upper limit for non compact section formed in this system
Merchant Rankine Formula- 2. Double lacing system- Lacing bars are cross to each
other in this system
f cc .f y Effective length-
σac = 0.6 1/ n
( f )n + ( f )n  Types of Lacing Effective Length (le)
 cc y
 Single L
σac = Permissible stress in axial compression (MPa) Double 0.7 L
fy = Yield stress of steel, (MPa) welded 0.7 L
π2 E Min. Thickness of lacing bars-
Elastic critical stress in compression, f cc =
λ2 For single lacing le
n = A factor assumed as 1.4 (range 1–3)
40
Built up column (Plated beams)- For Double lacing le
Built up columns are widely used in steel
construction especially when the effective lengths 60
are large and the compression force light. Where,
It is composed of two or more parallel main le = Distance between to consecutive rivet centre
components interconnected by lacing or batten Min. width of lacing bar (bmin) according to
plates. Rivet dia.-
• It depends upon the nominal dia. of rivet.
• In case of welding, bmin. = 50 mm
• Generally, bmin= 3.d width of lacing flat
Where d = dia. of rivet.
Nominal dia. of rivet(mm) Min. width (mm)
16 50
18 55
20 60
22 65
To prevent buckling of column component b/w
lacing connection-
λComponent ≯ 50
λComponent ≯ 0.7 λcolumn
For tack rivets-
λComponent ≯ 40
λComponent ≯ 0.6 λcolumn
Built up member classified as- Dia. of tack rivet ≮ min. of given value-
(i) Lacings- Thickness of member Min. dia.
Generally, it is a flat which connects two
components of column section obliquely at a up to 10 16
convenient inclination. 10-16 20
Lacing system should be uniform inclination >16 22
throughout the length of the column. Note-
Lacing make the component of column act as a Two rows of tacking rivets are provided, in lacing
single unit. If the component of column are very bar, when-
close to each other, then tack rivets are used to make • Length >125 mm
them acts a single unit. • Length of web of channel >150 mm
Design of Steel Structures 480 YCT
 Lacing system is designed to resist a transverse Encased column-
shear force of-
It is used in basement.
V = 2.5% of column load (i) Member should be a symmetrical I-section shape or
V two channels back to back with or without cover
For single lacing system, F = . plates.
2Sinθ
(ii) Minimum width of solid casing is (b0 + 100 m).
V (iii) Steel-core encased columns should be machined
For Double lacing system, F =
4Sinθ accurately at splices.
Battens- (iv) Over all dimension of steel column should not
It is used to connect the main components of built up exceed 750 × 450 mm.
column. Column splice-
For battened column le. = 1.10l or 10% of actual A column splice is used to increase the length of the
length. column. It is located just above the floor beam
Minimum number of battens required- 4 ( 2 ends
connection.
and 2 intermediate batten)
Battened columns are more flexible than solid wall A splice plate should be located at the point of
columns for the same moment of inertia. contra flexure of the column.
Batten plate prevents distortion of built up columns. Most suitable location for column splicing is
ryy < rxx H H
to from the top and bottom level of floor.
s 3 4
Spacing of battens- ≯ 50or 0.70S.R When the column end are machined then it is
rmin.
assumed that 50% of load is transferred by direct
Whichever is less bearing action and remaining 50% of the load is
where s = Spacing of battens transferred through splice and its connection.
Battens are designed to resist-
Vt .Lo
Longitudinal shear (Vb) =
nS
Vt .Lo
Moment (M) =
2n
Where,
n = Number of battens
Flange splice-
S = Spacing between battens It is a joint in the flange element provided to
Lo = Centre to centre distance between battens increase the length of flange plate.
Effective depth- It is designed for axial force only.
Effective depth should not be less than the distance
between centroid of main component. Web splice-
de ≮ a Web splice is used in the web plate to increase its
Effective depth should not be less than twice the length.
width of component in plane of batten (flange These are designed to resist the shear and moment at
width). the spliced section.
de ≮ 2b Splice plates are provided on each sides of the web.
a If shear force is also acting at a column splice, a web
Thickness of batten (t)- t ≮ splice must be done, both side of the web as shown.
50
To prevent local buckling of individual component The rivet in web splice are subjected to double shear
between the battens, following conditions are and bearing but rivet in flange splice are subjected to
satisfied. single shear and bearing.
Note-
c c
(i) < 50 (ii) < 0.7 λ column For torsion resistance the best section is box section.
ryy ryy
STEEL ROOF TRUSS
Purlins : It is the members laid longitudinally across
For intermediate batten 3 the rafters, the roof covering being attached to the
d e > a , d e > 2b
4 purlins.
For end batten de > a, de > 2b Principal rafter : It is the top chord member of the
End tie plates- truss and is subjected to compressive forces, when
Laced compression members shall be provided with the load from purlins are transferred at the nodes.
tie plates at the ends of the lacing systems and at Principal tie : It is the lower chord of the truss and
intersections with other members. carries tension.
Design of Steel Structures 481 YCT
 Spacing of Trusses :
The economic range of spacing of roof trusses is 1/5
to 1/3 of span.
1
Cost of truss ∝
Spacing of truss
2
Cost of purlins ∝ (Spacing of truss )

[Cost of roof covering ∝ spacing of truss]

Cost of truss (t) = 2 (twice cost of purlins) + cost of
roof covering.
Types of truss
Pitched truss : The spacing of roof trusses can be kept 1/4 of span
In this top chord is provided with a slope to facilitate upto 15 m, and 1/5 of span for 15-30 m span of roof
natural drainage of rain water, snow etc. truss.
Pitched trusses are generally provided in industrial Lattice Girder :
building.
A lattice girder is a plane frame of open web
Pratt truss and Howe truss, Warner truss and Fink
truss are provided for large, medium and small construction, having parallel chords at top and
pitches, respectively. bottom.
The depth of these trusses usually is span/5 to The depth-to-span ratio is generally about 1/10 to
span/6. 1/15, which gives them a distint advantage over
The pitch of the roof truss is the height of the truss
divided by the span. pitched roof truss.
Slope = 2 (Pitch) – Numerically. Lattice girder is very useful for large spans.
Pratt Truss (N-Truss) : In this diagonal member Lattice girders can be found in many of the older
are in tension for gravity loads, whereas the verticals building and bridges. Eiffel Tower is one of the
are in compression. This type of truss is used where
examples.
gravity loads are predominant.
BEAMS
Types of Beam
Laterally unsupported Laterally supported
beam beam
Howe Truss : In this the diagonal members of a • In this case compression • In this case
howe truss will be in compression for gravity load. It flange of beam is not compression flange of
is used in open building such as aircraft hangers. restrained against lateral the beam is restrained
Warner Truss : In this the diagonal members are moment. against lateral
alternatively in tension and compression.
Fink Truss : This type of truss is commonly used to • σbc ≤ σbt
moment.
construct roofs in industrial buildings. A skylight • Design bending strength is • σbt and σbc ≯ 0.66 fy.
can be fitted on the pitched roof trusses for daylight. governed by lateral • The design bending is
torsional buckling. governed by yield
• Compression flanges are stress.
not embedded in concrete. • Compression flanges
are embedded in
concrete.
Where,
σbc = Permissible bending stress in compression
σbt = Permissible bending stress in tension
Note-
All beam design as laterally supported beam and
checked for laterally unsupported beam.
Design of Steel Structures 482 YCT
 Effective length of compression flanges- Check for buckling-
End conditions of bracing Effective (i) For low shear-
length (le) d
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM-
≤ 67ε -No need to check web buckling
tw
Restrained against torsion and-
• Unrestrained against lateral bending L d
> 67ε -Check for web buckling
• Partially restrained against lateral 0.85 L tw
bending (ii) For high shear-
• Fully restrained against lateral bending 0.7 L
• Always check for web buckling
All members- 2.5d
• Effective lateral bracing at intervals Distance b/w • Web shell be treated as column of λ =
along the length. intersection tw
of bracing Note-
with member As per IS : 800-1984 when stiffening arrangement is
CANTILEVER BEAM- not provided for web-
Built in at the support and- (i) Then concentric load or reaction ≯ σac.tw.B
• Free at the end 0.85 L
 d 
• Restrained against torsion at the end σac = 3 ×   , d = D – 2h2
0.75 L  tw 
by continuous construction
• Restrained against lateral deflection (ii) When concentric load or reaction > σac.tw.B
and torsion at the free end. 0.5 L then stiffening arrangement is provided.
Where, D = Total depth of section
Free at the end continuous at support
d = Net depth of web
and-
3L h2 = Depth between top fiber to root fillet.
• Unrestrained against torsion at
Note-
support.
2L For the web of channel section to be classified in
• Partially restrained against torsion at plastic class, the ratio of depth to thickness of web
support. should be– Less than 42 φ
L
• Fully restrained. Safety against local buckling-
Permissible bending stress (In
compressive σbc or tension σbt) (IS : 226 :
1975)-
Nominal plate Yield stress, σbc = σbt = 0.66fy
thickness (t mm) fy (MPa) (MPa)
Angle, T, I, channel 250 165
and flat sections ≤ 20
20 < t ≤ 40 240 158.4
> 40 230 151.8
Safety against deflection in beam for
different conditions-
b dw
Maximum permissible Span > 16 > 50
horizontal and vertical deflection 325 [ W.S.M.]
(i) (ii)
tf tw
Maximum permissible deflection Safety against web buckling-
of S.S.B, Span
• When supported elements are 360 (L.S.M.)
susceptible to cracking
Span
• When supported element are not [ L.S.M.]
susceptible to cracking is 300
Web Buckling-
Web buckling occurs due to heavy point load and
diagonal compression.
Web buckling occurs between toe of fillet weld.
Web buckling is a less critical problem than flange
buckling. dw tw
(i) leff . = (ii) rmin =
Load dispersion angle- 45o. 2 12
Design of Steel Structures 483 YCT
 It is designed to resist lateral, longitudinal and
vertical loads.
It can be designed as a laterally supported or
laterally unsupported beam and also design by I-
section.
A gantry girder section is subjected to vertical loads
and horizontal thrust simultaneously, therefore, the
allowable stress are increased by 10%.
Channel section is provided to increase the lateral
stability of gantry girder subjected to lateral load.
Note-
Types of Stiffeners provided for different Vertical or lateral deflection of a member shall be
buckling condition- calculated without considering the impact factor or
dynamic effect of the loads on the deflection.
Buckling Behavior Types of Stiffener Maximum wheel load obtained when crane crab is
required closed to gantry girder.
Diagonal compression due to Vertical stiffener As per IS 800 : 2007, clause 5.6.1 Table 6
shear force
allowable vertical deflection under dead and
Longitudinal compression Horizontal stiffener imposed load shall not exceed for Gantry
(Triangular distribution from the
neutral axis) due to bending.
Girder with crane load-
Vertical compression due to Bearing stiffener Crane load Allowable deflection
concentrated loads limit
Manually operated Span
Web crippling-
Web near the portion of the stress concentration 500
tends to fold over the flange is called as web Electrically operated up to Span
crippling. This phenomenon is occurs in beam when 50 tons or 500 kN 750
web is weak under concentrated lead. Electrically operated over Span
Web crippling result in stress concentration and 50 tons 1000
bearing failure.
If the beam section is safe in crippling, it will also Other moving loads such as L
safe in buckling. charging cars etc. 600
Load dispersion angle from bearing plate -30o Girt-
To check web crippling, bearing stress at the root of It is a horizontal beam spanning the wall column of
f yw industrial building to support wall coverage.
fillet <
γ mo COLUMN BASES
According to IS : 800-2007, accepted formulae to Introduction-
find crippling of web- Column bases are used in the design of steel
f yw structures to transfer the column load to the
f w = ( bl + ηc ) t w × footing.
γ mo Column base is a base plate used to reduce the
bl = Stiff bearing length bearing pressure on the concrete footing. Column
f yw = Yield stress of web base distributes the load over a large surface area.
Types of Column Base Use
ηc = Length obtained by dispersion through the
1. Slab bases If the column load is
flange to web junction at a slope of 1: 2.5 the
less
plane at flange.
2. Gusset base If the column load is
ηc = 2.5 tw
more/heavy
tw = Thickness of web
Note- 3. Grillage foundation If bearing capacity of
soil is less
Local flange buckling is due to bending
compression. Slab base-
Web buckling is due to diagonal compression. Slab bases are most suitable and economical for
Web crippling is due to bearing stress. loaded columns only.
Gantry girders Permissible tensile stress of bolt used in column
It is travelling overhead cranes that is commonly base is 120 MPa.
used in factories and workshops to lift heavy It consists, base plate and cleat angle. The critical
materials and assembled parts from one point to moment will be at the edge of column.
other. It is designed in case of axial loaded column.
Design of Steel Structures 484 YCT
 Design criteria- In grillage foundation permissible bending stress in
It is depend upon the grade of concrete used. 1
increased by 33 % .
Thickness of the base plate, tb = t – tgusset 3
Gusset Base- P P
M max = ( L − a ) and S.Fmax = (L − a )
A gusseted base consist of a base of reduced 8 2L
thickness and two gusseted plates are attached one
(a) When only axial load is acting-
to each flange of column.
50% loads are transferred by fasteners.
Critical section for bending moment is at the toe of
gusset plate.
Gusset Plate-
Gusset plate is a thick steel sheet used for joining
two or more than two adjacent structural member
intersecting each other. Thickness of slab base (mm),
It is a plate for connecting beams and girders to
3W  2 b 2 
column. t=  a −  (WSM)
It may be fastened to a permanent member by σ bs  4
bolts, welding or rivets or combination of these
three. 2.5W ( a 2 − 0.3b 2 )
t= (LSM)
f y / γ mo

P
W= (WSM)
B2
1.5P
W= (LSM)
Area
Where,
P f ck
B2 > , σc =
σc 4
W = Factored upward pressure on base plate
(N/mm2) ≯ 0.6 fck [as per IS : 800 : 2007]
Note- a = Greater projection of plate beyond column
The machine column end transfers the load to the b = Lesser projection of plate beyond column
slab base by direct bearing. No gusset plates are σbs = Permissible bending stress in slab bases
required for connecting the slab base. = 165 MPa for flanged beam
Anchor plate- = 185 MPa for solid beam
(b) Square slab base under solid round column-
It is a steel plate attached to or embedded in a
support & used as an anchor for supporting cables.
Base plate-
It is used to connect a column with a RCC
foundation & they are installed below the steel
column on RCC foundation.
It dispersed the load over a larger area & after that it
is transferred to concrete foundation.
Grillage foundation- 90 W  B 
It is suitable for soil with low bearing capacity. t = 10  
16 σ bs  B − d o 
It is a lighter and low cost choice.
It transferred heavy loads over large area. B ≮ 1.5 (do + 75) mm
The minimum clearance kept between adjacent B = Width of the side of the base plate
flanges of beam in grillage foundation is 80 mm (8 W = Total axial load (kN)
cm). do = Diameter of the reduced end.
Design of Steel Structures 485 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years Ans. (c) : Fatigue failure is the formation and
propagation of cracks due to a repetitive or cyclic load.
1. As per IS 1367 (Part 3), the yield stress of a bolt Most fatigue failures are caused by cyclic loads
of grade 4.6 will be_____ significantly below the load that would result in
(a) 400 N/mm2 (b) 420 N/mm2 yielding of the material.
2
(c) 320 N/mm (d) 240 N/mm2
6. According to IS 800:2007, the recommended
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-I values of the following physical properties :
Ans. (d) :As per IS 1367 (part-III) : 2002, Unit mass (ρ), Modulus of Elasticity (E), and
Grade of bolt Yield stress, N/mm2 Poisson's ratio (µ) of structural steel
3.6 180 (irrespective of the grade) for use in design, are
4.6 240 to be taken as:
4.8 320 (a) ρ = 9850 kg/m3 ; E = 2 × 106 MPa ; µ = 0.4
5.6 300 (b) ρ = 785 kg/m3 ; E = 2000 MPa ; µ = 0.25
(c) ρ = 7850 kg/m3 ; E = 2 × 105 MPa ; µ = 0.3
5.8 400
(d) ρ = 6850 kg/m3 ; E = 2 × 104 MPa ; µ = 0.2
6.8 480
AIIMS Rishikesh AE (Civil) 01/10/2023
2. The alloying elements in stainless steel are:
Ans. (c) : As per IS 800 : 2007– Various physical
(a) nickel and chrome
properties of structural steel are given below–
(b) tungsten and molybdenum
• Unit mass of steel (ρ) = 7850 kg/m3
(c) copper and lead
• Modulus of elasticity (E) = 2 × 105 N/mm2
(d) tin and cobalt
• Modulus of rigidity (G) = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
• Poisson ratio (µ) = 0.3 (in elastic range)
Ans. (a) : Stainless steel– This alloy contains
µ = 0.5 (in plastic range)
chromium, iron, silicon, manganese, carbon, and in rare
circumstances, rather considerable amount of • Coefficient of thermal expansion (α) = 12 ×10–6/0C
molybdenum and nickel. 7. As per BIS specifications, the maximum
• Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, nickel longitudinal pitch allowed in bolted joints of
tension members is about
and some other element in smaller proportions.
(a) 12 times thickness of plate
3. If the carbon content is steel increased, its (b) 12 times diameter of the bolt
(a) strength decrease (c) 16 times thickness of plate
(b) malleability increases (d) 16 times diameter of the bolt
(c) hardness decreases DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
(d) ductility decreases Ans. (c) : According to IS 800 : 2007–
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II (a) Pitch 'P' shall not be less than 2.5d where 'd' is the
Ans. (d) : As the carbon content increase – nominal diameter of bolt.
• The ultimate strength of steel increase. (b) Pitch 'P' shall not be more than
• The ductility of the metal decreases. (i) 16t or 200 mm whichever is less, in case of tension
• The elongation before fracture decreases. members.
(ii) 12t or 200 mm, whichever is less in case of
• malleability decreases
compression member where, t is the thickness of
• hardness increases thinnest member.
4. The softest and most ductile form of steel can 8. Which of the following IS codes provides
be obtained by _____________ process. general guidelines for steel construction and
(a) annealing (b) spheroidizing design ?
(c) tempering (d) normalising (a) IS : 10500-2012 (b) IS : 456-2000
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I (c) IS : 800-2007 (d) IS : 1077-1992
Ans. (a) : Annealing:– One of the most common heat UPSC ESIC 2023
treatments for steel is annealing. Is used soften steel and Ans. (c) : IS 800 : 2007 - Provides general guidelines
to improve ductility. In this process the steel is heated for steel construction and design.
into the lower region of the austenite phase field and IS 456:2000 – Plain and Reinforced concrete.
slowly cooled to room temperature. IS 10500:2012 – Indian standard code for drinking
5. The phenomenon of 'fatigue failure' in steel water.
structures is primarily caused by: IS 1077:1992 – common burnt clay building brick.
(a) Excessive loading 9. The partial safety factor for the material of
(b) Corrosion bolts is _____.
(c) Repeated cyclic loading (a) 1.0 (b) 1.10
(d) Temperature fluctuations (c) 1.15 (d) 1.25
RITES AM 05/05/2024 TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
Design of Steel Structures 486 YCT
 Ans. (d) As per IS 800 : 2007 table-5– Ans. (a) : Design strength of the material (Fd) –
Definition Partial safety factor Fd = characteristic load (F) × partial factor of
(i) Resistance governed by safety (γf)
1.10 Fd = F× γf
yielding γm0
(ii) Resistance of member F
1.10 F= d
by buckling γm0 γf
(iii) Resistance governed 13. In tension members, the distance between the
1.25
by ultimate stress γmt centers of two adjacent fasteners (pitch) in a
(iv) Resistance of Shop Field line lying in the direction of stress shall not
connection fabrications fabrications exceed:
(a) 20t or 100 mm whichever is less
(a) Bolts friction type γmf 1.25 1.25
(b) 25t or 200 mm whichever is less
(b) Bolts bearing type, γmb 1.25 1.25 (c) 16t or 200 mm whichever is less
(c) Rivets γmr 1.25 1.25 (d) 20t or 200 mm whichever is less
(d) Welds γmw 1.25 1.50 BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
10. Cast steel is _______. Ans. (c) : Maximum pitch of rivet joint in case of
(a) High carbon steel (b) Low carbon steel tension member 16t or 200mm whichever is less
Compression member 12t or 200 mm whichever is
(c) Medium carbon steel (d) No carbon steel
less
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-I
14. As per IS 800, what coefficient of friction is
Ans. (a) : Cast Steel–It is the struectural element assumed for surfaces blasted with shot or grit
(upspecified shape from molten pig iron having almost and hot dip galvanized while calculating the
same properties of pig iron). nominal shear capacity of a bolt in a friction
Type of Steel Carbon Content type bolted connection, where the capacity is
Pig iron 4-5% governed by slip?
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.20
Cast iron 2-4.5%
(c) 0.25 (d) 0.10
Cast steel (>2%) BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
Carbon steel less than 2% Ans. (d) : Typical average values for coefficient of
High carbon steel 0.6-1.4% friction (Hf)–
Medium carbon 0.25-0.6% Coefficient of
Treatment surface
11. Maximum permissible bearing stress in a hand friction (Hf)
driven rivet in MPa will be- Surfaces not treated 0.20
(a) 220 (b) 230 Surfaces blasted with short or 0.50
(c) 240 (d) 250 grit with any loose rust removed,
no pilling
TNPSC Surveyor 06/11/2022
Surface blasted with shot or grit 0.10
Ans. (d) : As per IS : 800 : 1984 axial tension for and hot-dip galvanized
power driver shop rivets = 100 MPa
Surfaces blasted with shot or grit 0.25
Axial and spray metalized with zinc
Shear Bearing
Type of fastener tension (thickness 50-70 µm)
(MPa) (MPa)
σat (MPa) 15. For the design of the steel members which of
1. Power driven the following is NOT a correct combination of
(a) shop rivets 100 100 300 Load as per IS 800 : 2007?
(b) field rivets 90 90 270 (a) Dead load + erection load
2. Hand driven (b) Dead load + imposed load + wind +
80 80 250 earthquake load
rivets
(c) Dead load + wind or earthquake load
3. Close tolerance, (d) Dead load + imposed load
120 100 300
turned holes DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II
4. Bolt in clearance Ans. (b) : As per IS : 800 : 2007, Cl 3.5.1, load
120 80 250
hole combination for design purposes shall be these that
12. What is the relationship between design load produce maximum forces and effects and consequently
(Fd), characteristic load (F) and partial factor maximum stresses and deformations.
Following type of load combination considered–
of safety (γf) (i) Dead load + Imposed load
(a) F = Fd / γf (b) F = Fd × (1.5 γf) (ii) Dead load+Imposed load + Wind or earthquake load
(c) F = Fd / (1.5 γf) (d) F = Fd × γf (iii) Dead load + wind or earthquake load
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III (iv) Dead load + erection load

Design of Steel Structures 487 YCT

16. For limit state of serviceability, the partial (a) Tension (b) Shear
safety factor for Dead load (DL) & Live load (c) Bearing (d) Crushing
(LL) for DL + LL + CL (Crane load) Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
combination is _______. Ans. (b) Fillet weld– Fillet welds are commonly used
(a) 1.2 (b) 1.0 to join two material pieces at right angles.
(c) 1.5 (d) 0.8 • The shear strength of the weld material depends on
JSSC (Civil Engg.) 28/09/2023 several factors, including the type of welding
Ans. (b) : As per IS 800 : 2007 (table-4) Partial process, the welding parameter, and the properties of
safety factor : the base metal.
Limit state of serviceability • Shear failure occurs when the applied shear stress
LL" exceeds the shear strength of the weld material.
Combination
DL Accom- WL/EL • In fillet welds, the shear stress is highest at the throat
Leading of the weld.
panying
DL+LL+CL 1.0 1.0 1.0 – 21. If S = size of weld, throat thickness t1 of weld is:
DL+LL+CL+WL/EL 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 (a) 0.7S (b) 0.5S
DL+WL/EL 1.0 – – 1.0 (c) S (d) 0.8S
17. According to IS-2062 for E 165 (Fe 290) grade Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
of steel, the minimum elongation percentage is Ans. (a) : The effective throat thickness is the shortest
______. distance from the root of the fillet weld to the
(a) 30 (b) 72 hypotenuse of weld triangle.
(c) 45 (d) 23
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 29/06/2022 Shift-I
Ans. (d) : According to IS : 2062-2011
Tensile strength Percentage
Grade
(MPa) Elongation
E165 (Fe290) 290 23
E250 (Fe410 W) 410 23
E350 (Fe490) 490 22
E450 (Fe590) 590 20
• Effective throat thickness (E) should not be less than
18. When two plates are placed end to end and are 3 mm. and not exceed 0.7t (t = thickness of plate)
joined by two cover plates, the joint is known
as • t = ks
(a) Lap joint s = size of weld
(b) Butt joint k = as per angle between fusion faces.
(c) Double cover butt joint 22. The strength of butt weld is
(d) Chain riveted lap joint (a) About 50–90% of the member
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-I (b) Equal to the strength of the member
Ans. (c) : Butt joint – When two plates are placed end (c) More than strength of the member
to end and are Joined y two cover plates, the joint is (d) None of the above
know as Double cover butt joint. Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
19. Partial safety factor taken for site welding in Ans. (b) : Any steel structure, the weakest section is its
design strength of butt weld is: connection. If connection fails, the entire structure fails.
(a) 1.3 (b) 1.4 To keep this in mind, the connections (whether bolted
(c) 1.5 (d) 1.6 or welded) are always designed in such way that
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I strength of connection is equal to the strength of
components joined for economic purpose.
Ans. (c) : For butt welds the most critical from of
loading is tension applied in the transverse direction. 23. The effective length of fillet weld should not be
The butt weld is normally designed for direct tension or less than
compression. (a) size of weld
The design strength of the butt weld in tension or (b) two times the size of weld
compression is governed by yield. (c) three times the size of weld
(d) four times the size of weld
f yLw t e UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-1
Td w =
γ mv Ans. (d) : As per IS : 800 : 2007 Clause 10.5.4.1
Where, • The effective length of fillet weld shall be taken as
γmv = Partial safety factor only that length which is of the specified size and
= 1.25 for shop wedding required throat thickness.
= 1.5 for site welding • In practice the actual length of weld is made of the
Lw = Effective length of the weld effective length shown in drawing plus two times the
te = Effective throat thick weld size, but not less than four times the size of the
20. Which one of the following is the mode of weld.
failure in a fillet weld material?
Design of Steel Structures 488 YCT
24. Which of the following is NOT a classification Ans. (b) : Assumption made in welded joint
based on types of welding? analysis–
(a) Flat weld (b) Groove weld (i) Weld connecting various joints are homogenous,
(c) Plug weld (d) Fillet weld isotropic and elastic elements.
GSECL JE 2023 Shift-2 (ii) Weld joint connected parts are rigid and their
Ans. (a) : Welded connection– Welding consists of deformation is neglected.
joining two pieces of metal by establishing a (iii) In welded connection only stresses due to external
metallurgical bond between them. The elements to be forces are considered.
connected are brought closer and the metal by means Hence, in welded joint, effects of residual stresses,
of electric arc or oxyacetylene flame along with weld stress concentrated and shape of welds are neglected.
rod which adds metal to the joint, after cooling the 28. As per the IS 800:2007 code, the gap between
bond is established between the two elements. web plates and flange plates shall be kept to a
Types of welded joints– minimum and for fillet welds, it shall NOT
(i) Butt weld exceed __________ at any point before welding.
(ii) Fillet weld (a) 1.5 mm (b) 1 mm
(iii) Slot weld and plug weld (c) 0.5 mm (d) 2 mm
25. The effective length of the fillet weld is ______. PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023
(a) 0.7 × total length Ans. (b) : According to IS 800 : 2007 Cl 8.6.3.5, the
(b) Total length – 2 × weld size gap between the web plates and flange plates shall be
(c) Total length – 2 × weld size kept to a minimum and for fillet welds shall not exceed
1 mm at any point before welding.
(d) Total length –2 × throat size
HP SSC JE Civil 10.09.2022 29. What is the design requirement of the effective
throat thickness of a fillet weld, as per IS 800-
Ans. (b) : Effective length is the length of the fillet 2007?
weld for which the specified size and throat thickness of (a) Shall not be greater than 3 mm and shall
weld exist. generally not less than 0.7 times thickness of
[effective length = Total length-2×weld size] the thicker plate.
• It is considered equal to it's overall length minus twice (b) Shall not be less than 3 mm and shall
the weld size. generally not exceed 0.7 times thickness of
• The deduction is made to allow for craters to be the thicker plate.
formed at the ends of welded length. (c) Shall not be greater than 3 mm and shall
• Throat of fillet is the weakest section in a fillet weld. generally not less than 0.7 times thickness of
26. The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld the thinner plate.
shall NOT be (d) Shall not be less than 3mm and shall
(a) equal to the size of the weld generally not exceed 0.7 times thickness of
(b) equal to the length of the hypotenuse of the the thinner plate.
triangle Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
(c) the function of the angle between the fusion Ans. (d) : As per IS 800 : 2007 Cl. 10.5.3
sides Effective throat thickness– It shall not be less than
(d) less than 3 mm 3 mm and shall not generally exceed 0.7t (or t under
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I special circumstances) where t is the thickness of the
Ans. (d) As per (IS : 800-2007) Cl. 10.5.3.1.– thinner plate.
Effective throat thickness– The effective throat • If the face of plates being welded are inclined to
thickness of a fillet weld is the perpendicular distance each other the effective throat thickness shall be
from the root to the hypotenuse of the largest isosceles taken as k times the fillet size.
right angles triangle that can be inscribed with the Faces
weld cross-section. angle 600- 910- 1010- 1070- 1140-
• The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld shall between 900 1000 1060 1130 1200
not be less than 3 mm and shall not exceed 0.7 t and fusion
1.0 t under special circumstances, where t is the Constant 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.5
thickness of thinner part. 'k'
27. Which of the following statements with respect 30. For fillet welds subjected to normal (fa) and
to assumptions in the analysis of welded joints shear (q) stresses, the equivalent stress is given
is INCORRECT? by :
(a) The welds connecting the various parts of a (a) f a 2 + 2q 2 (b) f a 2 + 3q 2
steel structure are homogeneous and isotropic
(b) Effects of residual stresses, stress (c) 3f a 2 + q 2 (d) f a 2 + q 2
concentrations and shape of the welds are
considered TSPSC AE 18.10.2023
(c) Stresses due to external loads are considered Ans. (b) When fillet welds are subjected to
(d) The parts connected by the weld are rigid and combination of normal and shear stress, the equivalent
their deformations are therefore neglected
UPMRC AM (Civil) 02/01/2023
stress is given (Fe) = (f a
2
+ 3q 2 ) .

Design of Steel Structures 489 YCT

 fa = Normal stresses, compression or tension, due to 1.25Af u 0.9Af u
axial force or bending moment. (c) (d)
0.9 1.10
q = Shear stress due to shear force or tension. MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024
31. _______ are mainly used as tension members in Ans. (a) : As per IS : 800 : 2007 Clause 6.3.1
the bracing system. Design strength in tension of a plate Tdn, as governed by
(a) Channel section (b) Built-up frame rupture of net cross-section area, An at the holes is
(c) I section (d) Bars given by–
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
0.9Af u
Ans. (d) : Rods and Bars- Bars and rods are frequently Tdn =
used as tension members in bracing system and as sag γ m1
rods to support purlins between trusses. We know,
32. In a steel structure, the wires/cables are Resistance governed by ultimate stress γm1 = 1.25
generally used as 0.9Af u
(a) Compression members Then, design strength, Tdn=
(b) Tension members 1.25
(c) Members for resisting shear 37. The design strength of steel members under
(d) Either (a) or (b) axial tension, Tdg as governed by yielding of the
gross section, as per IS 800:2007, is given by:
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper I
Where, fy is the yield stress of the material, Ag
Ans. (b) : In a steel structure, the wires/cables are is the gross area of cross-section, γmo is the
generally used as Tension members. partial safety factor for failure in tension by
33. A steel member which is subjected to primary yielding.
tension is called γ mo ƒ y Ag ƒ y
(a) Tie (b) Strut (a) Tdg = (b) Tdg =
(c) Sling (d) Boom Ag γ mo
UKPSC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022 Paper-I
γ mo fy
Ans. (a) Tie– A steel member which is subjected to (c) Tdg = (d) Tdg =
primary tension is called tie. Ag ƒ y A g γ mo
• A boom is the principle compression member in the Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
crane. Ans. (b) : As per IS 800 : 2007 Cl 6.2, the design
34. Which type of joint is more efficient in tension strength of members (Tdg) under the tension as governed
members? by yielding of gross section.
(a) Welded joints (b) Pinned joints A g .f y
(c) Riveted joint (d) Bolted joints Tdg =
JSSC JDLCCE JE 17/10/2023 (Civil) γ mo
Ans. (a) : In riveting, bolting holes has to be made Where,
which reduced load carrying capacity and leads to more fy = Yield stress
stress concentration, which is not in the case of welding. Ag = Gross area
35. The minimum thickness of steel of the tension γmo = Partial factor of safety
members exposed to weather and not accessible 38. For preliminary sizing, the rupture strength of
is : net section may be approximately taken by
(a) 4.5 mm (b) 6 mm using the below equation as per IS : 800-2007,
(c) 8 mm (d) 10 mm Tdn = αAnfu/γml
GPSC AE CLASS-2 27.11.2021 What is the "α" value for one or two bolts
Ans. (c) As per IS 800 : 2007 , Minimum along the length in the end connection or
thickness– equivalent weld length.
Minimum (a) 0.5 (b) 0.6
Condition (c) 0.7 (d) 0.8
thickness
Weather exposed but painting 6 mm UPMRC AM (Civil) 02/01/2023
accessible Ans. (b) : As per IS 800 : 2007 Cl 6.3.3, for
Exposed to weather and is 8 mm preliminary sizing, the rupture strength of net section
unreachable for cleaning and may be approximately taken as :
repainting Tdn = αAnfu/γml
Heavy bridges 6 mm Where,
36. As per IS : 800-2007; which of the following is α = Co-efficient along the length
the correct expression to find the design For one or two bolts, α = 0.6
strength in tension of a plate, due to rupture of For three bolts, α = 0.7
net critical cross-sectional area (A) at the For four or excess bolts α = 0.8
holes? (where, fu = ultimate stress of the 39. If Av = shear area and fyw = yield strength of
material) the web, then nominal plastic shear resistance
0.9Af u 0.87Af u (Vp) under pure shear is given by:
(a) (b)
1.25 1.25

Design of Steel Structures 490 YCT

 A v f yw A v f yw slenderness ratio is taken as ________ times the
(a) Vp = (b) Vp = actual maximum slenderness ratio
3 1.5 (a) 0.7 (b) 0.85
A v f yw A v f yw (c) 1 (d) 1.05
(c) Vp = (d) Vp = MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
1.1 2
DDA JE 19/10/2023 (Shift-I) Ans. (d) : According to IS 800 : 2007 Clause 7.6.1.5–
The effective slenderness ratio of laced columns shall
Ans. (a) : As per IS 800 : 2007 Cl. 8.4.1 be the taken as 1.05 times the actual maximum
The nominal plastic shear resistance under pure shear slenderness ratio in order to account for shear
is– deformation effects..
Vn = Vp 44. Which of the following conditions does the
Where, effective length of the column depend upon?
A .f (a) Width of the member
Vp = v yw (b) Bracing and end conditions
3 (c) Lateral dimensions in the plane of bending
Av = Shear area, fyw = yield strength of web (d) Unsupported length and end conditions
Vn = Nominal shear strength MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
Vp = Plastic shear strength Ans. (d) : effective length of the column-
40. For a single unequal angle tie member, the leg • The effective length of a column depends upon end
preferred for making connection is the conditions and unsupported length. The end restraint
(a) longer one conditions are two types as given below-
(b) shorter one (1) position restraint (2) Direction restraint
(c) any of the two 45. In steel structures, the splices used in
(d) longer it welder and shorter if bolted compression member are designed as____.
Kerala PSC (PWD) AE 07/06/2023 (a) short columns
Ans. (a) : For a single unequal angle the member, (b) battens
preferred for making connection is the longer one, when (c) slender columns
longer one is connected to gusset plate, there will be (d) per the thickness of splice
shear lag on shorter leg and when shorter one is DDA JE 28/03/2023 Shift-III
connected to gusset plate there will be shear lag in
longer leg, therefore design strength is these both cases Ans. (a) : Column splice– A joint in the length of a
will be different. column provided, (when necessary) is known as column
splice. It is also described as column joint. The rolled
41. Which type of failure is most common in steel sections are manufactured upto a certain maximum
tension members ? length, when length of the column required is more than
(a) Shear failure (b) Block shear failure the length of rolled steel sections manufactured. When
(c) Torsional failure (d) Flexural failure the columns is used in multistorey is less than that for
JSSC JDLCCE JE 06/10/2023 (Civil) the columns in upper storey and lower storey separately.
Ans. (b) : Types of failures– The following modes of The splices used in compression member are designed
failure take place in tension members. as short columns.
• Gross section yielding 46. When designing steel structures, the effective
• Net section rupture length of battened compression members
• Block shear failure should be _______.
Block shear failure– A block of material is sheared off (a) increased by 20% (b) decreased by 20%
at the end of members due to the possible use of high (c) decreased by 10% (d) increased by 10%
bearing strength of steel and high-strength bolts SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning)
resulting in smaller connection length. Block shear Ans. (d) : Batten plate–The batten plates are also
failure is most common in tension members. called as the plates and these are also used in lateral
42. A column is a compression member, if the system. The angle sections, channels and I-sections are
effective length exceeds .......... times the least also used as battens. The components of built-up
lateral dimension. column sharing the load are connected together by
(a) Four (b) Two batten plates. The battening of columns shall not be
done where the columns are subjected in the plane of
(c) Five (d) Three batten to eccentric loading.
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 • A battened column is designed with its effective
Ans. (d) : Pedestal– When the effective length of length 10% in excess of the usual standard cases as
column is less than or equal to 3 times the least lateral shear deformation is more as compared to lacings.
dimension. the compression member is known as a 47. Slenderness ratio of a compression member is
pedestal. defined as-
• A column is a compression member, if the effective (a) l × r (b) 0.50l × r
length exceeds three times the least lateral dimension. (c) l/r (d) r/l
43. In order to account for shear deformation JSSC JDLCCE JE 13/10/2023 (Gen. Engg.)
effects in laced columns, the effective Ans. (c) : Slenderness ratio of compression
members–
Design of Steel Structures 491 YCT
The slenderness ratio of a compression member is Effective
End condition
defined as the ratio of effective length of compression length
member (ℓ) to appropriate (least) radius of gyration (r) Effective held in position and restrained 0.65 L
of the cross-section about the axis under consideration. against rotation at both ends
Effective held in position at both ends 0.80 L
 ℓ
Slenderness ratio λ =  restrained against rotation at one end
 r Effective held in position at both end, 1.00 L
• The slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio of the but not restrained against rotation
length to the least lateral dimension. Effective held in position and restrained 1.20 L
48. In the design of lacing system for a built-up against rotation at one end, and at the
steel column, the maximum allowable other end restrained against rotation but
slenderness ratio of a lacing bar is not held in position.
(a) 120 (b) 145 Effective held in position and restrained 1.5 L
(c) 180 (d) 250 against rotation at one end, and at the
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 other end partially restrained against
Ans. (b) : For the design of laced columns : rotation but not held in position
(i) The slenderness ratio of the lacing bar should be less Effective held position and restrained 2.0 L
than 145. against rotation at one end but not held
(ii) The minimum flat width should not be less than in position nor restrained against
three times the nominal diameter of the end rotation at the other end
connector. 51. As per IS 800: 2007, which of the following
(iii) Thickness of the lacing flat, statements is correct regarding the maximum
1 slenderness ratio?
Single lacing system </ × ℓ eff (a) The maximum slenderness ratio of a member
40 carrying compressive loads resulting from
1 dead load and imposed loads should not
Double lacing system </ × ℓ eff
60 exceed 350.
(iv) The lacing for compression members should be (b) The maximum slenderness ratio of a member
proportional to resist transverse shear equal to carrying compressive loads resulting from
2.5% of the axial force in the column. dead load and imposed loads should not
(v) Angle of inclination of the lacing should be kept exceed 250.
between 400 – 700. (c) The maximum slenderness ratio of a member
(vi) The effective slenderness ratio should be taken as carry compressive loads resulting from dead
1.05 times the actual maximum slenderness ratio, load and imposed loads should not exceed 180.
in order to account for shear deformation effect. (d) The maximum slenderness ratio of a member
(vii) For local buckling criteria carry compressive loads resulting from dead
L load and imposed loads should not exceed 200.
>/ 50 TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
rmin
Ans. (c) : As per IS 800: 2007, Clause-3.8, the
>/ 0.7 λ whole section slenderness ratio of steel sections–
49. Which of the following is NOT a compression Type of member Maximum
member? slenderness ratio
(a) Strut (b) Rafter 1. A member carrying 180
(c) Boom (d) Tie compressive loads resulting
CHB Junior Draftsman 04/02/2023 from the dead load and the
Ans. (d) : Compression member– A compression Imposed load
member is a structural elements that is subjected to 2. A tension member in which a 180
compressive forces. These forces tend to shorten or reversal of direct stress
compressive member. Compression members are occurs due to loads other
commonly used in various structure to provide support wind and seismic forces
and stability. 3. A member subjected to 250
Example– Strut, Rafter, Boom, Girt, column etc. compression force resulting
50. If a compression member is effectively held in only from combination with
position and restrained against rotation at one wind/earthquake actions,
end but not held in position nor restrained provided the deformation of
such members does not
against rotation at the other end then the
adversely affect the stress in
theoretical effective length ratio is ............ any part of the structure
(a) 0.75 (b) 1.5
4. Compression flange of a 300
(c) 2 (d) 1 beam against lateral torsional
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023 buckling
Ans (c) As per IS 800 : 2007 5. A member normally acting as a 350

Design of Steel Structures 492 YCT

 tie in a roof truss or a bracing combined action of shear and tension at wall as prying
system not considered effective action if any.
when subjected to a possible 56. Which one of the following is not a type of steel
reversal of stress into column base?
compression resulting from the (a) Slab base (b) Gusseted base
acting of wind or earthquake (c) Pocket base (d) shear base
forces UPSC ESIC JE CIVIL Paper 8 October 2023
6. Member always under 400 Ans. (d) : Common types of column base–
tension (Other than Slab base– A slab base which is usually a reinforced
pretension member) concrete slab. The steel column is connected (either by
52. What role do shear connectors play in rivet or welded joints) to a flat steel base plate which is
composite steel-concrete structures? laid down on that horizontal surface of the RC slab.
(a) They improve the fire resistance of the Gusseted base– Sometimes the base-plate in the above
structure type of foundation becomes very thick as per the design
(b) They provide a mechanical connection requirements.
between steel beams and concrete slabs Pocket bases– In certain situations the foundation have
(c) The enhance the aesthetic appeal of the to be deep foundation e.g. piles or well foundations.
structure Grillage foundations– If the bearing capacity of the
(d) They increase the overall structural damping soil is quite low or the loads transmitted are very high,
coefficient the foundation area required may be very large.
RITES AM 05/05/2024 57. A beam is connected to the flange of a column
Ans. (b) : Shear connector between concrete and steel section by means of a welded unstiffened seated
elements in composite construction plays an important connection. The length of the seat angle
role in developing the composite action by ensuring required will be decided on the basis of the
proper profile and the concrete element. ________.
53. The thickness of the gusset plate attached to a (a) length calculated as per the bearing strength
tension member as per code, shouldn't be less than required
(a) 6 mm (b) 8 mm (b) width of the flange of the coloumn
(c) 12 mm (d) 16 mm (c) width of the flange of the beam
UKPSC JE Civil 24.12.2023 Paper-I (d) length of weld required for connecting the
Ans. (c) Gusseted bases– For section with gusseted seat angle to the coloumn flange
bases, the gusset plates, angle, cleats, stiffeners, DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
fastening, etc in combination with the bearing area of Ans. (c) : Unstiffened seated connection:–
the shaft shall be sufficient to take the loads, bending Usntiffened seated connection is a type of is a type of
moments and reactions on the base plate without connection that connects two angles (cornier or L
exceeding specified strength. All the bearing surfaces profile). Bolt control, weld control and plate control are
shall be machined to ensure perfect contact. performed automatically according to the placement of
• The thickness of gusset plate should not be less than the elements of the connection.
12 mm in any case. • Length of the welded unstiffened seated connection
54. Minimum number of battens required in a depends upon width of flange of the beam.
battened column is 58. Which of the following section will be preferred
(a) 2 (b) 3 for a column ?
(c) 4 (d) 6 (a) ISLB (b) ISMB
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 31/07/2021 (c) ISWB (d) ISHB
Ans. (c) Battening is the method of connecting element ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
of the built-up column. Ans. (d) Types of structural steel section-
• Batten members are subjected to shear force and Rolled steel Section( Beam section)– It is the most
bending moment. efficient and economical section
• Batten plate should be provided symmetrically . ISJB-Indian standard junior beams(used in purlin)
• Minimum number of batten to be used in a built-up ISLB - IS light weight beams (used in beam)
column is equal to 4. ISMB - IS medium weight beams (used in floor beams
55. As per IS : 800 - 2007, fixed column bases and and most appropriate for steel girder.)
their anchor bolts should be designed to ISWB - IS wide flange beams (used in column.)
withstand a moment of _____ times the full ISHB - IS heavy beam (used for column)
plastic moment capacity of the column section. Rolled steel channels sections– It consist one web and
(a) 1.20 (b) 1.25 two flanges.
(c) 1.33 (d) 1.5 ISJC - IS junior channel
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 ISLC - IS light channel
Ans. (a) : As per IS 800 : 2007 Cl 12.12.1- ISMC - IS medium weight channel (sloping flange)
Fixed column bases and their anchor bolts should be ISMCP -IS medium weight channel (Parallel Lange)
designed to withstand a moment of 1.2 times the full Rolled Steel Angle Section–
plastic moment capacity of the column section. The ISA - Indian standard equal leg angle
anchor bolts shall be designed to withstand the ISA - Indian standard unequal leg angle
Design of Steel Structures 493 YCT
ISBA - IS bulb angle (Mostly used in ship buildings) 5. Maximum shear 0.45 fy 2.22
Rolled Steel T-section- It is used to connect the plate stress
with flat strip in a rectangular tank. 6. Bearing stress 0.75 fy 1.33
ISNT - Indian standard normal T- bar 7. Stress in slab base 185 -
ISLT - IS light T- bar 60. As per IS : 800-2007, under working stress
ISJT - IS junior T - bar design, the permissible bending stress for
ISHT- IS wide flange T- bar laterally supported steel beams of plastic and
ISST - IS long leg T- bar compact sections shall NOT exceed, where fy is
Note:- the characteristic strength steel:
ISSC - IS special channel. (a) 0.86 fy (b) 0.66 fy
ISPG - IS gate channel.
(c) 0.55 fy (d) 0.75 fy
• By ISLB-300, maximum bending stress is resisted by
flange & maximum shear stress by web. ISRO Tech. Asst. Civil 20.09.2023
Rolled steel tube- It is available in the forms of light, Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
medium and heavy section. 61. The effective length ratio (K) of compression
• It is used as column, strut or tension member in members in trusses shall be taken as
tubular trusses. (a) 0.7 – 0.85 (b) 0.85 –1.0
• It has equal radius of gyration in all direction. (c) 0.7 – 1.0 (d) None of the above
Rolled steel bar- MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
ISRO - Indian standard round bar Ans. (c) : According to IS 800 : 2007, clause 7.2.4
ISSQ - Indian standard square bar In the case of bolted, riveted or welded trusses and
Note- braced frames, the effective length, KL, of the
• If dia. of steel bar - φ ≤ 6 mm - called wire. And if - compression members shall be taken as 0.7 to 1.0 times
φ > 6 mm - called bar the distances between centres of connects, depending on
Rolled steel flat– the degree of end restraint provided.
• Flat is used in the design of lacing (in built up members), 62. Which code provides guidelines for calculating
batten and tension member. It is also used as ties. loads on steel structures in India?
Width of flat ≤ 400 mm (a) IS 1893 (b) IS 456
Rolled steel plate and sheet– (c) IS 800 (d) IS 875
Plate - Width ≥ 900 mm MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
Sheet - Thickness < 5 mm
Use-Shells, Rectangular and circular steel tank and Ans. (d) :
steel chimneys. IS 875 – Code of practice for structural safety
• Box Section is used in column. of buildings: Loading standards
Note- IS : 1893-1975– Earthquake loads shall be assumed.
• Minimum thickness of main steel member- IS : 456 – Code of practice for plain and
(i) ≮ 6 mm in case of normal condition. reinforced concrete
(ii) ≮ 8 mm in case of exposed to weathering. IS 808:1989 – Dimension for hot rolled steel beam,
column, channel and angle section
59. The design criterion for laterally supported IS 816:1969 – Code of practice for use of metal arc
steel beams with respect to crippling welding for general construction in
recommends that the maximum permissible mild steel (first revision)
bearing stress should NOT exceed ______ times
of the yield stress of steel (fy). 63. When the effect of wind or earthquake load is
(a) 0.66 (b) 0.80 taken into account, the permissible stress in the
(c) 0.40 (d) 0.75 steel structural member may be increased by
(a) 20% (b) 25%
SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning)
(c) 33% (d) 40%
Ans. (d) : As per IS 800: 2000, permissible stresses
MPPSC AE Civil Paper 8 October 2023
in steel structures members:
Permissible Ans. (c) : IS 800:2007 cl 11.1.4 When wind and
S. Factors earthquake loads are considered, permissible stress in
Types of stress stress
No. of safety steel structures are increased by 33.33% . For anchor
(MPa)
1. Axial tensile stress 0.60 fy 1.67 bolt and construction load this increase shall be limited
2. Max. axial 0.60 fy 1.67 to 25% such Increase in allowable stresses should not
compression be considered if the wind or seismic load is the major
stress load in the load combination (such as acting along with
3. Bending tensile 0.66 fy 1.515 dead load alone).
and compressive 64. As per IS code 875, the minimum imposed load
stress on roof trusses shall be how much?
4. Average shear 0.40 fy 2.50 (a) 0.9kN/m2 (b) 0.75 kN/m2
2
stress (c) 0.5 kN/m (d) 0.4 kN/m2
DDA Architectural Assistant 28-08- 2023
Design of Steel Structures 494 YCT
 Ans. (d) : Imposed loads on various types of roofs- members while the vertical member tackle compressive
Uniformly forces.
distributed Minimum Warren Truss– It contains a series of isosceles
Types of roof imposed load imposed load triangles or equilateral triangle to increase the span
measured of measured plan length of the truss bridge, vertical are added for warren
plan area truss.
1. Flat sloping How truss– The design of how truss is the opposite of
or curved roof Pratt truss in which the diagonal members are flange in
with slopes up the direction opposite to that of a Pratt truss.
to and 67. According to IS-800, In designing of purlin, the
including 10 width of purlin should not be less than-
degrees (a) L/90 (b) L/80
(a) Access 1.5 kN/m2 3.75 kN (c) L/60 (d) L/70
provided MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I
(b) Access not 0.75 kN/m2 1.9 kN Ans. (c) : The width of angle purlins should not be less
provided except than (1/60)th of the length of purlins.
for • The depth of angle purlins in the plane approximate to
maintenance the incidence of the maximum load or maintenance
2. Sloping roof For roof Subject to a component of the load should not be less than (1/45)th
of the length of purlins.
with slope membrane minimum of
greater than 10 sheets or 0.4 kN/m2 • The maximum bending moment in a purlin is taken at
degree purlins - 0.75 wL
M max =
kN/m2 less 0.02 10
kN/m2 for Where,
every degree w = Total uniformly distributed load on the purlins
increase in including wind load
slope over 10 L = The distance centre to centre of the rafters
degree 68. The parallel chord trusses used to span long
3. Curved roof (0.75-0.52 ϒ2) Subject to a lengths and to carry flat roofs in buildings or
with slope of kN/m2 minimum of floors of steel bridges are called
line obtained by 0.4 kN/m2 (a) north light trusses (b) fink trusses
joining (c) fan trusses (d) lattice girders
springing point DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
to the crown Ans. (d) : Lattice girders– It is a two or more
with the dimensional metallic structure comprising an upper
horizontal chord a lower chord and continuous diagonal which are
greatest than 10 welded are mechanically assembled to the chord in
degree order to obtain a shear bearing joint. If standard lattice
65. The characteristic imposed loads are given in: girders are used the plate has a height between 80 and
(a) IS 875 (Part I) (b) IS 875 (Part II) 340 mm.
(c) IS 875 (Part III) (d) IS 875 (Part V) 69. The wind load on a steel truss for an industrial
JKSSB Draftsman 24.09.2023 building will depend upon
Ans. (b) : Imposed loads– Imposed loads are also (a) Only location of the structure
known as live loads. Imposed loads are temporary, (b) Only shape of the structure
changeable or dynamic loads acting upon a structure. (c) One height of the structure
IS : 875 in the following five parts– (d) More than one of the above
Part 1- Dead loads MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
Part 2- Imposed loads
Ans. (d) Wind load– The wind load is one of the most
Part 3- Wind loads
important loads that an engineer has to deal with and is
Part 4- Snow loads
also most difficult to evaluate properly.
Part 5- Special loads and load combination.
Design wind velocity (Vz) = k1, k2, k3, Vb
66. Which truss design typically consists of Where,
diagonal members that slope towards the
center and are slanted in both directions? k1 = Risk coefficient
(a) Howe Truss (b) K Truss k2 = Terrain height and structure
(c) Pratt Truss (d) Warren Truss k3 = Topography factor
JSSC JDLCCE JE 16/10/2023 (Civil) 70. Which member of industrial building has
Ans. (c) : Pratt truss– It is characterized by having its maximum deflection as span/180, under
diagonal members (except the end diagonals) stinted live/wind load with vertical deflection?
down towards the middle of the bridge span. (a) Rafter supporting (b) Gantry
Under such as structural arrangement, when subjected (c) Cantilever span (d) Simple span
to external loads tension is induced in diagonal DDA JE 18/10/2023 (Shift-III)
Design of Steel Structures 495 YCT
 Ans. (a) : As per IS 800 : 2007- (i) Wind pressure on left side
Design Maximum
Member Supporting
Load Deflection
Rafter Profiled Span/180
Supporting Metal
Rafte Sheeting
Live Plastered Span/240
Load Sheeting
/Wind Purlins and Elastic Span/150
load Girts cladding
Brittle Span/180
cladding
Lateral Elastic Height/150
deflection cladding (ii) Wind pressure on right side
in column
Cantilever Elastic Span/120
span cladding
Brittle Span/150
Cladding
Live Simple Elastic Span/240
Load span cladding
Brittle Span/300
cladding
71. The wind pressure on the structure of self-
supporting steel chimney ______.
(a) Acts vertically (b) Acts horizontally
(c) Does not exist (d) Acts inclined
JSSC JDLCCE JE 14/10/2023 (Civil)
Ans. (b) : Stress distribution diagram at the base of a
circular chimney– The wind pressure on the structure of self-supporting
(a) The chimney is subjected to direct compressive steel chimney act horizontally.
stress only. 72. An industrial building, having a roof slope of 70
on which access is provided, then for the
analysis of an industrial building, what live
loads should be assumed?
(a) 2.5 kN/m2 (b) 1.5 kN/m2
2
(c) 0.4 kN/m (d) 0.75 kN/m2
DDA JE 18/10/2023 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : As per IS 800 : 2007
Type of Roof Load
Flat, sloping or Access 1.5 kN/m2
curved roof with provided
slopes up to and Access not 0.75 kN/m2
including 10° provided
except for
maintenance
Stress distribution diagram Sloping roof with slope greater than For roof
(b) Wind pressure is P acting on the left and right side 10 degree membrane
of the chimney. sheets or
purlin
Weight of chimney (W) 0.75kN/m2
σd =
Area of chimney (A) less
0.02kN/m2
M for every
σb =
Z degree
σmax = σd + σb increase in
slope over
σmin = σd – σb 100
Design of Steel Structures 496 YCT
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING Curvature : The curvature of mountain track is
th very sharp. Curvatures of up to 40o are normally
On 16 April 1853, the first passenger train in India
adopted.
run between Boribunder (Bombay) and Thane a
distance of 34 km. Alignment : Mountain alignment is quite zigzag and
not strait in order to gain heights easily. The type of
George Stephenson is the father of railway.
alignments normally followed are zigzag, switch-
First train run in the world on 17th September 1825
back, and spiral.
between Stockton and Darlington.
Total Number of Railway Zones- 18 Types of survey
17th zone - Kolkata metro (Oldest metro in India) 1. Traffic survey
18thzone- Southern coast railway zone 2. Reconnaissance survey
(Vishakhapatnam) 3. Preliminary survey
4. Final location survey
ALIGNMENT
Alignment of railway line refers to the direction and Earthwork for formation
position given to the centre line of the railway track Type of Width of formation (m)
Gauge formation
on the ground in the horizontal and vertical planes. Single line Double line
Basic requirement of an ideal alignment BG
Embankment 6.10 10.82
Purpose of the new railway line, it include strategic Cutting 5.40 10.21
considerations, political consideration, developing of Embankment 4.88 8.84
backward areas and shortening existing rail lines. MG
Cutting 4.27 8.23
Integrated development
Economic considerations GAUGES
Maximum safety and comfort Gauge is defined as the minimum distance between
Aesthetic consideration. two rails.
Selection of good alignment Gauge is measured as the clear minimum distance
between the running faces of the two rails.
Obligatory or controlling points : These are the
points through which the railway line must pass due
to political, strategic and commercial reasons as well
as due to technical consideration.
Important cities and towns
Major bridge sites and river crossings
Existing passes and saddles in hilly terrain
Topography of the country : The alignment of a
new railway line depends upon the topography of
the country it traverses.
Plane alignment
Types of rail gauge Width or gauge
Valley alignment distance (m)
Cross-country alignment
Broad Gauge 1.676
Mountain alignment
Meter Gauge 1.0
• Zig-zag line method Narrow Gauge 0.762
• Switch-back method Standard Gauge 1.435
• Spiral or complete loop method Light /Feeder Track Gauge 0.610
Mountain railways
Gradients : The gradients of mountain tracks are Note-
very steep. Normally tracks with gradients of 3% or In India Metros use standard gauge.
more are considered mountain tracks. • Selection of gauge-
Gauge : Normally narrow gauge with gauge widths In comparison to meter gauge and narrow gauge,
of 762 mm or 610 mm are adopted for mountain broad gauge provides greater stability, greater axle
railways. load and where speed > 100 kmph etc.
Transportation Engineering 497 YCT
 Narrow gauge is used in a hilly areas. Types of sleeper-
Cost of construction increase with the gauge width. 1. Wooden Sleepers (It is the best sleeper)
For heavier loads and high speed wider gauge are Only this types of sleeper can be provided over the
used. rail bridge and also at the rail joint and track
Gradient of mountain tracks are very steep which is circuiting.
greater than 3%. Life- 12 - 15 years
PERMANENT WAY • Soft wood- Chir, Deodar, etc.
The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers with the • Hard wood- Sal, Teak, Kail etc.
help of fixtures and fastening and resting on ballast Composite Sleeper Index (C.S.I.)-
and sub-grade is called permanent way or railway It measures the mechanical strength of timber.
track. S+10H S=Strength Index
It is in semi-elastic condition due to ballast cushion. CSI =
20 H = Hardness Index
Minimum CSI prescribed in I.R-
Types of Sleeper Min. CSI
Track Sleeper 783
Crossing Sleeper 1352
Bridge Sleeper 1455

2. Steel Sleepers.
On curves superelevation is maintained by ballast. To prevent creep in rails it is fixed with four anchor
Formation level of railway track kept 60 cm above keys.
the flood level. The gradient is as gentle as possible. Life- 40 - 50 years
Permanent way should have enough lateral strength About 27% of steel sleepers used by Indian Railway.
and shocks absorbing property. 3. Cast Iron Sleepers-
Layers of ballast rest on the prepared sub grade is Types- Pot or Bowl , Plate box, CST-9 and Duplex.
called the formation. Central Standard Trail (CST)-9 sleepers are widely
Formation width as per Indian standard used in India.
Particulars Recommended dimension in (m) Pot or bowl sleeper is not suitable for curves.
B.G. M.G. N.G. Slope About 45% of cast iron sleeper used by Indian
Embankment- Railway.
Width of bank: Life- 30 - 45 years
(a) Single line 6.10 4.88 3.70 2 : 1 4. Pre-stressed Concrete Sleepers.
(b) Double bank 10.67 8.53 7.32 Pre-tensioning method is used to sleeper
construction.
Cutting- (Initially these sleepers are costly but cheap in the
Width of cutting excluding
long term)
side drains
For the mass production Hoyer system is used
(a) Single line 5.49 4.27 3.35 1.5 : 1 Pre-stressed concrete is the best material for sleeper.
(b) Double line 10.06 7.93 7.01 Size of Sleeper-
SLEEPERS Gauge Size (cm) Bearing Area per
Sleepers are member generally laid transverse to the Sleeper (in sq.ft.)
rails on which the rails are supported and fixed, to B.G. 275×25×13.0 5.00
transfer the loads from rail to the ballast and sub- M.G. 180×20×11.5 3.33
grade. N.G. 150×18×11.5 2.25
Sleeper should have anti sabotage and anti theft
features. Comparison b/w Different types of sleeper-
Wooden Steel Conc.
Function of sleepers- Property
Sleeper
C.I. sleeper
Sleeper Sleeper
(i) Holding rails to correct gauge and alignment. Depends
(ii) Provides a firm and even support to rails. Cost of sleeper Low Medium High upon
Design
(iii) Elastic medium b/w rail and ballast and absorb
12-15 for
vibrations & shocks. untreated
(iv) Provides longitudinal and lateral stability to the Life (years) 30-45 40-50 40-60
20-25 for
permanent way. treated
(v) To maintain the track at proper grade. Higher than
Maintenance
other Minimum Moderate Moderate
(vi) Distribute the weight from rails over a sufficient cost
sleeper
large area of ballast. Not very Not very
Elasticity Good Not good
(vii) Maintain the head of rails in sloppy condition good good
according to coning of wheel. Scrap value very less Highest next to C.I –

Transportation Engineering 498 YCT

 Sleeper density and spacing- Ballast suitable for track- Granite (best), Basalt, Trap.
Number of sleepers used per rail length on the track Function-
is called sleeper density. i. Provides, plane and elastic base for sleepers.
Number of sleepers per rails varies from ii. For effective drainage of water.
(M + 3) to ( M + 6) iii. To prevent the growth of vegetation inside track.
For B.G it is taken as (M + 5) to (M + 7) iv. To resist lateral, longitudinal and vertical
Where, M = Length of rail in meter displacements of the track.
Minimum spacing- v. To protect the surface of formation from direct
Spacing of sleeper exposure to the sun, frost or rain.
= Width of sleeper + 2 × depth of ballast.
Sleeper B.G. (mm) M.G. (mm)
Standard Size of Ballast for Sleepers-
Types of Sleeper Size of Ballast
Wooden 300 250 Wooden and CI pot Sleeper 50 mm
Metal 380 330 CST 9 and Through Sleeper 40 mm
Points and Crossing 25 mm
Maximum spacing- 500 mm
Concrete Sleeper 45 mm
Material Required per km. of Railway
Track- Ballast Ballast provided at the bottom of sleeper.
cushion Minimum cushion (15-20 cm).
1000
(i) No. of Rails/km = ×2 Crib ballast Ballast b/w two sleepers.
Length of railin (m) Shoulder Ballast provided at the ends of sleeper.
(ii) Weight of Rails in Tonn/km ballast
wt.of rail per m. Packing It is the process of ramming the ballast
= No. of rails ×Length of rails ×
1000 underneath the sleeper.
(iii) No. of Sleeper/km • Min. packing space b/w two
1 sleeper- 30-35 cm
= No.of rail / km × sleeper density Boxing It is the process of filling the ballast
2
around the sleepers.
(iv) No. of Fish Plate = 2 × No. of rails/km
• 2 Fish plate per joint Depth of ballast
• 4 Fish bolt per joint S− W
(v) No. of Bearing Plates = 2×No. of sleeper/km D=
2
Note-
Where, S = Spacing of sleeper
A CST–9 sleepers is combination of plate, pot and
box sleeper. W = Width of sleeper
Adzing of Sleeper- Depth and Quantity of Ballast for Various Gauge-
The process of cutting the wooden sleeper at a slope Gauge Depth of Width of Quantity
of 1 IN 20 at the rail seat before laying is known as Ballast ballast per/m length
adzing of sleeper. This system provides a cant in B.G. 25 - 30 cm 3.35 m 1.036 m3
rail. M.G. 15 - 20 cm 2.25 m 0.71 m3
Generally adzing is done for wooden sleeper. N.G. 15 cm 1.83 m 0.53 m3
Adzing is required for smooth and comfortable
journey. RAILWAY TRACK GEOMETRICS
It controls lateral bending stresses due to eccentric Rails
loading. Rails are made up of high carbon steel that resist
It reduce wear and tear at inner edge of rail and on wear and tear.
tread of wheel. Note-
Hammer test and falling weight test is compulsory
for testing of rails.
Manganese steel is used for rail construction.
Load transfer step-
Moving load of locomotive → Rails → Sleepers →
Ballast → Soil.
BALLAST Note-
It is a layer of granular material used under and Ordinary rail are made by high carbon steel.
around the sleepers to distributes the wheel load Rails on point and crossing is made by medium
from the sleepers to the formation (subgrade) carbon steel.
facilitating easy drainage of water. Metro and mono rails are made of manganese steel.

Transportation Engineering 499 YCT

 Types of Rails- Track type Length of rail
B.G. Tracks 12.80 ≃ 13 m
M.G., N.G. Tracks 11.89 ≃ 12 m
Note-
Rails are used in India-
45 kg - for B.G.
30 kg - for M.G.
Calculation of max. axle load-
Wt. of rail in tonnes W 1
= R =
Wt. of axle load in tonnes WL 510
TRACK GEOMETRIC DESIGN
For track to have proper geometric design in order to
1. Double Headed Rails- ensure the safe and smooth running of trains at
First rail section designed by Indian railway. maximum permissible speeds, carrying the heaviest
• It can be inverted and re-used. axle loads.
2. Bull Headed Rails- Safe Speed of trains on Curves-
Dimension of bull headed rails is more than its foot. A. Based on Martins Formula-
It is most suitable at point and crossing and where 1. For Transition Curve (For low speed < 100 kmph)
lateral loads acts.
3. Flat Footed Rails- (a) For B.G & M.G. V = 4.35 R − 67
• Known as Vignole's rail. (b) For N.G V = 3.65 R − 6 V is in km/hr.
• Bearing plate are used b/w sleepers and rails.
R = Radius of curve
• Now a days used in Indian railway and most popular. 2. For Non-Transition curve-
• Neither chairs nor key is required to fix them with (For low speed < 100 kmph)
sleepers. (a) For B.G. & M.G.
• Most suitable due to stability, economy and strength.
V = 0.80 × Speed Calculated in B.G.& M.G.

or V = 3.48 R − 67

(b) For N.G. V = 2.92 R − 6

3. For High Speed Trains-
V = 4.58 R for BG only.
B. Based on Superelevation-
For Transition Curves-
(i) For B.G. V = 0.27 (Ca + Cd )R

(ii) For M.G. V = 0.347 (Ca + Cd )R

Note-
Where,
Height is the largest dimension in rail section.
Ca = Actual cant in 'mm'
Flat footed rails are designated by Weight of
Cd = Cant deficiency in 'mm'
rails/unit length and it is two types.
S.N. Types Suitability (iii) For N.G. V = 3.65 R − 6
1. 52 kg/m or 52 MR Locomotive speed < 130 C. Speed From the Length of Transition Curve-
km/h (a) For speed upto 100 km/hr.
2. 60 kg/m or 60 MR Locomotive speed < 160 134L 134L
km/h Vmax. = or (Which is minimum)
Ca Cd
60 kg/m and 52 kg/m types of rail section are more
economical and adopted for B.G. tracks. Where, L = Length of transition curve based on rate
of change of cant
Length of Rail- (b) For high speed trains (speed > 100 km/hr)-
Rail joint is the weakest parts in rail path so it
should be kept in mind as soon as possible number 198L 198L
Vmax = or Which is minimum
of joint should be kept minimum in rail path. Ca Cd
Transportation Engineering 500 YCT
 Relation b/w Radius & Degree of Curve- Maximum value of cant (emax)-
Type of gauge < 120 kmph > 120 kmph
1720
D= For 30 m chain B.G. 16.5 cm 18.5 cm
R
M.G. 10.0 cm -
1150 N.G. 7.60 cm -
D= For 20 m chain
R Cant Deficiency(Cd)-
Where, R = Radius of curve Cant deficiency becomes an inevitable consideration
Gauge On Plain Track On Turnout on a main line and branch line moving in same
Max. Min. Max. Min. direction.
degree radius degree radius Cant deficiency = X1 – X a
of curve (m) of curve (m)
B.G. 10° 175 8° 218
M.G. 16° 169 15° 116
N.G. 40° 44 17° 103
Group Min. Radius (m)
A 4000
B 3000
Xa = Actual cant as per average speed
C, D, E 2500
X1 = Cant required for a high speed train.
Versine of Curve-
e th = eact + C d
Where, eth = Theoretical cant
2 eact = Actual cant
L
V= Permissible limit of cant deficiency-
8R
Type of gauge < 100 kmph > 100 kmph
B.G. 7.6 cm 10.0 cm
Grade Compensation on Curve- M.G. 5.1 cm -
In order to avoid resistances beyond the allowable N.G. 3.8 cm -
limits, the gradient are reduced on curves. This Equilibrium or Average Speed (Vavg.)-
reduction is known as grade compensation. (a) For speed > 50 kmph
Gauge Per degree of curve, min. of
3
 70   × Vmax
Broad Gauge 0.04% or   Vav = minimum of  4
R Safe speed by martins formula
Meter Gauge  52.5 
0.03% or   (b) For speed < 50 kmph
 R 
Narrow Gauge  35  V
0.02% or   Vavg. = minimum or  max
R Safe speed by martins formula
Superelevation or cant- Transition Curve-
• Superelevation/Cant (m)- Transition curve is an easement curve which is a
G = Gauge distance in mm curve of varying radius throughout of its length. It is
GV 2 usually provided in a shape of cubic parabola at each
e= V = Kmph
127R ends of circular curve.
R = Radius of curve in m Bernoulli's lemniscate satisfy the requirements of
• Equilibrium cant- transition curve up to deflection angle of 300.
2 Cubic parabola is used by Indian railway.
GVavg.
e' = V =Average speed x3
127R avg. • Equation of cubic parabola- y =
6RL
Note-
Curvatures of up to 40° are normally adopted for • Deflection Angle- θ = tan -1  1 tan φ 
 
hills or mountain railway. 3 
When a train passes on curves which have no super
elevation it will give thrust on inner side of outer • Spiral Angle- φ = tan -1  x 
2

rail.  2RL 

Transportation Engineering 501 YCT

 L2 Extra Clearance on platforms-
• Shifts- S = (a) If situated inside of curve
24R
Ecl = E2 – 41 mm.
• Curve lead = 2GN
(b) If situated outside the curve
• Crossing number, N = cot α Ecl = E1 – 25 mm.
• Length of transition curve as per Indian railway
13(B + L) 2
code- Gauge widening on curves, We = cm
R
0.073Ca .Vmax
 Lap of flange, L (m) = 0.02 h 2 + D.h
L = max .of 0.073 Cd .Vmax
7.20 C Where,
 a
B = Rigid wheel base (m)
OR, For B.G., B = 6 m
Maximum of For M.G., B = 4.88 m
(i) As per railway code R = Radius of curve in m.
L = 4.4 R Where, L & R in m h = Depth of wheel flange below rails (cm)
(ii) Based on rate of change of radial acceleration D = Wheel dia. (cm)
(i) Crossing Lead-
3.28V 2
L= V in m/sec.  α+β
R CL = x cos α + (G − d − x sin α ) cot  
(iii) At the rate of change of superelevation of 1 in 360.  2 
(iv) Rate of change of cant deficiency, say 2.5 cm is not G
exceeded. (ii) Radius, R = R 0 −
2
Extra Lateral Clearance on Curves-
G − d − x sin α
(a) Over throw or extra clearance needed at centre Where, R 0 =
cos β − cos α
C2
8R Cross over-
Two turn out is provided on two tracks joint with a
(b) End throw or extra clearance needed at end- straight portion between two turnoffs.
L2 C2 Length of one turn out = CL = 2GN
−
8R 8R Length of straight portion of cross over along the
Where, track.
L = Length of bogie
R = Radius of curve S = (D – G)N – G 1+ N 2
C = C/C distance b/w two bogie Overall length of turnout,
H.e = 4GN + (D – G)N – G 1+ N 2
(c) Lean, L =
G Where,
Where, H = Height of vehicle D = C/c distance between two tracks
e = Super elevation G = Gauge
(d) Total extra lateral clearance- α = Crossing angle
(i) Required at the outside of curve Coning of wheel-
L −C
2 2 Surface of wheel are made in cone shape at an
end throw, E1 = inclination of 1 IN 20 and the same slope is provided
8R in the rails, this is known as coning of wheels.
(ii) Required at the inside of curve- This slope of wheel counteract the centrifugal force
E 2 = Overthrow + Lean + Sway acting on the train.
It enables the train wheel to cover different distance
C2 h.e h.e along the inner and outer curves simultaneously.
= + +
8R G 4G
Where,
R = Radius of curve in 'mm'.
Gauge Length of Height of C/C Distance of
Bogie, L (mm) Bogie, h (mm) Bogie, C (mm)
B.G. 21340 4025 14785
M.G. 19510 3355 13715

Transportation Engineering 502 YCT

On Curved Track- 2. Tongue/Switch Rails-
Outer rail distance > inner rail It is the tapered movable rail, connected at its thick
This extra distance of outer rail is adjusted by end to the running rail. Ends of tongue rails are
coning of wheel. When the locomotive travels on thinner towards point.
curve, a centrifugal force acts on it. Due to this outer Pair of tongue and stock rails with the necessary
wheel moves outward and has to travel longer
distance as compared to inner wheel. connections and fittings forms a switch.
Purpose- 3. Stretcher Bar-
i. To keep the train in its central position of the rails. Toes of both tongue rails are connected together by
ii Coning does not provide any lateral movement on a means of stretcher bars so that each tongue moves
straight track. through the same distance.
iii. To avoid discomfort of the passengers It is used to maintain two tongue rails at exact
iv. To reduce wear and tear of rails on curve distance.
v. To avoid damage the inner faces of rails. 4. Lead-
vi. Reduce the slipping of wheels. It is the distance between heel of switch and crossing.
BRANCHING OF TRACKS 5. Heel divergence/Clearance-
Point and crossing are provided to help transfer It is distance between running face or gauge face of
railway vehicles from one track to another.
stock rail and tongue rail at heel of switch.
Point or Switch-
Pair of tongue and stock rails with necessary Type of gauge Heel Divergence(d)
connections and fitting form a switch and the set of B.G. 13.3 - 13.7 cm
switches is called point. M.G. 11.7 - 12.1 cm
Turnout - N.G. 9.8 cm
The combination of point and crossing along the 6. Flange way clearance-
lead rail by which a train is diverted from one track It is the minimum distance between adjacent faces of
to another is called turnout. It is provided for safe
movement of trains in either direction on both the stock rail and tongue rail at the heel of switch. It is
tracks. less than heel divergence
Total number of the sleeper at point and crossing For 1:8.5 crossing-6.6 cm, For 1:12 crossing-6.3 cm
depends upon turnout. For BG - 45 mm, For MG - 44 mm.
Types of turnout Total no. of sleepers 7. Switch angle-
1 IN 12 turnouts 70 Angle between the gauge face of stock rail and
1 IN 8.5 turnouts 62 tongue rail.
Arrangement of rails on turnout- Heel divergence
Switch angle, θ =
Length of tongue rail
8.
Throw of switch-
Maximum distance by which the toe of tongue rail
can moves sideway is called throw of switch.
Types of track Throw of switch (cm)
B.G. 9.5 - 11.5
M.G., N.G. 8.9 - 10
9. Crossing angle or crossing number-
If crossing angle is more, then permissible speed
Total length of turnout = Distance b/w end of stock will be less.
rail and heel of crossing. Type of Angle of crossing Speed
Components Numbers crossing (kmph)
Stock rail 2 1 IN 8.5 6°42'35" 16
Tongue or switch rails 2 1 IN 12 4°45'44" 24
Stretcher bars 2 or 4
Lead rails 4 Switch lead-
Check rails 2 Distance from the tangent point to the heel of the
Wing rails 2 switch (TL) measured along the length of the main
Heels Blocks 2 track.
1. Stock Rails- Switch Lead, SL = 2R c .d Rc = Radius of curve
It is a fixed rails in a rail road track against which
the switch rail operates.
R c = 1.5G + 2GN 2 d = Heel divergence
Stock rails are fitted against the tongue rails.
Transportation Engineering 503 YCT
 Crossing or Frog- Cabin It is the station only for the control of the
Junction where two rails cross to permit the wheel station-s track.
flange of railway vehicle from one track to another Gathering A number of parallel siding or branch
track. lines takes off from this track.
Types of crossing- Use- For sorting out the wagons for
1. Square Crossing- Two track cross each other at
different destinations.
right angle. It is avoided because of both wheels of
the axle simultaneously jump. Locomotive The driving unit which hauls the trains.
2. Diamond Crossing, D/C- Examination These pits are constructed in the
When two tracks of the same or different gauge pits locomotive yards for examination of the
cross each other at any angle known as diamond engines from underneath side.
crossing. Coaching It deals with the reception and
Yard dispatching of passenger trains.
Yard-
It is defined as the system of tracks at the station
used for storing, sorting and dispatching the trains.
It is used to control the movements by prescribed
rules, regulation and signals.

It consist 2 acute and 2 obtuse crossing.

Classification-
3. Scissors double crossover- 1. Passenger yard-
For transforming a vehicle from one track to another It provides all the facilities for the safe movement of
track and vice versa. passengers.
Scissor crossover b/w two parallel railway tracks 2. Goods yard-
contains a diamond cross over. A yard in which goods wagons are shunted and
It consists of, 6 acute angle, 2 obtuse angle crossing, sorted for loading and unloading is called a goods
4 pairs of points, check rails and straight length. yards.
3. Locomotive yards-
Locomotives are housed for serving and also for
repairing, watering, reordering, oiling, cleaning etc.
Marshalling yard-
Note-Sequence of train to pass over the turnout from the A railway yard in which trains and other loads are
facing direction- received breaking up, reforming sorted out and new
Toe of switch → Tongue rail → Lead rail → trains are formed and dispatched onwards is called
Crossing. marshalling yards.
Note- Marshalling yard have three function- Reception,
Diamond crossing can also be used on curve.
sorting, and departure.
Gauntlet turnout is used to repairs of main track.
Types-
RAILWAY STATIONS & YARDS
Hump yard Used when trains are required to be
Important Terminology-
pushed against a hump. Artificial hump
Crossing It is a single line railway stations, where
is provided in this system.
stations a loop line is provided to allow a train to
stay and the other to pass. OR Flat yard Where space is limited for the layout of
Station having two lines is called marshalling yards.
crossing station. Gravitational Used in sloppy ground condition.
Flag stations The railway stations without sidings, yard • This is the ideal marshaling yard.
having no fixed signals to control the Railway yard equipment-
movement of the trains.
Turn table-
Junction The stations where railway lines from
three or more stations meet. The lines Turn table is used for changing the direction of
station
may be of same or different gauge. locomotive. It is provided where available space is
Terminal The station at which railway line or one limited for changing the direction of locomotive.
station of its branches terminates. Ex.- Howrah. Triangle-
Way-side All railway stations on the way of the It consists three sides of short length track in triangle
station track, except the junctions and terminal form which is used for changing directions of
stations are called way-side stations. locomotive.
Transportation Engineering 504 YCT
 It is suitable when land area is enough and cheap.

Traverser-
It is an equipment used for shift the position of
locomotive in sideway i.e. shift the locomotive from Warner signal-
on track to a parallel track. It is similar to semaphore except V-notch is
Catch and slip sidings- provided at free end.
These are derailing switches used for stopping the In horizontal position it indicates, the signal ahead in
movement of the out of control locomotive by stop position.
derailing then. Position at 45°, indicates, the signal ahead is at "off"
Buffer stops/Snag dead ends- position and the driver may proceed with speed.
Across the track of a siding at terminal station a Distance from Ist stop signal - 540 m
barrier is provided at the track end so that the Flashing yellow beams are employed as warning
locomotive does not go out of track arrangement is signal.
called buffer stop.
Loading gauge-
It is the gauge upto which a vehicle can be loaded in
order to maintains a minimum clearance b/w the
loaded top of the wagon and the underside of the
structure such as tunnel bridge.
Level crossing-
Railway line and a road cross each other the same
level.
Classification of block & non block station-
Block stations Non-block stations
1. Class A station 1. Class D station
2. Class B station 2. Flag station
3. Class C station Note-
Off caution implies proceed slowly and watch for
RAILWAY SIGNALS next signal.
Detonating signal- Disc signal-
This signal is used when there is foggy and cloudy It is a shunting signal used for low speed moment
weather and visibility is very poor. In foggy during shunting operation.
weather, detonator are kept about 90 m ahead of the It is in form of circular disc with a red band on white
signal. background.
Hand signal-
These signals are in the form of flags (red or green)
fixed to wooden handles that are held by railway
personal assigned this particular duty.
Stop/semaphore signal-
It is a fixed type signal design in such a way that if
there is any failure in working of the apparatus, the
signal will show stop position.
It is placed at height of 7.5 m.
If arm inclined at 45-60o (ON - green) and arm is
horizontal (OFF-red).
Transportation Engineering 505 YCT
Indication of Red band of the disc signal- Interlocking-
Position Indication It is done to prevent the human error when points are
In horizontal position Stop set and signals are lowered or raised by means of
In inclined position Proceed levers. Any manipulation in human error can be lead
Reception signal- to an accident.
This types of signal controls the
reception of train at the station.
These signal are at two locations TRACK MAINTENANCE
the outer signal and home signal. Introduction-
It classified as- All those fittings required for connecting the rails
end to end and for fixing the rails to the sleepers in a
(i) Outer signal-It is first stop/Warner track are known as track fixture and fastening.
signal seen by driver which Rails fasten with sleeper by bolts or spikes are called
indicates the entry of train from rigid fastening.
block section to the station yard.
Minimum distance b/w outer and Important fitting and fastening-
home signal- 580 m Rail to rail jointing Fish plate, bolts-nuts.
(ii) Home signal- Rail to wooden Dog spike, Screw spike, bearing
It is provided just before reaching sleeper fittings plates fang bolts, Chairs.
the platform. Rail to cast iron Tie bars, Cotters.
Location- ≯ 180 m from the start of point or sleeper
switches.
Rail to steel through Loose jaws, keys & liners.
Departure signal- sleeper
This signals controls the departure trains from the
station. Elastic fastenings Elastic or pandrol clip, IRN-202
clip, HM fastening MSI insert
Rubber pad and Nylon liners
Rigid fastening
1. Fish plates-
It is a steel section (45.6 cm length & 20 m thick)
used at rail joint to maintain continuity of rail joints
and to allow thermal expansion and contraction.
It hold two rails in horizontal and vertical both
(i) Starter signal- planes.
It is the Ist departure signal faced by the driver while Rails are joined in longitudinal direction with the
leaving station for destination. No train can leave help of fish plate (2) and fish bolt (4).
platform unless this signal is lowered. Fish bolts are made of high carbon steel.
(ii) Advanced starter signal-
It is the 2nd departure signal which allows train to
enter in block section is called advance starter
signal. It is provided beyond the trailing point and
switches in a railway yard. It is the last stop signal at
the station for train.
Also provided to act as a check even if the starter is
set off.
Repeater or co-acting signal-
When main signal is not continuously visible due to (i) Bone type fish plate-
bridge, tunnels etc. a duplicate signal is provided on Used to connecting flat footed rails.
the same post at a lower level, such a duplicate (ii) Increased depth fish plate-
signal is known as repeater signal.
Used for connecting bull headed rails.
2. Bearing plates-
It is used only in timber sleeper below the flat footed
rail for load distribution.
3. Keys- Used to fix the rails to chair over the sleeper.
4. Chair-
Chairs is made of cast iron and used to support
double headed and bull headed rails on the sleepers.
5. Spikes-
Spikes are used to fix the flat footed rails on the
wooden sleepers.

Transportation Engineering 506 YCT

 Densometer Measure the depression of sleeper or
packing voids under the sleeper ends.
Viseur's Measurement of unevenness of rail
mire top and rectification of alignment
Jim crow To bend the rails
Chisel To cut the rails, bolts, etc.
Sleeper To lift sleepers
tongs
Treadle bar, For interlocking
point lock &
Classification of spikes-
detector
Dog pikes Used to holding flat footed rails
Depth-120.6 mm on wooden sleepers. ERC For fixing or removing the ERCs on
extractor/ PRC sleepers.
Screw/Catch It is costly and has double
Applicator
spikes holding power than dog spikes
Elastic Spikes Holding power is good and
prevents the creep of rail. BRIDGE ENGINEERING
Round spikes Fixing chair of bull headed to It is a structure built to span the physical obstacles
wooden sleepers and for fixing without closing the way underneath, such as a
slide chairs of point and crossing. valley, water body or road for the purpose of
6. Bolts- providing the passage over the obstacle.
Types Use Design of bridges depending on the function of the
bridge and the nature of the area.
Fang bolts Fixing side chairs to the sleepers
Rag bolts To connect longitudinal timber
sleeper or concrete sleeper to the
walls of ash pits.
Hook bolts Fixing the timber sleeper to the top
flange of bridge girders.
Fish bolts To connect the fish plate to the rails.

Elastic fastening
1. Pandrol Clips-
It is also known as elastic rail clip/fastening that is
fit & forget type fixtures and can be used for all
types of sleeper.
It is made of silico manganese springs steel bar with It is a structure which maintains the communication
20.6 mm dia. and is heat treated.
over a physical obstacle. Ex.-Channel, River, Road,
Widely used for concrete sleeper.
Railway line, Valley.
There is no relative movement between rails and
sleeper after using pandrol clip. Bridge Designations-
2. IRN-202 Clip- (i) Bridge-
It is used to hold the track gauge in which rail can be It carries road or railway traffic or a pipe line over
changed without removing the fastening. channel or valley.
Designed to suit two block RCC sleeper. (ii) Over bridge/fly-over-
3. Spring steel clip- It traffic or pipe carries over a communication
Used on pre-stressed concrete sleeper. system like roads or railway is known as over
Tools and its use in railway track- bridge.
Tools Use (iii) Viaduct-
Shovel and Handing the ballast on the sleeper When bridge constructed (small spans) over a
ballast rake valley, dry or wetland, busy locality or forming a
Rail tongs For lifting the rails flyover to carry the vehicular traffic is known as
Claw bars Remove the dog spikes out of viaduct.
sleepers or for lifting track Stages of bridge site selection-
Crow bars To correct track alignment, and lift (i) Reconnaissance survey
the track for surfacing. (ii) Preliminary survey
Cotters To connect CI sleepers to tie bars (iii) Final or detail survey
Transportation Engineering 507 YCT
Codes used for bridge Design- 5. According to life of bridge-
IRC-5 Code of practice for A. Temporary bridge-
specification of bridge (i) Pontoon bridge
IRC-6-2010 Loads & stress (L.S.M.) (ii) Boat bridge
(iii) Flying bridge
IRC-6-2000 Loads & stress (W.S.M) B. Permanent bridge-
(i) RCC bridge
IRC-21 : 2000 Code of practice for cement
(ii) Masonry bridge
concrete (L.S.M)
(iii) Steel bridge
IRC-112 : 2000 Code of practice for
concrete bridge
IRC-22 For composite structure

IRC-78 For foundation design

Classification of bridge-
1. According to Span
Type of Bridge Span (m)
Culvert <6
Minor Bridge 6-30
Major Bridge 30-120 TERMS RELATED TO BRIDGE-
Long span Bridge > 120 (i) Length of bridge-
It is distance between inner faces of two abutments.
2. According to Railway- Clear distance between two piers or abutment and
Major Total waterways more than 18m or pier is known as clear span.
Bridges having any span of clear waterways of If number of spans in bridge is 'n' then
12m or over.
Number of piers , N p = n –1
Minor Total waterways<18m or any span of
Bridges clear waterway <12m. Length of bridge L = n.l + (n – l)b
Where, l = Clear span
3. According to Loading b = Width of span
(a) Permanent Bridge-
(ii) Economic span-
(i) IRC Class A Loading-
The IRC Class A Loading is based on the heaviest It is a span which reduces the overall cost of a
type of commercial vehicle. bridge to be a minimum.
(ii) IRC Class 70R Loading- For most economic span length,
This type loading is adopted on all roads on which Cost of the super structure = Cost of the sub-
permanent bridges and culverts are constructed. structure
(b) Temporary Bridge Shorter span bridge is more cost effective when sub
(i) IRC Class AA Loading- structure cost is about 25% of total cost.
IRC Class AA Loading is based on the heavy Longer span are more economical when sub str.
military vehicles likely to run on certain routes. cost is about 50% of the total cost.
• It is the usual practice to design the structures on
notional & state highway for class AA Loading. (iii) Water way-
(ii) IRC Class B Loading- Area where water flows under a bridge super
This type of loading is used to design temporary structure is known as water way.
bridges like timber bridge etc. Water way b/w two edges of water flow,
• Generally the safe limits of velocity under bridges perpendicular to the abutments is known as linear
is taken as 3.0 m/s. water way.
4. According to location of bridge flooring- Linear water way = Sum of all the clear span
Deck bridge Load bearing floor of a bridge Effective linear waterway,
which carries and spreads the = 8 × width of river bed – Pier width
loads to the main beams.
• It is either of reinforced (iv) Afflux-
concrete or pre-stressed concrete, Phenomena of heading up of water on the upstream
welded steel etc. side of the stream is known as afflux.
Through Bridge flooring is done at the Afflux = Increased water level – Normal water level
bridge bottom of super structure. (v) Free board-
Semi through Flooring lactated at intermediate It is difference b/w high flood level and low flood
bridge level. level under the side of bridge deck.
Transportation Engineering 508 YCT
Free board- Bridge bearings depends on-
Type of bridge Free board (mm) • Loading condition
High level bridge 600 • Bridge span
Arch 300 • Temperature variations
Girder 600 - 1000 • Performance specification
Navigation streams 2500 - 3000 Types of Bearings-
(vi) Formation level- Fixed It allow rotation but restrict translational
The level of flooring of a bridge super structure isbearing movements.
called formation level. • Suitable for spans 12 m
(vii) Piers- Expansion It allow both rotation and translational
It transfer the superstructure load to the soil through
bearing movements.
foundation. it divide the bridge length into suitable
Sliding Used when rotation occurs due to
spans and to resist all horizontal and transverse bearing deflections at the support are negligible.
forces acting on the bridge.
• Suitable for span 12 - 20 m
It is a vertical load bearing member such as an
Roller It is used tin the construction of
intermediate support for adjacent ends of two
bearing reinforced concrete and steel bridges
bridge spans.
structures.
RCC piers shapes- Rectangular, dumb bell,
trestle. • Single roller can accommodate both
rotation and translation movement in
Cross section for piers-
long direction.
Rectangular with triangular edges towards
upstream and down stream. Elastomeric These bearing pads compress on vertical
(viii) Cost- bearing load and accommodate horizontal
rotation and provide lateral shear
The cost of supporting system of one span is equal
movement.
to cost of one pier.
Rocker and Pin at top, facilates rotation and curved
Cost of one span (s) pin bearing surface accommodates translation
R=
Cost of one pier (p) movement.
Overall cost (c) = n.s + (n –1) × p • Suitable for span > 20 m
Where, n = Number of spans Roadway Width-
n – 1 = Number of piers Type of traffic Min. Width
(ix) Abutment- 1. Vehicular traffic
At the both ends of bridges to retain the Single lane 4.25 m
embankment and to carry the vertical and Double lane 7.50 m
horizontal loads from the superstructure to the Multi lane 3.50 m for every
foundation is known as abutment. lane over two lane
(x) Causeway/Irish causeway-
2- Cycles
A small submersible bridge at or above bed level
which will allows flood to pass over it called Without overtaking 2.00 m
causeway. With overtaking 3.00 m
(xi) Weep holes- Maximum Span for different types of Steel
It is provided to drain off water which gets access bridge-
to the earth filling. Bridge Types Maximum
Bearing- span
Bridge bearings are used to transfer forces from the Steel arch bridge 500 m
super structure to the substructure. Steel bow- string girder bridge 240 m
It is a component of a bridge which provides a Steel cable suspension bridge 1200 m
resisting surface between bridges pier and bridges Steel plate girder bridge 30 m
deck. Steel rolled beam bridge 10 m
Functions of bridge bearings- Steel truss bridge 180 m
Bearings mainly transfer two types of loads-
Impact Factors (I)-
(i) Vertical loads such as the structures weight &
For IRC, class A and class B loading-
vehicle load.
(ii) Lateral loads including earthquake & wind loads. A
I=
It permit movements like, rotation & translation in B+L
between girders and pier caps of bridges to Where, L = Span in (m)
accommodate movements such as thermal A, B = Constant
expansion.
Transportation Engineering 509 YCT
 Types of bridges A B (ii) Off-spur tunnels-
RCC bridge 4.5 6.0 It is a short length tunnels to negotiate minor local
Steel bridge 9.0 13.50 obstacles, which can not be avoided by permitted
curves.
Centrifugal Force -
(iii) Slope tunnels-
WV 2 Tunnels constructed in steep hills for economic and
(i) For Road Bridges, C=
12.95R safe operation of roads and railway is known as
W = Live load(kN) slope tunnels.
(iv) Spiral tunnels-
wV 2 This type of tunnel is provided in narrow valley in
(ii) For Railways Bridges, C =
12.95R he form of loops in the interior of mountain so as to
increase the length of tunnel to avoid steep slopes.
w = Equivalent UDL (kN/m length)
Methods of tunneling-
V = Design speed(kmph)
A. IN SOFT ROCK
Type of Bridge Freeboard (a) Without Timber
Arch bridge 30 cm 1. Shield method-
Girder bridge 60-90 cm Suitable for sub aqueous strata
Navigable Rivers 240-300 cm 2. Linear plate method-
High level bridges 60 cm Suitable for sub aqueous strata.
Note- 3. Compressed Air tunneling method-
As per IRC, for high level bridges, the freeboard Most suitable for clays.
should not be less than 600 mm. Free air is provided to keep dry the tunnel.
In compressed air tunneling the volume of free air
provided is 20 ft3/min/ft2 of face area.
TUNNEL ENGINEERING (b) With Timber-
Introduction- 1. Needle Beam method-
Tunnels are defined as the underground passages It is economical method and best suitable for firm
that are used for the transportation purpose. ground and brick lining.
These permit the transmission of passengers and Needle beam length- 5 - 6 m.
freights, or transportation of utilities like water, 2. English method- It uses a large quantity of
sewage or gas etc. timbers.
Note- 3. American method-
A tunnel should not be constructed along strike It is best suitable for large size of railway and
direction. highway tunnels.
Atal tunnel, the world's longest highway tunnel 4. Fore poling method-
(9.02 km) connects Manali with Lahaul spiti It is slow tedious, old method and skilled labor is
(Himanchal Pradesh). required.
Open cut- Inclined poles are used to roof support.
Open cut is the cutting of hill/rock to allow Suitable for running ground.
construction of highway/railway track through it. 5. German and Austrian method
It is like a tunnel but not underground and open to Useful for long tunnels with great depth.
sky. 6. Belgium method-
For highway tunneling is preformed to open cut if In this method, roof arch is constructed before side
open cut depth exceeds 15 m. wall and inverts are built.
It is economically provided up to depth of 18 m. Suitable for all classes of moderately firm or hard
If depth > 18 m (60 feet) tunnel is provided. soil.
7. Army or case method-
It is useful for small tunnels and laying
underground sewer.
B. IN HARD ROCK-
1. Full face method
1. Based on alignment- It is done along the perimeter of the tunnel and best
(i) Saddle or base tunnels- suitable for small cross sectional area of tunnel.
Tunnels constructed in valleys along natural slope is 2. Heading method-
known as saddle tunnels. Its slope do not exceed the It is used when tunnel is very large and quality of
ruling gradient. rock in not good.
Transportation Engineering 510 YCT
3. Drift method- (ii) Marking tunnel obligatory points on the
Firstly it is carried out in smaller section and then topographical maps.
widened. It is also useful for ventilation purpose. (iii) Driving lines between the fixed obligatory points.
4. Pilot method- (iv) Marking portal points with concrete pillars on the
It is used for removing muck from main tunnel and ground.
also use for ventilation, lightening in main tunnel.
5. Heading and bench method-
Sequence of operation in tunnel
This types of section is used for very large cross construction-
section and for unstable bed of rock. Drilling → Blasting → Mucking → Placing of
Drilling and mucking both are possible at a time. Steel → Placing of concrete
Heading and Benching- Components of shield in tunneling-
Heading is the top portion of tunnel while benching 1. Skin or outer shell
is the bottom portion. 2. Cutting edge
Heading provides information during tunnel
3. propelling jacks
construction.
4. Hood, Tail
6. Perimeter/German method-
In this method excavation carried out along the 5. Inner box structure
perimeter of periphery of the section. 6. Pockets
7. Cantilever car dump- Trimmers-
Note- It is use fort he short holes drilled around the
The explosive used for tunneling in soft rocks is periphery of a shaft or tunnel that break or trim the
ammonia dynamite. sides of the excavation to the shape and size
Railway tunnels, are generally polycentric. required.
Method of tunneling in running ground- Note-
1. Needle beam method Tunnel alignment is carried out by Triangulation.
2. Flying arch method Weisbach triangle method is used to connect two
3. Linear plate method ends of an underground tunnel.
Cross section adopted for tunnels- In order to maintain desired shape of tunnel the c/s
1. D section or segmental roof section must be checked at regular interval of 2 - 3 m.
Suitable for subways or navigation tunnels.
Driving Drift-
Its shape vertical side with a flat floor.
It is the part of tunnel c/s excavated for the entire
2. Circular section -
length of tunnel.
Suitable for heavy internal or external radial
pressure. It provides greatest cross sectional area Drift provides complete information before tunnel
for least perimeter. construction.
It is most desirable section Mucking-
3. Rectangular section- The process of removing blasted debris or excavated
Suitable for hard rocks. soil from the tunnel or shaft is called mucking.
4. Egg shaped section- There is two methods of mucking (i) Hand mucking
Its bottom shape, maintain the required self (ii) Machine mucking.
cleaning velocity in dry and storm weather flow. Time required for mucking and hauling = (1/2 – 1/3)
It is provided at least cross section area at the of total time of tunnel construction.
bottom.
Used for carrying sewage.
Hauling-
Hauling is done to avoid undue delay in other
5. Horse shoe section -
operations. Now a days it is done by electrically
Best suited for traffic purpose and suitable for soft
rocks. driven cars.
It is used for providing more working space. Scaling-
6. Polycentric section- It is the process of removing of loose pieces of rock
Useful for railway tunnels adhering to tunnel surface after blasting operation.
7. Elliptical- Tunnel lining-
Suitable for softer material and used for carrying Finishing touch given to the cross section of tunnel
water. is called lining.
Surveys of tunnels- Min. thickness - 230 mm.
For surveying of tunnels following activities It is categories in following types-
involved- 1. Primary lining-
(i) Preliminary setting of the tunnel on the It is used to stabilize the tunnel surface before the
topographical survey of Indian maps. permanent lining.
Transportation Engineering 511 YCT
2. Temporary lining- METHODS OF VENTILATION IN
It support the roof and wall of tunnel during TUNNELS-
construction. A. Natural ventilation-
3. Permanent lining- (a) Permanent ventilation-
Provided into soft ground. It is given after construction of tunnel
Thickness of lining- B. Mechanical ventilation-
T = 82D mm (b) Temporary ventilation-
D = Dia. of tunnel Given during the construction.
(i) Blowing air (Blow in) method
Note-
(ii) Exhausting air (Blow out) method
According to thumb rule, thickness is taken as 25
(iii) Combination of blow in and blow out method (most
mm/300 mm bore dia.
efficient method).
Shaft- Note
An underground vertical or inclined passageway or Rate of fresh air provided during construction-
well dug along the alignment of tunnel is called 6-14 m3/min./person
shaft. It is also helps in additional access, muck
removal and natural ventilation in tunnels.
Lightening-
For proper efficiency in working area, satisfactory
intensity of light = 260 lumen/m2.

Dust Control in Tunnel-

Silicosis is a fatal lung disease caused by breathing
Design of shaft support- in silica dust found in natural rocks.
It depends upon horizontal pressure at several Concentration of dust particles of size 0.5 - 5µ
depths. adjacent to the working face ≯ 450 particles/cm3
Ph = k.W.H Dust controlling method-
1. By using vacuum hood
Where, k = constant (depend on type of soil) 2. By wet drilling
W = Weight of soil (in pound/ft3) 3. By using respirators
H = Depth Note-
Patterns of drilling used for shaft- For the drainage purpose wells are located at
1. Central wedge cut- intervals of 300 - 500 m.
It is most commonly used pattern for square and NATM-
rectangular section. New Austrian Tunneling Method.
2. Pyramid/Wedge/End cut- It is also known as shotcrete or observational
It is used for circular in section. method.
3. Alternate wedge cut- Caisson Disease-
This pattern is adopted for very large shaft. It is caused due to release of nitrogen gas bubbles
TYPES OF SHAFT- after a person makes too rapid a transition from high
A. According to location and position- atmospheric pressure for long periods.
1. Shaft over centre line AIRPORT ENGINEERING
2. Side shafts
Introduction–
B. According to alignment- Aeroplane was invented by Wright Brother's in
1. Inclined shaft- 1903.
Muck is removed by gravity with a gradient of ≤ FAA - Federal Aviation Agency.
45°. ICAO- International Civil Organization.
It is suitable for less depth of shaft.
2. Vertical shafts-
Easier and more economical than inclined shaft. A
pilot shaft is used in this system.
3. Circular shaft-
It is lined with pre-stressed steel liner plates or
concrete.
Ventilation-
Method of providing fresh air inside tunnel during
and after construction is called ventilation.
Transportation Engineering 512 YCT
 Airport- Turning zone-
An area regularly used for landing and take off for It is the area of airport used for turning operation
the aircrafts is called airport. It is the fastest mode of except approach zone.
transport and comes under heavy construction.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPORT-
1. According to FAA-
(a) Non-primary (b) Primary
airport airport
Handles < 10,000 Handles > 10,000
Passenger per year Passenger per year
Dimension of runway clear zone in m.-
2. According to ICAO- Types of Runway W1 W2 L
International runway 300 325 750
(a) Based on (b) Based on ESWL
Non-international
basic runway length and max. tyre pressure
railway 150 270 600
A (Largest A1 (Max. ESWL & (i) Large airport 75 135 300
Length) T.P.) (ii) Small airport
B B2
Wind coverage-
C C3
It is the % of time in a year during which the cross
D D4 wind component remains within the acceptable
E (Shortest E5 limit.
Length) F6 As per ICOA & FAA, Min. wind coverage = 95%
G7 (minimum) For busy airports - 98% to 100%
ESWL- Equivalent single wheel load. Calm period-
Airp Basic runway Width of It is the period in which the wind intensity remains
ort type length (m) runway below 6.4 km/h.
Maxi Mini pavement
Calm period = 100 − Wind coverage
mum mum
A > 2100 45 Max. cross wind component limit based
B 2100 1500 45 on size of aircraft-
C 2099 900 30 Airport serving Max. limit of
D 1499 750 22.5 CWC
E 899 600 18 Small aircraft 15 km/h
749 Mixed traffic 25 km/h
Three controls of aircraft- Big aircraft 35 km/h
Terms Used to Wind Rose-
control Graphical representation of wind data (at least 5
Elevator Pitching years) as direction, intensity and wind duration is
termed as wind rose.
Rudder Yawing
Aileron Rolling
Caster Angle-
The angle between longitudinal axis of aircraft and
direction of movement of nose gear is called caster
angle.
PNdB- Perceived noise decibel
PNB- Perceived noise level intensity.
Approach zone-
It is a wide clearance required for either side of The best direction of runway is along the direction
runway. of longest line on wind rose diagram.
Clear zone- Wind rose diagram is a group of radial lines and circle.
Clear zone is the most critical aspect from Use-
obstruction point of view provided at the ends of (i) For the determination of most suitable runway
runway. It is used to indicate the innermost position orientation.
of approach zone. (ii) For estimating the runway capacity.
Transportation Engineering 513 YCT
 Type of wind rose diagram- 2. Correction for temperature-
Type-1 Provides direction & duration of wind. Tm − Ta
Airport reference temperature, T = Ta +
• Circle represents duration of wind. 3
• Radial line represent wind direction. Where,
Type-2 Used to showing direction, duration & intensity Ta = Monthly mean of avg. daily temp.
of wind. Tm = Monthly mean of the max. daily temp. for
Runway Geometric Design- the same month of the year.
It deals with the study of runway length and width, Note-
width and length of safety area, sight distance, As per ICAO, the basic runway length after having
gradient etc. been corrected for elevation, should be further
Basic Runway Length- It is determined in three cases- increased at the rate of 1% for every 1°C rise of
airport reference temperature above the standard
Normal Aircraft should stop within 60%
atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
landing case of runway length.
Total correction for (Elevation + Temperature)
Normal Min. clearway width should be should ≯ 35% of basic runway length.
take off case 150 m which is free from obstruction.
3. Correction for gradient-
Engine Basic runway length may The runway length after having been corrected for
failure class consider either clearway or stop way elevation and temp. should be further increased at
or both. the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective gradient.
Runway length- Max. limit of longitudinal and effective gradient-
It is obtained by applying elevation, temperature and It increases the required runway length.
gradient correction on basic runway length (BRL). Types of Longitudina Effective
Runway width- 18 - 45 m airport l gradient gradient
Safety area- A, B & C 1.5 % 1%
It includes runway shoulders on either side of D&E 2% 2%
runway and additional length. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient-
Total length of safety area = Runway length + 120 Types of Rate of change per 30 m
airport length
Width & length of safety area- (for vertical curve)
L = 60 m from the ends of runway at both end [for
A&B 0.1 %
past standards (RSAI)]
C 0.2 %
= 90 m (As per ICAO)
D&E 0.4 %
Vertical curve is not necessary if the change in slope
≯ 0.4%.
Transverse gradient-
It is provided for the purpose of effective drainage
of surface water.
Types of Max. Min.
airport value Value
A&B 1.5 % 0.5 %
C, D & E 2% 0.5 %
Condition Types of Width of Sight Distance-
airport safety area
For A, B and C types of airports, any two points 3 m
Non- A, B & C 150 m above the surface of runway should be mutually
instrumental runway D&E 78 m visible from a distance equal to half the runway
Instrumental A, B, C, D Min. 300 length.
runway &E m For D and E types of runway there should be
Correction for Elevation, Temperature unobstructed line of sight from any point 3 m above
& Gradient- runway and to all other point 2.1 m above runway
1. Correction of elevation- within a distance of at least 1/2 of runway length.
As per ICAO, basic runway length should be Stopway-
increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in A stopway is an area beyond the ends of runway to
elevation above MSL. decelerating an aircraft in case of an aborted takeoff.
Transportation Engineering 514 YCT
 Clearway- Where,
An area beyond the end of the runway centrally Coefficient of variation of service time Cb = σ b / b
located along the extended centering of the runway σ b = Standard deviation of service time
is called clear way. It increases the allowable
airplane operating takeoff weight without increasing Weighted Hourly Capacity-
runway length. ∑ Capacity × % use × Weighting factor
WHC =
∑ % use × Weighting factor
Practical Annual Capacity-
PAC = WHC × Annual utillization × %tage use of airport
Taxiway-
A taxiway is the path for aircraft at airport for
connecting runways with aprons, hangars, terminal
Airport capacity- and other facilities.
The number of operations (landing & take off)
which an aircraft can process within a specified
period of time is called airport capacity.
Runway capacity-
Maximum number of operations of airplane
accommodated by the runway per unit time is
termed as runway capacity.
Capacity of parallel runway system depends upon
lateral spacing between two runways.
Factors affecting runway capacity- Types of taxiway-
1. Air traffic control measures.
1. Exit Taxiway-
2. Runway configuration
it is located at various point along the runway to
3. VFR/IFR operation
allow landing aircraft to efficiently exit the runway
4. Aircraft traffic composition after landing.
VFR - Visual flight rule
Exit taxiway should be designed for high turnoff
IFR - International flight rule speed.
Gate Capacity- 2. Entrance Taxiway-
It is defined by aircraft parking space adjacent to a Located near the runway threshold. It facilitates
terminal building and used by a signal aircraft for entry on an aircraft to runway for take off position.
the loading and unloading of passengers, baggage. 3. Parallel Taxiway-
It is inverse of the weighted average gate occupancy It is provided parallel to adjacent runway to reach
time for all the aircraft served. the apron area from runway after landing and from
No.of Gate apron area to runway for take off.
G.C. =
Gate Occupancy Time 4. Bypass Taxiway-
Provided to give way to aircraft, located at area of
Gi congestion at busy airports.
Ultimate gate capacity, C =
∑ Ti .M i GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TAXIWAY-
Gi = Number of gate that can accommodate aircraft e Longitudin Transvers
of class, i al gradient e gradient
Ti = Mean gate occupancy time A, B & C ≯ 1.5 % ≯ 1.5 %
Mi = Fraction of aircraft class-i demanding service. D&E ≯3% ≯2%
Average Landing Delay- Rate of change of longitudinal gradient-
ρ Types of Longitudinal gradient
W= (Bowen & Pearcy equation)
2µ (1 − ρ ) airport for 30 m length
Where, A, B & C ≯1%
ρ = Load factor( 1µ), λ = Arrival rate D&E ≯ 1.2 %
Service rate, µ = 1/b, b = Mean service time Horonjeff Equation-
ρ (1 + C 2
b ) 0.388W 2
W= (Pollaczek- Khinchin formula) Radius of taxiway, R 2 = in m
2µ(1 − ρ) T / 2 −S
Transportation Engineering 515 YCT
 Where, Fillet is provided between two or more traffic ways
W = Wheel base of aircraft in m like runway , taxiway etc.
T = Width of taxiway As per ICAO , Radius of fillet should not be less
S = Distance b/w midway point of the main gear than the width of taxiway.
and edge of taxiway in m. Separation clearance-
Exit Taxiway Design- It is the distance between parallel taxiway.
As per FAA separation clearance is based on wing
span (s).
• Taxiway to taxiway centre line- 1.255 + 2.1 m
• Taxiway centre line to obstacle- 0.755 + 2.1 m

Where,
R1 &L1= Radius and length of entrance curve
R2 &L2 = Radius and length of central curve
1. Turning radius (for smooth and comfortable turn)-
V2
R2 =
125f
Where, V in kmph Hanger-
f = Coefficient of friction b/w tyre and surface = The covered area for repair and servicing of the
0.13 aircraft is called hanger.
Rmin for- Number of hangers depends on peak hour volume
(i) Subsonic transport - 120 m of aircraft, size of aircraft and turning radius etc.
(ii) Supersonic transport- 180 m Apron-
Exit speed is the most important factor that affects It is the paved area for the parking of aircraft,
the turning radius. loading, unloading the cargos and passengers etc.
Radius of entrance curve- Holding apron is the place, where aircrafts wait for
Exit speed in R1 (m) takeoff.
(kmph) Size of apron depends upon-
65 517 1. Number of gate position-
80 731 No. of gate position depends upon the peak hourly
95 941 aircraft movement and ramp time.
2. Length of the entrance curve- No. of gate position,
(O.28V)3 V3 Runway capacity
L1 = = C = Factor (0.39) = × Avg.gate occupancy time
CR 2 45.5CR 2 120
3. Stopping sight distance- Gate occupancy time for design purpose -
2 2 Small 10
(0.28V) V
SD = = aircraft minute
2d 25.5d
d =Deceleration in m/s2 Big 20
Note- aircraft minute
Total angle off turn of 30 - 45° can be negotiated 2. Size of loading area.
satisfactory. 3. Aircraft parking system etc.
Width of taxiway- Airport Marking Color-
Wing span of aircraft decide the width of taxiway. Marking Paint color
It should be less than the runway width. All runway marking White
Fillet- All taxiway marking Yellow
Fillet is the extra wide area provided at the curves Runway and taxiway Yellow
and traffic lane intersection so that rear wheel does shoulder Yellow
not go off the pavement edge. Apron marking Amber
Radii of fillet should not be less than the with of boundary of the landing
taxiway. and takeoff area of heliports
Transportation Engineering 516 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years 5. Which type of gauge in Indian railways has a
width of 1676 mm between two rails?
1. Which type of rail is specifically designed for
(a) Meter gauge (b) Broad gauge
use in tramways or street railways, where the
(c) Cape gauge (d) Narrow gauge
rail's top surface is level with the road surface?
(a) Flat-footed rail (b) Grooved rail TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
(c) Bull-headed rail (d) Half-headed rail Ans. (b) : Gauge- Gauge is defined the minimum
JSSC JDLCCE JE 17/10/2023 (Civil) distance between inner face of two rails.
Ans. (b) : Grooved rail is a special rail with a groove Gauge Width Length of rail
designed for tramway or street railway in pavement. BG 1.676 m 12.8 m ≈ 13 (42 ft.)
• The rail has, the rail head on one side and guard on MG 1.0 m 11.89 m ≈ 12 (39 ft.)
the other. NG 0.762 m or 11.89 m ≈ 12 (39 ft.)
0.610 m
SG 1.435 m –
6. What is the term used for the distance between
two rails in a railway track?
(a) Track gauge (b) Track base
2. Which type of rail is also known as vignole
rail? (c) Sleeper gauge (d) Ballast width
(a) Bull-headed rail (b) Flat-footed rail JSSC JDLCCE JE 05/10/2023 (Civil)
(c) Double-headed rail (d) Hanged rail Ans. (a) : Track gauge– Gauge is defined as the
JSSC JDLCCE JE 14/10/2023 (Gen. Engg.) minimum distance between two rails.
Ans. (b) : Flat-footed rails– A flat-footed rail, also • The gauge is measured as the clear minimum distance
called a Vignole rail with a inverted T-type cross (distance between inner face of rail) between the
section therefore, it can be fixed directly to the sleepers running faces of the two rails.
with the help of spikes.
• The flat footed rail is a more economical design,
giving greater strength and lateral stability to the track
as compared to a Bull Headed rail for a given cross-
sectional area.
• It was used for high speed railway lines.
3. Which type of rail consists of upper and lower
tables and was introduced with the hope of
doubling the rail's life ?
(a) Vignoles rail (b) Bull-headed rail 7. The material which is used to construct the
(c) Grooved rail (d) Double-headed rail ordinary rails is:
JSSC JDLCCE JE 06/10/2023 (Civil) (a) Mild steel (b) Wrought iron
Ans. (d) : The first rails used was double headed and (c) Cast iron (d) High carbon steel
made of an (I) or dumb-bell section. The idea was that UKPSC Draftsman, 05/11/2023
once the head wore out during service, the rail could be Ans. (d) : Ordinary rails are made of high carbon steel.
inverted and reused. The bull headed rail, which had an Composition is used for manufacturing ordinary rails–
almost similar shape but with more metal in the head to • Carbon - 0.55 to 0.68%
better withstand wear and tear. This section had the
• Manganese - 0.65 to 0.90%
major drawback that chairs were required for fixing it to
• Silicon - 0.05 to 0.3%
the sleepers. This type of rail consists of upper and
• Sulphur - 0.05 to or below
lower tables and was introduced with the hope of
• Phosphorus - 0.05 to or below
doubling the rail's life
8. Reinforced concrete railway bridge have been
4. Which gauge is predominantly used for the
used up to the span of ___m.
mainline network of the Indian Railways?
(a) 10 (b) 15
(a) Narrow Gauge (b) Nano gauge
(c) 20 (d) 25
(c) Meter Gauge (d) Broad Gauge
OSSC JE RE-Exam 03.09.2023
Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021
Ans. (b) : Longitudinally reinforced slab bridges have
Ans. (d) : Broad gauge is predominantly used for the the simplest superstructure configuration and the
mainline network of the Indian Railways. It is general polished appearance. This type of solid slab is generally
length of rail is 12.8 m and guage of rail is 1676 mm. suitable for bridges with a span of up to 15 m.
Transportation Engineering 517 YCT
 The various economical span adopted for • Sand ballast have good drainage properties and is
different types of bridges are : suitable for CI pot sleeper tracks, and not suitable for
Types of Bridge Span range high speed tracks.
Arch bridge 3 to 15 m 12. Pot and Bowls Sleepers are which of the
Slab bridge upto 9 m following type of sleepers?
Girder and beam bridge 10 to 60 m (a) Steel sleepers (b) Concrete sleepers
Truss bridge 30 to 375 m (SSB) (c) Chock sleepers (d) Cast iron sleepers
upto 550 mm (Cantilever) SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
Suspension bridge Over 500 m up to 1400 m Ans. (d) : Pot and Bowls sleeper–It is a cast iron
9. Into how many types is railway sleepers sleepers. Pot sleepers consists of two bowls placed
classified based on materials? under each rail and connected with tie bar.
(a) Five (b) Six • One top of each pot, keys are provided to hold the
(c) Four (d) Seven rails in a proper position.
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 • Also inward slope of the rail seat provided is 1 in 20.
Ans. (a) : Sleepers–Sleepers are the transverse ties that CST-9 sleepers–It is a combination of plate, box and
are laid to support the rails. pot sleepers.
Types of sleepers–The sleepers mostly used on Indian • CST-9 sleepers are most satisfactory than other C.I.
Railways are sleepers and had been extensively used in Indian
1. Wooden sleepers railways.
2. Cast iron sleepers Duplex sleepers–These sleepers are used at rail joints
3. Steel sleepers to prevent cantilever action between two support of
4. Concrete sleepers CST-9 sleepers.
5. Pre- Stressed concrete sleepers 13. The standard size of wooden sleepers on meter
10. The transverse members of the track place gauge railway track is
(a) 1.52 m × 15 cm × 10 cm
below the rails to support and fix them in
position, are termed as (b) 1.83m × 20 cm × 11 cm
(a) Sleepers (b) Ballast (c) 2.74 m × 25 cm × 13 cm
(c) Wagon (d) Bolt (d) Any one of the above
PSSSB JE (Civil) 22/01/2024 JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023
Ans. (a) : Sleepers– Sleepers are the transverse ties that Ans. (b) : Size of wooden sleepers for different
are laid to support the rails. They have an important role gauge-
in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the Gauge Size of sleepers in Bearing area per
rails to the ballast. (cm) sleepers (m2)
The main functions of sleepers are as follows– BG 275×25×13 0.465
• Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment. MG 180×20×11.5 0.3098
• Giving a firm and even support to the rails NG 150×18×11.5 0.209
• Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider 14. Composite Sleeper Index (CSI) is used for
area of the ballast.
which of the following types of sleepers?
• Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and (a) Wooden sleepers (b) Cast Iron sleepers
the ballast to absorb the blows and vibrations caused
(c) Concrete sleepers (d) Steel sleepers
by moving loads.
CRIS JE 19/02/2023
• Providing longitudinal and laterals stability to the
Ans. (a) : Composite sleeper index– The composite
permanent way.
sleeper index (CSI), which evolved from a
• Providing the means to rectify the track geometry combination of the properties of strength and
during their service life. hardness, is an index used to determine the suitability
11. Identify the ballast suitable for CI pot sleeper of a particular timber for use as a sleeper from the
tracks? point of view of mechanical strength.
(a) Cinder ballast S + 10H
(b) Moorum ballast CSI =
20
(c) Broken stone ballast
Where,
(d) Sand ballast
S = Strength of sleeper for both green and dry timber
JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil) 12% moisture content.
Ans. (d) : Cast iron pot sleepers consist of two hollow H = Hardness of sleeper for both green and dry
bowls or pots of circular or elliptical shape placed timber 12% moisture content.
inverted on the ballast section. The minimum value of CSI prescribed on Indian
Transportation Engineering 518 YCT
 railways is the following. Ans. (c) : Fish plates–These are used in rail joints to
Type of sleeper Mini. (CSI) maintain the continuity of the rail.
Track sleeper 783 • The main objective of fish plates are to keep the
adjoining ends of the rail in correct position both in
Crossing sleeper 1352
horizontal and vertical planes.
Bridge sleeper 1455 • The number of bolt per fish plate is 4.
15. What is the Sleeper density used in Indian 19. What is the primary purpose of a 'catch siding'
railways for the main tracks ______? in railway engineering?
(Where M is Rail length in meters) (a) To provide a safety mechanism for runaway
(a) M + 2 to M + 4 (b) M + 5 to M + 10 trains on inclines
(c) M + 4 to M + 7 (d) M + 3 to M + 6 (b) To provide an area for loading and unloading
OSSC JE RE-Exam 03.09.2023 goods
Ans. (c) : Sleeper density– Sleeper density is the (c) To facilitate overtaking of slower trains
number of sleepers per rail length. (d) To catch and store excess rainwater
• It is specified as M+x, where M is the length of the JSSC JDLCCE JE 17/10/2023 (Civil)
rail in meters and x is a number that varies according to Ans. (a) : Catch sidings–It is provided in the case of
factors, such as– hilly terrains, where the gradient near railway station
(i) Axle load and speed are very steep. The purpose of catch sidings is to arrest
(ii) Type and section of rails the movement of the vehicles if they start to roll down
(iii) Type and strength of the sleepers the grade which may eventually foul up the running
(iv) Type of ballast and ballast cushion line.
(v) Nature of formation 20. What is the purpose of a spike in rail
Note–It is generally take M+4 to M+7. fastening?
16. In case of sleepers of railway, which is (a) Distributing load to sleepers
incorrect? (b) Adjusting the railway gauge
(a) Sleepers are laid transverse to the rails (c) Insulting the rail
(b) Sleepers are laid parallel to the rails (d) Fixing the tie plate and fastening the rail
(c) Sleepers help in maintaining proper gauge JSSC JDLCCE JE 06/10/2023 (Civil)
(d) Sleepers distribute the load from rail to ballast Ans. (d) : The purpose of a spike in rail fastening is
Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023 Fixing the tie plate and fastening the rail.
Ans. (b) : functions of sleepers – • On straight track, number of dog spike is 2 and on the
• Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to curve is 3.
support the rails. 21. Which of the following fittings and fastenings
• Sleepers help in maintaining proper gauge. are used for joining rail to wooden sleepers?
• Sleepers distribute the load from rail to ballast. (a) Rubber pads
• Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the (b) Fish plates and nuts
permanent way. (c) Tie bars and cotters
17. Fish plate is in contact with rail at (d) Dog spikes and fang bolts
(a) web of rail (b) fishing plane CHB JE (Building) 05/02/2023
(c) head of rail (d) foot of rail Ans. (d) :
CHB JE (Civil) 28/01/2023 Purpose and type Details of fittings and
Ans. (b) : Fish plates– The work of a fish plate is to fastenings
hold two rails together in both the horizontal and Joining rail to rail Fish plates, combination
vertical planes. fish plates, bolts, and nuts
• Fish plate is in contact with rail at fishing plane.. Joining rail to wooden Dog spikes, fang bolts,
• The number of fish bolts per fish plates is 4. sleepers screw spikes, and bearing
• Fish plates are manufactured using a special type of plates
steel with composition. Joining rail to steel Loose jaws, keys, and
(i) Carbon = 0.30-0.42% through sleepers linners
(ii) Manganese = >/ 0.6% Joining rail to cast iron Tie bars and cotters
(iii) Silicone = >/ 0.15% sleepers
(iv) Sulphur and phosphorous = >/ 0.06% Elastic fastenings to be Elastic or Pandrol clip,
18. Number of fish bolts per fish plate is : used with concrete, IRN 202, clip, HM
(a) 6 (b) 5 steel, and wooden fastening, MSI insert,
(c) 4 (d) 2 sleepers rubber pads, and nylon
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 liners

Transportation Engineering 519 YCT

22. _______ are used in rail joints to maintain the 26. The recommended bank width of formation as
continuity of the rails and to provide for any adopted on Indian Railways for broad gauge in
expansion or contraction of the rails caused by case of wooden sleepers for single line section is
temperature variation. ______.
(a) Fish plates (b) Bearing plates (a) 7.50 m (b) 6.85 m
(c) Blocks (d) Spikes (c) 8.75 m (d) 6.25 m
JKSSB JE (Civil) 20/03/2022 JSSC JDLCCE JE 28/09/2023 (Civil)
Ans. (a) : Fish plates are used in rail joints to maintain the Ans. (b) : Width of formation :-
continuity of rails and to provide for any expansion or Gauge Type of Single-line Double-line
contraction of the rail caused by temperature variation. sleepers section section
• The number of fish bolts per fish plates is 4. Bank Cutting Bank Cutting
23. ______ is the length at each end of an long width width width width
welded rail that is subject to expansion or (m) (m) (m) (m)
contraction on account of variation in BG W,*ST, 6.85 6.25 12.155 11.555
temperature. and
(a) Anchor length (b) Breathing length concrete
(c) Buffer length (d) Welded length MG W, ST, 5.85 5.25 9.81 9.21
Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 shift 1 CST-9,
Ans. (b) : Breathing length :- It is the length at each and
end of an long welded rail that is subjected to expansion concrete
or contraction on account of variations in temperature. NG W, ST, and 3.70 3.35 7.32 7.01
Short welded rail- it is a welded rail that contracts and CST-9
expands throughout its length. Note:- *W stands for wooden sleepers
24. Which of the following is NOT the requirement ST stands for steel trough sleeper.
of an ideal permanent way? 27. For ballast supply on B.G., the maximum
(a) It should always be straight. permitted aggregate abrasion value is
(b) The drainage system must be perfect. (a) 20% (b) 30%
(c) There must be provisions of easy renewals. (c) 40% (d) 50%
(d) There must be certain amount of elasticity in MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-II
the track.
Ans. (b) : The abrasion test for track ballast shall be
SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning)
carried out using Los-Angles machine.
Ans. (a) : Requirement of an ideal permanent way–
A−B
• The level of both the rails should be the same on a Aggregate abrasion value = ×100
horizontal track. A
• The track should possess the required elasticity and Where,
lateral strength. A = Original weight of aggregate.
• The drainage system must by properly installed. B = Weight of aggregate after loss
• Scope for maintenance and renewable must be Ballast sample should satisfy the following
provided. physical properties in accordance with IS : 2386
• All joints, points and crossings should be properly (IV) 1963–
designed in a permanent way. B.G., MG and NG and MG
25. Which among the following is the material best NG (Planned/ (other than
suited for railway ballast ? Sectioned for those planned
(a) Sand (b) Broken stone conversion) for conversion)
(c) Moorum (d) Kankar Aggregate 30% max 35% max
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 17/10/2023 abrasion
Ans. (b) : Broken stone is the best material for the value
ballast. Igneous rocks such as granite, quartz, etc. are Aggregate 20% max 30% max
used for broken stones. The size of broken stones varies Impact value
from 1.9 cm to 5.08 cm. Water 1% –
The functions of ballast are :- absorption
1. Load transfer. 28. In the case of ______, the wear of rails is
2. To provide Drainage. maximum.
3. To Impart elasticity to the track. (a) tangent track (b) sharp curve
4. To Impart longitudinal and lateral stability to the sleeper. (c) coastal area (d) tunnels
5. To absorb shock and vibration. JKSSB JE 19/11/2023
Transportation Engineering 520 YCT
Ans. (b) : Wear of rails is always maximum on curves Ans. (d) : Equilibrium super elevation is given by the
and hence radius of curve is limited to avoid wear. formula
Type of wear on Rails–A rail may face wear and tear GV 2
in the following positions– e=
127 R
(i) On top of the rail head (vertical wear)
(ii) On the sides of the rail head (lateral wear) Where 'e' is the super elevation in millimeters. 'V' is the
(iii) On the ends of the rail (battering of rail ends) speed in km/h. 'R' is the radius of the curve in metres,
29. Which of the following defects, in rails, occurs and G is the dynamic gauge in millimeters, which is
due to the falling of patches or chunks of metal equal to the sum of the gauge and the width of the rail
from the rail table? head in millimeters. This is equal to 1750 mm for BG
(a) Corrugation of rails (b) Scabbing of rails tracks and 1058 for MG tracks.
(c) Hogging of rails (d) Wheel burns 33. Track modulus is defined as:
BHEL Exe. Trainee, 24.08.2023 (a) Load/unit length of sleeper
Ans. (b) : Defect of Rail :- (b) Load/unit length of sleeper to produce
Scabbing of rails– It is occurs due to the falling of depression in rail
patches or chunks of metal from the rail table. (c) Load/unit length of rail to produce depression
Hogging of rails– Rail ends get hogged due to poor in sleeper
maintenance of the rail joint, yielding formation, loose (d) Load/unit length of rail to produce unit
and faulty fastenings and other such reasons. depression/deflection in track
Wheel burns– Wheel burns are caused by the slipping RITES AM 05/05/2024
of the driving wheel of locomotives on the rail surface. Ans. (d) : Track modulus–Track modulus like the
Corrugation of rails– Corrugation consists of minute modulus of elasticity, is an index of measurement of
depression on the surface of rails, varying in shape and resistance to deformation.
size and occurring at irregular intervals. • It is defined as the load in kilograms per unit rail
30. Which of the following is not a primary length required to produce one unit depression/
objective of design of railway track geometric? deflection in the rail bottom.
(a) Achieving maximum speed • The unit of track modulus is kg/cm2.
(b) Safety 34. What is the recommended maximum value of
(c) Carrying only light axle load superelevation under normal conditions for
(d) Smooth running broad gauge (Group A)?
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III (a) 185 mm (b) 90 mm
Ans. (c) : The primary objective of design of railway (c) 165 mm (d) 140 mm
track geometric– DFCCIL MAINS 17/12/2023
1. Achieving maximum speed Ans. (c) : Superelevation/cant– It is defined as, in
2. Safety order to resist the outward acting centrifugal force on a
3. Smooth running curved section of railway track, it is customary to the
4. Eco-friendly and comfortable transportation system. rise the outer soil of the track above the inner soil.
31. Rail is designated by : • Super elevation under normal conditions for -
(a) total weight (i) Broad gauge– Group A, B and C routes,
(b) cross-section superelevation, e = 165 mm
(c) length (ii) Broad gauge– Group D and E routes,
(d) weight per unit length superelevation, e = 140 mm
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 (iii) Meter gauge - Superelevation, e = 90 mm
Ans. (d) : Rail section–The rail is designated by its (iv) Narrow gauge– Superelevation e = 65 mm
weight per unit length. 35. On which type gradient there are no obstacles
The weight of a rail and its section is decided on various provided in the form of signals, etc., which may
consideration such as– bring the train to a critical junction?
• Heaviest axle load (a) Momentum gradient
• Maximum permissible speed (b) Pusher gradient
• Depth of ballast cushion (c) Ruling gradient
• Type and spacing of sleepers.
(d) Gradients in station yards
32. The value of dynamic gauge (G) used to MPPSC AE Civil Paper 8 October 2023
calculate the super elevation is ____ for broad
gauge railway tracks. Ans. (a) : The following types of gradients are used on
(a) 1900 mm (b) 1650 mm the railways.
(c) 1550 mm (d) 1750 mm (i) Ruling gradient– The ruling gradient is the steepest
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I gradient that exists in a section.
Transportation Engineering 521 YCT
The following ruling gradients are adopted on 39. Heel Divergence is defined as
Indian railway. (a) Ratio of length of tongue rail to switch angle
(a) In plain terrain : 1 in 150 to 1 in 250 (b) Ratio of switch angle to length of tongue rail
(b) In hilly terrain : 1 in 100 to 1 in 150 (c) Multiplication of length of tongue rail and
(ii) Pusher or helper gradient– When the gradient of switch angle
the ensuring section is so steep as to necessitate the use (d) Multiplication of wing rail and switch angle
of an extra engine for pushing the train. MPPSC AE 03/07/2022
(iii) Momentum gradient– In sections with momentum Ans. (c) : Heel divergence– This is the distance
gradients there are no obstacles provided in the form of between the gauge faces of the stock rail and the
signal, etc. which may bring the train to a critical tongue rail at the heel of the switch. It is made up of
junction. the flangeway clearance and the width of the tongue
(iv) Gradients in station yards. rail head that lies the heel.
36. Which of the following methods is used for
designing a turnout taking off from a straight
railway track?
(a) Coles method
(b) Westergaard’s method
(c) Rankine’s method → Heal divergence = switch angle (sin θ) × length of
(d) Coulomb’s method tongue rail
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I Flange-way clearance:-
Ans. (a) : Turnouts–The simplest arrangement of This is the distance between the adjoining faces of the
points and crossing can be found on a turnout taking off running rail and the checkrail/wing rail at the nose of
from a straight track. There are two methods prevalent the crossing.
for designing a turnout–
1. Coles method
2. IRS method
37. The distance between the adjoining faces of the
running rail and the check rail/wing rail at the Note:– Heel divergence is always greater than flange-
nose of the crossing is called : way clearance
(a) Throw of the switch (b) Turnout
40. Identify the part of railway track with given
(c) Flangeway clearance (d) Heel Divergence description. "Description-The arrangement of
JKSSB JE 19/11/2023 point and crossing with lead rails by means of
Ans. (c) : Flangeway clearance – This is the which the rolling stock may be diverted from
distance between the adjoining faces of the running one track to another."
rail and the check rail/wing rail at the nose of the (a) crossing (b) stations
crossing. It is meant for providing a free passage to (c) turnout (d) switches
wheel flanges. NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-I
• The minimum and maximum values of flangeway Ans. (c) : Turnout– It is an arrangement of points and
clearance for BG and MG tracks. crossings with lead rails by means of which the rolling
Flangeway clearance stock may be diverted from one track to another.
Gauge Max. value Min. value
(mm) (mm)
BG 48 44
MG 44 41
38. At stations, where the space is limited, the
direction of a locomotive is changed using
(a) traverse (b) turn table
(c) triangle (d) scotch block
AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023
Ans. (b) : Turn table:– A turntable is a device used for
changing the direction of a locomotive.
Components of turnout
• It is provided where the space is limited.
41. Which type of crossing is provided when two
• It is normally provided at terminal station, locomotive tracks of either the same gauge or of different
yards and marshalling yards. gauges each other?
Transportation Engineering 522 YCT
 (a) Spring or movable crossing 45. In Indian Railways platform surface a slope of
(b) Diamond crossing 1 in ________ has been prescribed.
(c) CMS crossing (a) 40 (b) 60
(d) Built up crossing (c) 25 (d) 15
(e) Answer not known DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-I
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 Ans. (b) : The following types of platform are
Ans. (b) : Diamond crossing– A diamond crossing is provided on Indian railways-
provided when two tracks of either the same gauge or of (i) Passenger platform
different gauges cross other. (ii) Goods platform
• On Indian railways, the flattest diamond crossing Note- A Goods platform is mainly surfaced with
permitted for BG and MG routes is 1 in 8.5. bituminous carpet or Concrete.
• In Indian Railways platform surface a slope of 1 in 60
has been prescribed.
46. Wagons are pushed to the summit with the help
of a locomotive and then slides down under the
effect of gravity. The type of yard is
(a) Flat yard
(b) Gravitational yard
• Diamond crossing consist of 2 acute angle crossings, (c) Hump yard
2 obtuse angles crossings and 4 check rails. (d) None of these
• According to Indian railway standards, a diamond UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
crossing shall consist of 6 noses. Ans. (c) : Hump yard– In this yard, an artificial hump
42. As per Indian Railway Standards, a diamond is created by means of proper earthwork.
crossing shall consist of _______ noses. • The wagons are pushed up to the summit of the hump
(a) 9 (b) 12 with the help of an engine from where they slide down
(c) 6 (d) 3 and reach the sidings under the effect of gravity.
UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I Flat yard– The wagons are relocated for sorting etc.
Ans. (c) See the above explanation. with the help of an engine.
43. The distance through which the toe of the It yard is adopted when-
tongue rail moves sideways to provide a path (a) There is limitation of space
for the desired direction over the turnout is (b) There is a severe limitation of funds
known as (c) The number of wagons dealt with by the marshaling
(a) Throw of the switch yard is very low.
(b) Heel divergence Gravitation yard– The wagons move to the sliding
(c) Flange way clearance assigned for the purpose of sorting by the action of
(d) Switch angle gravity.
AIIMS Rishikesh JE (Civil) 30/09/2023 47. A Warner signal, which is first seen by the
Ans. (a) : Throw of the switch– This is the distance driver is
through which the tongue rail moves laterally at the toe (a) disc signal (b) home signal
of the switch to allow movement of the trains. (c) outer signal (d) routing signal
• Its limiting values are 95-115 mm for BG routes and (e) Answer not known
89-100 cm for MG routes. TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
44. The stations having two lines is called a Ans. (c) : Outer signal–This is the first stop signal at a
(a) Crossing station (b) Flag station station, which indicates the entry of a train from a block
(c) Junction station (d) Terminal station section into the limits.
JKSSSB JE 05.12.2022 shift-1 • It is provided at a distance of about 580 m from the
Ans.(a) : Crossing station :- After a flag station comes home signal.
the wayside or crossing station. While a flag station has 48. Flashing yellow light beam indicates
arrangement for dealing with traffic but none for (a) Stopping signal (b) Proceeding signal
controlling the movement of the trains on block (c) Warning signal (d) None of the above
sections. KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023
• The Idea of a crossing of trains going in opposite Ans. (b) : In India, mostly three-aspect or four-aspect
direction so that there may be a more rapid movement coloured light signaling is used.
of trains. So the station having two lines is called a • In the of three aspect signaling green, yellow and red
crossing station. light are used.
Transportation Engineering 523 YCT
 • Green - It is indicates proceed. 51. ____ is the most important part of an airport in
• Yellow - It is indicates proceed with caution. the form of paved, long and narrow
rectangular strip which actually used for
• Red - It is indicates stop.
landing, exit or takeoff etc.
Note- Yellow light indicates pass the signal cautiously
(a) Airport apron (b) Hanger
and be prepared to stop at the next signal. (c) Runway (d) Taxiway
49. The type of signal commonly used in station MH Latur MNC JE (Water supply) 23.02.2024
yards for shunting purposes of rail coaches is Ans. (c) : Runway– Runway is the most important part
(a) routing signal (b) calling on signal of an airport in the form of paved, long and narrow
(c) co-acting signal (d) disc signal rectangular strip which actually used for landing, exit or
PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024 takeoff etc.
Taxiways– Taxiway is the paved way rigid or flexible
Ans. (d) : Shunt signals–These are miniature signals which connects runway with loading apron or service
are mostly used for vehicles in station yards. Unlike and maintenance hangers or with another runway.
fixed signals these are small in size and are placed on an 52. The application of _________ diagram is used
independent post of a running signal post. to find the orientation of the runway to get the
• In semaphore signaling areas the shunt signals are of desired wind coverage.
the disc type signal. (a) Wind Butterfly (b) Wind Cycle
• Disc type of shunt signals consists of a circular disc (c) Wind Star (d) Wind rose
with a red band on a white background. RITES AM 05/05/2024
In railways, the disc signals are provided for the Ans. (d) : Wind rose– It represents the direction,
purpose of shunting. intensity and duration of wind in graphical form.
● Wind rose diagram is used to find the orientation of
1. When the red band of the disc is in a horizontal the runway to get the desired wind coverage.
position, it indicates "STOP". Types of wind rose diagram–
Type-I : Radial lines represent the wind direction and
each circle represents the duration of wind.
Type-II : Radial lines represent the wind direction and
each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale.
53. The height of the pilot's eye above the runway
surface is assumed as:
(a) 4 m (b) 3 m
(c) 1 m (d) 8 m
RITES AM 05/05/2024
Ans. (b) : The height of the pilot's eye above the
runway surface is assumed as 3m.
54. The wind intensity during a calm period in
2. When the red band of the disc is in an inclined runways should be
(a) below 4.6 km/hr (b) above 5 km/hr
position, it indicates "PROCEED" slowly for shunting.
(c) between 5-10 km/hr (d) below 6.4 km/hr
50. _______ is the area of an airport where aircraft PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
are parked, unloaded or loads refueled, Ans. (d) : As per ICAO, The wind intensity should
boarded or maintained. remain, below 6.4 kmph during a calm period and it is
(a) Hanger (b) Taxiways same for all wind direction.
(c) Airport apron (d) Runways Wind intensity is equal to 100 minus the total wind
MH Latur JE (Water supply) 22.02.2024 coverage.
Ans. (c) : Airport apron– Airport apron is the area of 55. The maximum height of a building located at a
an airport where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, distance of greater than 8 km from an
refueled, boarded or maintained. It is usually located international airport should be
(a) 100 m (b) 150 m
close to the terminal building or hangers.
(c) 200 m (d) 300 m
Size of apron depends on -
PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
(i) Size of loading area required for each type of aircraft
Ans. (d) : In take-off and landing paths, earlier a 150
this area is none as gate position. meter high building could be 3.5 km from runways.
(ii) No. of gate position . 200 m high for 4.5 km from airport.
(iii) Aircraft parking system. 300 m high for 6.5 km from airport.
Hanger– A hanger is a building or structure designed to AAI notified all airports in the country that the
hold aircraft or spacecraft. maximum permissible height for vertical structures has
• Hangers are built of metal, wood or concrete. now been capped at 300 meters.

Transportation Engineering 524 YCT

56. What are the maximum longitudinal and 59. Wind rose diagrams are used for the purpose
effective gradients, respectively, for runways of of:
'A' type airport recommended by ICAO? (a) runway capacity estimation
(a) 1.50% and 1.00% (b) 2.00% and 2.00% (b) finding the size of hangars
(c) runway orientation
(c) 1.00% and 1.00% (d) 1.50% and 1.50% (d) finding taxiway length
BHEL Exe. Trainee, 24.08.2023 MH WRD JE 12/08/2022 Shift-III
Ans. (a) :Maximum effective gradient– Ans. (c) :
Runways of type A, B, C → 1%
Runways of type D, E → 2%
Maximum transverse/longitudinal gradient–
Runways of type A, B, C → 1.5%
Runways of type D, E →2%
57. As per ICAO, the maximum effective gradient
for A and B types of airports is____.
(a) 5% (b) 10%
(c) 1% (d) 2%
Wind Rose– For the airport, the average wind data of 5
MH WRD JE 12/08/2022 Shift-III
to 10 year period are collected and represented
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation. graphically in the form of a chart known as wind rose.
58. In design of runway length of an airport the The study of wind rose helps in determining the
usual corrections applied are- most suitable orientation of the runway.
(a) For elevation and temperature of the location 60. As per ICAO, the slope of the transitional
only surface perpendicular to the centre line of the
(b) For temperature of the location only runway shall be_____.
(c) For elevation, temperature and gradient of the (a) 1 in 2 (b) 1 in 7
locality (c) 1 in 3 (d) 1 in 5
(d) For elevation, temperature, gradient and MH WRD JE 12/08/2022 Shift-III
magnetic bearing of the location Ans. (b) : Transitional surface:- The slope of the
Chhatt. Office Professional Asst. 2023 transitional surface is measured in vertical plane at right
Ans. (c) :In design of runway length of an airport the angle to the centre line of the run way.
usual corrections applied are elevation, temperature and • The slope shell be 14.3 percent (1:7) where the length
gradient of the locality. of runway is 900 m and above.
1. Elevation correction– 61. A/an _______is a strip (usually paved)
• As the elevation increases, the air density reduces. connecting runways with one another, and with
• Basic runway length (BRL) should increase at 7% the aircraft - parking apron.
per 300 m rise in elevation from MSL. (a) apron (b) taxiway
2. Temperature correction– (c) terminal (d) hangars
T − Ta SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
• (Airport reference temperature) ART = Ta + m Ans. (b) :Taxiway–Path which connects each end of
3
runway with terminal area, apron, hangar etc.
Ta = monthly mean of average daily temperature of the
Apron– Apron is the area of an airport where aircraft
hottest month.
are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled or boarded.
Tm = monthly mean of maximum daily temperature of • Although the use of the apron is covered by
the hottest month. regulations, it is more accessible to users than the
• Basic runway length should further increase by 1% runway or taxiway.
for 1ºC rise in ART above standard atmospheric • It is located closed to the terminal building or
temperature. hangers.
• Temperature gradient of standard atmosphere from Terminal–Place where at airport administration
MSL to altitude where temperature is -15.6ºC is – facilities takes place.
0.0065ºC per meter. Hangar–The primary function of a hangar is to provide
• Temperature gradient becomes zero above elevation an enclosure for servicing, overhauling and doing
where the altitude at which temperature is 15.5ºC. repairs of the aircraft.
Note–Combine correction for temperature and elevation 62. ICAO recommends the pavement width of
runway of class A airport as
should not be more than 35% of BRL. (a) 18 m (b) 22.5 m
3. Gradient correction–BRL should increase by 20% (c) 30 m (d) 45 m
for every 1% effective gradient. TNPSC AE Civil 11.07.2022
Transportation Engineering 525 YCT
Ans. (d) : Runway Geometric (ICAO) 66.
Air Basic runway length Runway Maximu
por pavement m
t width transvers
typ Maximum Minimum e grade
es %
m ft m ft m ft
A 210 700 45 15 1.5
0 0 0
B 2099 699 150 500 45 15 1.5
9 0 0 0 Which of the following cross wind velocity
C 1490 499 900 300 30 10 1.5 components is valid for above runway
9 0 0 diagram?
D 899 299 750 250 22.5 75 2.0
9 0 (a) V cotθ (b) V tanθ
E 749 249 600 200 18 60 2.0 (c) V cosθ (d) V sinθ
9 0
63. As per the International Civil Aviation TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023
Organization (ICAO), the basic runway length Ans. (d) :
is increased b x (%) for every y (m) raise in
elevation from the Mean Sea Level (MSL). The
values of x and y respectively, are
(a) 10% and 1000 m (b) 4% and 500 m
(c) 5% and 200 m (d) 7% and 300 m
GATE CE 04/02/2024 Forenoon
Ans. (d) : ICAO recommends that basic runway length
should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in • The direction of wind is at angle θ from runway
elevation above sea level. centre line. So, cross wind velocity is normal
64. For airports serving big aircrafts ICAO component of wind velocity.
recommends that the cross wind component Cross wind velocity = V sin θ
should not be more than_____kmph.
(a) 35 (b) 40 • Cross wind velocity may interrupt the safe landing
(c) 50 (d) 55 and takeoff of air craft.
MPPSC AE Civil Paper 8 October 2023 67. What is the usual height of the bridge above
Ans. (a) : As per ICAO, the permissible limit of the high flood level (HFL)?
cross-wind. (a) 4.5 to 6 m (b) 6 to 7 m
Permissible limit of
Types of air craft (c) 3 to 3.3 m (d) 1.2 to 1.5 m
crosswind component
Small aircraft 15 kmph JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023
Mixed aircraft 25 kmph Ans. (d) : High flood level (HFL)– It is the level
Big aircraft 35 kmph of the highest flood ever recorded or calculated level for
65. As per ICAO, after the basic length of runway the highest possible flood. It is denoted by HFL.
is corrected for elevation of an airport, it is The height of the bridge is generally 1.2 to 1.5
further increase at the rate of _____ for every meters above the high flood level of the region.
1°C rise in temperature above the standard
68. Bridge over a dry valley is known as
atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
(a) 4 percent (b) 3 percent (a) Causeway (b) Minor bridge
(c) 1 percent (d) 2 percent (c) Vent (d) Viaduct
TSPSC POLY. LECT. 04.09.2023 JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023
Ans. (c) : Corection for temperature :- Ans. (d) : Viaduct- The high bridge built over a river
T − Ta canal located in a deep valley is called a viaduct. It is a
C r = Ta + m
3 long continuous structure which carries a road or
Where, railway like a bridge over a dry valley.
Ta = Monthly mean of average daily temperature for • The bridge is much taller as compared to its length
hottest month of the year. and rest on the trestles, instead of solid piers.
Tm= Mean of maximum daily temperature for hottest
month of the year. 69. Slab bridge is generally preferred structural
• As the ICAO guideline correction for temperature system for maximum span of :
0
+1% for every 1 C rise of airport reference temperature (a) 2 m (b) 6 m
above standard atmospheric temperature at that (c) 9 m (d) 15 m
elevation. GPSC GWSSB AE Class-2 25/06/2023
Transportation Engineering 526 YCT
 Ans. (c) : The various economical span range which Ans. (d) : Cribs are used the temporary pier made in the
are generally adopted for different types of bridges river bed.
are specified following : • Timber cribs make very good piers for multiple
Types of bridge Span range bridges.
Slab bridge Up to 9 m • They are adopted to nearly all sites and are easy to
erect but require much timber.
Arch bridge Small span of 3 to 15 m in masonry
Girder or beam 10 to 60 m 74. In bridges, component that transfer load from
bridge superstructure to substructure is
(a) Braces (b) Bearing
Truss bridge (i) For simply supported : 30 to
(c) Pier (d) deck slab
375 m
Kerala PSC (PWD) Draftsman 15/06/2023
(ii) For cantilevered up to 550 m
Ans. (b) : Bearing – The devices which are provided
Suspension bridge 500 to 1400 m
over the supports of bridge to accommodate the changes
70. Suspension bridges are constructed is the main girders due to deflection, temperature,
(a) in earthquake-prone zones. vertical movement due to sinking of the supports,
(b) where large spans are to be covered without the shrinkage, pre-stressing creep etc and to transmit the
possibility of providing intermediate piers. load from the superstructure to the sub structure is
(c) where spans are less than 30m and wind known as bearings.
intensity is high.
75. The type of loading to be considered while
(d) in hilly areas. designing the temporary bridges is:
KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023 (a) IRC Class B (b) IRC Class 70 R
Ans. (b) : A suspension bridge is type of bridge in (c) IRC Class AA (d) IRC Class A
which the deck is hung below suspension cables on MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18/11/2022 Shift-II
vertical suspenders.
Ans. (a) : IRC class B loading– This is considered
• Suspension bridge are constructed where large spans light loading and is used in the design of temporary
are to be covered without the possibility of providing bridges (timber bridge).
Intermediate piers. IRC class A loading– This type of loading is used in
• Suspension bridge is suitable for long span. the design of all permanent bridges.
71. Suspension bridge is • It is considered as a standard live load at the bridge.
(a) Movable bridge 76. Which movements of the bridge deck will be
(b) Suitable for long span permitted by an elastomeric bearing?
(c) Suitable for short span (a) No movement is permitted
(d) Used for Navigable channel (b) Translation only
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 (c) Rotation only
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. (d) Both translation and rotation
72. Skew bridge has an angle HPSSSC JE CIVIL 10.09.2022
(a) 0 degree Ans. (d) : Elastomeric bearing–Bearing are formed of
(b) 90 degree horizontal layers of synthetic or natural rubber in thin
(c) both (a) and (b) layers band between steep plates.
(d) other than right angle Elastomeric bearing pads compress on vertical load and
Kerala PSC (PWD) Overseer 14/07/2023 accommodate horizontal rotation and provide lateral
Ans. (d) : Skew bridge– A skewed bridge, simple or shear movement.
continuous, is characterized by its longitudinal axis So, both translation and rotation movement of the
forming on acute angle, instead of right angles with the bridge deck will be permitted by an elastomeric bearing.
centerlines of the supports. 77. In design of bridge, wind and _____ shall not
• Skew angle is defined as the angle between the be considered to act simultaneously.
centerlines of the support and the longitudinal axis (a) Longitudinal loads (b) Seismic loads
of the bridge. (c) Lateral loads (d) Centrifugal loads
• It is preferred to arrange the piers parallel to the HPSSSC JE CIVIL 10.09.2022
axis of river. Ans. (b) :Bridge forces/Load–The wind force on a
• The skew angle should be restricted to 10 to 600. structure shall be assumed as a horizontal force while
73. Which is the temporary pier made in the river earthquake force on bridge may act in all directions. It
bed ? may possible that they can cancel the effect of each
(a) kerb (b) scuppers other. Hence, in the design of the bridge, wind and
(c) abutment (d) cribs seismic loads shall not be considered to act
Kerala PSC (PWD) Overseer 14/07/2023 simultaneously.

Transportation Engineering 527 YCT

78. _________loading is adopted on all roads on 83. Which of the following is correct regarding T-
which permanent bridges and culverts are beam bridge?
constructed. I. The T-beam bridge is adopted when the
(a) IRC Class D (b) IRC Class A span range of 10 m to 25 m
(c) IRC Class B (d) IRC Class E
II. The bridge is named as T-bridge because
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18/11/2022 Shift-II
the main longitudinal girders are designed
Ans. (b) :Classification of loading on bridges– as T-beam.
• IRC class 70R loading
(a) Only II
• IRC class AA loading
(b) Neither I nor II
• IRC class A loading–This loading is to be normally
adopted on all roads on which permanent bridges and (c) Both I and II
culverts are constructed. (d) Only I
• IRC class B loading–This loading is to be normally GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
adopted for timber bridge. Ans. (c) : The T-beam bridge is the most commonly
79. In bridge construction, the width of the adopted type in the span range from 10 to 25 m.
expansion joint is: • The bridge is named as T-bridge because the main
(a) 25 mm (b) 50 mm longitudinal girders are designed as T-beams.
(c) 75 mm (d) 100 mm • The T-beam action is due to its monolithic
GPSC G.E.S. (Pre) 28/07/2021
construction with deck slab.
Ans. (a) :In bridge construction, the width of the
• The number of longitudinal girders depends on the
expansion joint is 2.0 to 2.5 cm and maximum spacing
for the expansion joint is 140 m. width of the road.
• As per IS : 456 : 2000, in the case of building, 84. According to alignment, bridges are classified
structure exceeding 45 m in length are designed into two types. Which are these two types out of
with one or more expansion joints. the following ?
• As per IS 3414, which is specified code for joints, it (i) Normal bridge (ii) Skew bridge
is maintained as 30 m. (iii) Culvert (iv) Viaduct
80. As per IRC recommendation, Approaches in a (a) (ii) and (iii) (b) (ii) and (iv)
bridge should have a minimum straight length (c) (i) and (ii) (d) (i) and (iii)
of ______ on either side of a bridge
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
(a) 10 m (b) 15 m
(c) 30 m (d) 45 m Ans. (c) : Bridge alignment– The location of centre
GPSC AE CLASS-2 27.11.2021 line of communication route to be carried by the bridge
Ans. (b) : As per IRC recommendation, approaches in a at selected site is called bridge alignment.
bridge should have a minimum straight length of 15 m As per alignment type of bridge-
on either side of a bridge. Normal bridge- When a bridge is made at the right
81. The span of a small span bridges is up to –––– angle of the river, it is called a normal bridge. This is
(a) 50 m (b) 10 m the best alignment of the bridge.
(c) 30 m (d) 15 m Skew bridge- When a bridge is constructed at any other
Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023 angle rather than at right angles of the river flow, it is
Ans. (c) : Small span bridge– A small bridge is a called a skew bridge.
bridge where the overall length of the bridge between 85. Which of the following is not a type of bridge
the inner faces of dirt wall is 6 to 30 m and where based on location of bridge floor?
individual span is not more than 10 m.
(a) Deck bridge
82. Which property of concrete makes it
(b) Through bridge
advantageous for construction of bridges?
(c) Skew bridge
(a) Low thermal conductivity
(b) Low durability (d) Semi-through bridge
(c) High compressive strength MPSC MES 29/10/2022 Paper-2
(d) Low tensile strength Ans. (c) : Classification of bridges–
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III As per the location of bridge floor-
Ans. (c) : Property of concrete makes it (i) Deck bridge
advantageous for construction of bridges– (ii) Through bridge
1. High compressive strength (iii) Semi-through bridge
2. High durability As per the alignment-
3. High tensile strength (i) Normal bridge or square bridge
4. Good aesthetics (ii) Skew bridge

Transportation Engineering 528 YCT

86. Which of the following is not used as material • In order to remain within the rulling gradient, the
for tunnel lining ? length of the railway line is increased artificially by
(a) Stone the development process.
(b) Brick 90. Prevent the segment getting twisted out of the
(c) Cast iron line braces are introduced at each joint of the
(d) Cement mortar arch segment in tunnel lining is called as :
Kerala PSC (PWD) Draftsman 15/06/2023 (a) Wall plate
Ans. (c) : Material for lining– (b) Laggings
(i) Masonry lining or brick masonry lining (c) Collar braces
(ii) Stone masonry lining (d) Posts
(iii) Timber lining Kerala PSC Asst. Prof. 12/06/2023
(iv) Cement mortar lining or concrete lining Ans. (c) :Collar braces– There are introduced at each
87. Tunnelling method especially useful over soft joint of the arch segment, in the form of toggles to
strata/water bearing ground is known as : prevent the segment twisting out of line. The posts are
(a) Plenum also provided with horizontal braces generally in the
(b) Steering method centre. The sizes of braces should not be less than
(c) Primary lining 4" × 6".
(d) Ground pressure 91. Which one of the following factors is not
Kerala PSC Asst. Prof. 12/06/2023 important in deciding the type and capacity of
Ans. (a) : Plenum or compressed air method– This ventilation system in tunnel?
method uses the compressed air and it is specially (a) Length of tunnel
useful for tunnelling over soft strata or water bearing (b) Shape of tunnel
ground. (c) Size of tunnel
88. For a National Highway (NH) construction, (d) Quantity of explosive and frequency of
tunnelling is preferred, if the cutting of existing blasting used
ground exceeds _______ m. MPSC MES 29/10/2022 Paper-2
OR Ans. (b) : There are mainly three factors, based on
For highway construction, tunnelling is which the from and capacity of the ventilation system
preferred if the open cut exceeds: are dependent.
(a) 10.0 (b) 15.0 • The length of the tunnel and its size.
(c) 20.0 (d) 25.0 • The amount of explosives used for blasting and their
GPSC GES Class-1 & 2 N.W.R. 22/01/2023 respective frequencies.
Ans. (b) :Tunnels– An underground engineering • The condition and rate of temperature and humidity
structure or artificial gallery used for transportation of inside the tunnel.
traffic, sewage, water etc. is known as tunnel. 92. Which one of the following methods is
• Tunnel are more economical than open cut generally adopted for tunneling in firm ground
excavations, beyond certain depth. (a) Full face method
• Open cuts are provided upto depth 18 m (b) Top heading and benching method
economically, if more than 18 m depth, tunneling is (c) Drift method
preferred. (d) All the above
• For a highways, tunneling is preferred to open cut if NMDC Junior Officer (Civil) 24/04/2022
the depth of open cut exceeds 15 m. Ans. (d) : The following method is generally adopted
89. Which one of the following alignments is for tunneling in firm ground–
obtained by development accompanied by • Full face method
tunneling? • Top heading and benching method
(a) Valley alignment • Drift method
(b) Cross country alignment • Pilot tunnel method
(c) Mountain alignment
• Perimeter tunnel method
(d) Zig-Zag alignment
Methods of tunneling through soft ground–
ESE Pre. (Civil) 19/02/2023
• Forepoling method
Ans. (c) :Mountain alignment– The levels in mountain
• Needle beam method
vary considerably and if normal alignment is adopted,
• Line plate method
the grades would become to steep, much more than the
rulling gradient. • Belgian method

Transportation Engineering 529 YCT

 ROAD ENGINEERING Macadam Construction (1756-1836 AD)-
Development Sequence of Highway- Suggested no requirement of heavy stones in
Roman Tresaguet Construction Metcalf foundation. This was first method based on scientific
Construction Telford construction thinking.
Macadam Construction Water bound macadam
(WBM) Bituminous macadam (BM).
Roman Roads-
These were straight regardless of gradients.
The total thickness of the construction was as high as
0.75 to 1.2 m.

Various organization and their establishment

year-
Organization Establishment year
Central Public Works July 1854
Tresaguet Construction– Department (CPWD)
Pierre Tresaguet (1716-1796) developed an Public Works Department 1854
improved method of construction in France by the (PWD) (By Lord Dalhousie)
year 1764 A.D.
The main feature of his proposal was that the Jayakar Committee Formed in Nov. 1927
thickness of construction need to be only in the order Recommendation Feb
of 30 cm. 1928.
Central Road Fund 1 March 1929
Central Road Organization 1930
(CRO)
Indian Road Congress (IRC) 1934
Motor Vehicle Act 1939 (Revised-1988,
2019)
Telford Construction (1757-1834 AD)-
Telford provided Level Subgrade of width 9 meters. Central Road Research 1950
• Wearing course thickness- 4 cm Institute (CRRI)
• Cross slope- 1 in 45 National Highway Act 1956
Thickness of foundation stone varied from Border Road Organization 1960
(17 - 22 cm) from edge to centre. Highway Research Board 1973
National Highway Authority 1988
of India (NHAI)
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak December 2000
Yojana (PMGSY)
Recommendation accepted by Jaykar committee.
(i) A semi official technical body should be formed.
(ii) A development fund, CRF should be intended for
road development.
(iii) 20 year road development plan were initiated.
(iv) Formation of CRRI.

Highway Engineering 530 YCT

 Highway Development–
Specification Ist 20 Year Plan 2nd 20 Year Plan 3rd 20 Year Plan

Name of Plan Nagpur road plan Bombay road plan Lucknow Road Plan
Duration 1943-1963 1961-1981 1981-2001
Completed -1961 Completed 1974
Target Density 16 km/100 km2, 32 km/100 km2, 82 km/100 km2,
Total Target 532700 km 10 Lakhs km 27 Lakhs km
Achieved Target 709122 km 1502697 km 2702000 km
N.H.-66000 km, S.H.-145000 km
Road Pattern Star and Grid - Square and Block
Provision of Expressway No provision 1600 km 3200 km
Road Classification 1. NH NH, SH, MDR, ODR,
2. SH V.R and Expressway
3. MDR
4. ODR
5. VR

Development allowances 15% 5% Nil

Length of road as per 3rd 20 year road plan (km) : Life of Different type of roads-
Total length of road = Road Life
 4.74 × Number of towns & villages Earthen Road 2 Year
Max  WBM Road 5 Year
 Road density × area Bituminous Road 10-15 Year
( )
Concrete Road 30 Year
Area km 2
Length of NH = Milestone colour code
50
Length of SH =
( )
 Area km 2 / 25
Max 
62.5 × no. of towns − length of NH

(
 Area km 2 / 12.5
Length of MDR = Max 
)
90 × no. of towns

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

Highway Engineering 531 YCT

Geometric Design(IRC: 73-1980) Unevenness Road condition Limited
It deals with the dimensions and layout of visible Index (mm/km) speed
features of the highway.
< 1500 Good -
It should be provide optimum efficiency in traffic
1500 - 2500 Satisfactory 100 kmph
operations with max. safety at reasonable cost.
2500 - 3500 Bad 55 kmph
Geometric Design of the road is done on the basis of
98th percentile speed. > 3500 Uncomfortable -
HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENT
Pavement Surface Characteristics-
(i) Friction (ii) Unevenness
(iii) Reflection properties
(iv) Drainage of surface water
• Friction or skid resistance-
Condition Translation Rotation Result
If fl is more Occurs Not occurs Tyre burns
If fl is less Not occurs Occurs Fuel burns
Skid- Bump Integrator
When the circumferential movement due to rotation • Camber/Cross slope-
of wheel is less than the path travelled by the wheel Camber is the cross slope given in the pavement in a
along the road surface then it is called skid i.e. transverse direction for effective drainage of
rainwater from the road surface. Camber value is
Rotational movement < Translational movement
depend upon the types of pavement and amount of
Slip- rainfall.
Rotational motion > Translational motion Recommended Values of Camber for Different Types
For pure slip condition, translational motion = 0 of Road Surface-
Types of Range of camber
road surface for the area with
Heavy rain- Low rain-
fall fall
Cement concrete and 1 IN 50 or 1 IN 60 or
high type bitumen 2.0% 1.7%
surface
Thin bituminous surface 1 IN 40 or 1 IN 50 or
2.5% 2.0%
Water bound macadam, 1 IN 33 or 1 IN 40 or
Metal/Gravel pavement 3.0 % 2.5%
Earthen surface 1 IN 25 or 1 IN 33 or
Note-
4.0% 3.0%
Roughometer is used to measure longitudinal
coefficient of friction. Types of camber
Bump integrator measure the roughness index (RI). (i) Straight Line Camber-
Min. skid resistance number for Indian roads to have It is used for impervious pavement like, cement
serviceability indicator is 50. b
Longitudinal Coefficient of Friction (fl)- concrete pavement, Height of camber, y =
2n
For calculating SSD Apex point of the camber is called crown.
• Longitudinal friction- 0. 35 - 0.40
• Lateral friction- 0.15
• Unevenness Index-
It is defined as the cumulative undulation (sudden
rise and fall on road surface) per km road length.
It is expressed in mm/km measured by bump (ii) Parabolic camber-Used in bituminous pavement.
integrator in terms of unevenness index developed 2x 2
by CRRI. y=
n.b
Total verticle undulation (mm)
Unevenness Index =
Length of Road (km)
RI = 630 (IRI)1.12 (mm/km)
Where, IRI = International Roughness index
Highway Engineering 532 YCT
(iii) Combined camber (straight + parabolic)-

Cross slope on expressway for carriageway and

paved shoulder and edge strip with bitumen surface
is-
(i) 2.5%, if rainfall > 1000 mm
(ii) 2%, if rainfall < 1000 mm Traffic Separator
Note- Main function of the median is to prevent head-on
Camber for shoulder should be 0.5% steeper than collision between vehicles moving in opposite
direction on adjacent lanes.
cross slope of adjoining pavement, having min.
According to IRC minimum desirable width of 5.0
value of 3% and max. value of 5% for earth
m for the median of rural highways which may be
shoulder.
reduced to 3.0 m where land is restricted.
• Carriageway or Width of Pavement- 3 m < width of medians < 5 m.
It is the width of pavement way on which vehicles For urban road-
travel. It depends upon width of traffic lanes and • Min. width - 1.2 m • Desirable width - 5 m
number of lanes. For expressway-
Width of Carriageway/Pavement as per IRC- • Min. width - 12 m
Class of road Width of Carriageway • Desirable width - 15.5 m
(m) • Kerbs-
Single Lane Road 3.75 Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement
Two lane, without 7.0 and median or footpath or island or shoulder.
raised kerb
Two Lanes, with 7.5
raised kerb
Intermediate 5.5
Carriageway (except
Types of kerb and their height-
on important roads)
Type of Kerb Height (mm)
Multi-Lane Pavements 3.5 Per Lane
1. Low/Mountable type kerb 100
or 3.5 × no. of lane 2. Semi-barrier type kerb 150
Number of lane on the basis of vehicles per hour- 3. Barrier type kerb 200
Vehicles per hour Number of lane • Shoulder-
Very low traffic One lane Shoulders are provided on both sides of the
300 vehicles per hours Two lane pavement along the road in the case of undivided
300 - 600 vehicles per hours Three lane carriageway and on outer edge with divided
carriageway.
600 - 1500 vehicles per hours Four lane
Note-
On urban roads without raised kerbs lane width may
be decreased to 3.5 m.
As per IRC minimum shoulder width- 2.5 m.
The minimum width recommended for urban road
The desirable min. width is 4.6 m.
with kerb is 5.5 m to make allowance for a stalled
Its surface should be rougher than the pavement.
vehicle.
It is 0.5% steeper than the camber of pavement.
In local streets of residential areas the Lane width
• Road margins-
may be decreased to 3.0 m.
Ex.- Footpath, Cycle track, Guard rail, Driveways,
Lane width of Expressways Parking lanes, Bus bays, Lay bays, Frontage road,
For plain and rolling terrains- 3.75 m. Embankment slope.
For mountainous terrain- 3.5 m. Footpath-
• Medians/Traffic Separator- It is provided in urban areas when the vehicular as
A median is provided between two sets of traffic well as pedestrian traffic are heavy.
lanes intended to divide the traffic moving in • Minimum width - 1.5 m. • Desirable width - 2 m.
opposite directions. • Cross slope - 2.5 - 3%.
Highway Engineering 533 YCT
 Cycle track- SIGHT DISTANCE CONSIDERATION
It is provided in urban areas when cycle traffic is Clear distance visible to a driver at any instant from
very high. a specific height above the carriageway is known as
• Minimum width- 2 m. sight distance.
Guard Rails- Factors affecting sight distance-
It is provided for road safety along the edge of road. (i) Vehicle speed (ii) Road gradient
• Height- 1 - 2 m. (iii) Breaking efficiency (iv) Reaction time
Width of Formation or Roadway- (v) Frictional resistance b/w road and tyre.
Width of formation Classification-
= Carriageway width + Shoulder width 1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
2. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
Roadway Width in 3. Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
Road Plain and Mountainous 4. Safe Sight Distance
Classification Rolling and steep Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)-
terrain (m) terrain (m) The minimum sight distance available on a highway
National & State at any spot should be of sufficient length to stop a
Highways vehicle travelling at design speed, safely without
(a) Single Lane 12.0 6.25 collision with any other obstruction.
(b) Double Lane 12.0 8.80 S.S.D = Lag Distance + Breaking Distance
Major District
Roads
(a) Single Lane 9.0 4.75
(b) Double Lane 9.0 ––
Other District
Roads
(a) Single Lane 7.5 4.75 Single Lane-
(b) Double Lanes 9.0 –– • Two way Traffic - 2 SSD
Village roads, • One way Traffic - SSD
Single lane 7.5 4.00 Double Lane-
Minimum Roadway Width on Bridge- Two way Traffic - SSD
Number of lane Width 'PIEV' Theory-
Single lane 4.25 m P- Perception time -
Double lane 7.5 m It is the time required to perceive an object or
Multiple lane 3.5 m + 0.5 m situation.
per carriageway I- Intellection time-
Right of Way/Land Width/Road Land- It is time required for the driver to understand the
Right of way is the total area required for the situation. It is also the time required for comparing
construction of roadway. the different thoughts, regrouping and registering
new sensations.
Carriageway + shoulder + Road margin
E- Emotion time-
It is the time elapsed during emotional sensations
and other mental disturbance such as fear, anger or
any other emotional feeling like superstition etc.
V-Volition time-
It is the time taken by the driver for the final action
such as brake application.
SSD, t = 2.5 sec. (P + I + E + V)
Recommended land width for different classes of OSD, t = 2 sec. (P + I)
roads- (a) Lag Distance-
Road Plain and rolling terrain (m) Mountainous and
Classification steep terrain (m)
It is the minimum distance travelled by vehicle
Open Built-up area Open Built-up during reaction time.
area area area Lag Distance = v.t or 0.278V.t
Expressway 90 - 60 -
N.H. and S.H. 45 30 24 20
v - m/sec., V - kmph
M.D.R. 25 20 18 15 (b) Braking Distance-
O.D.R. 15 15 15 12 Distance travelled by vehicle after the application of
V.R. 12 10 09 09 brake is called braking distance.
Highway Engineering 534 YCT
 It is depends on vehicle character, brake efficiency S = Minimum spacing between two vehicle
and power of vehicle. = 0.7 vb + 6 m (vb , m/s)
Braking time = P + I + E + V
v2 V2 = 0.2 Vb +6 m (Vb, kmph)
Breaking Distance = =
2gf 254(f ± 0.01n%) 4S
T= , (a = Acceleration in m/s2)
a
v2
∴ S.S.D. = vt + or 14.4S
2gf T= , (a = Acceleration in km/hr/sec.)
a
V2 If overtaken vehicle speed is not given then it can
S.S.D. = 0.278V.t + be taken as below
254(f ± 0.01n%)
vb = vd – 4.5 Vb = Vd – 16
t - Reaction time (2.5 sec.) vd & Vd = Design speed
g - acceleration (m/sec2) d3- It is the distance (m) travelled by on- coming
 + ve = Ascending/upward gradient vehicle C in opposite direction during T (sec.) from
n=  position C1 to C2.
 − ve = Descending/downward gradient
Stopping Sight distance values for different speeds- d 3 = 0.278Vd T
Design Speed 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100 1. For one way traffic OSD = d1 + d2
(kmph)
∵ No vehicle coming from opposite direction
SSD for 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180 2. For two way traffic OSD = d1 + d2 +d3
Design (m)
Note- 1
OSD = 0.278Vb × t + 0.278Vb × T + aT 2 + 0.278Vd × T
If velocity increase, reaction time decrease. 2
Reaction time and height for sight distance Overtaking Zone for OSD-
As per IRC- Absolute/Minimum length of overtaking zone
Sight Reaction Height (in m) = 3.OSD
Distance time in Driver's eye Object Max. or desirable length of overtaking zone
second level = 5.OSD
SSD 2.5 1.2 0.15 Note-
ISD 2.5 1.2 1.2 OSD is not required for the 4 or more lanes of road
OSD 2 1.2 1.2 with divided zone.
Space Decreasing order of sight distance-
Headway 0.7 - - OSD > ISD > SSD
Intermediate Sight Distance-
ISD is provided only when OSD can't be possible to HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
provide. Design Speed-
I.S.D = 2 × S.S.D. It is the main factor on which geometric design
elements depends.
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)- Classification of Terrain-
Sight distance required for a faster vehicle to
Terrain Classification Cross Slope of the
overtake the slower vehicle safely is called
Country (in%)
overtaking sight distance.
Plain 0 - 10
Rolling 10 - 25
Mountainous 25 - 60
Steep > 60
Design Speeds on rural highways-
Road Design speed in kmph for various terrains
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 d1 = v b t v in m/s Classifica- Plain Rolling Mountainous steep
tion
or d1 = 0.278Vb t , t = 2sec by IRC (Vb in kmph)
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling. Min Ruling Min.
aT 2 Express- 120 100 100 80 80 60 80 60
d 2 = b + 2S , Where 2S = , b = vb T ways
2 NH & SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
1 MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
∴ d 2 = v b T + aT 2 (m) b = 0.278Vb T ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
2
VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20
T = Overtaking operation time
Highway Engineering 535 YCT
Design speeds for different classes of urban roads- respect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse
Arterial Roads 80 kmph slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve.
Sub-Arterial Roads 60 kmph
Collector Streets 50 kmph
Local Streets 30 kmph
Horizontal Curve-
Wv2
Centrifugal force, P =
gR
W = Weight of the vehicle (Kg)
R = Radius of the circular curve (m)
v = Speed of vehicle (m/sec) General equation for design of superelevation-
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2)
Centrifugal Ratio/Impact factor- v2
e+f = (v in m/sec.)
Centrifugal force P v2 gR
= =
Weight of the vehicle W gR V2
e+f = (v in kmph)
Note- 127R
Max. value of impact factor/ratio- 0.22 e = Rate of super-elevation = tan θ
Overturning Effect Due to Centrifugal Force f = Lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
R = Radius of the horizontal curve (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity = (9.8 m/sec2)
Equilibrium Superelevation-
For equilibrium superelevation, coefficient of lateral
friction, f = 0
v2 V2
e= or e =
gR 127R
Design superelevation-
Superelevation for 75% design speed is calculated
by neglecting friction.
b For mixed traffic condition speed is reduced by 25%.
Equilibrium Condition, P.h = W ×
2 (0.75V) 2 V2
e= = or 75% of V
h = height of object 127R 225R
For No Overturning Condition
Allowable speed at the corner va = 5.28 R
 P v2  b
 = ≤ Note-
 W gR  2h If e < 7% then obtained value is used.
Transverse Skidding Effect- Frictional force = f.W. If e > 7% then provide max. superelevation equal to
For No Skidding Condition 7% or 0.07.
Centrifugal force ≤ Frictional force Maximum Superelevation for Different terrain-
IRC Recommends
Terrain
 P v 2
 (emax)
 = ≤f Urban/ Built-up area 0.04 or 4%
 W gR  1 IN 25
For no skidding & no overturning For plain and rolling 0.07 or 7%
b terrain or hilly terrain 1 IN 15
P  covered with snow
≤ Min. of  2h
W Hilly terrain not covered 0.10 or 10%
f
 with snow 1 IN 10
Note- Minimum Superelevation-
Centrifugal ratio value for highway >/ 0.25 or (1/4). e min = Camber
Centrifugal ratio value for railway- 0.125 or (1/8).
Superelevation/Banking- Ruling Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curve-
To counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to V2 v2
reduce the tendency of the vehicle to overturn or R = OR
127(e + f )
ruling
(e + f)g
skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with
Highway Engineering 536 YCT
Min. Radius of Horizontal Curves for Various For single or two lane road-
Terrain Conditions- R > 300m No Extra widening provided.
Classification Plain Terrain Rolling Terrain 50 < R < 300 Extra widening provided on
of Roads Ruling Absolute Rolling Absolute
Min (m) Min. (m) Min (m) Min.(m)
both side
NH & SH 360 230 230 155 R < 50m Extra Widening provided on
MDR 230 155 155 90 inner side
ODR 155 90 90 60 Extra width of pavement at horizontal curve-
VR 90 60 60 45 Extra width for Radius of curve (m)
≤ 20m 21 - 40 41 - 60 61 - 100
Extra Widening of Pavement- Single lane road 0.9 0.6 0.6 -
It is observed that pavement width, at the horizontal Two lane road 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9
curves, are larger than the width on the straight Note-
roads. This extra width is the result of extra For multi-lane roads, the pavement widening is
widening of the pavement at the curves. calculated by adding half the extra widening of two-
Aim of extra widening- lane roads to each lane of the multi-lane road.
i. To encounter transverse skidding. Horizontal Transition Curves-
When a vehicle travelling on straight road (infinite
ii. To prevent off tracking radius) enters a curve of finite radius. Then it
iii. To achieve a speed higher than the design speed. suddenly subjected to the centrifugal force which
iv. To increase the visibility of the curve. cause shock/Jerk & sway. For avoiding this, it is
v. To encounter psychology of driver. necessary to provide a transition curve at the
Off-tracking- beginning of the circular curve, and gradually
When a vehicle makes a turn and it rear wheels do reducing the radius to the radius of circular curve
not follow the same path as its front wheels this where the curve begins.
phenomenon is known as off tracking.
Classification of Extra Widening-
1. Mechanical Extra Widening
Widening required to account for the off-tracking
due to the rigidity of wheel based.
nl 2
Wm =
2R
2. Psychological Extra Widening
V
Wps = (V in kmph) Type of transition curves-
9.5 R
1. Spiral or clothoid 2. Bernoulli's lemniscate
v 3. Cubic parabola
W ps = ( v in m /s)
2 .6 4 R
(It is not considered for single lane road.)
Where,
n = Number of traffic lanes
l = Length of wheel base of vehicle
(Normally taken 6.0 m)
V = Design speed
R = Radius of horizontal curve Length of Transition Curve (Ls)-
Total Extra Widening, 1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration-
nl 2 V v3 0.0215V 3
We = Wm + Wps = + LS = =
2R 9.5 R CR CR
Width of pavement (m) Value of 'n' Rate of change of acceleration,
3.75 1 80
7 2 C= m / sec3
75 + V
7.5 2
10.5 3 Value Range of C = [0.5 < C < 0.8]
14 4 V = Design speed in kmph
Above formula is applicable for two lane or more. R = Radius of curve
Highway Engineering 537 YCT
2. Rate of introduction of superelevation- α S α 180S
= (in Radians) or = (in degrees)
150x For plain and rolling terrain 2 2R 2 2πR

Ls = 100x For built up area d = Distance b/w the centre line of the road & line of
60x For hilly area the inside lane in (m).

x = Rise of outer line of road Case-2
(Rotation of outer edge about center lines) When LC < SSD
eN(W + We )  Rotation of pavement 
LS =  
2  about inner edge 
Ls = eN (W + We)
3. Empirical Formula According to the IRC-
(a) For plain and Rolling terrains
2.7V 2 35v 2 V in kmph
LS = or
R R v in m / s
(b) For mountainous and steep terrains
V2 12.96v 2 (a) For Single Lane-
LS = or
R R  α   SD − Lc  α
m = R 1 − cos  +   sin
Shift of the transition curve-  2  2  2
L2s α 180Lc
S= and = (in degrees)
24R 2 2π ( R − d )
Note- (b) For Multiple Lane-
Ideal shape of transition curve is clothoid or spiral. α   SD − Lc  α α

But curve recommend by IRC is cubic spiral. m = R 1 − cos  +   sin + d cos
Set-back or clearance distance on horizontal curves-  2  2  2 2
It is required from the centre line of horizontal curve VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to
provide adequate sight distance at a horizontal curve. Gradient-
Set back distance depends upon. Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of
(i) Required sight distance (SD) the road with respect to the horizontal.
(ii) Radius of horizontal curve TYPES OF GRADIENT-
(iii) Length of curve (LC) Ruling or Design Gradient-
Case-1 When LC > SD Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within
Sight distance which the designer attempts to design the vertical
Clearance profile of a road.
Line of sight Limiting Gradient-
Limiting gradient should be adopted when ruling
α/2 gradient results in very high increase in cost of
R

construction due to cutting and filling.

us

α
di
Ra

Generally provided in hilly regions.

O Exceptional Gradient-
(a) For Single Lane or narrow road- It is limited for short stretches not exceeding about
Set back distance (m) is measure from the centre line 100 meters at a stretch.
of road for single lane. Minimum gradient-
 α It considered with drainage point of view according
Set back distance, m = R 1 − cos 
 2 to IRC-
(b) For Multiple Lane or Wide Road- Cement Road 1 IN 500
Sight distance is measured along the centre line of Brick Road 1 IN 250 to 1 IN 300
the inner lane Bitumen Road 1 IN 250
Set back distance is measured from centre of road. Earthen Road 1 IN 200
α High Permeable soil 1 IN 100
m = R − ( R − d ) cos
2 At hairpin bends, the grade is restricted to 2.5%.

Highway Engineering 538 YCT

Gradients for roads in different terrains- a). When positive gradient meets another positive
Terrain Gradient gradient.
Ruling Limiting Exceptional N = n1 − n 2
Plain or Rolling 3.3% 5% 6.7%
1 IN 30 1 IN 20 1 IN 15 b). When positive gradient meets a flat gradient.
Mountainous and 5% 6% 7% N = n1
steep terrain or hilly 1 IN 20 1 IN 16.7 1 IN 14.3
R.L. > 3000 m above c). When an ascending gradient (positive gradient)
MSL) meets a descending gradient (negative gradient).
Steep terrain R.L.≤ 6% 7% 8% N = n1 + n 2
3000 m above MSL) 1 IN 16.7 1 IN 14.3 1 IN 12.5
Decreasing order of gradient/steepness- Deviation angle will be max. in this case.
Exceptional gradient > Limiting gradient > d). When a descending gradient meets another
Ruling/Design gradient > Minimum gradient descending gradient.
Grade Compensation- N = n 2 − n1
It is reduction in vertical gradient due to the (i) Length of summit curve for SSD-
horizontal curve, which in intended to offset the
extra tractive effort involved at the curve. NS2 NS2
(a) When Ls > SSD Ls = or
or ( 2H + 2h ) 2 4.4
The reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve
because of the additional tractive force required due ( 2H + 2h)2 4.4
to curve resistance (T–Tcosα), which is intended to (b) When Ls < SSD Ls = 2S − or 2S −
offset the extra tractive force involved at the curve. N N
IRC gave the following specification for the grade (ii) Length of summit curve for ISD/OSD-
compensation- NS2o NS2o
Grade Compensation is not required for grades (a) When Lo > OSD/ISD Ls = or
flatter than 4% because the loss of tractive force is 8H 9.6
negligible. 8H 9.6
Grade compensation - (b) When Ls < OSD/ISD Ls = 2So − or 2So −
N N
 30 + R   75  N = Deviation angle (equal to algebraic difference
G.C. = Min.of   % or   %
 R  R in grades.)
75 H = Height of eye level of driver above roadway
(i) , If R > 45 m h = Height of object above the pavement surface
R
30 + R S = Stopping sight distance
(ii) , If R < 45 m So = Overtaking/intermediate sight distance.
R
Compensated gradient = Note-
Actual/ruling gradient – G.C. 4% As per IRC for SSD – H = 1.2 m, h = 0.15 m
Vertical Curve Valley curves-
Summit Curve- Valley curves/sag curves are the vertical curves
Summit Curve or Crest curves have Convexity having convexity downwards.
upwards. Its design is governed by comfort criteria and safety
Summit curve design is governed by criteria of sight criteria.
distance only. Cubic parabola is generally preferred in vertical
Circular summit curve is ideal as the sight distance valley curves.
available throughout the length of circular curve is
constant. 2N
Equation of cubic parabola y = b.x 3 , b = 3
Simple parabola as summit curve is easy to construct 3L
and also it is found to give good riding comfort too Types of Valley Curves-
because of these reasons in actual practice a simple
parabola curve is used as summit curve instead of
the circular arc.
Types of Summit Curves-

Highway Engineering 539 YCT

(a) When a descending gradient meets another CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD
descending gradient. N = n 2 − n1 PAVEMENTS
(b) When a descending gradient meets a flat gradient. TYPE OF PAVEMENT
1. Flexible Pavement (IS:37-2012)-
N = − n1
Flexible pavement have low or negligible flexural
(c) When a descending gradient meets an ascending strength and transmits load to the sub-grade through
gradient. N = − ( n1 + n 2 ) grain to grain.
Ex.- Bituminous concrete, granular materials with or
Maximum deviation angle is obtained. without bituminous binders, WBM soil aggregate
(c) When an ascending gradient meets another mixes etc.
ascending gradient. N = n 2 − n1 Flexible pavements are commonly designed using
empirical charts or equations.
Total length of the valley curve (Lv)- It is also use semi-empirical and theoretical method.
(i) As per comfort criteria Layer of flexible pavement-
Transition curve is provided back to back and if C = (i) Soil subgrade
1/ 2 (ii) Sub base course
 Nv3 
0.6 m/s3. then L v = 2   = 0.38(NV 3 )1/ 2 (iii) Base coarse
 C  (iv) Binder course
(ii) As per HSD criteria- (v) Surface course
Parabolic curve is provided
Case-1 If L v > HSD

NS2 NS2
Lv = =
2h + 2S tan α 1.5 + 0.035 S
As per IRC, h = 0.75, α = 1°
Case-2 If L v < HSD
2.
Rigid Pavement(IS: 58-2012)-
( 2h + 2S tan α ) Rigid pavements are designed using elastic theory,
L v = 2S −
N assuming pavement as an elastic resting over an
elastic or a viscous foundation.
(1.5 + 0.035S) Rigid pavements have flexural strength or flexural
As per IRC, L v = 2S −
N rigidity.
HSD - Head light sight distance Load transferred by slab action or layer to layer.
V = Design speed in kmph, The rigid pavements are used for heavier loads and
h = Average height of headlight can be constructed over poor sub-grade such as
black cotton or plastic soil, peat etc.
v = Design speed in m/s, N = Deviation angle
Layer of rigid pavement-
α = Beam angle, (i) Cement concrete slab
C = Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration. (ii) Base coarse
Position of lowest point of valley curve from starting (iii) Soil subgrade
of the curve,
1/ 2
 n 
x =  1  .L v
 2N1 
Note-
V3
Length of transition curve, LS =
CR
Min. height of headlight, h = 0.75
3. Semi-flexible Pavement-
Generally cubic parabola is preferred in valley It is a new pavement technology consisting of open
curve. graded asphalt concrete with a high air void content
Total length of valley curve, L V = 2LS filled by injecting special grouting materials.
Highway Engineering 540 YCT
4. Semi-rigid Pavement- Plate bearing test and Banklemann beam test are
When bonded materials like the pozzolanic concrete, also some times made use, for evaluating the
lean cement concrete or soil cement are used then wearing course and the pavement as a whole.
pavement layer has considerably higher flexural 6. Binder Course-
strength than the common flexible pavement layers, Binder course consists of aggregates having less
such pavements are called 'Semi-rigid pavement' asphalt and does not require quality as high as the
Difference b/w flexible & Rigid Pavement surface course.
Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement Thickness- 50 - 100 mm. .
Very less effect of temp. Affected by temp. and 7. Base Course-
stress. frictional stresses. It provides additional load distribution and
Less night visibility Night visibility is good contributes to the sub-surface drainage.
Less suitable for stage More suitable Base and sub-base course are used under flexible
construction pavement to improve load through a finite thickness
Deformation in top layers Deformation is only in Base courses are used under rigid pavements for
is transferred to inner the top layer of the preventing pumping and protecting the sub-grade
layers concrete slab. against frost action
Min. thickness-100 mm..
Low initial cost but high High initial cost but low
8. Sub-base course-
maintenance cost maintenance cost.
It is the primary functions to provide structural
Joints are absent Expansion & contraction supports and improve drainage.
joints are provided Thickness- 100 - 300 mm.
Low or negligible flexural High flexural strength 9. Sub-grade/Soil Sub-grade-
strength It is the bottom most layer of pavement by which
Flexible pavement are Rigid pavement are pavement load is ultimately taken by soil sub-grade.
commonly designed using designed using elastic Minimum thickness- 100 mm
empirical equations theory. Strength Tests for Soil Sub-grade-
Layers of Flexible Pavement– 1. Plate Bearing Test
1. Seal Coat 2. Triaxial Compression Test or Direct Shear Test
It is a thin surface treatment used to make water- 3. CBR Test
proof the surface and to provide skid resistance. 4. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) Test.
A premixed sand bitumen seal coat is used over (For in-situ condition)
premixed carpet. Design factors for Flexible Pavement-
2. Tack coat i. Design wheel load or traffic loads
ii. Pavement component materials
It is a very light application of asphalt, usually
asphalt emulsion diluted with water. iii. Climatic factors
iv. Sub-grade soil
It provides proper bonding between two layer of
binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the v. Drainage and Environmental factors.
entire and set very fast. vi. Contact pressure.
3. Prime Coat  z3 
It is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen Design Wheel Load- σ z = p 1 − 2 2 3/ 2 
 (a + z ) 
to an absorbent surface. The main object of priming
is to plug in the capillary voids of the porous surface
and to bond the loose mineral particles on the
existing surface.
It provides bonding between two layers.
4. Surface course
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with
traffic loads and resists pressure exerted by tyres and
take up wear and tear due to traffic.
These are usually constructed with dense graded
asphalt concrete.
Purpose- To provide smooth riding surface.
Thickness- 25 - 50 mm. Contact Pressure-
5. Wearing course- Vertical stress computation under a circular load is
The stability of wearing course is estimated by based on Boussinesq's Theory.
Marshall stability test where in optimum % of
Load on wheel
bituminous material is worked out based on stability Contact pressure, C.P =
density, VMA and VFB. Area of imprint

Highway Engineering 541 YCT

 Contact Pressure It is used for sub-grade design and soil classification
Rigidity factor, R .F. = Soil quality based on G.I. value-
Tyre Pressure
Soil Quality G.I. Value
1 Good 0-1
Tyre pressure T .P ∝
R.F. Fair 2-4
Where, Poor 5-9
σ z = Vertical Stress at depth z Very poor 10 - 20
3. C.B.R. Method- (Recommended by IRC)-
p = Contact Pressure of tyre
Pavement thickness,
z = depth at which σ z is computed
1.75P P 1.75P A
a = radius of loaded area T= − or −
C.B.R. Pt .π C.B.R π
Tyre Contact Rigidity
Pressure Pressure Factor Applicable if CBR < 12%
= 7kg / cm 2 = 7kg / cm 2 =1 Where,
<1 P = Wheel load Pt = Tyre pressure
> 7kg / cm 2 < 7kg / cm 2
A = Area of contact (cm2)
< 7kg / cm 2
> 7kg / cm 2 >1 4. Modified CBR Method-
The rigidity factor depends upon the degree of No. of cumulative standard axle-
tension developed in the wall of the tyre.  r 
n

Flexible pavement design method- 365 1 +  − 1 A.D.F
Flexible Ns =  100  
n
Pavement Design Example Based on  r 
 
Method  100 
G.I. Method
CBR Method Physical
Where,
Empirical Method A = No. of commercial vehicle per day
Mc. Load Method Properties
x
Stabilometer Method  r 
Semi-Empirical or Stress strain = P 1 + 
Triaxial test Method  100 
semi-theoretical function.
x = No. of years b/w last count and completion
Theoretical Mathematical
Burmister Method of pavement construction
Method Method
P = No. of vehicle per day at last count
1. 1. Burmister Method-
Maximum vertical deflection, F = Vehicle damage factor
n = Pavement design life (10 - 20) year
P.a
∆ = 1.5 .F ( for flexible plate ) r = Rate of growth of traffic (7.5%)
Es D = Lane distribution factor
If rigid circular plate (30cm) is used instead of 5. McLeod Method- It is based upon plate bearing test
flexible plate then, P
T = k.log10  
P.a S
∆ = 1.18 .F ( for rigid plate )
Es k = Base coarse constant, S = Sub-grade reaction
a = radius of plate 6. California Resisting Value Method-
P = Pressure at deflection k(T.I.)(90 − R)
t=
Es= young's modulus of Pavement material. C1/ 5
F = Deflection factor
T.I = Traffic index 1.35 (EWL)0.11
The value of deflection factor (F) is depend upon the
k = Constant, 0.166
ratio of (Z/a) and determine from the charts.
C = Cohesion meter value
2. Group Index Method-
R = Stabilometer resisting value
G.I. = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
7. Tri-axial Method-
Where,
1/ 3
a = (P – 35) < 40 b = (P – 15) < 40  3p.x.y E
c = (wl – 40) < 20 d = (Ip –10) < 20 T=  − a2  s
 2πE s .∆  Ep
P = Finer % passing through 75µ sieve
Note- Es & Ep = Modulus of elasticity of sub-grade and
G.I value- Maximum-20 pavement
Minimum-0 y = Rainfall depth, x = Traffic coefficient
Highway Engineering 542 YCT
 Rigid pavement design method-
Rigid pavement have the load carrying capacity
mainly due to rigidity and high modulus of
elasticity.
1. Modulus of Sub-grade Reaction–
Westergaard used rigid plate of diameter 75 cm to
find modulus of sub-grade reaction (K).
p p
K= = Kg / cm3
∆ 0.125
Where,
p = Contact Pressure
∆ = Displacement
K 75cm = 0.4K 30cm (Theoretically) 1. Expansion Joint-
2. Radius of Relative Stiffness of slab to sub-grad- It is provided across the longitudinal direction to
allow for expansion of the pavement due to rise of
1/ 4
 E .h 3  temperature.
l= 2 
cm. It is provided, if the length of concrete structure
12K(1 − µ )  exceeds 45 m.
Where, Joint interval-
l = Radius of relative stiffness (cm) If slab is laid in winter- 50 - 60 m
E = Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete If slab is laid in summer- 90 - 120 m
µ = Poisson's ratio of cement concrete (0.15) Gap width - 20-25 mm
h = C.C. slab thickness (in cm) Purpose of the dowel bar is to transfer the load
3. Equivalent area (b) of resisting section for between two concrete slabs and to keep the two
slabs in same height.
interior
As per IRC has recommended, for rough interface
loading-
the spacing ≯140 m.
i) b = 1.6a 2 + h 2 − 0.675h when a < 1.724h 2. Contraction Joint
Its purpose is to allow the slab construction due to
ii) b = a when a > 1.724h
fall in slab temperature below the construction
CRITICAL COMBINATION OF STRESSES- temperature.
1. During Summer mid day In this joint movement is restricted the sub-grade
Critical Combination of Stresses at edge region, friction.
= Load stress + Warping stress - frictional stress As per I.R.C the max. spacing of these joints is 4.5m
First two are tensile while frictional stresses are in plain cement concrete slabs and 14 m in RCC slab
compressive. of thickness 20 cm.
2. During winter mid day- Spacing of construction joint-
Critical Combination of Stresses at edge, Case-1 When reinforcement is not provided
= Load stress + Warping stress + frictional stress 2 × 104 Sc
LC =
3. During Summer mid night- W .f
Critical combination of stresses at corner Where,
Load stress + Warping stress LC = spacing between contraction joint (in meter)
SC = Allowable tensile stress in C.C. (0.8 kg/cm2)
The Load stress at edge region is higher than the W = Unit wt. of C.C. (2400 kg/cm3)
interior. f = Coefficient of sub-grade friction (taken 1.5)
Note- Stress at corner > Stress at edge > Stress at interior Case-2 When reinforcement is provided
Design of Joints in Cement Concrete Pavement- 200A s .Ss
LC =
b.h .w .f
SS = Allowable tensile stress in steel (1400 kg/cm2)
AS = Total Area of steel in cm2
3. Warping or Hinged Joints-
It is provided along the longitudinal direction to
prevent warping of the concrete slab due to
temperature and sub-grade moisture variation.
Highway Engineering 543 YCT
4. Construction Joints- Height
It is provided whenever the construction work stop Double Decker buses 4.75 m
temporarily. Others for normal application 3.8 m
Construction joint direction could be either along the Others for carrying ISO Containers 4.2 m
transverse or longitudinal direction.
Max. weight 52.2 tonne
Longitudinal Joints-
It is prevent longitudinal cracking in the centre of Braking Characteristics-
It is deals with the safety of vehicle operating, sight
the pavement.
distance and spacing between two consecutive
provided when CC pavement width > 4.5 m. vehicles.
It is allow differential shrinking and swelling due to Braking test is done to measure the skid resistance of
rapid change in moisture under the edge than the the pavement surface.
centre of the road.
Tie bars used across the longitudinal joints of u2 a
Skid resistance, f = =
cement concrete pavement. 2gL g
Longitudinal joints with tie bars as hinges and help u = Initial speed (m/sec)
to relieve part of warping stress in CC pavements. L = Braking distance or length of skid mark (m)
Tie bars are not designed to act as load transfer. a = Acceleration
2a sSs dSS g = Acceleration due to gravity
Length of Tie Bar- L t = = Braking Efficiency,
PSb 2Sb
Skid resistance obtained from braking test
π 2 η=
a s = d , p = 2πd f max known
4
SS = Allowable tensile stress [B] TRAFFIC STUDIES & ANALYSIS
Sb = Allowable bond stress in concretes 1. Traffic Volume or Flow Study-
d = diameter of tie bar (cm) It is the number of vehicles passes across a given
P = Perimeter , Lt = Length , transverse line of the road during unit time.
aS = Area of tie bar n × 3600
Equivalent hourly flow, q =
Stress Plain tie bar Performed bar T
Tensile (Ss) (kg/cm2) 1250 2000 n = no. of vehicles passing in T second.
Bond (Sb) (kg/cm2) 17.5 24.6 Unit-Vehicle/hour, vehicle/day
In case of pavement design of tie bars are resist Traffic Volume Classification-
tensile stress and dowel bars are resist bearing stress. Traffic Volume Classification
< 50 Light
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING 50 - 300 Medium
Traffic engineering is that branch of engineering > 300 Heavy
which deal with the improvement of traffic Method of traffic volume measurement-
performance of road network and terminals. 1. Manual method
[A] TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTIC- 2. Mechanical or automatic method
Vehicular characteristics- (i) Pneumatic hose (it counts number of vehicle)
Types of vehicles Length (ii) Radar detector
(iii) Magnetic detector
Motor vehicle other than transport having 9.5 m
(iv) Electronic detector
not more than two axles
Presentation of Traffic Volume Data-
Single Unit truck with two or more axle 11.00 m 1. Average Annual Daily traffic (AADT)-
Transport vehicles with rigid frame with 11.25 m It helps in determining importance of road and
two or more axles development of road.
Single unit bus with two or more axles 12.00 m No. of vehicles passing in a year
Semi trailer tractor/Articulated vehicle 16.00 m AADT =
365
with more than two axles
2. Average Annual Week Day Traffic (AAWT)-
Truck/trailer or tractor/trailer 18.00 m
combinations Total week day traffic volume
AAWT =
Width 260
Motor vehicle other than transport vehicle 2.5 m 3. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)-
Width by IRC 2.44 m No. of vehicle in week/month
Transport vehicle 2.7 m ADT =
7/30
Highway Engineering 544 YCT
4. Annual Average Hourly Traffic (AAHT)- Spot speed can be used to design the geometry of
Total no. of vehicle passing in a year road like horizontal and vertical curves, Super
AAHT = elevation etc.
365 × 24 Uses of Spot Speed-
Average. annual daily traffic i). In accidental studies
AAHT = ii). To calculate the traffic capacity.
24
iii). In planning traffic control & traffic regulation.
5. Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT)-
iv). For deciding design speed for new facilities.
Total No. of vehicle passing in a year Method of Spot Speed Study-
AAWT =
52×5 = 260 (a) Enoscope/Mirror box method
Weekday = Monday to Friday on weekend volume is (b) Pressure contact tubes/Road detector
considerable reduced. (c) Direct timing procedure
Trend charts- (d) Radar speedometer/Doppler-principle meters
Trend charts showing volume trends over period of (It is the accurate method)
years are prepared. (e) By time-lapse photographic method
These data are useful for estimating the rate of (f) Loop detector
growth and for planning future expansion, design (g) Graphic recorder
and regulation. (h) Electronic meter
Variation charts- (i) Photo electronic meter
Variation charts showing hourly, daily and seasonal (j) Speed meter
variations are prepared. Note-
Helps in deciding the facilities and regulation Spot speed studies cannot be used to find density
needed during peak traffic periods. because measurements are done at one point only.
30th Highest hourly or design hourly volume Types of spot speed-
It is the hourly volume that will be exceeded only 29 (i) Time mean speed-
times in a year & all other hourly volumes of the It is the arithmetic mean of all speed of the vehicle.
year will be less than this value. n

According to Indian condition 30th highest hourly ∑V i

volume is 8 - 10% of AADT. Time - mean speed, Vt = i =1
(kmph)
• Daily factor- n
Vi = observed instantaneous speed Ith vehicle (kmph)
7 days average for 24 hour
DF = n = number of vehicles observed
24 hour count on any particular day (ii) Space-mean speed-
• Seasonal factor- It is the harmonic mean speed of all vehicles
occupying at a given section of highway over some
Avg. 24 hour traffic vol. count for 1 year specified time period.
SF =
24 hour traffic vol. count for a specific month
n
Space-mean Speed, VS = m/s.
• ADT = Traffic volume count × DF × SF 1 n

• AADT = ADT × DF × WF × SF
∑
i =1 Vi

DF = Daily Factor, WF = Weekly Factor n = number individual vehicle observations

Speed Study- Note-
Running speed- Arithematic mean > Harmonic mean
Running speed Length of travel Running speed > Journey speed
=
(excludes stop delays) Total running time of vehicle
Desired Speed Values for Highways-
Journey Speed- Upper speed limit 85th 60
Journey speed Length of travel for regulation or percentile speed kmph
= safe speed
(includes stop delay) Total Journey time
Lower speed limit 15th 30
Total journey = Running time + Stopped delay time for regulation percentile speed kmph
Speed to check 98th 84
3600 geometric design percentile speed kmph
Travel time = (sec./ km) Where, V in kmph
V 15th percentile speed Lower safe limit of speed
th
Spot Speed Study- 85 percentile speed Upper safe limit of speed
th
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at 98 percentile speed Geometric design speed
th
a specified location. 50 percentile speed Medium speed limit

Highway Engineering 545 YCT

Note- hour under the most ideal roadway and traffic
The speed at which maximum number of vehicles conditions which can possibly be attained.
rate moving is called model speed. Two roads have same physical features will have
98th percentile speed means the speeds at or below same basic capacities irrespective of the traffic
which 98th percent of vehicles are moving and only conditions.
2% exceeds that limit. Possible Capacity-
Method of speed & delay studies- It is the maximum number of vehicles which can
i. Floating car or riding check method pass a given point on lane or roadway during one
(Applicable for two way traffic) hour under the prevailing roadway and traffic
ii. License plate or vehicle number method conditions. In jam condition possible capacity is
iii. Interview technique zero.
iv. Elevated observations Jam condition(0)≤Possible capacity≤ Basic capacity
v. Photographic technique Practical/design capacity-
Origin & Destination Study (O & D study)- It is the maximum number of vehicle that can pass a
It gives information on the actual location or zone of given point on a lane or roadway during one hour,
origin of travel of vehicles or individual passenger
without traffic density being so great as to cause
trips and their destination.
unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction to the
More useful for planning of new highway.
driver's freedom to manoeuvre under the prevailing
Desire lines are plotted in this method.
roadway and traffic conditions.
METHODS OF O & D STUDIES-
(i) Road-side interview method Practical capacity < Basic Capacity
(Quick data collection is possible) Traffic Density (k) -
(ii) License plate method Total number of vehicles per unit km is called
(Useful for small areas) 'Traffic Density'.
(iii) Return post card method 1
(most accurate method and useful for heavy traffic) k=
S
(iv) Tag-on-car method
(Useful for continuous small moving heavy traffic) Unit : Vehicle/km/lane (OR) vehicle/km
(v) Home interview method Note-
(vi) Work spot interview method When traffic flow motion is zero then traffic density
Traffic Flow Characteristics- will be maximum but traffic volume will be zero.
(i) Greenshield's Method(Linear) Jam Density (kj)-
(ii) Greenberg's Method(Logarithmic) The maximum density obtained at zero speed is
(iii) Underwood's Method(Exponential) called 'Jam density'.
1000
kj =
Average spacing b/w vehicle
Traffic volume
q = k × VS Vehicle/hour or vehicle/day
q = Average volume of vehicles passing a point
during a specified period of time
Vs = Space-mean speed (kmph)
k = Traffic density (veh./km)
Vsf .k j
Maximum flow q max =
Traffic Capacity Study- 4
Traffic Capacity- Vsf = Free mean speed, kj = Jam density
It is expressed as the maximum number of vehicle in kj
a lane or a road that can pass from a given point in Density at maximum flow K =
unit time, usually an hour i.e. vehicle per hour per 2
lane on roadway. To Find speed at maximum flow (i.e. volume)-
Traffic capacity of a roadway depends upon the V
number of prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. V = sf
2
Basic/Theoretical Capacity-
It is maximum number of vehicles (PCU) that can Thus for max. volume speed should be half of free
pass from a given point on the roadway during one mean speed (Vsf).
Highway Engineering 546 YCT
 Time headway (ht)- Parking Statistics-
The time difference between any two successive Parking accumulation-
vehicles when they cross a given point. It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at
1 given instant of time expressed by accumulation
Traffic Volume, q = curve.
Average time headway (hr/veh.)
Note-
Space headway (St)- Parking survey is done by carbon count method.
It is the distance between the rear bumper of Parking volume-
successive vehicle. It is the total number of vehicles parked at a given
1 duration of time.
Density per lane = Parking Load-
Average space headway
Parking load gives the area under the accumulation
Max. Theoretical Capacity, C curve between two specific times.(Space - hours)
A. On the basis of space headways- Average parking duration-
1000V Parking load
C= Parking duration =
S Parking volume
C = capacity of a single lane, vehicles per hour per Parking Turnover-
lane. It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a
V = Space mean speed ( kmph) duration to the number of parking bays available..
S = Average centre to centre spacing of vehicles. Parking Index-
Empirical relation for spacing- It is also called occupancy or efficiency and it is
S = (0.7v + L) = (0.2V + L) m. defined as the ratio of number of bays occupied in a
time duration to the total space available.
t = Reaction time (assumed 0.70 - 0.75 sec.)
Parking load
L= Length of wheel base Parking index = ×100
B. On the basis of time headway- Parking capacity

3600 Parking facilities are two types–

C= Ht = Min. time of Headway (in Seconds) 1. On-street or Kerb Parking
Ht This facility is usually apply at the edge of the
Passenger Car Unit (PCU)- carriageway on the lateral strip parallel to the
PCU value of a vehicle class may considered as the roadway. It is two types-
ratio of capacity of roadway when there are a. Parallel Parking-
passenger cars only to the capacity of same roadway It is generally preferred when the width of kerb
when there are vehicles of that class only. parking space and the width of the street are limited.
It is also known as passenger car equivalent. b. Angle Parking-
Passenger car unit is a measure of the impact that a It accommodates more vehicle per unit length than
the parallel parking. It may be at the angle of 30°,
mode of transport has on traffic variables (Such as
60° and 90.
headway, speed, density) compared to a single
2. Off-street Parking-
standard passenger car.
When parking facility is provided at a separate place
Vehicle Class Equivalency away from the road side or kerb, it is known as 'off-
Factors street parking'.
Motor cycles, Scooter and pedal 0.5 Patterns of kerb Parking-
cycle • Parallel Parking
Passenger Car, Pick-up van & 1.0 Minimum number of vehicle parked with equal
Auto Rickshaw, Tempo, spacing facing the same direction.
Agricultural Tractor
Cycle Rickshaw 1.5
Single unit Truck, Bus & Motor 3.0
with trailer
Horse Drawn vehicles 4.0
Agricultural tractor-trailer Truck- 4.5 L
i. Number of space or parking vehicle N =
trailer 6.6
Bullock cart-small 6.0 L = Length of kerb in m.
Large bullock cart 8.0
L
Parking Study- ii. When two car placed closely, N =
It is done by using video recording. 6.75

Highway Engineering 547 YCT

 (L − 0.85) One-way Regulation on Crossing conflicts = 4
• 300 Angle Parking N = one Road Merging conflicts = 3
5.1
Diverging conflicts = 1
Weaving conflicts = 3

Total - 11
(L − 2)
• 450 Angle parking N = One-way Regulation on Crossing conflicts = 4
3.6
both roads Merging conflicts = 2

Total - 6
(L − 2)
• 600 Angle Parking- N =
2.9
Number of lanes No. of potential conflicts
Road Road Both road A-One way Both road
(A) (B) two-way B- Two way one-way
2 2 24 11 6
2 3 24 11 8
2 4 32 17 10
3 3 24 13 11
L 4 4 44 25 18
• 900 Angle Parking N = [C] TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES-
2.5
Traffic control device direct , guide and informs to
drivers by offering visual or tactile indicators.
Category of Traffic Control Device
1. Traffic/Road sign 2. traffic signal
3. Road marking 4. Traffic island
1. Traffic/road Signs-
Height of traffic sign above road surface-2.75- 2.80
m
Note- (A) Regulatory Signs (B) Warning Signs
Maximum vehicles parked at 900 angle while the (C) Informatory Signs
best angle of parking is 450. (A) Regulatory/Mandatory Signs-
Types of conflicts at intersection All Regulatory/Mandatory signs are circular in
1. Crossing conflicts 2. Merging conflicts shape, with only two exceptions
3. Diverging conflicts 4. Weaving conflicts i. Stop sign of octagonal shape
Conflicts on cross roads Total No. of Potential ii. Give way sign in the shape of an inverted triangle
with Conflicts (i) Stop and Give Way Sign
Two-way traffic on both Crossing conflict = 4 Stop Sign Give way sign
roads Weaving conflict = 12
Merging conflict = 4
Diverging conflict = 4

Total - 24 Background-Red Background-white

Border-White Border-Red
Highway Engineering 548 YCT
(ii) Prohibitory Signs-

Background- Blue
Direction Arrows- White
Note- Dead slow is a regulator sign.
(B) Warning/Cautionary Signs
It is used to warn the road users of certain hazardous
conditions that exist on or adjacent to the roadway.
Background-White Border-Red Warning signs are in the of equilateral triangle with
Diagonal Line-Red its apex pointing upwards.
(iii) No Parking and No Stopping Signs- Warning signs have a white background, red border
and black symbols.

Background-Blue
Border-Red Colour & oblique red bar an angle of
450 degrees
Direction arrow- White
(iv) Speed Limit and Vehicle Central Signs

Distance of Warning Signs along the Road-

Background-White Class of Roads Distance
Border-Red NH / SH 120 m
Numerals Indication–Black MDR 80 m
(v) Restriction ends sign- ODR 60 m
VR/Urban Roads 40 m
Note-
Distance of warning sign from edge of road- 45 m
Level crossing is a warning sign.
(C) Informatory Signs/Guide Signs–
Background-White Colour Broad diagonal black Informatory Signs are rectangular in shape with Blue
band at 450 degrees. background and white/black Letters/symbols.
(vi) Compulsory Direction Control Signs- Informatory signs are used to guide the road users
Compulsory direction control signs indicate by along routes, inform them of destination and the
arrows, the appropriate directions in which the distance.
vehicles are obliged to proceed or the only direction Ex.- 'Public Telephone', Petrol Pump, Hospital,
in which they are permitted to proceed. First Aid Post, Eating Place, Resting place etc.
Highway Engineering 549 YCT
 Traffic Signals- q1 & q2 = Normal flow in the road 1 & road 2 in
veh./hour/lane.
S1 & S2 = Saturation flow in the road 1 & road 2 in
veh./hour/lane.
Note-
'Y' ≯ 1
Signal timing Design Methods- Effective Green Time-
1.Trial cycle Method For Two phase only Effective green time,
2. Approximate method
(Based on pedestrian For One phase only g i = G i + yi − t L
crossing)
Gi = Actual green time
3. Webster method For Any in number of
phase yi = Yellow time
4. IRC Method Combination of tL = Lost time
approximate & webster y1
method For Road-1 g1 = [Co − L]
Webster's Method- y
It is designed on the basis of optimum cycle length
y2
and total time lost. For Road-2 g 2 = [Co − L]
It is the most Rational Method of design. y
1.5L + 5 IRC Method-
Optimum cycle time C o =
1− Y It is an approximate method where optimum cycle
L = Total lost time per cycle (in sec) = 2n + R time is checked by Webster method.
n = Number of phases Minimum green time for vehicular traffic is taken 16
R = All red time or red amber time second.
Y = Sum of normal flow (q) to saturation flow (s) Walking speed- 1.2 m/s
q q Initial walking time- 7 sec.
Y = y1 + y2 +......., y1 = 1 , y2 = 2
S1 S2 Green time for traffic is assign based traffic
q1 q 2 proportion.
For two phase, Y = y1 + y2 = + Lost time =
S1 S2
Amber time + inter green time + initial delay
Normal Flow
≤1 Cycle time should be in multiple of 5 second.
Saturation Flow

Note- iii. Reflectorised paint

Flexible system > Simple progressive system > Traffic Island-
Alternate system > Simultaneous system. It is the raised area on the road to established
Road Marking- physical elements through which traffic is guided.
Traffic/Road Markings are intended to regulate, Classification-
Control, warn or guide the traffic/road users. 1. Divisional Islands
Road/traffic markings are made of lines, patterns, It is intended to separate opposing flow of traffic on
words, symbols or reflectors on the pavement, kerb, a highway with four or more lanes.
sides of islands etc. 2. Channelizing Islands
Note- It is used to guide the traffic into proper channel
Traffic lane marking lines on rural highways-
through the intersection area.
Width- 100 mm
Length- 3 m It is very useful as traffic control devices for
Gap between strip- 6 m intersection at-grade when the area is large.
Gap at curve- 3 m It is generally provided with kerb- 15 - 21 cm high.
Materials used in road markings- 3. Pedestrian Loading Islands-
i. Thermo-plastic, paint It is provided at regular bus stops and similar places
ii. Pre-fabricated sheets for the protection of passengers.
Highway Engineering 550 YCT
4. Rotary Island- Carriageway width (m) of Radius at Width of
It is the large central island of a rotary intersection. the Approach Road and entry (m) carriageway at
It is larger than central island of channelizing no. of lanes entry and exit (m)
intersection. 7 2 25-35 6.5
10.5 3 7.0
14 4 8.0
21 6 13.0
7 2 15-25 7.0
10.5 3 7.5
14 4 10.5
21 6 15.0
Width of Carriage way at entry and exit should not
Rotary Intersection or Round About- be less than 5 meters.
A Rotary intersection or traffic rotary is an enlarged Weaving-
road intersection where all converging vehicles are Weaving is the combined movement of both
forced to move round a large central island in one merging and diverging movements in the same
direction. direction.
It is provided when intersecting traffic is about 50%
or more of total traffic on all intersecting roads.
Note-
Point of conflict about rotary- 8
Entry and Exit Angle-
It is desirable that the entry angle should be 60° if
passable.
Entry angle should be > exit angle
Weaving Length (L)-
The weaving operation including merging and
diverging can take place between the two
channelizing islands of the adjacent intersecting
legs, and this length of the rotary roadway is known
as 'weaving length.
• L ≮4 × Weaving section/width (w)
Speed (kmph) Weaving Length (m)
40 45 - 90
30 30 - 60
Note-
Superelevation is not provided on the rotary.
Design speed and radius of curve at entry- Width of Rotary/Width of weaving-
Entry radius (Rentry) is provided based on the design
speed of the vehicle.
Area Design Rentry (m) Friction
speed Coefficient
(kmph)
Rural 40 20-35 0.43
Urban 30 15-25 0.47
Radius of curve at Exit (Rexit)-
R exit = (1.5 to 2) × R entry
Note-
 e + e  
Diameter of Rotary w =  1 2  + 3.5 m
 2  
D rotary </ 15
Where,
Radius of Central Island (RCI)- e1 = Entry width, e2 = Exit width
R CI = 1.33 × R entry Exit width (e2) is more than Entry width (e1). So that
the vehicles can move fast at the rotary.
R exit > R CI > R entry • e 2 ≥ e1
Width of rotary carriageway • w = 16 - 18 m
Highway Engineering 551 YCT
Adjustment in the capacity of rotary- Construction of hill road :
Angle Deduction from the capacity
of weaving section
Entry Angle-
0 - 15° 5%
15 - 30° 2.5%
Exit Angle-
60 - 75° 2.5%
> 75° 5%
Internal Angle-
> 95° 5%
Design factors of Rotary-
Design speed- Hair pin bends–
40 kmph for rotaries in rural area.
30 kmph for rotaries in urban area. Speed – 20 kmph
Shape of Rotary Islands Min radius – 14 m
Minimum length of transition = 15m
Super elevation in circular portion of the curve = 1
in 10
Maximum and Minimum gradient 1 in 40 and 1 in
200
DRAINAGE OF ROADS
Drainage of urban road :
Street inlets are placed on both side of the road at a
distance of 20 m to 50 m, from where the rainwater
enters the underground drains.

(i) Circular Rotary-

It is provided where all important roads meet at
rotary and traffic in all direction is same.
(ii) Turbine Rotary-
This Rotary is given where the speed of rotary entry
of vehicles has to be slowed down and enable the
outgoing vehicles to accelerate.
Drainage of rural road :
(iii) Tangential Rotary-
It is provided where only one important road at The section of the rain-drain is trapezoidal by giving
rotary. the required longitudinal slope (1 in 200 to 1 in 500)
(iv) Elliptical Rotary- to these drains.
It preferred when traffic in one road is significant in
comparison to another road.
Note-
Tangential and turbine rotary are not preferred
because over speeding and glaring effect of
headlight at night.
HILL ROADS
Hill roads side drains are provided only on the hill
side of the road.
Its passes through steep terrain.
Breast wall which are necessary on the hill side of
roadways where earth has to be retain from slipping.

Highway Engineering 552 YCT

 Questions Asked in Previous Years 5. In which phase of the study in the highway
location process are the positions of the feasible
1. Nagpur Road Plan is also called ........... road routes set as closely as possible by establishing
development plan. all the control points and determining
(a) second (b) first preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments
(c) fourth (d) third for each?
MH Latur MNC JE (Water supply) 23.02.2024 (a) Final location survey
Ans. (b) : Nagpur road plan (1943) : (b) Preliminary location survey
• The first attempt to prepare a coordinated road (c) Office study of existing information
development program is a planned manner. (d) Reconnaissance survey
• The first 20 year road development plan (1943- ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
1963) popularly known as 'Nagpur road plan'. Ans. (b) : Preliminary location survey– The survey of
• The target for Nagpur road development plan was the highway construction work for preparation of
aimed at 16 km per 100 sq. km area of the country. longitudinal and cross sections, computations of earth
• Recommended pattern of road system is star and grid. work quantities, and other construction material and
The various road pattern may be classified as checking details of geometric design elements is carried
follows- out in preliminary survey.
(a) Rectangular and block pattern (Lucknow road plan) • During this phase of the study, the positions of the
(b) Hexagonal pattern feasible routes are set as closely as possible by
establishing all the control points and determining
(c) Radial or star & block pattern
preliminary vertical and horizontal alignment for
(d) Radial or star & circular pattern each.
(e) Radial or star & Grid pattern (Nagpur road plan)
• Preliminary alignments are used to evaluate the
• The rectangular and the block pattern has been economic and environmental feasibility of the
adopted in the city road of Chandigarh. alternative routes.
• Radial and circular pattern is the road network of Objective of the preliminary survey are listed below–
Connaught place in New Delhi. • To collect necessary physical information and details
2. For places where there is a passage of flood of topography, drainage and soil.
water the highway has to be built on • To compare different proposal in view of the
(a) embankment (b) subway requirement of good alignment.
(c) overpass (d) underpass • To estimate the quantity of earthwork.
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II • To finalize the best alignment.
Ans. (a) : An embankment is a raised structure built 6. A detailed survey of the selected site of the
along a highway to levels it above floodwaters. This proposed project is called?
helps to prevent the road from being submerged during (a) Preliminary (b) Reconnaissance survey
floods, ensuring safe passage for vehicles and (c) Rough survey (d) Field survey
maintaining connectivity. (e) Answer not known
3. The layer which is constructed above TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
embankment is called Ans. (a) : The main objectives of the preliminary
(a) sub-grade (b) fill survey are :
(c) base (d) sub-base 1. To survey the various alternate alignments proposed
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II after the reconnaissance and to collect all the
Ans. (a) : The layer constructed above an embankment necessary physical information and details of
is called the 'sub-grade'. This layer is essentially the topography, drainage and soil.
natural ground or prepared earth surfaces upon which 2. To compare the different proposals in view of the
the road pavement is built. It provides a stable requirements of a good alignment.
foundation for the road structure and helps to distribute 7. ___________ are much importance, from the
the load of traffic. nations defence point of view.
4. The following serviceability rating is (a) Rural road (b) Border road
considered as an acceptable pavement for the (c) Edge road (d) National road
secondary pavement evaluation system (e) Answer not known
(a) 1.0 (b) 1.5 TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
(c) 2.0 (d) 2.5 Ans. (b) : Border road are much importance, from the
(e) Answer not known nations defence point of view.
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 8. The order of engineering surveys for road
Ans. (c) : A serviceability rating of 2.5 is considered an alignment is as follows :
acceptable pavement for the primary system and a (a) Reconnaissance, Detailed Study and
rating of 2.0 for the secondary system. Preliminary study and Map study
Highway Engineering 553 YCT
 (b) Reconnaissance, Map study, Detailed Study 12. Which was the 2nd 20-year road plan for Indian
and Preliminary study roads?
(c) Preliminary study Map study, (a) Nagpur plan
Reconnaissance, and Detailed Study (b) Jayakaar committee plan
(d) Map Study, Reconnaissance, Preliminary (c) Lucknow road plan
Study, and Detailed Study (d) Bombay plan
OSSC JE RE-Exam 03.09.2023 MH Latur MNC JE (Water Supply) 22.02.2024
Ans. (d) : The order of engineering surveys for road Ans. (d) : 2nd 20 year road plan is also called
alignment is a follow- Bombay plan (1961-1981)–
• Topographic survey or map study. (i) Road density – 32 km/100 km2
• Reconnaissance (ii) Total road length – 1057330 km
• Preliminary survey (iii) Expressway length include – 1600 km
• Final location and detailed survey 13. Which was the 3rd 20-year road plan for Indian
9. The technical body that was established to roads?
publish codes and guidelines in the area of road (a) Bombay plan
and transport is (b) Nagpur plan
(a) IRC (b) CRRI (c) Lucknow road plan
(c) IAHE (d) NHAI (d) Jayakaar committee plan
Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 Shift II DDA JE 18/10/2023 Shift-I
Ans. (a) : Indian Road Congress (IRC)– Ans. (c) : Third 20 years road plan (Lucknow road
• Indian road congress (IRC was) established in 1934 plan - 1981-2001)–-
on the recommendation of the Jayakar Committee. • Target road density 82 km/100 km2
• It is the governing technical body in India for the • Road pattern - Square and grid
design and construction of roads. • 2000 km expressways have been considered in this
• It is semi-official technical body that was plan along major traffic corridors to provide fast
established to published codes and guides in the travels.
area of road and transport. • Road are classified into primary, secondary and
10. The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) was set up tertiary road system.
in________. (i) Primary road system–
(a) 1920 (b) 1940 (a) Express ways of total length 2000 km.
(c) 1950 (d) 1934 (b) NH based on the concept of 100 km square grid.
APSC PWRD 23.07.2023 Paper-I (ii) Secondary road system -
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. (a) SH
11. IRC (Indian Roads Congress) has classified the (b) MDR (Major district road)
roads in India into national highways, state (iii) Tertiary road system–
highways, major district roads, other district • ODR (other district road)
roads and village roads under___________. • VR (Village roads)
(a) Bombay road plan Length of highway as per 3rd 20 years or Lucknow
(b) Nagpur road plan road plan–
(c) both Lucknow and Bombay road plans (i) Length of National Highway (km) =
(d) Lucknow road plan Area of the country ( km 2 )
MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-II
50
Ans. (b) : Nagpur road plan (1943) :
(ii) Length of State Highway (km) =
• The first attempt to prepare a coordinated road
development program is a planned manner. Area of the country ( km 2 )
• The first 20 year road development plan (1943- 25
1963) popularly known as 'Nagpur road plan'. (ii) Length of MDR (km) =
• The target for Nagpur road development plan was
aimed at 16 km per 100 sq.km area of the country. Area of the country ( km 2 )
• Recommended grid pattern of road system is star 12.5
and grid. 14. ______reconnaissance provides a
According to Nagpur road plan. IRC has classified comprehensive view of potential alignments,
the Indian roads into 5 categories - aiding in the identification of factors
i) National highway influencing the rejection or modification of
ii) State highway alignments.
iii) Major district road (a) Study of maps (b) Ground
iv) Other district road (c) Study of sheets (d) Aerial
v) Village road GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II
Highway Engineering 554 YCT
Ans. (d) : Aerial reconnaissance survey–Aerial Ans. (a) : Gradient-
photography, if taken, supplements information from ● It is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with
topographic maps. Aerial reconnaissance provides a respect to the horizontal. while aligning a highway.
comprehensive view of potential alignments, aiding in ● The gradient is decided for designing the vertical curve.
the identification of factors influencing the rejection or Vertical distance
● Gradient = × 100
modification of alignments. The final decision on Horizontal distance
alignments for detailed ground today is based on the
insights gained during aerial reconnaissance. 19. The resistance caused to a moving vehicle at
the area of contact between its tyres and the
15. The ‘Golden quadrilateral’ project developed road surface is called ______.
under NHDP (National highway Development (a) impact force (b) limited force
Projects), now managed by NHAI connects (c) structural force (d) rolling resistance
following cities in phase I. MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II
(a) Mumbai- Chennai- Kolkata- Delhi
Ans. (d) : Rolling resistance-
(b) Mumbai – Bangalore- Silchar- Delhi ● The resistance that a moving vehicle experiences
(c) Porbandar- Chennai- Kolkata - Srinagar when its tyres come into contact with the road
(d) Porbandar – Bangalore- Silchar- Delhi surface is called as rolling resistance.
JKPSC AE 14-05-2023 ● Rolling resistance is the force that acts against a
Ans. (a) : The government launched major program vehicle forward motion.
of modernizing the national highways under NHAI 20. As per IRC, the minimum width of the
(1988). Phase-I and II of the NHDP consisted of sidewalk of a road is _____.
widening the golden quadrilateral and north-south and (a) 1.3 m (b) 1.4 m
east-west highway connects the metropolitan cities of (c) 1.5 m (d) 1.2 m
Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata, and N-S–E-W DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I
highways connect shrinagar and kanyakumari along Ans. (c) : Sidewalk (Footpath):–
the north-south dimension and silchar and porbandar ● The minimum width of footpath should be 1.5 meter.
along the east-west direction. ● The cross fall within the range of 2.5 to 3 percent
16. In case of uncontrolled intersection, visibility at should meet this requirement.
all the roads should be at least provided with: 21. An ideal alignment of road should preferably
(a) sight distance be as short as possible, between ______
(b) intermediate sight distance terminal stations.
(c) over taking sight distance (a) Four (b) Five
(d) stopping sight distance (c) Two (d) Three
DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024
Ans. (d) : In the case of an Uncontrolled intersection Ans. (c) : The requirements of an ideal alignment are
visibility at all the roads should be provided with a (i) Short– It is desirable to have an alignment between
minimum stopping sight distance this means that drivers two terminal stations to be short and as for as possible it
should be able to see other vehicle, Pedestrians or other should be straight, though there may be several practical
obstacles from a far enough distance to stop or slow considerations which would caused deviations.
down safely. (ii) Easy (iii) Safe (iv) Economical (v) Utility.
17. The terrain with a cross slope of 15% is 22. Which of the following is NOT included in road
considered as: margins?
(a) rolling terrain (b) steep terrain (a) Parking lane (b) Carriageway
(c) plain terrain (d) mountainous terrain (c) Footpath (d) Shoulder
DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
Ans. (a) : The classification of terrain according to the Ans. (b) : : Road margins–The portion of land on
cross slope is as follows– either side of the formation width of the road. The
Terrain classification Cross Slope (%) portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the
Plain 0-10 roadway can be generally called the road margins.
Rolling 10-25 • The various elements included in the road margins are
Mountainous 25-60 guard rails, footpath, drive way, cycle track, parking
Steep > 60 lane, lay-bays, front edge road and embankment slope.
Hence, for the cross slope of land between 10 to 25%, it 23. The elements included in the road margins are:
is classified as rolling terrain. (a) frontage road, shoulder, median, kerbs
18. A ______ is defined as the rate of rise or fall (b) footpath, shoulder, median, frontage road
along the longitudinal alignment of the road, (c) frontage road, parking lane, footpath, drive way
with respect to the horizontal (d) embankment slope, driveway, carriageway,
(a) gradient (b) curve median
(c) deviation angle (d) drag line SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
Highway Engineering 555 YCT
24. Which of the following tools is used to check Ans. (a) : The design speed of a highway is primarily
the difference in cross levels or the super influenced by sight distance requirements. Sight
elevation in a highway? distance is crucial for ensuring that drivers have
(a) Cow bar (b) Canne-a-boule sufficient visibility to perceive and react to potential
(c) Cant bar (d) Cant board hazards, such as other vehicles or obstacles on the road.
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I Designing a highway with adequate sight distance
Ans. (d) : Cant board–It is used to check the difference contributes to safe and efficient traffic flow, making
in cross level or the super elevation, in other hand. It helps sight distance, requirements a key factor in determining
ensure the road surface is properly inclined for drainage the appropriate design speed for a highway.
and vehicle stability, especially on cures. 28. The factors which influence the design of
Canne-a-boule–A canne-a-boule is used for assessing curves is/are.
the extent of voids in the packing under the sleepers (a) speed of vehicle
The canne-a-boule is dropped from a height of 40 cm at (b) permissible centrifugal ratio
both ends of sleepers. The height of rebound and the (c) maximum permissible super elevation
sound emitted in the process determines the extent of (d) All of the above
the existing of packing voids. TNPSC AE CES (Civil) 06.01.2024
Crow bar–To correct track alignment and to lift the Ans. (d) : The factor that influence the design of
track for surfacing. curves include-
25. The curve that is generally used to avoid the (i) Speed of vehicle
obstructions like hard rocks, deep cuttings, soft (ii) Permissible centrifugal ratio
gradients is called _________. (iii) Maximum permissible super elevation
(a) compound curve (b) simple curve (iv) Radius of circular curve
(v) Rotation of pavement cross-section either about the
(c) transitional curve (d) parabolic curve
inner edge or the centre line.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
29. Maximum width of all vehicles excluding the
Ans. (a) : compound curve:- A compound curve is a front and rear bumper is;
combination of two or more simple curves with (a) 2.5 m (b) 2.2 m
different radii joined together to form a smooth
(c) 1.8 m (d) 3.2 m
transition. It is commonly used in road and railway
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
engineering to navigate around obstacles like hard
rocks, deep cuttings or soft gradients, ensuring a safe Ans. (a) : As per IRC : 003-1983–
and gradual change in direction or elevation. (i) Maximum width of all vehicles excluding the
front and rear bumper is 2.5 m.
26. The distance travelled by a vehicle after the
(ii) The maximum overall length of a single unit
application of brakes to a dead stop position is
truck, exclusive of front and rear bumpers, having
known as: two or more axles shall be 11 m.
(a) braking distance (iii) The maximum overall length of a single unit bus
(b) deacceleration distance exclusive of front and rear bumpers, having two or
(c) stopping distance more axles shall be 12 m.
(d) distance to react (iv) The maximum overall length of a truck-tractor
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III semi-trailer combination, exclusive of front and
Ans. (a) : Braking distance–The distance travelled by rear bumpers, shall be 16 m.
a vehicle after the application of brakes to a dead stop (v) The maximum overall length of a truck-trailer
position is known as braking distance. combination, exclusive of front and rear bumpers,
shall be 18 m.
V2
Braking distance = 30. For night travel, the length of a valley curve
254 (f long + S%) should be such that, the headlight beam
(Where, V in km/hr) distance is the same as.
= v2/2gf (Where v in m/sec.) (a) overtaking sight distance
(b) stopping sight distance
Lag distance–It is the distance the vehicle travelled
(c) difference of (a) and (b)
during the reaction time t and is given by
(d) sum of (a) and (b)
Lag distance = 0.278 V.t. PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024
27. What factor primarily determines the design Ans. (b) : Ensuring that the length of a valley curve
speed of a highway? aligns with the stopping sight distance is crucial for safe
(a) Sight distance requirements night travel, allowing drivers to perceive and react to
(b) Traffic volume obstacles within the range illuminated by their head
(c) Roadway width light. This minimizes the risk of accidents and enhances
(d) Roadside development overall road safety.
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024 ● The headlight beam distance = SSD
Highway Engineering 556 YCT
31. Which element of highway alignment is 80
responsible for ensuring smooth vehicle Where, C = [0.5 < C < 0.8]
transition between tangents and curves? 75 + V
(a) Super elevation curve • 'C' is 0.46 for speed above 100 km/h and 0.76 for
(b) Vertical curve speed less than 30 km/h for speed between 100 and 30
(c) Sight distance curve km/h it is interpolated 0.46 and 0.76.
(d) Horizontal transition curve 34. ........... is a method of construction
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024 infrastructure in roadway curves in which the
Ans. (d) : Transition curves– When a vehicle trending edges of the road are raised above the inner
on a straight road enters into a horizontal curve edge.
instantaneously, it will cause discomfort to the driver. (a) Grade elevation (b) Super elevation
To avoid this, it is required to provide a transition curve. (c) Double elevation (d) Simple elevation
This may be provided either between a tangent and a CRPF SI 25/06/2023
circular curve or between two branches of a compound
Ans. (b) : Super elevation–Super elevation or cant or
or reverse curve.
banking is the transverse slope provide at horizontal
32. The terrains are classified by IRC for design curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the
purposes. the mountainous terrain has the outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner
cross slope of : edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve.
(a) More than 60% (b) 25% to 60%
• When the outer edge is raised a component of the
(c) 10% to 25% (d) Less than 10% curve weight will be complemented in counteracting the
UPRVNL JE (Civil) 23/12/2022 effect of centrifugal force.
Ans. (b) : The classification of terrain according to
v2
the cross slope - e+f = (where, v in m/s)
Terrain classification - Cross slope (%) gR
Plain - 0-10 V2
Rolling - 10-25 e+f = (where, V in km/hr)
Mountainous - 25-60 127R
Steep - Above 60 Where,
33. Which type of transition curve is recommended e = rate of superelevation
by IRC for horizontal alignment of highways? R = Radius of the horizontal curve in m
(a) Spiral (b) Lemmiscate f = Coefficient of lateral friction = 0.15
(c) Cubic parabola (d) Radial curve For constant value of coefficient of lateral friction (For
Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022 equilibrium, f = 0)
Ans. (a) : Spiral or clothoid–It is an ideal shape of a • e ∝ V2 → The rate of equilibrium superelevation on a
transition curve, in which the radius of curvature at any road is directly proportional to the square of the
point is inversely proportional to the distance of the velocity.
point from the beginning of the curve. The equation of 1
an ideal transition curve representing a true spiral or • e ∝ → The rate of equilibirum superelevation on a
R
clothoid given by– road in inversely propersely proportional to the radius
L2 of the horizontal curve.
φ=
2RL V
• f α i.e., increases with increase in speed and
The Indian road congress recommendeds. The use R
of spiral or clothoid as ideal transition curve of decrease with radius of curve.
Horizontal alignment because - 35. During construction of roads, a feature that
• Rate of change of centrigugal acceleration is facilitates drainage of the pavement laterally is
constant. called ________.
• Simple calculation and easy to implement. (a) Shoulder (b) Median
• Cubic parabola transition curve for design of valley (c) Roadway width (d) Camber
curve . SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
• They have the advantage of maintaining a constant
Ans. (d) : Camber–Camber or cant is the cross slope
rate of curvature, which means the curvature
provided to raise middle of the road surface in the
increase uniformly along the curve, resulting in a
more comfortable and predictable change in transverse direction to drain off rain water from road
direction for vehicles or trains. surface.
• The length of the transition curve required may be • It is also known as the cross-slope of the road.
calculated by - • Camber in the road is a result of lifting centre of the
road compared to its edge.
0.0215V 3
LS = • The required value of camber is dependent on the
CR type of pavement and rainfall.
Highway Engineering 557 YCT
 The objective of providing camber area. vehicle travelling at design speed safely without
• Surface protection especially for gravel and collision with any other obstruction.
bituminous road. • It is also called non passing sight distance.
• Sub-grade protection by proper drainage SSD = lag distance + braking distance
• Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases • Lag distance = v × t
safety.
• Stripping of bitumen from the aggregate in the v2
• Braking distance (l) =
presence of water.  n 
2g  f + 
• Swelling & heaving of sub-grade in case water seeps  100 
upto it.
v2
• To avoid the slipping of vehicle over the wet SSD = vt +
pavement. 2gf
36. Which of the following is the recommended where,
value of camber for bituminous surface v = Design speed (m/s)
pavements or concrete surface pavements as f = Coefficient of friction
laid down by IRC? n = Grade in %.
(a) 2.5% to 3% (b) 1.7% to 2%
There are following factors affecting SSD.
(c) 2% to 8% (d) 3% to 4%
Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023 (i) Vehicle speed
Ans. (b) : As per IRC, Recommended value of (ii) Grade of the road
camber– (iii) Friction coefficient
Range of camber in area of (iv) Driver characteristics
Types of road (v) Roadway geometry
surface Low Heavy
rainfall rainfall 39. The portion of the roadway contiguous with
Cement concrete and the travelled way and is intended for
1 in 60 1 in 50
high type accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency
or 1.7% or 2%
bituminous surface use and lateral support of base and the surface
Thin bituminous 1 in 50 1 in 40 courses is called
surface or 2% or 2.5% (a) Crawling (b) Hackling
Water bound (c) Shoulder (d) Browning
1 in 40 1 in 33
macadam and gravel
or 2.5% or 3.0% MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 18/11/2022 Shift-II
pavement
Earth road 1 in 33 1 in 25 Ans. (c) Shoulders–.
or 3.0% or 4.0% The shoulder is that portion of the roadway. Contiguous
with the travelled way and is intended for
37. For a cement concrete road the range of
camber in areas of heavy rainfall as accommodation of stopped vehicles in emergency use
recommended by IRC is ............... and lateral support of the pavement courses. This space
(a) 1/30 (b) 1/40 allows vehicles to move out of the travel lanes, reducing
(c) 1/50 (d) 1/60 the risk of accidents and improving traffic flow.
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 • Shoulder are provided to accommodate stopped
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. vehicles and to provide lateral confinement to the
38. ............. should be the minimum sight distance, pavement layers.
in Highway geometric design for road user • It should be rougher than the traffic lanes.
(a) Intermediate sight distance • The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the
(b) Over taking sight distance weight of a fully loaded truck even in wet condition.
(c) Head light sight distance • The width of the shoulder should be adequate for
(d) Stopping sight distance giving working space around a stopped vehicle.
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II • It is desirable to have a width of 4.6m for the shoulders.
Ans. (d) : Stopping sight distance– Stopping sight • Minimum width of 2.5m is recommended for 2-lane
distance (SSD) is defined as the total distance required rural highways in India.
by a driver to bring their vehicle to a stop after 40. What is the suggested formation width for
perceiving an object on the roadway. It includes the major district roads in rolling area?
distance traveled during the drivers perception-reaction (a) 12.0 m desirable
time and the distance travelled while braking to a (b) 6.0 m minimum
complete stop (c) 9.0 m desirable
• The minimum sight distance available on a highway (d) 7.15 m desirable
at any spot should be of sufficient length to stop a ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
Highway Engineering 558 YCT
 Ans. (c) : As per IRC width of roadway of various time". This represents the time it takes for the driver
class of roads- to decide to execute a 'particular action, such as
Width of formation or pressing the accelerator or applying the brakes,
roadway (m) accelerator or applying the brakes.
Road classification Plain and Mountainous Sight distance Reaction time in
rolling and steep second
terrain terrain SSD 2.5
National/State highway (N.H./S.H.) ISD 2.5
Single lane 12.0 6.25 OSD 2
Two lane 12.0 8.80 Space heading 0.7
Major district roads (M.D.R.)
43. With respect to "PIEV" theory in Highway
Single lane 9.0 4.75
Engineering, the letters I and E respectively
Two lane 9.0 4.75
stand for
Other district roads (O.D.R.) (a) Information and Emotion
Single lane 7.5 4.75
(b) Intellection and Emotion
Two lane 9.0 -
(c) Insight and Equality
Village roads (V.R.)
(d) Insecurity and Evidence
Single lane 7.5 4.0
BSPHCL JE (Civil) 12/05/2022
41. What is the recommended minimum right of
way width of major district roads for built up Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
and industrial area? 44. According to IRC, in the computation of safe
(a) 12.2 m (b) 9.2 m stopping sight distance in a highway, the
(c) 19.6 m (d) 24.4 m driver's eye height and the height of object are
BSF SI (Works) 06.08.2023 to be taken, respectively, as:
Ans. (a) : The recommended minimum right of way (a) 1.2 m; 1.2 m (b) 1.2 m; 0.15 m
width- (c) 1 m; 0.4 m (d) 1m; 0.3 m
Right of way width (m) CRIS JE 19/02/2023
Classif
Built up and Ans. (b) : • The minimum distance visible to a driver
ication of Open area
industrial area
road ahead or the sight distance available on a highway at
Normal Range Normal Range
any spot should be of sufficient length to safely stop a
NH state
30.5 30.6 24.40 24.4-61 vehicle travelling at design speed without collision with
highway
any other obstruction.
MDR 24.4 24.4-30.5 12.2 12.2-18.4
Therefore, this stopping sight distance (SSD) is also
ODR 12.2 12.2-24.4 9.15 9.15-15.25
called absolute minimum sight distance.
VR 12.2 12.2-18.4 9.15 9.15-15.25
• IRC has suggested the height of eye level of driver as
42. _______ is the time taken by the driver for the
final action of driving. 1.2 m and the height of the object as 0.15 m above the
(a) Perception time (b) Intellection time road surface.
(c) Emotion time (d) Volition time 45. Co-efficient of lateral friction as per IRC
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I standards is :
Ans. (d) : : PIEV Theory - (a) 0.15 (b) 0.30
According to this theory the total reaction time of (c) 0.35 (d) 0.40
driver is split into four parts– DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-II
1) Perception Ans. (a) : The longitudinal friction on the highway for
2) Intellection calculation of stopping distance in geometrical design is
3) Emotion 0.35 to 0.40.
4) Volition • Recommended value of the coefficient of lateral
Perception :- Perception time is the time required friction as per IRC standard is 0.15.
for the sensation received by the eyes to be
transmitted to the brain through the nervous system 46. As per Indian Road Congress, what is the
and spinal chord. design speed adopted for Indian Expressways?,
Intellection :- Time to rearrange different thoughts Consider the nature of terrain is ‘Plain’ and
analyse the situation by brain. Cross slope of ground is less than 10%.
Emotion - Time elapsed in emotional sensation. (a) 80 km/h (b) 60 km/h
Volition - The time taken by the driver for the final (c) 120 km/h (d) 100 km/h
action of driving is generally referred to as "Volition SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
Highway Engineering 559 YCT
Ans. (c) : As per IRC:73, Design speed (km/h)- Ans. (c) : As per IRC 86-1983–the width of
Road carriageway–
Classifi Plain Rolling Mountain Steep IRC specification for carriageway Width (m)
cation ous Single lane without raised kerbs 3.50
Ruling Min Ruling Min Ruling Min Ruling Min Two lane without raised kerbs 7.0
Express 120 100 100 80 80 60 80 60 Four lane with raised kerbs 14.0
way Six lane with raised kerbs 21.0
NH/SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30 Eight lane with kerbs 28.0
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20 Two lane with raised kerbs 7.5
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20 Intermediate carriage 5.5
VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20 Multilane 3.5 per lane
47. Recommended value of Ruling and Limiting (i) For access road to residential areas, a lower lane
gradient in plain terrain, respectively, are with of 3 m is permissible.
(ii) Minimum width of urban without kerb shall be
(a) 1 in 20 and 1 in 30
5.5 m including allowances for a stalled vehicle and
(b) 1 in 30 and 1 in 16.7 pedestrian movement.
(c) 1 in 20 and 1 in 16.7 50. Width of carriageway for roads having two
(d) 1 in 30 and 1 in 20 lanes with raised kerbs is around
UKPSC AE 2022 (a) 5.5 m (b) 7.5 m
Ans. (d) : As per IRC ruling gradient/design (c) 9.5 m (d) 10.5m
gradient - CSPTCL JE 03.03.2024
Ruling Limiting Exceptional Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
Terrain
% Fraction % Fraction % Fraction 51. Which of the following types of curve is used to
Plain & 3.3 1/30 5.0 1/20 6.7 1/15 minimise discomfort arising due to sudden
rolling change in curvature at the junction of a
Hilly or 5.0 1/20 6.0 1/16.67 7.0 1/14.25 straight and curved road?
mountainous (a) Transition curve (b) Reverse curve
terrain and
steep terrain
(c) Simple curve (d) Compound curve
Elevation > Kerala PSC (PWD) Overseer 14/07/2023
3000 m MSL Ans. (a) : Classification of curve:–
Steep terrain 6.0 1/16.66 7.0 1/14.28 8.0 1/12.5 Simple curve -
upto 3000 m • A simple curve is a single arc of a circle, which is
MSL
tangential to both the straight lines of the route.
48. Which of the following geometric elements of
highways is provided between the carriage way
and the footpath?
(a) Camber (b) Median
(c) Kerb (d) Drainage
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III Compound curve–
Ans. (c) : Kerbs– It indicate the boundary between • A compound curve comprises two or more circular
the pavement and median or footpath or shoulder or arcs of different radius with centers of curvature on the
to protect and strengthening the edge of pavement. same side of the common tangent.
It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads.
Kerbs are mainly divided into three types-
Kerb Height above the
pavement
Low or mountain kerb 10 cm
Semi-barrier type kerb 15 cm Reverse Curve –
Barrier 20 cm A curve consisting of two circular arcs of similar or
49. The recommended minimum width of urban different sizes having their centres on opposite sides of
road, without kerb, including allowances for a the common tangent at the point of reverse curvature is
stalled vehicle and pedestrian movement, as known as a reverse curves, reverse curve is also known
per IRC: 86-2018 is: as a serpentine curve or s-curve due its shape.
(a) 3.75m (b) 3.5m
(c) 5.5m (d) 6.5m
ONGC JE 16/08/2022
Highway Engineering 560 YCT
Transition Curve– 54. The design gradient which is used to design a
• It is a curve of varying radius. road in vertical alignment is called:
• The value of the radius of this type of curve varies (a) limiting gradient (b) minimum gradient
from infinity to a certain fixed value. (c) ruling gradient (d) exceptional gradient
• It provides a gradual change from the straight line to MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-II
the circular curve and again from the circular curve Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
to a straight line.
55. As per IRC 103 : 2012, what will be the
• Itis usually provided on both ends of a circular
curve. minimum width of pedestrian for residential
zone?
(a) 3.5 m (b) 1.8 m
(c) 2.5 m (d) 3.0 m
DDA Architectural Assistant 28-08- 2023
Ans. (b) : As per IRC : 103-2012– Required width of
footpath as per adjacent land use-
Minimum obstacle free walkway 1.8 m
52. The gradient on which a motor vehicle moving
with a constant speed continues to descend with width and residential / mixed use
the same speed without any application of areas
power brakes is Commercial/mixed as areas 2.50 m
(a) Ruling gradient (b) Limiting gradient Shopping frontage 3.5 m to
(c) Exceptional gradient (d) Floating gradient 4.5 m
RPSC ACF & FRO 24/02/2021 Bus stops 3m
Ans. (d) : Ruling gradient - High intensity commercial areas 4m
• The gradient, which is usually adopted while making
the alignment of the road, is known as the ruling 56. The maximum super elevation provided for
gradient. urban road is ______.
• The ruling gradient is used for designing the road (a) 8 percent (b) 10 percent
because it gives maximum safety at minimum cost. (c) 4 percent (d) 5 percent
• As per IRC, the recommended value of ruling DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III
gradient for plain or rolling terrains is 1 in 30 or Ans. (c) : According to IRC.
3.3%. Type of terrain Super-elevation (emax)
• It is the maximum gradient within which the designer Plain & rolling 7%
attempt to design the vertical profile of a road.
Limiting gradient - Hilly road 10%
• The gradient, which is steeper than the ruling gradient, Urban road 4%
is known as the limiting gradient. 57. Improper alignment of roads does NOT result
Exceptional gradient - in:
The gradient steeper than the limiting graident which (a) increase in the construction cost
may be used in a short length of the road, only in a (b) decrease in the accident rate
extraodinary situation is called exceptional gradient. (c) increase in the vehicle operation cost
• The recommended value of exceptional gradient for (d) increase in the maintenance cost
plain or rolling terrain is 1 in 15 or 6.7%.
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
Floating gradient -
When a motor vehicle descends a gradient, some Ans. (b) : Improper alignment of road–A new road
tractive effect is required to maintain it at uniform should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment
speed, but to the descent, there is the negative tractive would result in one or more of the following
force or resistance. disadvantages–
• This resistance will be equal to the tractive effort 1. Increase in construction cost
required to maintain the vehicle at a uniform speed 2. Increase in maintenance cost
with a particular gradient, such a gradient is called 3. Increase in vehicle operation cost
floating gradient. 4. Increase in accident rate
53. Which of the following gradients will have the
58. When setting out a compound curve, the
maximum value?
(a) Exceptional gradient for plain and rolling intermediate curve is introduced to:
terrain (a) provide a sight distance for vehicles on the
(b) Minimum gradient for plain and rolling curve
terrain (b) reduce the overall length of the curve
(c) Limiting gradient for plain and rolling terrain (c) connect two circular curves with different
(d) Minimum gradient for steep terrain radii smoothly
SSC JE (Civil) 15/11/2022 (d) accommodate an obstacle on the alignment
Ans. (a): See the above explanation. MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III
Highway Engineering 561 YCT
Ans. (c) : Compound curve- Ans. (a) : Camber–It is the convexity provided to the
Many times it is not possible to provide a curve of cross-section of the surface of carriageway and is the
constant Radius to connect the two straight lines, in that difference of level between the highest point known as
case we provide more than one curve of different radius the crown.
to connect them compound curve has two or more The reason for providing camber on the road
simple circular curves with different radius that bend surface are –
the same way and are on the same side of a common 1. To drain surface water
tangent. 2. To separate the traffic in the two direction
59. In the hierarchy of road networks in India, 3. To improve the appearance of the road
which of the following correctly represents the • In general a steel camber is to be preferred in areas of
descending order of importance and control? heavy rainfall and flat camber in regions of low rainfall.
(a) National Highways, State Highways, Major • It is prevent entry of water into subgrade and
Roads, Village Roads bituminous pavement layers.
(b) National Highways, State Highways, Village 62. Which of the following scenario explains the
Roads, Major District Roads term 'skid' experienced by vehicles?
(c) Major District Roads, National Highways, (a) Occurs when a wheel revolves more than the
State Highways, Village Roads corresponding longitudinal movement.
(d) State Highways, National Highways, Village (b) Occurs when path travelled along road
Roads, Major District Roads surface is more than circumferential
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 movement of the wheels due to their rotation.
Ans. (a) : Road network in India in decreasing (c) Occurs when driving wheel of a vehicle
order– rapidly accelerates from stationary position.
National highway → State highway → Major road → (d) It occurs when the roads surface is rough and
Village roads develop sufficient frictional resistance
• Longest national highway in India is NH-44 SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
• Smallest national highway in India is NH - 47 A Ans. (b) : Skidding–It is happens when the path
Mile stone colour – travelled along the road surface is more than
NH Yellow & white circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction.
SH Green & white Slip–Slip occur when the wheel revolves more than the
MDR/ODR Blue/Black & white corresponding longitudinal movement along the road.
VR Orange & white 63. What is the maximum limit of grade
60. In the context of vehicular characteristics and compensation for the gradient on the
efficiency of brakes, braking distance is: horizontal curve along highways, if ‘R’ is
(a) directly proportional to speed of vehicle the radius of the circular curve in metres?
(b) inversely proportional to design coefficient of (a) 300/R (b) 150/R
friction (c) 50/R (d) 75/R
(c) directly proportional to design coefficient of DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-II
friction Ans. (d) : Grade compensation–
(d) inversely proportional to speed of vehicle
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : Stopping sight distance
V2
(SSD) = 0.278 Vt +
254f
SSD = Lag distance + Braking distance
f = Coefficient of friction between the tyre and road where,
surface R = radius of curve (m)
• Braking distance is inversely proportional to the Compensated gradient = Ruling gradient – G.C. ≮ 4%
coefficient of friction, i.e. SSD is inversely proportional 64. In the estimation of minimum radius of
to 'f' and directly proportional to speed of vehicle. horizontal circular curve on non-urban
61. A high steep camber is NOT desirable to: highways following IRC : 73-1980, using the
(a) transverse tilt and skid of vehicle equation
(b) remove rain water from pavement surface R = v2/g (e+f), the notation 'f' represents ____
(a) Width of roadway
(c) prevent entry of water into bituminous
(b) Vehicle speed
pavement layers
(c) Co-efficient of side friction between vehicle
(d) prevent the entry of surface water into tyres and pavement
subgrade soil (d) Super-elevation ratio
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Highway Engineering 562 YCT
Ans. (c) : As per IRC : 73-1980, Clause 9.4.1– 68. If L is the length to any point on the transition
2 curve, and R is the radius of curvature, then
v
Minimum radius– R = the fundamental requirement of the transition
g(e + f ) curve is given by the condition : (Notation C -
where, an arbitrary constant)
v = Vehicle speed in meter per second L2 L2
g = Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (a) =C (b) =C
2R R
e = Super elevation L
f = Co-efficient of side friction between vehicle tyres (c) L R = C (d) =C
and pavement (f = 0.15) R
R = Radius in meters. Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
65. In highway design, what is the purpose of a sag Ans. (c) : Transition curve -
vertical curve? • A curve of variable radius is known as transition
(a) To improve drainage curve.
(b) To enhance aesthetic appeal • Transition curve is a curve in plan which is provided
(c) To counteract the effect of centrifugal force to change the horizontal alignment from straight to
(d) transition between level and uphill sections circular curve gradually means the radius of transition
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024 curve varies infinity to R or R to infinity.
Ans. (d) : Sag curve:– A sag vertical curve in highway Length of transition curve -
design serves the purpose of facilitating a smooth 0.0215 V 3
transition between level and uphill sections of the road. L=
R
When a road transitions from a downward slope (sag) to LR = 0.0215 V3 = Constant(C)
a level or uphill section, a sag vertical curve helps in
LR = C
providing a gradual change in slope.
Properties of transition curve -
66. If the length of transition curve is 'L' and 'R' is
the radius of circular curve; then shift of curve • Rate of change of super elevation must equal to that
is directly proportional to curve.
(a) R and 1/L2 (b) 1/R and L2 • Radius of transition curve at junction should equal to
2
(c) 1/R and L (d) R2 and 1/L radius of circular curve.
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 • Must meet the circular curve tangentially.
Ans. (b) : Shift of curve (S) • Length of transition curve is inversely propertional to
Radius.
L2
S= 1
24R L∝
Where, R
L = Length of transition curve 69. Rotary is designed considering superelevation
R = Radius of circular curve equal to:
S ∝ L2 (a) 0.04 (b) 0.01
1 (c) 0.02 (d) 0
S∝ DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-III
R
1 Ans. (d) : Rotary design elements–
The shift of curve is directly proportional of and L2. • Design speed for urban areas/restricted location is 30
R
km/hr but in rural areas is 40 km/hr.
67. At highway stretches where the required
• Radius of central island = 4/3 × Radius of entry
Overtaking Sight Distance cannot be provided, in
such sections it is necessary to incorporate at least • Radius at entry
(a) Three times the stopping Sight Distance Rural areas → 20-35 m
(b) One-third of the required Intermediate Sight Urban areas → 15-25 m
Distance • Radius at exit = (1.5 – 2) times radius at entry.
(c) Half of the required Intermediate Sight Distance • Superelevation in a rotary is provided equally to the
(d) Twice the stopping Sight Distance camber of the road.
CHB JE (Building) 05/02/2023 70. _______ survey aims to plan the road network
Ans. (d) : If at stretch of road OSD can not provided as and other facilities for vehicular traffic, and to
plan the schedule of different modes of
per suggest by IRC in such case sight distance is transportation for the trip demand of
desirable to kept at 2 times of SSD and it in termed as commuters.
intermediate sight distance. (a) Traffic volume
ISD = 2 × SSD (b) Spot speed
• The measurement of the ISD may be made assuming (c) Parking
both the height of eye of derives and that of object to be (d) Origin and destination
1.2 m. MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II
Highway Engineering 563 YCT
Ans. (d) : The various applications of O and D design of signals and for accident analysis. It is measure
studies– using endoscopy, pressure contact tube and dopple
(i) To judge the adequacy of existing routes and to radar.
use in planning new network of roads. • Average speed is the average spot speed of all vehicles
(ii) To establish preferential routes for various passing a given point.
categories of vehicle including bypass. 75. A T-junction has ______ arms of which one
(iii) To locate terminals and to plan terminal facilities. arm is a main road whereas the other one is
(iv) To locate new bridges as per traffic demand. usually a minor road connecting the main road.
(v) To establish design standard for the road, bridges (a) four (b) three
and culverts along the route. (c) two (d) five
71. The raised areas constructed within the GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II
roadway to establish a physical channel Ans. (b) : A T-junction has three arms of which are arm
through which vehicular traffic may be guided is a main road whereas the other one is usually a minor
is called: road connecting the main road.
(a) a zone (b) an island • The road of a T-junction meet at right angles and is
(c) a kerb (d) a median preferably used for convenience.
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-II
Ans. (b) : Traffic Islands– Traffic islands are raised
areas constructed within the roadway to establish
physical channels through which the vehicular traffic
may be guided.
Functions of traffic islands-
• To seggregate the pedestrians and vehicles. 76. Which regulatory signs are intended to convey
definite positive instructions when it is desired
• To separate traffic into specified paths. that motorists take some positive action ?
• To reduce conflict areas (a) Mandatory (b) Prohibitory
• To increase safety (c) Information sign (d) Direction sign
• To divert traffic from obstacles. (e) Answer not known
72. In India, what do the continuous white lines TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
painted on the roads indicate? Ans. (a) : Mandatory sign–These are the part of
(a) Pedestrian crossing regulatory signs and are intended to convey definite
(b) Prohibition against changing lanes positive instructions when it is desired that motorists
(c) Free movement for changing lanes make some positive action
(d) Lane divider for traffic moving in the same 1. STOP 2. GIVE WAY
direction
Prohibitory sign–These signs give definite instruction
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 to the drivers prohibiting certain movements.
Ans. (b) : Continuous white lines painted on roads in Information sign–These signs give information to the
India indicate a prohibition against changing lanes. drivers of name of towns and cities, locations or rest
They serve as a visual marker to depends areas where areas, hospitals, petrol stations etc.
lane changes are not permitted, enhancing road safety
by guiding drivers to maintain their current lane and 77. In 'No Parking' signs, the oblique red bar is
avoid unnecessary lane switching. placed at an angle of _________.
(a) 30 degrees (b) 60 degrees
73. A Y-junction has three arms of which all the ––
–––– roads are of equal sizes. (c) 45 degrees (d) 15 degrees
(a) four (b) two SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
(c) five (d) three Ans. (c) : 'No Parking' sign is meant to prohibit parking
GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II of vehicles at that place. It is mandatory sign.
Ans. (d) : Y-junction–A Y-junction has three arms of
which all the three roads are of equal sizes. It is
generally seen at places of heavy traffic. It is pretty
useful in the distribution of traffic.
74. ____ speed is the instantaneous speed of a • The no parking sign is circular in shape with a blue
vehicle at a specified location background, a red border and an oblique red bar at an
(a) Uniform (b) Non-uniform angle of 45 degree.
(c) Average (d) Spot 78. A downward pointing equilateral triangle, having
GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II a red border and a white background is a:
Ans. (d) : Spot speed–It is the instantaneous speed of a (a) warning sign (b) danger sign
vehicle at a specified location. It is needed to design (c) stop sign (d) give way sign
horizontal and vertical curves, location of size of signs, SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
Highway Engineering 564 YCT
Ans. (d) : The traffic sign should be backed by law in 82. A diamond intersection on the road is a type of:
order to make them useful and effective. (a) Four way stop
• Traffic signs have been divided into three types– (b) T-intersection
1. Regulator signs (c) At grade intersection
2. Warning signs (d) Grade separated intersection
3. Informatory signs SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
• The give way sign is used to control the vehicles on a road Ans. (d) : Diamond interchange:– The diamond
so as to assign right of way to traffic on other roadways. interchange is the simplest form of grade separated
This sign is triangular in shape with the apex intersection between two roadways The conflict between
downwards and white in colour with a red border. through and crossing traffic are eliminated by bridge
structure. This particular intersection has four one way
ramps which are essentially parallel to the major artery.
83. What is the first stage in traffic engineering
studies?
(a) Spot speed studies
79. Hazard markers should reflect __________ (b) Traffic volume studies
light, visible at least from a distance of about (c) Origin and destination studies
___________. (d) Speed and delay studies
(a) yellow; 150 m (b) red; 500 m Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
(c) red; 150 m (d) yellow; 500 m Ans. (b) : The first stage in traffic engineering studies
usually involves conducting traffic volume studies to
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
understand the amount and patterns of traffic flow on
Ans. (a) : Hazard markers should reflect yellow light, the road network.
visible at least from a distance of about 150 m. They With the increase in density, traffic volume increase
should be mounted at a height of approximately 3½ feet upto certain limit then decreases.
above the pavement. 84. The speed value that is used as minimum speed
80. The markings on the kerbs are painted with on major highways is:
which colour to increase user visibility? (a) 15th percentile speed
(a) Yellow Only (b) 50th percentile speed
(b) Alternate black and white (c) 90th percentile speed
(d) 85th percentile speed
(c) Alternate white and yellow
BHEL Exe. Trainee, 24.08.2023
(d) Black Only
Ans. (a) : 15th percentile speed–The speed value which
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III is used as minimum speed on major highways.
Ans. (b) : In India white and yellow colour are 85th percentile speed–The speed at or below which 85%
predominantly used for markings on roads. of vehicles are passing a point on the highway or only
• White is generally used for carriageway (road) markings. 15% of vehicles exceed the speed at that point (upper
• For indicating restrictions yellow markings are used. limit th
speed) and also called as upper or safe speed limit.
• White or yellow together with black are used for kerb 98 percentile speed–For the purpose of highway
geometric design.
and object marking.
50th percentile speed–The middle or 50th percentile of
81. As per IRC standards, an octagon with white spot speed is called median/medium speed.
border and red background is a ______ sign
(a) no parking (b) stop
(c) accident prone area (d) yield
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (b) : (i) Stop sign–Octagonal shape of red color
with white border.
(ii) No parking and no stopping signs–They are
circular signs with blue background, red border and
oblique red bars.
85. The highway capacity is expressed in passenger
(iii) Speed limit and vehicle control signs–They are
can unit (PCU), The tentative PCU value for
used to control the vehicles of higher speed, tonnage passenger Car and Tempo suggested by Indian
dimensions. They have circular shape with white Road Congress for rural road is
background red border and black numbers or symbols. (a) 0.5 (b) 1.0
(iv) Give way signs–Triangular shape with apex (c) 1.5 (d) 6.0
downward of white colour with red border. PGVCL VS JE 20/01/2022
Highway Engineering 565 YCT
 Ans. (b) : The passenger car unit for different type of (b) Prohibitory signs
vehicles– (c) No parking and no stopping signs
Vehicle class PCU (d) Speed limit and vehicle control signs
1. Passenger car, tempo, auto-rickshaw 1.0 (e) Restriction ends sign
agricultural tractor (f) Compulsory direction control and other signs
2. Bus, truck 3 2. Warning signs
3. Motor cycle, scooter and pedal cycle 0.5 3. Informatory signs.
4. Cycle rickshaw 1.5 89. The background colour of the informatory sign
5. Horse drawn vehicles 4 board is :
(a) red (b) yellow
6. Small bullock cart and hand cart 6
(c) green (d) white/blue
7. Large bullock cart 8
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
8. Agricultural tractor trailer unit 4/5
Ans. (d) : The background colour of the informatory
86. What is the maximum dimension i.e., length of
sign is typically white. Although these are some
single unit truck as per IRC ?
exceptions. Let's take a closer look at why white is the
(a) 16 m (b) 11 m
most commonly used background colour from these
(c) 18 m (d) 12 m
sign. White is a highly visible colour that stands out
GSECL JE 07/09/2022 Shift-II
even in low light conditions.
Ans. (b) : Maximum dimension of road vehicles–
90. The road geometrics in India are designed for
Dimensio Details Max.
the
n diameter, m
(a) 98th highest hourly traffic volume
of vehicle (excluding
front and rear (b) 85th highest hourly traffic volume
bumper) (c) 50th highest hourly traffic volume
Width All vehicles 2.44 (d) 30th highest hourly traffic volume
Height (a) Single-decked 3.80 NBCC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022
vehicle for normal Ans. (d) : 30th highest hourly volume is generally
application taken as the design hourly volume for the purpose of
(b) Double decked design of the roadway facility.
vehicle 4.75 • If designing of a road is done for highest or peak
Length (a) Single-unit truck 11.00 hourly volume of a year it would be highly
with two or more uneconomical.
axles • However if it is done for annual avg hourly volume it
(b) Single-unit but 12.00 would not be sufficient for considerable period of year
with two or more to carry the traffic volume and would lead to
axles conjunction of the road.
(c) Semi-trailer 16.00 • 30th highest hourly volume is hourly volume that will
tractor reached only 30 times or exceeded only 29 times in a year.
combinations • For this value congestion would be observed only 29
(d) Tractor and trailer 18.00 hours in the year.
combinations 29
87. As per IRC, the maximum width of vehicle • Congestion hour (%) = × 100 = 0.33%
24 × 365
should be
(a) 3.81 m (b) 2.44 m 91. The number of vehicles moving in a specified
(c) 4.75 m (d) 6.1 m direction on a given lane that pass a given
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 cross-section during the specified unit of time is
called
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
(a) Traffic density (b) Traffic volume
88. As per the motor vehicles act of India-1988, (c) Basic capacity (d) Practical capacity
Traffic signs can be classified into _____ OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024
categories.
Ans. (b) : Traffic volume–It is a number of vehicles
(a) Two (b) Three
crossing a section of road per unit time.
(c) Five (d) Four
• It is used to measure quantity of traffic flow.
MH Solapur M.C JE Class2, 17.02.2024
Ans. (b) : As per the motor vehicles act of India- n × 3600
q= vph
1988, Traffic signs cab be classified into three T
categories– n = the number of vehicles passing a point in the
1. Regulatory signs:– roadway in T (sec.)
(a) Stop and give way signs q = The equivalent hourly flow.
Highway Engineering 566 YCT
92. Which of the following is not a traffic
regulatory sign?
(a) Speed limit sign (b) No parking sign
(c) Cross road sign (d) Stop sign
RIICO Asst. Site Engineer 12/12/2021
Ans. (c) : Regulatory sign/Mandatory sign–

Stop Speed Limit NO Parking

The sign are meant to inform the road user about of
laws, regulations prohibitions. 95. The number of vehicles occupying a unit length
• Violation of any of these sign is legal offence. of lane of a roadway at any instant is called:
(i) Stop and Give-way sign. (a) Traffic space (b) Traffic volume
(ii) No parking/No stopping sign. (c) Traffic density (d) Traffic speed
(iii) Speed limit and vehicle control sign. ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
(iv) Restriction end sign. Ans. (c) : Traffic density -
(v) Compulsory direction control sign. • It is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length
Note–Stop sign–Octagonal shape, red background and of lane of roadway at a given instant.
white border.
• It is usually expressed as vehicles/km.
93. Which one of the following equipments is useful
in determining spot speed in traffic engineering? 96. The 'Give way' traffic sign used for the control
of traffic is_______in shape.
(a) Enoscope
(a) hexagonal (b) octagonal
(b) Periscope and Tachometer
(c) circular (d) triangular
(c) Radar Periscope or Tachometer
JSSC JE (Civil) 23/10/2022
(d) None of the above
ISRO Technical Asst. 03/11/2022 Ans. (d) :
Ans. (a) Enoscope method–In this method an L-shaped Stop sign Octagonal
box, open at both ends, with mirrors set inside at 45º shape
angle is used. The time between the successive
reflections is noted by a stop watch.
Give way sign Inverted triangle
with its apex
pointing
downwards
Speed limit Circular shape

Spot speed can also be measured with help of several All warning sign Triangle with
equipments like– its apex
(i) Graphic recorder upwards
(ii) Electronic meter
(iii) Photo electric method 97. The system of signal in which clusters of signals
(iv) Photographic method along a route display an opposite indication at
(v) Radar speed method the same moment is called______.
(a) flexible progressive system
94. When a vehicle moves obliquely across the path
(b) alternate system
of another vehicle moving in the same
direction, at a relatively small angle of crossing, (c) simultaneous system
this action is termed as: (d) simple progressive system
(a) Diverging (b) Crossing SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Evening)
(c) Weaving (d) Merging Ans. (b) : Alternate system–A signal system in which
UPRVUNL AE 17/07/2022 the alternate signals or groups of signals give opposite
Ans. (c) : Weaving- When a vehicle moves obliquely indications for a given street at the same time.
across the path of another vehicle moving in the same Simultaneous system–Signal system in which all
direction, at relatively small angle of crossing the action signals always give the same indication at the same
is term as weaving. time.
Highway Engineering 567 YCT
Flexible progressive system–Signal system in which Ans. (d) :
the intervals at any signal may be independently
adjusted to the traffic requirements at the intersections.
Simple progressive system–Signal system in which the
various signal faces controlling a given street give 'GO'
indication in accordance with a timing schedule to
permit continuous operation of groups of vehicles along No Goods
the street at the street at a planned rate of speed which Straight
may vary in different parts of the system. vehicles over
Speed Limit Prohibited OR maximum
98. The signal timing of the phase and cycle No Entry gross weight
changed according to the traffic demand is
shown in
called:
tonnes
(a) Go-signal
101. As per IRC: 67-2001, the sign that is posted
(b) Fixed timing signal
when a single carriageway ends up into a dual
(c) Traffic actuated signal
carriageway is:
(d) Phase signal
(a) Reduced carriageway
DDA JE 18/10/2023 (Shift-III)
(b) Start of dual carriageway
Ans. (c) : Traffic actuated signals–In this signal the (c) Traffic diversion on dual carriageway
timing of phase and cycle are changed according to the (d) End of dual carriageway
traffic demand.
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
Fix time signal–This signals are set to repeat regularly
Ans. (b) : Start of dual Carriage way-
a cycle of red, yellow and green light. The timing of
each phase of the cycle is predetermined depending ● As per IRC : 37 - 2001: This sign is posted when a
single carriageway ends up into a dual carriageway.
upon the traffic density.
● The sign may be posted at 100 meters from the start
99. Shape of rotary type intersection which is
of dual carriageway.
suited for roads of equal importance carrying
equal volumes intersect at equal angles is : 102. The primary purpose of grade-separated
(a) Squarish (b) Elliptical structures in highway design is to:
(a) reduce construction costs
(c) Irregular (d) Circular
(b) increase the number of lanes on a highway
Kerala PSC Asst. Prof. 12/06/2023
(c) provide scenic views for drivers
Ans. (d) : Circular rotary–A circular shape is suited (d) facilitate smooth traffic flow by eliminating
where roads of equal importance intersect at nearly conflicts at intersections
equal angles and carry nearly equal volume of traffic.
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (d) : Grade Separated Structure-
● Grade separation is a method to avoid disruption of
traffic flow at the intersection.
● The purpose of grade separated structure is facilitate
primary smooth traffic flow by eliminating confilicts
at intersection.
● Increases safety for turning traffic using
interchanging ramps.
103. If one of the legs of an interchange meets a
highway at some angle, but does NOT cross it,
Squarish width rounded edges–The advantage of this then the interchange is called a ______.
layout is that it is suitable for pre-dominantly straight a (a) cloverleaf interchange
head flows. (b) diamond interchange
Elliptical shape's–This shape is provided to favour (c) trumpet interchange
through traffic, to suit the geometry of the intersecting (d) major interchange
legs, or to provide a longer weaving length. MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-II
100. A circular sign with a red border and a Ans. (c) : Trumpet interchange- Trumpet interchange
number inside indicates: is a popular form of three leg interchange. If one of the
(a) Vehicle weight limit (b) No entry legs of interchange meets a highway at some angle but
(c) Highway number (d) Speed limit does not cross it, then the interchange is called trumpet
JSSC JDLCCE JE 17/10/2023 (Civil) interchange.

Highway Engineering 568 YCT

104. The primary purpose of using grade-separated • The main drawback of these signals is that
structures like overpasses and interchanges in sometimes traffic flow on one road may be almost nil
highway design is to: and traffic on cross-road may be quite heavy but time
(a) provide pedestrian and cyclist crossings over available in both cases is same.
highways 107. How are the signal timings determined in fixed-
(b) eliminate traffic signals and improve traffic time traffic signals?
flow efficiency (a) Based on real-time traffic volume
(c) reduce the cost of road construction and (b) Manually by traffic engineers
maintenance (c) Through wireless communication
(d) enhance the aesthetic appeal of the road
(d) Automatically by computer algorithms
network
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (b) : Grade separation- Ans. (a) : Fixed-times traffic signals have
● it is a method to avoid disruption of traffic flow at predetermined signal timings that are set by traffic
the intersection. engineers based on factors such as real time traffic
● it is adopted when two or more roads cross each volume, time of day and historical data. Traffic
other. engineers analyze these factors to create a fixed
● it is classified in two categories. schedule for signal changes, optimizing traffic flow and
(i) over pass minimizing congestion. The process is manual and
(ii) under pass relies on the expertise of professionals in the field.
Purposes of Grade separation structure- 108. The best type of kerb parking considered from
(i) increase the comfort and convenience to the the point of maximum number of the vehicle
motorists parking along with less destruction through
(ii) eliminate traffic signals and improve traffic flow traffic and case in parking is
efficiency. (a) 90° (b) 60°
(iii) Increase safety for turning traffic by using
(c) parallel (d) 45°
interchange ramp.
PSSSB JE (Civil) 20.01.2024
105. An enlarged road intersection where all
converging vehicles are forced to move round a Ans. (a) : Kerb parking / on street parking– In this
large central in one direction before they can type of parking vehicles are parked on the kerb which is
weave out of traffic flow their respective designed for parking. Angle parking accommodates
directions is called as ............... more vehicle per length but maximum vehicles can be
(a) Rotary intersection parked per length but maximum vehicles can be parked
(b) Diamond interchange with an angle of 900.
(c) Partial clover leaf intersection Generally used angle of parking are 300, 450, 600, 900.
(d) Over pass For parallel parking–
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024 L
Ans. (a) : A rotary intersection or traffic rotary is an Number of spaces, N =
6.6
enlarged road intersection where all converging vehicles
are forced to move round a large central island in one L
For 900 parking, N =
direction. 2.5
• It is provided when intersection traffic is about 50% Where, L = Length of parking
or more of total traffic on all intersecting roads. 109. which of the following traffic studies uses
106. What are fixed time traffic signals? traffic models to analyze traffic?
(a) Signals that have a fixed duration for each (a) Accident studies
phase (b) Traffic volume studies
(b) Signals that adjust timing based on weather (c) Calibration studies
conditions (d) Parking studies
(c) Signals that are manually controlled by a Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
traffic officer
Ans. (c) : Calibration studies utilize traffic models to
(d) Signals that change timing based on traffic
flow analyze and adjust parameters to accurately reflect real-
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I world traffic conditions, aiding in the calibration and
refinement of traffic models.
Ans. (a) : Fixed time traffic signals–It is also known as
pre-time signals. It's have a fixed duration for each phase. • Studies are done to calibrate key value in models to
• These are said to be repeat regularly a cycle of red, quarantine that they depict the conditions in real life
amber and green lights. traffic.

Highway Engineering 569 YCT

110. What is the definition of Highway capacity? For two lane two-way and two lane oneway traffic–
(a) The minimum traffic flow that can be
accommodated in a highway facility in a
given time period under existing roadway and
control conditions
(b) The maximum traffic flow that can be
accommodated in a highway facility in the
future
(c) The minimum traffic flow that can be
accommodated in a highway facility
according to data from the previous year For the intersection of two lane two-way roads from
(d) The maximum traffic flow that can be both sides-
accommodated in a highway facility in a
given time period under existing roadway and
control conditions
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II
Ans. (d) : Highway capacity refers to the maximum
number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a
highway under prevailing road and traffic conditions
within a specific time period.
1000 V
QB = 113. Which of the following traffic survey data is
S plotted by means of 'Desire lines'?
Where, (a) Speed and delay
S is the space headway in meter (b) Traffic volume
QB is the basic traffic capacity in vehicle/h/lane (c) Origin and destination
V is the traffic speed in km/hr (d) All of these
111. The basic objective of traffic engineering is to Kerala PSC (PWD) AE 07/06/2023
achieve Ans. (c) : Origin and destination study–
(a) efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic with • O & D studies gives the information on the actual
least priority given to accidents location or zone of origine of travel of vehicle and
(b) efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic with their destination.
fewer accidents • O & D studies can be presented in any of following
method.
(c) efficient and rapid flow of traffic
(i) O & D table are prepared showing no of trip
(d) rapid flow of traffic
between different zone.
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II (ii) Desire line plotted, which is graphical
Ans. (b) : The primary objective of traffic engineering representation prepared in O & D studies.
is to ensure the efficient, smooth and rapid flow of • The width of such line is drawn proportional to the
traffic while minimizing the occurrence of accidents. no of trip in both direction.
112. Total numbers of potential conflicts for two- 114. _______ percentile speed is adopted for
lane roads when both roads are one-way can be determining the speed limits for traffic
estimated as regulations
(a) 4 (b) 6 (a) 98th (b) 85th
th
(c) 11 (d) 24 (c) 50 (d) 15th
GPSC GWSSB AE Class-2 25/06/2023 UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
Ans. (b) : For two lane one way traffic on both the Ans. (b) : Percentile speed of interest–
side- 85th percentile speed–The speed below which 85% of
the vehicles travel is used for determining the speed
limits traffic regulations.
98th percentile speed–The speed below which 98% of
the vehicles travel is used as a design speed in
geometric design.
50th percentile speed–If the speed at which there are
many vehicles going faster as they are going slow.
15th percentile speed–It is used to determines the lower
speed limit on major highway facilities such as
expressway.

Highway Engineering 570 YCT

115. The total number of potential conflict points on 118. The method of applying a thin layer of
a right angled intersection of two roads with bituminous material over an existing pavement
lanes, both having two way traffic movement to improve its surface is called:
will be: (a) Reconstruction (b) Milling
(c) Slurry sealing (d) Resurfacing
(a) 22 (b) 16
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
(c) 32 (d) 24
Ans. (c) : Slurry sealing-
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 ● It is uniformly mixed combination of a slowsetting asphalt
Ans. (d) : emulsion fine aggregate, mineral filler and water.
Road Road Both A- one way Both Roads ● Slurry sealing is used as a low-cost maintenance material
for pavements carrying light traffic.
A B Road Two B- Two One Way ● It is applying a thin layer of bituminous material over an
way way existing pavement to improve its surface.
2 2 24 11 6 119. According to the Indian standard IS 73 (2013):
2 3 24 11 8 Paving Bitumen, bitumen is classified into ______
2 4 32 17 10 grades based on the viscosity, and suitability
recommended for maximum air temperature.
3 3 24 13 11 (a) 4 (b) 6
4 4 44 25 18 (c) 3 (d) 5
116. The ideal signal cycle CO is determined using MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II
the total lost time per cycle (L) and the usual Ans. (a) : According to Indian standard IS 73 (2013)
flow (Y) in the Webster method of traffic signal :paving bitumen is classified into grades based on its
design is: viscosity at 60°C and its suitability for maximum air
temperature.
1.5L − 5
(a) Co = (i) VG - 10
1+ Y (ii) VG - 20
1.5L − 5 (iii) VG - 30
(b) Co = (iv) VG - 40
1− Y
120. Bitumen grade 80/100 indicates that under the
1.5L + 5
(c) Co = standard test condition, penetration value of
1+ Y bitumen would vary from
1.5L + 5 (a) 0.8 mm to 1 mm (b) 8 mm to 10 mm
(d) Co = (c) 8 cm to 10 cm (d) 0.08 mm to 0.10 mm
1− Y (e) Answer not known
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Ans. (d) : Webster's method–In this method, the Ans. (b) : Penetration test–It is used to determine
optimum signal cycle Co corresponding to least total hardness or consistency of bituminous materials. The
delay to the vehicles at the signalized intersection has distance traversed by standard needle in the bituminous
been worked out. material is measured in 1/10th of a millimeter.
The optimum signal cycle is given by– • Bitumen grade 80/100 means that in the bitumen
penetration test which is used to classify bitumen based
1.5L + 5
Co = on the penetration degree when the needle sinks 8 to 10
1− Y mm in the bitumen.
Where, 121. As per IRC specifications, the maximum
L = Total lost time per cycle spacing of contraction joints in reinforced
L = 2n + R cement concrete slab of thickness 20 cm is
___________.
R = all red time. (a) 4.5 m (b) 40 m
n = number of shape (c) 10 m (d) 14 m
Y = sum of critical flow ratio SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
117. The bituminous surfacing with a granular base Ans. (d) : As per IRC 15:1981, the maximum spacing
and a sub-base for a road pavement is called a___ of contraction joints–
(a) rigid pavement Categories of Slab thickness Maximum
(b) semi-rigid pavement slab (cm) contraction
joint spacing
(c) sub-grade pavement (m)
(d) flexible pavement Unreinforced 10 4.5
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II slabs 15 4.5
Ans. (d) : Flexible pavement- 20 4.5
● flexible pavement composed of a bitumen material surface Reinforced 10 7.5
course and underlying granular base and sub base course. slabs 15 13.0
● The flexural strength of flexible pavement is Negligible. 20 14.0
Highway Engineering 571 YCT
122. The warping stress is dependent on 126. The coal tar having the softening point between
(a) length of slab 700C to 800C classified under the grade:
(b) length and width of slab (a) Soft pitch
(c) thickness of slab (b) Hard pitch
(d) water content in slab (c) Hard medium pitch
Odisha Lect. (Civil) 28.01.2024 Paper II (d) Soft medium pitch
Ans. (b) : The warping stress in a slab is dependant on DDA JE 18/10/2023 (Shift-III)
the length and width of the slab. These two parameters Ans. (c) :
have a direct and significant impact on the warping Characteristic Requirement method
stress in a slab. Soft Soft Hard Hard of test
Whenever the top and bottom surfaces of a concrete Pitch Medi Medium Pitch Ref To
pavement simultaneously posses different temperatures um pitch
the slab tends to warp downward or upward inducing pitch
warping stresses. Softening 45- 56-75 76-85 86- IS1205
point (ring 55 95
123. Which of the following characteristic is high
for flexible pavements in relation to rigid and ball
pavements? method),
0
(a) Life span C
(b) Maintenance cost Specific 1.20- 1.22- 1.24-1.32 1.26- IS1202
(c) Flexural strength gravity at 1.30 1.32 1.32
(d) Force of friction 250C
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024 vaporized 75 65 60 50 IS1220
Ans. (b) : Maintenance cost generally higher for material
flexible pavements compared to rigid pavements. Insoluble 25 25 30 35 IS1215
• Rigid pavement, on the other hand, such as those material
made of concrete tend to have lower maintenance Ash (%) 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.8 IS1217
requirements over their lifespan.
• In flexible pavement, low or negligible flexural 127. A test used to determine modulus of subgrade
strength. reaction is
• In rigid pavement, high flexural strength. (a) plate bearing test
(b) CBR test
124. Pavements which have low or negligible
flexural strength are called ____________. (c) consolidation test
(a) semi rigid pavements (d) North Dakota cone test
(b) flexible pavements APSC PWRD 23/07/2023 Paper-I
(c) cement concrete and gravel roads Ans. (a) : Plate bearing test–It is done on sail subgrade
(d) rigid pavements and it determines the modes of subgrade reaction.
SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning) Modulus of subgrade reaction is given by–
Ans. (b) : Flexible pavement–The pavements which P P
have low or negligible flexural strength is called flexible K= = kg / cm3
∆ 0.125
pavement. The flexible pavement layer reflects the
deformation of lower layers or the surface of the layers. where,
Rigid pavement–These pavements possess some P = Pressure corresponding to settlement of 0.125 cm.
worthy flexural strength. These transfer the load 128. Which material among bitumen, lime, and tar
through slab action but not grain to grain as in case of is known for its binding properties and is
flexible pavements. commonly used in road construction?
125. The bottom-most layer of flexible and rigid (a) Bitumen
pavement layers is called: (b) Lime and Tar Both
(a) Base layer (b) Natural soil (c) Lime
(c) Sub-base layer (d) Sub-grade (d) Tar
DDA JE 18/10/2023 (Shift-III) JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 04/10/2023
Ans. (d) : Ans. (a) : Bitumen is a non-crystalline solid or viscous
material derived from petroleum, by natural or refinery
process and substantially soluble in carbon disulphide.
It is asphalt in solid state and mineral for in semi fluid
state.
• Bitumen is brown or black in colour.
• Its compositions is carbon 87%, hydrogen 11% and
oxygen 2%.
• Bitumen is known for its binding properties and is
commonly used in road construction.

Highway Engineering 572 YCT

129. Arrange the following layers of flexible Ans. (c) : In flexible pavements, wheel load is
pavement in sequential order (from bottom to distribute by Grain to grain transfer.
top). Flexible pavement
Surface course, Subgrade course, Subbase Flexural rigidity Very low or negligible
course, Base course
Load Through grain to grain contact.
(a) Surface course, Subgrade course, Base
transformation
course, Subbase course
(b) Subbase course, Base course, Subgrade Joints No joints required
course, Surface course Failure If there is any failure at bottom
(c) Subgrade course, Subbase course, Base then the failure is appeared at top
course, Surface course
(d) Base course, Subgrade course, Subbase
course, Surface course Cost Low initial cost high maintenance
NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-I cost
Ans. (c) : 133. Which test is used to determine the hardness or
softness of bitumen?
(a) Ductility test
(b) Flash and fire point test
(c) Softening point test
(d) Penetration test
GSECL VS JE 07/09/2022 Shift-I
Ans. (d) : Penetration test–It is the measure of
hardness or softness of bitumen, it measured the
distance a standard blunt pointed needle vertically
penetrate a sample of material at 27ºC.
130. In the case of rigid pavements, what primarily • The load being of 100 gm and time of penetration is
provides structural strength? 5 sec.
(a) Particle friction • Unit measurement is 1/10 mm.
(b) Pavement slab's beam action • TAR is not being tested by this method
(c) Cohesion between layers comparatively very soft compared to bitumen.
(d) Aggregate interlock 134. As per IS 383:1970, for road aggregates the
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 06/10/2023 aggregate crushing value of aggregates in base
Ans. (b) : In the case of rigid pavements, the primary course shall not exceed ........... and for surface
provider of structural strength is pavement slabs, beam course shall be less than .............
action. Rigid pavements rely on the beam action of the (a) 60% and 50% (b) 45% and 30%
pavement slab to distribute loads and provide structural (c) 70% and 60% (d) 50% and 40%
strength. Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023
131. The basic principle in CBR test is by causing a Ans. (b) : As per IS 383 : 1970– The aggregate
cylindrical plunger of ............... diameter to crushing value shall not exceed 45% for aggregates
penetrate into the specimen of soil. used for concrete other than for wearing surface and
(a) 60 mm (b) 50 mm 30% by weight for concrete for wearing surface such as
(c) 100 mm (d) 80 mm a runway, roads and pavement.
MH WRD CEA 29/12/2023 Shift-II • The aggregate impact value shall not exceed 45% by
Ans. (b) : California bearing ratio test : This is a weight for aggregate used for concrete other than for
penetration test developed by the California division of wearing course and 30% by weight for concrete for
highways to evaluate the stability of soil sub-grade and wearing course.
other flexible pavement. It consists a standard piston
135. Which of the following is provided in the
have a diameter of 50 mm which is used to penetrate the
transverse joint in the rigid pavement for the
soil at the standard rate of 1.25 mm/min.
transfer of load?
California bearing ratio test is used to find thickness of
(a) Tie bars (b) Dowel bars
flexible pavement.
(c) Bent bars (d) Stirrups
132. In flexible pavements, wheel load is distribute by:
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-III
(a) Slab action
(b) Directly to sub-grade Ans. (b) : Dowel bars –Load transfer device transverse
(c) Grain to grain transfer joint and they keep the two slab at same height.
(d) Beam action • Load transfer capacity of the dowel bar is assumed to
JSSC JDLCCE JE 17/10/2023 (Civil) be 40% of the wheel load.

Highway Engineering 573 YCT

 • Spacing between dowel bar is kept at 30 cm.
• Length between 40 cm to 73 cm nearly 60 cm.
• Diameter of bar varies between 20 mm to 30 mm. Location of joints
136. The softening point of bitumen can be Note–The tie bars in concrete pavement are provided
across the longitudinal joint.
determined through the use of a _______
139. The coefficient of friction between subgrade
(a) Ring & Ball apparatus and pavement is usually taken as:
(b) Penetrometer apparatus (a) 1.2 (b) 1.5
(c) Visco meter (c) 1.3 (d) 1.4
(d) Centrifuge extractor apparatus DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I Ans. (b) : Design of tie bars–
Ans. (a) : Softening point test– This test is done to bfw
As =
determine temperature susceptibility of the bitumen. s
• Softening point test is extensively used to evaluate As = Area of steel in cm2
the consistency of bituminous binders. b = Distance between joint in question and the nearest
free joint of edge in meter.
• This test can be determined through the use of a ring f = Coefficient of friction between pavement and
and ball apparatus. subgrade.
137. Rigidity factor is defined as f = 1.5
(a) Sum of contact pressure and Tyre pressure w = weight of slab in kg/m2
(b) Product of contact pressure and Tyre pressure s = Allowable working stress of steel in kg cm2
(c) Difference between contact pressure and Tyre 140. The recommended thickness for the granular
pressure base for traffic of up to 2 MSA is
(a) 250 mm (b) 350 mm
(d) Ratio of contact pressure and Tyre pressure
(c) 225 mm (d) 150 mm
UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (d) : Rigidity factor– The ratio of contact Ans. (c) : The minimum thickness of granular base
pressure to tyre pressure is defined as rigidity factor. course depends on traffic intensity. The recommended
Contract pressure minimum thickness of granular base is 225 mm for
Rigidity factor = traffic upto 2 MSA (Million Standard Axles) and 250
Tyre pressure
mm for traffic exceeding 2 MSA.
The average tyre pressure = 7 kg/cm2 141. The thickness of the sub-base should NOT be less
The rigidity factor depends upon the degree of tension than _____ for design traffic of less than 10 MSA.
developed in the walls of the tyres. (a) 250 mm (b) 150 mm
138. Tie bars in cement concrete pavements are (c) 200 mm (d) 100 mm
placed across DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III
(a) Expansion joints (b) Contraction joints Ans. (b) : The thickness of sub-base should not be less
(c) Wrapping joints (d) Longitudinal joints than 150 mm for design traffic less than 10 MSA and
200 mm for design traffic of 10 MSA and above.
ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
142. Which of the following is NOT a type of
Ans. (d) : pavement?
(a) Composite pavement
(b) Rigid pavement
(c) Permeable pavement
(d) Flexible pavement
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : Type of pavement-
The pavements are generally classified in three
categories-
(i) Flexible pavement
(ii) Rigid pavement
(iii) Composite pavement
Highway Engineering 574 YCT
143. A/an ______ is defined as an extra pavement, of Ans. (b) : In flexible pavement is pavement where the
constant or variable width, placed parallel or surface course, binder course and base materials and
nearly so, to a merging maneuver area so as to bitumen bound.
encourage merging at a low relative speed,
considered in any intersection of a road.
(a) diverging lane (b) deceleration lane
(c) acceleration lane (d) restricting lane
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (c) : Acceleration lane- An acceleration lane is
defined as extra pavement, of constant or Variable
147. Name the test conducted on bitumen using the
width, placed parallel or Nearly so, to a merging
Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus?
maneuver area to encourage merging at low relative
(a) Specific gravity test
speed. Consideration in any Intersection of a road. (b) Softening point test
144. In a CBR test of a soil sample the cause of the (c) Viscosity test
initial concavity of load penetration curve is (d) Flash and Fire point test
due to– DDA JE 19/10/2023 (Shift-I)
(a) Plunger is vertically set Ans. (d) : Various tests conducted on bitumen for
(b) Soil specimen is hard testing–
(c) Top surface of soil specimen is not even Properties
(d) All of the above Test on Desirab
of be Apparatus
bitumen le
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 tested
Ans. (c) : The initial concavity of load penetration Ductility Ductility Briquettes Less
curve of CBR test is due to– test apparatus than 50
1. Top layer of specimen is too soft. Flash and Flash Pensky- greater
2. The top surface of the specimen is not even. fire point point and martens than
3. Improper compaction. test fire point closed tester 1750
4. The penetration plunger of the loading machine is not Softening Softening Ring & Ball 350C to
vertical. point test point test 700C
Penetration Hardness Penetrometer 30/40,
145. What is the role of bitumen in pavement test or softness 60/70
construction? of bitumen and
(a) It provides resistance to deformation and 80/100
changes in temperature 148. Reflection cracking is observed in:
(b) It creates a smooth surface for driving (a) Rigid pavement
(c) It prevents structural elements of the pavement (b) Bituminous overlay over cement concrete
(d) It prevents dust accumulation on the pavement surface
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 (c) Flexible pavement
Ans. (a) : The desirable properties of bitumen depend (d) Riding overlay over flexible pavement
on the mix type and the construction. RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 15/03/2021 Paper-II
1. Attainment of desired stability of the mix Ans. (b) : Reflection cracking–This type of cracking is
2. To maintain the stability under adverse weather observed in bituminous overlays provided over existing
conditions. cement concrete pavements. The crack pattern as
3. To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid existing in cement concrete pavements are mostly
cracking of bituminous surface. reflected on bituminous surfacing in the same pattern.
4. To have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in 149. Which type of pavement is designed to
the mix in presence of water. distribute the load of traffic over a wide area of
the sub-grade?
5. It provides resistance to deformation and changes in
(a) Permeable pavement
temperature
(b) Rigid pavement
146. What is the flexible pavement in pavement (c) Flexible pavement
construction? (d) Composite pavement
(a) A pavement constructed with rigid material MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I
like concrete Ans. (b) : Rigid Pavement- Rigid pavements are made
(b) A pavement where the surface course, binder of either plain cement concrete or RCC or pre-stressed
course and base materials and bitumen bound cement concrete. The rigid characteristic of the
(c) A pavement constructed with soil and gravel pavement is due to its flexural strength or slab action
layers that distributes the load over a wide area of sub-grade
(d) None of the above soil. The rigid pavements are subjected to bending due
HSSC JE 18.02.2024 to wheel loads and the temperature changes.
Highway Engineering 575 YCT
150. Los Angeles testing machine is used to perform 155. As per IRC, the maximum value of super
(a) Abrasion test elevation in hilly roads not bound by snow,
(b) Impact test should not be more than :
(c) Attrition test (a) 5% (b) 7%
(d) Crushing strength test (c) 10% (d) 12%
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29/01/2023 UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023
Ans. (a) : The abrasion test on aggregate may be Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
carried out using any one of the following three tests.
(i) Los Angeles abrasion test 156. _______________ created central public work
(ii) Deval abrasion test department to look after the work of road.
(iii) Dorry abrasion test (a) Lord Willian Bentic (b) Lord Mayo
Los-Angeles abrasion test is preferred as the test (c) Lord Dalhousie (d) Lord Ripon
results have been correlated with pavement (e) Answer not known
performance. TNPSC Draughtsman (Civil) 06/11/2022
151. Which IRC code is referred for guidelines for Ans. (c) : A department of public work (now known as
the design of flexible pavements in the highway central public works department) was formed to look
construction? after the road construction during the period of Lord
(a) IRC : 21-2000 (b) IRC: 37-2018 Dalhousie in 1865 when he was Governor-General of
(c) IRC : 56-2011 (d) IRC : 35-2015 India.
OSSC JE RE-Exam 03.09.2023 157. The rise in elevation over a length of 2 km in
Ans. (b) : mountainous terrain shall NOT exceed:
IRC :37-2018- Guidelines for the design of flexible (a) 80 m (b) 120 m
pavements in the highway construction (c) 90 m (d) 100 m
IRC : 21-2000- Standard specifications and code of DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III
practice for road bridges
IRC : 56-2011- Recommended practices for Ans. (d) : IRC has made the following recommendations
treatment of embankment and roadside slopes for in regard to the adoption of gradient standards.
erosion control. • Exceptional gradients are meant to be adopted only in
IRC : 56-2011- Recommended practices for very difficult situations and for short lengths not
treatment of embankment and roadside slopes for exceeding loop at a stretch. In mountainous and steep
erosion control. terrain successive stretches of exceptional gradients
152. The value of standard axle load considered for must be separated by a minimum length of 100m
flexible pavement design is: having gentler gradient i.e. limiting gradient or
(a) 80 Ton (b) 100 Ton flatter.
(c) 80 kN (d) 100 kN • The rise in elevation over a length of 2 km shall not
DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-I exceed 100m in mountainous terrain and 120m in
Ans. (c) : Flexible pavements specific axle group loads steep terrain.
for trucks can be converted to an equivalent standard 158. Stone walls with vertical back and face batter,
axle using a load equivalent factor (LEF) constructed on the inner side of road to support
• LEF are transformed into equivalent single axle the slopes of the hill?
loads, where the standard for axle loads, where the (a) Breast wall (b) Retaining wall
standard for an ESAL is 80 kN. (c) Abutment (d) Pier
• The standard axle load is 80 kN. (e) Answer not known
153. The maximum super elevation on plain and TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
rolling terrain should not exceed............
Ans. (a) : A breast wall is built to sustain the face of a
(a) 8 percent (b) 7 percent
natural bank of earth.
(c) 4 percent (d) 10 percent
APSC PWD JE 13.08.2023 • Batter of the backfill side reduce base width of the
wall.
Ans. (b) : See the above solution.
Type of terrain emax
Plain and rolling 7%
Mountainous and hilly region 10%
Urban area 4%
154. The maximum super elevation for hill road
should not exceed
(a) 0.005 (b) 0.050
(c) 0.800 (d) 0.100 • Breast walls are more economical for cut slopes.
JKSSB JE 27.10.2021 Shift-II • This wall is usually constructed on the hill side of
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. the roadway.
Highway Engineering 576 YCT
 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (v) Formation of acid mist
(vi) Sulphuric acid
The four major elements land, water, air and living (vii) Smog
organisms (plants and animals) together, constitute (viii) Chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC)
what is known as environment or ecosystem. Aerosols-
• Physical environment : The non-living (abiotic) It is a extremely small solid/liquid particles
components like land, water and air together. suspended in the atmosphere.
• Biological environment : The living organisms It is classified into smoke, dust, fumes or mist.
(biotic component), form another group of Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)-
environment. Its is used to describe air-borne solid particles
Dust
In the natural environment in the biosphere there, that range in size from 1-1000µ.
infact exists a perfect balance or equilibrium Smoke Vaporous matter with suspended particles of
between the various organisms, and this is known as carbon, arising from incomplete combustion.
ecological balance. Particle size < 1µ.
• Pollution and conservation of environment : Mist It is liquid particles.
The excessive use of coal, petroleum, natural gas for Size < 10µ
industries, automobiles, and power generation, has Fog It indicates a mass of smoke, dust etc.
created enormous problems of pollution of obscuring the atmosphere.
environment. Size→ 0-10µ
AIR POLLUTION Smog Due to excessive smog, visibility decreases,
Undesirable gases and particles present in the air and vegetable starts getting destroyed and eye
cause of negative impact on human health or life irritation etc.
style is called air pollution. Smog = [Smoke + fog]
Air Pollutions are Classified as- Haze It is in the form of thin vapour of fog, smoke,
dust etc. in the air.
Lapse Rate-
In the troposphere the temperature of ambient
atmosphere decreases with increase in altitude is
∆T 0 C
called lapse rate. Lapse Rate =
∆H
1. Environmental Lapse Rate(ELR)/Ambient Lapse
1. Primary Pollutants (90%) Rate-
(i) Finer particles (dia. < 100µ) It is the actual rate at which the ambient temperature
(ii) Coarse particles (dia. > 100µ) changes with height.
(iii) Sulphur dioxide (SO2) (Prime constituent of air It is also known as Prevailing Lapse Rate (PLR).
pollution) 2. Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR)-
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2) The rate at which atmospheric/ Environmental
(v) Carbon monoxides (CO) temperature decreases( 1ºC/100 m height) with
increasing altitude is known as adiabatic lapse rate.
(vi) Halogen compounds
If lapse rate is +Ve then temperature decreases with
(vii) Volatile organic compounds eight, conversely if lapse rate is -Ve then
(viii) Lead (Pb) temperature increase with height.
(ix) Radioactive substances
2. Secondary Pollutant (10%)
It is formed due to interaction between two primary
or more pollutants.
(i) Ozone (O3)
(ii) Formaldehyde (CHO)
(iii) PAN (Peroxy acetyl ntrate)
(iv) Photochemical Smog, (Unstable Environment) (Stable Environment)
Environmental Engineering 577 YCT
3. Neutral adiabatic Lapse Rate- 3. Neutral Plume-
Natural plum is the upward vertical rise of the plum
from the stack.

4. Inversion/Negative Lapse Rate (Unstable

environment)-
Upward vertical rise when ELR = ALR
4. Fanning Plume-
It is the most favorable plume.
It occurs under extreme inversion conditions caused
by –ve ELR.
Emission will spread only horizontally.
High rising stacks are required.
Plume-
A Plume is defined by the path taken by a
continuous discharge of gaseous wastes emitted
from a stack or chimney.
The Shape of the path of plume depends upon the
localized air stability.
Source of origin of plume is called stack.
Note- 5. Lifting/Lofting Plume-
Super adiabatic laps rate- ELR > ALR When there exist strong super adiabatic laps rate
Sometimes, temperature increase with height which above a surface inversion, then the plum is said to be
is known as inversion. lofting.
1. Looping Plume It have minimum downward mixing but upward
It takes place when the atmosphere is very unstable, mixing will be quite turbulent and rapid.
wind speed is greater than 10 m/s. It is most ideal for dispersion of emission.
Condition- ELR > ALR or ELR >>> DLR and also
higher stacks are needed.

6. Fumigating Plume-
It occurs when inversion occurs at short distance
above the top of the stack and super adiabatic
2. Coning Plume-. condition prevail below the stack.
Occurs when wind velocity is high(> 32 km/hrs) and
Sub-adiabatic conditions exist (ELR < ALR).
Environment is highly stable with small scale
turbulence.
It is most likely to occur during cloudy or windy
periods.

It is just opposite to lofting plume.

7. Trapping Plume-
When inversion layer exist above the emission
source as well as below the source. Emitted plume
will neither go up nor go down.
Environmental Engineering 578 YCT
 This plume is not ideal for dispersion of pollutants It is very efficient process to separate dirt from
as it cannot go above a certain height. ambient air.
Wet scrubbers are three types-
Cyclonic Removal particle size > 2.50µm.
scrubbers Efficiency < 80%.
Spray Removal particle size > 10 µm.
tower Efficiency < 80%.
Venturi Gases and particulate contaminates or
scrubbers removed.
Removal particle size > 0.50 µm.
Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)- Efficiency < 99%.
PSI Air Quality Descriptor NOISE POLLUTION
0 - 50 Good
Effect of noise on human beings-
51 - 100 Moderate
Noise level in db Effects observed
101 - 200 Unhealthy
0 Threshold of audibility
201 - 300 Very Unhealthy
> 300 Hazardous 105 Significant change in pulse rate
110 Stimulation of reception in skin
Major instruments used to control of Air
120 Pain threshold
Pollution-
130-135 Nausea, Vomiting dizziness
Bag House A fuel gas is allowed to pass through
140 Pain in ear
Filter a felted, which filter out the
particulates matter and allows the gas 150 Burning of skin
to pass. Measurement of Sound-
• Pore volume efficiency, η = 99%. Sound Q Q
level L = log10 (inBel)= 10.log10 (in dB)
• Very high for the collection and removal Q0 Q0
of very small particles upto 1µm. Sound  I 
Cyclone It is used to separate from polluted gas intensity Li = 10 log10  −12 
Separators or liquid stream, without the use of level ( dB  10 
I = Sound intensity Watt./m2
filters through vortex separation.
Sound 2
• It is also used in oil refineries to  prms 
separate oils and gases.
Pressure L P = 10.log 10  
level  20µPa 
Collection efficiency of cyclone
increases with increase in density and  p 
= 20 log10 .  rms 
particle size.  20 µPa 
Electrostatic It is widely used in thermal power Average 1 n=N
Precipitators plants pulp and paper industries, sound L P = 20 × log10 ∑ (10)(Ln / 20)
chemical industries iron and steel pressure N n =1

plants, etc. level N = Number of measurement readings

n = 1,2,3,…….....….N
• It is a larger size and low velocity dust
Ln = nth Sound pressure level in dB
collection device that works by
Where,
removing particles and smoke from a
gas stream using an electrostatic charge. p rms = Root mean square pressure in µPa
• Efficiency- 99% I = W/a
Q0 = Reference standard quantity of sound pressure
Gravity Min. size of particle removes > 501 µm, / sound power/ sound intensity as per
settling η% < 50% condition.
chamber Q = Measured quantity of sound pressure / sound
Centrifugal Min. size of particle removes 5 – 25µm, power / sound intensity.
collectors in η% = 50 - 90% Acceptable noise level from residential area
cycle according to IS : 4958 : 1968-
Fabric filter Min. size of particle removes > 1 µm, 1. Acceptable outdoor noise level-
η% - 99%. Location Noise level
Wet Scrubbers- (dB)
Wet scrubbers are effective air pollution control Rural area 25 - 35
device for removing particles and gases from Suburban area 30 - 40
industrial exhausts. Polluted is air passes through a Residential area (urban) 35 - 45
chamber or where water is sprayed on air. (Urban area) residential and business 40 - 50
Scrubbers are designed to removal of gas pollutants City area 45 - 55
from the air. Industrial areas 50 - 60
Environmental Engineering 579 YCT
2. Acceptable indoor noise level- Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981.
Acceptable The Environment (protection) Act 1986.
Type of building
noise level (dB) • Under environment (protection) Act 1986,
Radio & T.V. Studios 25 - 30 Government of India has notified the following
Music Room 30 - 35 rules :
The environmental (protection) Rule 1986.
Hospitals, Class room, Auditoria 35 - 40
Hazardous wastes (management and handling) Rules
Apartment, Hotel, Homes,
35 - 40 1989.
Conference rooms, small offices
Biomedical waste (management and handling) Rules
Court rooms, Libraries, Private
40 - 45 1998.
offices
Plastic manufacture, sale and usage Rule, 1999.
Large public office, Banks,
45 - 50 Noise pollution (regulation and control) Rules, 2000.
Stores, etc.
Municipal solid wastes (management and handling)
Restaurant 50 - 55 Rules, 2000.
Noise level limit for various zone- Motor Vehicle Act, 1988.
Area Category of Noise level limit(dB)
code Area/Zone
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Day time Night time
A Industrial Area 75 70 Acid rains-
B Commercial Area 65 55 The environment is polluted with primary pollutants
like SO2 and NOx gases, the resultant rainfall tends
C Residential Area 55 45
to become more and more acidic, with the increasing
D Silence Zone 50 40 concentration of these pollutants.
Degree of Noise- This extra acidity in rain water is caused due to the
120 - 140 dB Painful formation of the secondary pollutants, like sulphuric
90 dB Extremely loud acid (H2SO4) and nitric of water vapour with SO2
60 - 80 dB Very loud and NOx gases.
40 - 50 dB Moderate The pH of acidic rain is 5.6 or below.
30 dB Faint rd
2
Note- The primary pollutant, responsible for of the
Indoor Limit < 30 dB according to WHO 3
Noise greater than 75dB over long exposure can acid rains is SO2, which is chiefly produced by the
cause hearing damage. burning of coals and oils.
Noise above 120 dB can cause biochemical changes Nitrogen oxides (NOx) another primary pollutant,
rd
in human bodies. 1
responsible for of acid rains chiefly produced by
Standard noise pressure- 20µ Pa. 3
2
Standard noise intensity- 10 Watt/m auto-emission, nitrogenous fertilizers etc.
If noise level increases- 20 dB, Then noise intensity Cause- SO2, NO ( main cause) H2SO4 , HNO3 etc.
increase 10 times. gases.
Normal conversation is acceptable up to 60 dB. Ozone Depletion -
Whisper is usually measured up to 30 dB.
It is the most dreaded aspect of air pollution, having
Acceptable measurement up to 95 dB for motorcycle
wide spread implications, extending over the entire
in motion.
atmosphere.
Industrial sound limit as per WHO- 75 dB.
This problems is caused by the reduction of naturally
Hearing level of noise.
available ozone layer in the atmosphere.
Unit Minimum Maximum
The gaseous atmosphere extends to about 500 km
Decibel (dB) 0 dB 180 dB beyond the Earth's surface and consists of the
Frequency 20 Hz 20,000 Hz following four major zones :
Echo- (i) Troposphere (ii) Stratosphere or ozonosphere
A sound that reflects from a surface to the listeners (iii) Mesosphere (iv) Thermosphere
ear is called echo. Composition & Structure of Atmosphere-
Distance b/w reflector and source of sound should be
Layer Height Temperature
≥ 17.2 m for being echo.
(km)
Administrative control on environment Troposphere 0 - 11 15° to – 56°C
in India Stratosphere 11 - 50 –56° to – 02°C
Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act Mesosphere 50 - 85 –02° to – 92°C
1974.
Thermosphere 85 - 500 –92° to 1200°C
Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Cess Act
1977. Exosphere > 500 >1500°C
Environmental Engineering 580 YCT
• Chlorofluoro carbons (CFC) : Types of Water Demand-
As pointed out above, are the chief agents of ozone 1. Domestic Water Demand-
destruction. As per IS 1172 : 1993
They are largely used and subsequently releases in • For high income group/fully flushing system- 200 lpcd
modern world, in refrigeration, air-conditioning, fire • For low income group - 135 lpcd.
extinguishers as cleaning solvents in factories, as Use LIG HIG
blowing agents to create certain kinds of plastic (lpcd) (lpcd)
foams, and are spewed into the air in several Bathing 55 75
countries as part of aerosol sprays. Flushing of water closets 30 45
Each chlorine atom from CFC's then reacts with an Washing of cloths 20 25
ozone molecule, forming CIO (Chlorine monoxide) Washing utensils 10 15
as: Washing the house 10 15
Lawn watering & gardening - 15
Cooking 5 5
Drinking 5 5
Green House Gases- Total 135 200
Methane (CH4) , Carbon dioxide (CO2) , Ozone (O3) 2. Institution and commercial demand-
Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), Type of Buildings Water per
Carbon monoxide (CO), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) etc. capita per day
Note- Green house gases trap the heat in the atmosphere (in Liter)
and warm the planet Cinema & Concert halls 15 Per seat
Note- Schools 45 Per Student
The main cause for the depletion of ozone layer is Offices 45 Per Head
CFC gases. . Factories with bathrooms 45 Per Worker
IAO = Indoor air quality. Restaurants 70 Per Seat
Ringelmann's scale is used to measure the smoke Hotels 180 Per Bed
density. Hostels, Medical quarters 135 Per Head
Main gases responsible for the greenhouse effect and Hospital with < 100 beds 340 Per Bed
its percentage –
Carbon dioxide(CO2) 57% Hospital with > 100 beds 450 Per Bed
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 6% 3. Industrial water demand-
Methane (CH4) 12% Total water demand = 20 - 25% of the total demand
CFC 25% of the city.
• A Global Environmental Challenge : Note-
An around increase in greenhouse gases in the It varies from- 50 - 450 lpcd
atmosphere caused by large scale industrial Industrial water demand has the maximum
developmental activities has already increase the influence on the total water demand it depend on
heating effect on earth, which is further likely to type of industry.
increase with the passage of time, with its 4. Fire demand- 1 liter per capita per day
consequential adverse impacts of melting of glaciers, 5. Water losses and theft- 10 - 15% of total demand.
rising of sea levels and large scale changes in Water demand in India-
climate around the world. As per IS : 1172-1993, Total quantity of water.
The nature infact, is losing its equilibrium due to the (a) For high income group (full flushing system)-
imbalances created by unchecked human activities. 200 (domestic) + 135 = 335 lpcd.
All in all, climate changes may adversely affect Domestic Demand 200 lpcd
human health quite severally, leading to large scale Public use 10 lpcd
death and destruction. Industrial + Commercial Demand 70 lpcd
Losses and thefts 55 lpcd
PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY Total 335 lpcd
Water Demand- (b) For low income group (without flushing system)-
The amount of water needed to a person in 24 hours, 135 (domestic) + 135 = 270 lpcd.
for daily activities is called as water demand (per
Fire Demand 15 lpcd
person/ capita per day).
Public Use 25 lpcd
Unit- liter per capita per day (lpcd).
Industrial Use 40 lpcd
Per Capita demand-
Losses, Wastage thefts 55 lpcd
Yearly water demond of the city Q Domestic Purpose 135 lpcd
= = ltr./day
365 × Design population 365 × P Total 270 lpcd
Environmental Engineering 581 YCT
 Variation in rate of demand–
Max. hourly demand 1.5 × Avg. • National board or fire
hourly demand Under writes formula - Q = 4637 P(1 − 0.01 P )
of max. day
Max. daily demand 1.8 × Avg. • As per manual of the Q = 100 P k.liter
daily demand ministry - (Population > 50000)
Max. weekly demand 1.48 × Avg. Where,
weekly demand Q = Required quantity of water (ltr/min)
Max. monthly 1.28 × Avg. P = Population (thousands)
demand
monthly demand • F = 2.8 P
Max. seasonal 1.3 × Avg. Where, F = Number of simultaneous fire streams
demand seasonal demand or no. of nozzles.
Max. hourly demand = 1.5 × Avg. Coincident/Draft Demand-
(for peak demand) Maximum daily demand when added to fire draft for
working out total draft is known as coincident draft.
hourly demand
It is used for distribution system.
on the max. day
 max. daily demand + Fire demand
It is the max .of 
q  max. hourly demand
= 2.7  
 24  Note-
Kuichling formula gives satisfactory result for
Where, Indian conditions.
q = Average daily demand National Board of fire Under Writer's
= 2.7×Avg. hourly demand formula-
Peak Factor- (a) For a central congested high valued city-

Peack factor =
Max.hourly water demand i. For Population ≤ 2 lakhs, Q = 4637 P(1− 0.01 P)
Avg.daily water demand ii. For Population > 2 lakhs, Q = 54600 l/min.
1 Population forecasting-
Peak factor ∝ Future estimation of population is called population
Population
forecasting.
Note- It is predicted by three common technique which
Max. consumption may be raised upto 200% of the depend on Birth Rate, Death Rate and Migration
avg. daily demand. Rate.
At the peak hour time, water supply increased 2 - 2.5 Methods of Population Forecasting-
times. (i) Arithmetical increase method
Population Peak Factor (ii) Geometrical increase method
Upto 50,000 3 (iii) Incremental increase method
50,000 - 200000 2.5 (iv) Graphical extension method
(v) Comparative graphical method
> 200000 2
(vi) Zoning/Master plan method (best method)
For Rural Water supply 3
(vii) Ratio and Correlation method
Fire Demand (Q)- (viii)Growth composition analysis method
It is the amount of water required for the fire (ix) Logistic curve/Decreasing rate of growth method
fighting purpose. (i) Arithmetic Increase Method-
It should be available at pressure of 1-1.5 kg/cm2 or This method is simple and based upon the
10 - 15 m head of water. assumption that population increases at constant
For smaller towns (P < 50,000) fire demand is not rate.
calculated. Suitability- Old, large and established cities.
It gives lowest value of forecasted population
• Bouston's formula - Q = 5663 P Pn = P0 + nx
P  Pn = Future population after n decades
• Freeman's formula - Q = 1136  + 10  P0 = Existing /present population
 5 
n = No. of decades
• Kuichling's formula - Q = 3182 P x = Arithmetic mean of population increase in
known decades.
Environmental Engineering 582 YCT
(ii) Geometric increase /Logarithmic/Uniform/ Note-
Exponential growth method- Graphical method gives the most accurate pre-
Percentage increase or percentage growth rate in assessment of the total population.
population from decade to decade remains constant.
It gives highest value of forecasting. WATER QUALITY PARAMETER
Suitability- For new/young cities expanding at faster Physical parameter-
rate. 1. Colour-
n
 r  Apparent colour is due to suspended and dissolved
Pn = P0 1 +  solids while true colour is due to dissolved solids.
 100 
Test Instrument- Tintometer
Where, Unit of colour measurement- TCU (True colour
Pn = Future population
unit)
P0 = Existing/Present population
r = Average growth rate Tintometer or Nesler tube by Pt - Cobalt scale is
used measurement of colour of water.
r + r + ...........rn
or ( r1 × r2 × .........rn ) or
1/ n
r= 1 2 1TCU is the colour produced by 1mg of platinum
n cobalt in the from of chloroplatinate ion in one meter
P distilled water.
r = n 2 −1 TCU-
P1
Acceptable - 05
P1 = Initial population, Maximum - 15
P2 = Final population 2. Suspended Solid (S.S.)-
n = No. of decades
Suspended solid may be organic or inorganic nature
(iii) Incremental increase/Varying increment Method-
it is cause of colour and turbidity
This method is the combination of both the
arithmetic increase method and geometrical increase It is measured by gravimetric technique.
method. Total solid = suspended solid + Dissolved solid
In this method, growth rate is not assumed to be Note-
constant, it may be increase or decrease. As per IS : 10500 : 2012 permissible limit of total
It is considered to the best method for any city (old hardness of potable water in the absence of
or new city) or when no information is provided for alternative source - 600 mg/ltr.
area. 3. Taste And Odour-
th
Population after n decade, Taste and odour are caused by dissolve gasses like
n(n + 1) H2S, Mercaptans, methane etc.
Pn = P0 + nx + y
2 H2S is main cause of odour
x = Avg. increases population of known decades. Odour is measured by Osmoscope. Osmoscope test
y = Avg. of incremental increases in population. is expressed in threshold number.
Design life period of water supply structure– Causes of bad taste and odour in drinking water is
algae.
Components Design period
in years 1 ≤ TON ≤ 3
Water treatment units 15 4. Temperature–
Electric motors and pumps 15 For potable water it should be 100- 250C.
Balancing tanks Service 15 If temperature increases at the rate of 100C then
reservoirs, head works biological activity will be just double.
Storage reservoirs/Dams 30 5. Turbidity–
Infiltration works 30 Turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended
Conveying pipes for raw water 30 matter per million parts of water (ppm or mg/l).
& clear water It is not direct quantitative measure of suspended
Distribution system, pump 30 solids.
house and pipe connection to Permissible turbidity – 1 - 5 ppm
several treatment units Turbidity > 5 NTU visible by naked eye.
Comparison of forecasting method- It is denoted on the silica scale.
Forecasting Forecasted Suitable for Measurement of Turbidity–
method population
1. Turbidity Rod-
Arithmetic Lowest Very old city
increase method Platinum needle- Dia.- 1 mm, Length- 25 mm
Geometric Highest Young and rapidly Unit- Silica turbidity unit.
increase method developed city 2. Jackson's Turbidity meter (Laboratory method)-
Incremental Intermediate Old city/New city It is based on the principle of light absorption.
increase method It is suitable, if turbidity > 25 ppm.
Environmental Engineering 583 YCT
3. Nephelometer- If [Ca++] and [Mg++] is known in mg/litre-
Turbidity is expressed in FTU (Formazin Turbidity
Units). Total Hardness
It measure low turbidity with very high precision.
[Ca ++ ]mg / l
4. Baylis Turbidity meter– = × Eq.Wt. of CaCO3 +
It is based on a colour matching technique and used Eq. Wt. of Ca ++
for measuring low turbidity < 1 ppm.
Blue cobalt plate is used. [Mg ++ ]mg / l
× Eq.Wt. of CaCO3
Note: Eq. Wt. of Mg ++
Nephelometer and Baylis turbiditimeter are the most
Total hardness
accurate method used for drinking water supply. • Carbonate Hardness = Min. of 
Chemical Parameter  Alkalinity
1. Chlorides- • Non - carbonate Hardness = Total Hardness - alkalinity
Chlorides are estimated by Mohr's method in which
raw water is titrated with standard AgNO3 solution If value is -ve then take zero.
using K2Cr2O7 (Potassium Dichromate) as indicator. Note-
High Quantity of chloride indicate water pollution Pseudu hardness is a imaginary hardness and which
due to sewage wastage. is cause by salt of sodium (Na).
Acceptable limit - 250 mg/l pH value of water-
rejection limit - 1000 mg/l.
2. Dissolved gases- • pH = − log[H ]
+
• pOH = − log [ OH − ]
Very small amount of hydrogen sulphide gives
pungent odour to the water. • pH + pOH = 14 • [H+ ].[OH− ] = 10−14
Carbon dioxide content indicates biological
activities, causes corrosion and imparts bad test. • [ H + ] > 10−7 • [ H + ] < 10−7
Oxygen, (O2) - Corrodes metal For strong acid For strong base
Chlorine (Cl2)+
Ammonia (NH2) - Bad taste • [ H + ] = [ OH − ] = 10 −7

CO2 and hydrogen - Acidity For neutral solution

sulphide
1 H + ↑ −pH ↓ Acidic
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O)- • pH ∝
Modified Winkler's azide method is the methods of [ H + ] H + ↓ −pH ↑ Alkaline
dissolved oxygen (D.O.) measurement in laboratory. Note-
For Potable water, (D.O.) = 5 - 10 ppm. Acidic water causes corrosion of pipe while alkaline
Min. amount of (D.O.) for the survival of fish in a water causes incrustation.
stream is 4 ppm. Hydroxide ion [OH–] is also known as caustic
At least 4 ppm of D.O. is required in treated sewage alkalinity.
before discharging into river stream.
5. Alkalinity -
3. Hardness-
Hardness is defined as the calcium carbonate Major source- HCO3− , CO3− − and OH −
equivalent of calcium and magnesium ions present Minor source- HS− , HSiO3− , HPO 4− −
in water.
Total Alkalinity (Form of CaCO3) =
1 degree hardness = 14.25 ppm or CaCO3.
OH −  CO3− − 
Methods of Determining Total Hardness of × Eq. Wt. of CaCO3 +
−
Water- Eq. Wt. of OH  Eq. Wt. of  CO3− − 
(i) Temporary / Carbonate (CO32− ) hardness –  HCO3− 
× Eq. Wt. of CaCO3 + × Eq. Wt. of CaCO3
Cause- presence of carbonate and bicarbonates Eq. Wt. of  HCO3− 
(HCO3− ) of calcium & magnesium. Alkalinity on pH scale-
• Ca(HCO3)2 No Alkalinity 0 - 4.5
• Mg(HCO3)2 Total Alkalinity 4.5 - 14
Water Hardness (In ppm of Calcium Carbonate) Bicarbonate (HCO3 ) − 4.5 - 8.2
Type of water Hardness 8.2 - 10
(PPM) Carbonate (CO3−− )
Soft water 10 - 50 6. Nitrogen content-
Slightly hard water 50 - 100 Presence of nitrogen in waste water indicates the
Hard water 100 - 200 presence of organic matter and may occurs in four
Very hard water Over 200 forms.
Environmental Engineering 584 YCT
 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)-
It is measure of the capacity of water to consume
oxygen during the decomposition of organic matter
and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals.
BOD/COD ratio-
It is the indicator of the degree of biodegradation of
(i) Free Ammonia or Ammonia nitrogen– the waste water.
It indicates first stage decomposition of organic
matter and recent pollution. BOD
< 1.0 always
For potable water >/ 0.15 mg/l COD
(ii) Albuminoid Ammonia or Organic Nitrogen- Waste water can be considered is fully
It indicates quantity of nitrogen present in water in
the form of under composed organic matter. BOD
biodegradable if, is lie b/w 0.92 - 1.00
For potable water >/ 0.30 mg/l. COD
(iii) Nitrite ( NO −2 − ) - Biological water parameter
Nitrite show the presence of partly oxidized organic
matter. It is very dangerous for health.
Permissible amount- 0 (zero).
It is measured by colour matching technique with Biodegradable matter-
colour developed by Sulphonic acid and It can be decomposed under biological activity.
Napthamine.
(iv) Nitrate ( NO3− ) -
Non-Biodegradable matter-
It cannot be decomposed under biological activity
Nitrate, represent the fully oxidized organic matter. but can be oxidized by chemicals.
Permissible limit- 45 mg/l.
Nitrate contaminated in drinking water cause blue Ex. Industrial waste and detergent
baby syndromes (methemoglobinemia). Non-biodegradable organic = COD – Ultimate BOD
7. Total Solids- Measurement- TOC & also COD.
Total solids consist of dissolved and suspended Most probable number (M.P.N.)-
matter.
It can be determined by evaporating a known MPN is a method used to estimate the concentration
volume of sewage sample and weighing the dry of available micro-organisms in a sample.
residue left. It indicates the bacterial density/consistency present
Mass of residue in water.
Total solid = MPN removes the drawback of B-Coli index.
Volume of evaporated sample
Bacteria Property
As per G.O.I. manual,
Acceptable limit - 500 mg/l Pathogenic bacteria These are harmful or
Rejection limit- 2000 mg/l. disease causing bacteria.
8. Dissolved Solids(D.S.)- Non-pathogenic Oxygen required for living
In natural waters, dissolved solids consist of bacteria of bacteria
inorganic salts like sulphates, chlorides, bicarbonates An-aerobic bacteria Bacteria can live without
and carbonates etc.
oxygen
D.S. = Electrical conductivity µ(mho / cm) × 0.65 Facultative bacteria Can lives with or without
Dissolved solids = Total solid – suspended solid oxygen
Note- Water-Borne diseases-
For drinking water, permissible limits of T.D.S. (i) Caused by Bacterial infections–
500mg/l and tolerable limit 1000 mg/l. Diseases Bacteria
Biochemical Oxygen Demand- Typhoid & Salmonella typhe
It is defined as the amount of oxygen required by
bacteria in decomposing organic matter under Paratyphoid-Fever bacteria
aerobic condition at 20°C over a period of 5 days. Bacillary dysentery Shigella bacillus or
BOD after 5 days at 200C is taken as standard BOD. flexner-bacillus/sonne
BOD5 = Oxygen consumed × Dilution factor/ratio bacillus
Cholera Vibrio-cholerae bacteria
= [( D.O.)Initial – (D.O.) final] × dilution factor (ii) Caused by viral infections–
Infectious hepatitis, Hepatitis Virus
Final volume infectious Jaundice
Dilution factor/ratio =
Sample volume Poliomyelitis Polo virus
Environmental Engineering 585 YCT
(iii) Caused by Protozoal infections– Free NH3 0.15 No relaxation
Bacteria Figure Diseases Nitrate (NO3) 45 No relaxation
Cocci Skin Nitrite Nil ––––
Infection Fluoride (F) 1 1.5
Bacilli Typhoid Iron (Fe) 0.3 No relaxation
Fever, Para Magnesium (Mg) 30 100
Typhoid,
Maganese (Mn) 0.1 0.3
Dysentery
Phenolic Compounds 0.001 0.002
Vibrio Cholera
(C6H5OH)
Sulphate (SO4) 200 400
Zinc (Zn) 5 15
Copper (Cu) 0.05 1.5
Water and instrument used for test-
Free residual chlorine 0.2 1
Property of Types of test/instrument for
water measurement Total dissolved solid 500 2000
Hardness EDTA Method Toxic Chemicals Parameter
Turbidity Turbidity meter/ Calcium (Ca) 75 200
Nephlometer/Jacsion Arsenic (As) 0.01 0.05
turbidity meter Cadmium (Cd) 0.003 No relaxation
Bacteria count MPN test, Membrane filter Lead (Pb) 0.01 No relaxation
technique Selenium (Se) 0.01 No relaxation
pH Potentiometer, Aquascope Silver (Ag) 0.1 No relaxation
Colour Tintometer, Nesler tube Mercury (Hg) 0.001 No relaxation
Dissolved Winkler's method DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Oxygen Distribution system is provided for carrying the
Organic matter BOD Test, COD Test water from treatment plant to the individual home,
Taste and Odour Osmoscope offices & commercial spaces.
Total dissolved Di-ionic tester Hardy cross method is used to design of water
solid distribution system.
Chlorides Mohr's method Layout of water distribution system–
Volatile solid Muffle furnace 1. Dead end/Tree/closed System-
Settleable solid Imhoff Cone Suitable for old cities where the houses come up in a
unplanned way.
Parameters Diseases Cheap, simple and easy in design.
Absence of fluorides Dental, fragile bones, Water can reach at a particular point only through
skeletal fluorosis one route, hence if some fault occur in, water supply
Excess of lead Anemia gets disturbed in whole area.
Absence of iodine Goitre
Excess of chlorides Hyperchloremia
As Per IS : 10500 : 2012 Drinking Water
Specification-
Water Quality Acceptable Permissible
Parameter Limit Limit (Mg/l)
(mg/l)
Physical Parameter
Turbidity 1 NTU 5 NTU

Colour 5 TCU 15 TCU

Taste and odour 1 TON 3 TON 2. Grid iron System/Interlaced/Reticular System-
Chemical Parameter It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout where
Alkanity 200 600 the water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.
pH value 6.5 - 8.5 No relaxation There is known dead end in the system as looping is
Hardness (CaCO3) 200 600 provided and more suitable for well planned cities.
Chloride (Cl) 250 1000 Requires more length of pipe lines & a large number
of sluice valve.
Environmental Engineering 586 YCT
 Design is little difficult and costlier. This pattern is Flexible/Universal Flexible joint is placed the pipes
used in Chandigarh. /Bituminous Joint laid in soft and marshy soil where
Flow path is multiple and equal pressure in all pipes. settlements of ground occurs.
Supply can be made during repair works. It is used on the curves where the
pipeline bends
Dresser Coupling Used for connecting small dia. of
Joint iron pipes. Ends of the pipe to be
jointed have thread on outside.
Victaulic Joint This Joint is suitable for steel and
iron pipes, which are laid in the
exposed position.
This joint can bear shocks,
vibration etc.
Screwed and Used for low diameter steel and
Socket Joint galvanized iron service pipes
It is usually used in pipe fitting
inside homes.
Collar Joint It is leak-proof joint adopted for
large dia. hume-pipes, asbestos
3. Ring/Circular System- cement pipe and concrete pipes.
This system consists of a main pipe around the area. Water Supply Fixture-
The supply main is laid all along the peripheral (i) Ferrule-
roads and sub mains branch out from the mains. Ferrule is the right angle sleeve made of brass or gun
4. Radial System– metal. It is joined to a hole drilled in water main to
which it is screwed down with a plug.
The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir
It is first pipe for supply of water in house.
kept in the middle of each zone.
Dia.- 10 - 50 mm.
The supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the
(ii) Goose Neck-
periphery and water flow towards these outer
It is a small curved pipe made of flexible material
periphery.
that forms flexible connection b/w service pipe and
This method gives higher service head and efficient water main.
water distribution.
Length- 75 mm
(iii) Stop Cock-
Generally it is provided before water enters the
water meter in the house screw down type value is
used for stopping and opening water supply.
(iv) Bib-
Sequence of connection-
Ferrule → Gooseneck → Stopcock → Water mater
Note
Order of tapping waters-
Service main → Applying ferrule →
Goose neck → Stopcock → Meter
Rate of flow in distribution pipes- Types of Valves-
≮ 0.6 m/sec. Shut-off/Gate/Bib Installed in the pipeline to regulate
Maximum- 3.3 m/sec. cock/Sluice Valve and control the water flow.
Types of Pipe Joints- Reflux/Check/Non- It allow the water to flow in one
Returning valve direction only or check the flow of
Pipe joint Use water in the reverse direction.
Socket and spigot It is permanent Joint and mostly Placed at the delivery pipe of
Joint used to connect cast iron pipes pumps for inspection and repair.
Flanged Joint For connecting pipes carrying Air/automatic/Air Provided at the summit point of
water under high pressure and Relief valve water mains to release the
where the vibration is high. accumulated air.
float arrangement is provided.
Expansion Joint This joint is used where expansion Pressure Relief/ To Reduces excessive pressure in
or shrink in length occurs due to safety/ automatic the pipe line.
change of atmospheric cut-off valve To Protects the pipe from bursting
temperature. and used at over-flow tower
Environmental Engineering 587 YCT
Scour /Blow-off/ Installed at the low level It includes non-biodegradable activities (700 - 900)
drain /wash-out (depression or valley) dead ends kg/m3.
valve of the pipe line. Sullage = Domestic sewage – Toilet waste
It removes sand and silt in pipe
line. Sludge-
Butterfly Valve Placed on the distribution pipes to Waste that settle down in a large tank is known as
control water like a sluice valve sludge.
Rate of accumulation- 25 l/person/year
Float Ball Valves Installed in service tanks/domestic
water storage tanks to maintain Garbage-
fixed water level It is dry waste which includes waste paper, rotten
Minimum size of pipes- fruits, rags, leaves, grass, vegetable peels, plastic
bag, broken pieces of glass, soil particles etc.
Population Dia of pipe (mm)
It is not mixed in sewage.
upto 50,000 100
Classification of waste material-
> 50,000 150
Types of waste Example
Laying of pipes-
Solid Waste Garbage
1. Marking centre line on (30-30)m length but at curve
length (15-15)m. Fluid Waste Sullage, waste water
2. Min. width of ditch→ (30-45)cm + external diameter Semi-solid & Sewage
of pipe. Semi-fluid waste
or ≮ 75 cm (Which is more) Sewage-
3. Min. Depth of ditch→ 90 cm + external diameter of Waste water containing solid and liquid excreta
pipe. derived from house, industries and factories is called
4. Min. horizontal distance between supply pipe and sewage.
sewer pipe should be 3m and min. vertical distance It includes biodegradable waste produced by
should be 2m. domestic activities (500 - 750)kg/m3.
It is a large diameter of feeder pipe, % of sewage discharge assumed for design purpose
Supply main
which laid between storage tank to of sewage- 75 - 80%.
distributed areas Nature of sewage-
Sub main It is a subsidiary feeder pipe, which Fresh Sewage - Slightly alkaline
or branches are connected from main pipe. Stale sewage - Acidic
Firefighting hydrant connection is
provided from this pipe.
Sub branches Dia.- 50-300 mm, connected from
or service main sub main pipes.
For water supply in houses
connection is done from this pipes.
Communication/ It is used to provided connection for
Service - pipe houses from street laid pipes.
It is also known as Service pipe.
Method of analysis of a complex distribution pipe
networks- Kinds of Sewage-
a. Hardy cross/Trial and error method
Domestic Sewage comes out from the flush
b. Equivalent pipe method (used for long & narrow sewage system of residential buildings.
pipe)
Industrial The water used for keeping the
c. Circle method (used for fire hydrant pipe) sewage/trade machines cool and cleaning also
d. Electrical Analysis method (Electrical loop process) effluent comes out as waste water.
DOMESTIC SEWAGE Storm water When rain water starts to fall on
ground it is called storm.
Sanitary Sewage-
Dry Weather Flow (DWF)-
Combined sewage obtained from urinals, water
If rain water is not included in sanitary sewage then
closets and business establishments is called sanitary
flowing sewage is dry weather flow. It is not affected by
sewage. temperature.
Sanitary Sewage = Domestic + Industrial sewage Sewerage System Capacity
Sullage- Separate system Rainfall + 3 - 6 times of DWF
It is the less offensive liquid waste without human Combined system Rainfall +2 times of DWF
excreta drained out from the kitchen, bathroom,
wash basin, floor and ceiling washing. It is calculated in liters/per person/day.
Environmental Engineering 588 YCT
 Variation in dry weather flow- Sewer Material Max. Permissible
1.5 × max. daily flow velocity (m/sec.)
1. Max. hourly flow = Raw soil Sewer 0.60 - 1.20
or 3 × Avg. daily flow
Brick Sewer 1.20 - 2.40
2. Max. daily flow = 2 × Avg. daily flow Concrete Sewer 2.4 - 3.00
3. Min. daily flow = 2 / 3 × Avg. daily flow Shell Sewer 3.00 - 4.50
Cast-Iron Sewer 4.5 - 5.0
1/ 2× min . daily flow Minimum Size of Sewer-
4. Min. hourly flow =
or 1/ 3 × Avg. daily flow
Type of sewer Min. size of sewer
Wet Weather Flow (WWF)- Public Sewer </ 150 mm
The flow of sanitary sewage including storm water Hilly areas sewer 100 mm
in rainy season is known as wet weather flow.
Note-
DWF =  to  × WWF
1 1 Maximum flow defined the dia. of sewer pipe
 20 25  while minimum flow defined the gradient of sewer
Note- pipe.
At the time of maximum flow of sewage only 2/3 of SEWERAGE SYSTEM
the sewer should be filled has, so that the 1/3 part of
Process for the collection and conveyance of
place available for the gases to collected.
municipal waste water to the sewerage treatment
Sewerage system Sewage velocity (m/sec.)
plant or the point of disposal. It is originate from
Separate system 0.6 - 0.9
house sewer.
Combined system 0.75
Design period- 25 years
Self cleaning velocity- Separate Sewer Combined Sewer Partially-
Material Velocity cm/sec. System System Separate
Angular section (stones) 100 (max.) Sewer
Fine gravels 30 System
Coarse sand 20
Sanitary or Good for narrow It is good for
Fine sand and clay 15
domestic sewage streets and suitable new areas
Fine clay and silt 7.5 (min.)
and storm water for areas having also provided
Minimum/self-cleansing velocity- are taken out by shorter durations of for metros.
Minimum velocity or sewer flow at which there is
neither silting nor scouring occurs at the bed of
separate sewer. rainfall. • Useful for
sewer along the drain length is called self cleaning • Sanitary sewage small
of velocity of sewage. and storm water towns.
It depends upon the size, shape and relative density are carried out by
of the suspended particles. this sewer.
Self cleaning velocity for all sewers- 1 - 1.2 m/sec. Sewer-
Self cleaning velocity is not depends upon dia. of
It is conduit carrying the sewage like as sanitary
sewer.
sewers, storm sewers, and combined sewers.
Sewer Pipe Dia. (cm) Min. Velocity (m/sec.)
Sanitary sewers carry industrial and domestic waste
15 - 25 1.0
30 - 60 0.75 waters.
> 60 0.60 Infiltration waters and storm water.
Note- Types of Sewer-
Sewer is laying from lower to upper ground.
For domestic sewage, min. velocity is maintain upto
0.75 m/sec.
Self cleaning velocity
In domestic sewer- 1.2 - 1.5 m/sec.
For inverted siphon- 0.9 m/sec.
Maximum /Non Scouring Velocity in sewer-
Max. velocity of sewage flow at which no such
scouring action will occurs is called non-scouring
velocity. It is mainly depend upon material used in
sewer construction.
According to I.S. Vmax. = 2.4 - 3 m/sec.
Environmental Engineering 589 YCT
Domestic The sewage from flush latrine Mostly useful at the bottom of road or rail track.
Sewer/House and waste water comes out from Dia. - 60 - 180 cm,
drain other places of house. Length- 1.2 m.
• Dia. - 10 - 20 cm (cast-iron). (d) Hume Pipe or Cement Lined steel Pipe–
Lateral Sewer It obtains discharge directly Steel pipes are light weight waterproof and vibration
from the buildings and meets the resistant.
Dia. -. 10 -250 cm
branch sewer.
It is the first stage of sewer Length- 1 - 3 m.
Larger dia. of Hume pipe is joined by collar-joint.
collection.
(e) Cast-Iron Pipe-
• Dia. ≮15 cm. It is used for sewers in filler land, soft soil or at the
Branch sewer Two or more lateral sewers places where heavy traffic flows over the sewer.
/Sub main Sewer delivers it to main sewer. Dia.- 10 -150 cm
Main Sewer It consists of two or more branch Length- 2 m.
sewers. (f) High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Pipe–
Trunk or Installed at the border of city and It is suitable for large diameter underground sewer
Intercepting obtained discharge of the main lines, Sewage pump main, marshy, saline and
Sewer sewers fall into it. alkaline soil.
Outfall Sewer It is the length of main sewer Dia.- 6.3 - 100 cm
between lowest branch and the Length- 5-20 m
final point of disposal. (B) According to Shapes of Sewers-
It collects the discharge from Rectangular/ Suitable for excess discharge and
collecting system and delivers it Box Sewer outfall sewer.
into treatment plant. • This type of sewer is used under
Note- road and railway line.
Relief Sewer- Circular Suitable for separate sewerage
It is used to carry the excess flow of existing sewer. Sewer system.
Capacity and Design Period of Various • It can carry max. discharge and self
Sewer- cleaning velocity can be achieved
Sewer Name Capacity Design easily.
Period (Years) Dia. ≤ 80 cm (economical).
Domestic Sewer 6 × average flow 40 Semi-Circular Suitable for large sewers with less
Lateral Sewer 4 × average flow 50 Sewer available headroom.
Branch Sewer 3 × average flow 50 Egg-shaped/ It is highly adopted for large sewers
Main Sewer 1 30 - 40 Ovoid Sewer which built up on the site.
2 × average
2 • Adopted for both separate and
flow combined systems.
Trunk & Outfall 2 × average 30 • Most efficient for main and trunk
Sewers flow sewers.
Classification of sewer pipe- • It gives higher velocity at low flow.
(A) On the Basis of Construction Method- Inverted Egg - Best for main trunk and outfall
1. Pre-Cast Sewer Pipe Shaped Sewer sewers.
2. Cast- in -situ Sewer Pipe Semi-elliptical • More stable and adopted for soft
(a) Glazed Stone-Ware/Vitrified Clay Pipe- Section soil.
It is durable, cheap, waterproof and anti-corrosive. Dia. > 1.8 m.
Use- For domestic and lateral sewers. Horse-shoe • Suitable for outfall sewer mostly
Dia. = 10 - 90 cm, type sewer used in tunnels.
Length = 60 - 90 cm • For lower discharge, made cunette
(b) Cement Concrete Pipe- at the bottom of sewer.
It is waterproof, efficient, durable and cheap but Dia.- 1.8 m.
affected by acids and sewer gases. Note-
Long dia. concrete pipes are jointed by the collar Steel pipe used to bear more external and internal
joint. pressure.
Use- For branch, main and rainwater sewers. Small sewers are cleaned by flushing.
Dia. - Up to 60 cm Sight rail and boning rod is used to laying of sewer.
(c) Reinforced Cement Concrete Pipe– Circular brick sewer is most commonly used under
It is strong in tension as well as compression. culvert.
Environmental Engineering 590 YCT
 Sewer appurtenances- Lamp holes-
(i) Manhole (ii) Drop manhole It is a small openings on sewers to permit the
(iii) Lamp hole (iv) Inlet (Street inlet) insertion of a lamp into the sewer.
(v) Catch basin (vi) Clean-outs
Adopted When-
(vii) Inverted syphon (viii) Flushing tank
(ix) Aqueduct (x) Grease and oil trap (i) A bend in a sewer is necessary.
(xi) Ventilation shaft (xii) Over flow weir (ii) Construction of manholes is difficult.
Manhole- (iii) Spacing of manholes is more than the usual.
It is masonry or RCC chambers provided at suitable Lamp holes are rarely used these days & have
intervals along the sewer line for inspection, become obsolete.
cleaning and maintenance of sewerage system.
Circular manhole is adopted at depths > 0.90 m. Inlet-
it is made of cast iron in circular shape. It removes rain water from road along footpath .
Min. dia.- ≮ 56 cm ≃ 50 cm. Spacing- 30 - 60 cm along both side of road
Manhole is provided at- Ventilation shaft/pipe-
i. Starting point ii. Junction of pipeline It is used to remove polluted gases (H2S, CO2, CH4)
iii. Change of direction iv. Change of diameter from the sewers.
v. Change of gradient vi. Crossing of roads Spacing- 200 - 300 m along with sewers.
vii. 30 m to 300 m in straight length of the sewers. Dia.- 15 - 25 cm or 1/3 of sewer dia.
Spacing of Manholes (IS : 4111/1742 : 1960)- Cowl is provided at the top of ventilation shaft/pipe.
Diameter (cm) of Manhole interval
Sewer (m) Peak flow-
≤ 30 45 Sewers are designed for the peak flows.
31-60 75 Max. hourly flow
Peak factor =
61-90 90 Avg. hourly flow
91-120 120
121-150 250 1 1
Minimum peak flow may be ( to ) of Qavg.
> 150 300 3 2
Min. Diameter of Circular Manholes- Note-
Manhole depth Min. dia. (At bottom) 18 + P
(From G. L.) Max. flow, Q max. = × Q avg.
0.90 - 1.65 m 90 cm 4+ P
1.65 - 2.30 m 120 cm Slope of sewers is based on the present peak of flow.
2.30 - 9.0 m 150 cm Diameter of the sewer is based on the design peak
> 9.0 m 180 cm flow.
Components of the manhole- Treatment method for various
(i) Cover-
impurities-
Cover sizes-
Impurities Treatment method
Square/rectangular 300 mm × 300 mm to
1200 mm × 1200 mm Floating objects Screening
Circular covers (Dia.) 450 mm or 600 mm (Larger and heavy)
Standard size 56 cm (Dia.) Suspended solids Sedimentation
(ii) Access shaft- Colloidal solids Sedimentation with coagulation
It is a vertical passage and upper portion of the
Micro-organisms Filtration, Disinfection
manhole which provides access to the working
chamber Dissolved gases Aeration
Size Colour Adsorption through activated
Rectangular manhole 0.75 m × 0.60 m carbon, chlorination, sedimentation
Circular manhole 0.70 m (Dia.) and coagulation
(iii) Working chamber- Turbidity Coagulation & Sedimentation,
Provided working space for cleaning and inspection filtration
of the sewer line. Taste & odour Chlorination, filtration
Drop Manhole- Sedimentation, Coagulation
It is provided, when two sewers (main & branch) Adsorption
flowing at different levels have a vertical gap of
more than 60 cm in the intersecting water levels. Hardness Zeolite process, Lime soda method

Environmental Engineering 591 YCT

RAW WATER TREATMENT B. Aeration-
It is the process to remove dissolved impurities is
Flow diagram of water treatment- from the water. Air is mixed into water to remove
odour.
It removes iron and manganese & it also decreases
the acidity of water.
Methods of Aeration-
(i) Tricking bed or Tray tower or Gravity aerator–
It is most efficient method for the removal of CO2
Fe, Mn.
KMnO4 may be used to help oxidation.
(ii) Diffused air aerator-
Water absorbs oxygen from compressed air and
colour, odour & taste are removed.

(iii) Cascade aerator–

It is the cheapest method.
It removes 20 - 45%, CO2 and 35% H2S
This method is adopted for the treatment of water
Application of physical unit operations- available from deep wells or valleys.
Operation Application
Screening Removal of coarse and settle able solids
by surface straining
Flocculation Promotion of the aggregation of small
particles into larges particles.
Sedimentation Removal of settleable solids and
thickening of sludges.
Floatation Removal of finely divided suspended
solids and particles which densities
close to that of water. (iv) Spray nozzle-
Filtration Removal of fine residual suspended It is efficient and commonly used to remove CO2
90% and H2S, 99%.
solids remaining after biological or
chemical treatment. Sedimentation-
Removal of dissolved impurities by decreasing the
Primary treatment of water- velocity of water is called sedimentation. Suspended
A. Screening- substance settles in the form of sludge at the bottom
It is first process used to remove floating matter of of tank.
comparatively large size. ρdissolved impurity > ρwater
As per IS : 6280 - 1971.
Settlement of particles ∝ temperature.
Type of screens Opening size (mm)
Colloidal impurities can't be removed by this
Fine screens < 20 process.
Medium Screens 20 - 50 Detention time for plane sedimentation- 4 - 8 hrs.
Coarse Screens > 50 Detention time for sedimentation coagulation- 2 - 4
Inclination of coarse screen is kept at 45° - 60° to the hrs.
horizontal because this angle increase the opening Flowing through period
Displacement efficiency =
area to reduce the flow velocity. Detention Period
Environmental Engineering 592 YCT
 Displacement efficiency varies between 0.25 to 0.50 (iii) Hopper type-
in normal sedimentation tanks. influent Deflector Drawoff
channel Box Channel
When coagulant are used efficiency are almost
double.
Pre-sedimentation-
To
Concentration of suspended solid > 1000 mg/l. Sludge
Impurity removed by plain or pre sedimentation- Pump
• 60% suspended impurity.
• 75% bacterial impurity. Sludge Pipe
When sedimentation involves one or more basins
called "clarifiers". Sludge
Settling of particle depends upon-
ηHopper tank > ηCircular tank
(iv) Intermittent/Quiescent type-
Its design is based on the max. daily demand.
Sedimentation period- 24 hrs.
Time required to clean the tank- 6 - 12 hrs.
Depth of tank- 2.5 - 6m.
Sedimentation with Coagulation-
It is done if turbidity of water > 40 ppm.
Turbidity remains after this process < 20 ppm.
Coagulation Aids-

(a) Specific gravity, shape & size of particles-

When, particles size (d) < 0.1 mm
(G –1)gd2 (γS − γw )d2
Settling velocity, VS = = (m/sec)
18µ 18ν
Type of settling-
Discrete In this case particles individually settle
settling down at the bottom of tank. Size, shape
and weight of particles remains constant
it is known as discrete settling.
Flocculation When particles settle down after
settling formation of floc is known as Coagulation-
flocculation settling. It is the process of mixing flocculant chemical in
Compression/ Particles settle down under water to remove fine impurities suspended in water.
pressure compressive/pressure action of particles Coagulation is performed in 3 stages-
settling is known as compression settling. (i) Mixing of coagulant (Fast mixing)
(ii) Flocculation (Slow mixing)
Sedimentation tank- (iii) Sedimentation
Overflow rate of plain sedimentation tank- 500 - 700 Types of coagulants-
l/hrs./m2. or 12000 - 18000 l/day/m2 To produce the hydroxide floc, enough alkalinity
Over flow rate for coagulation with sedimentation should present in the water.
tank 1000 - 1250 l/hrs/m2 or 24000 - 30000 l/day/m2 (i) Alum [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O]-
Types of sedimentation tank- It is a most universal used coagulant. It produces
(i) Rectangular- effective floc in the water when the pH of water is in
It is used in India and useful for a large treatment the range of 6.5 to 8.5.
plant. Chemical name- Aluminium sulphate [Al2(SO4)3]
(ii) Circular- Alum requires sufficient alkalinity in water to
produce floc.
Useful for small treatment plant.
It imparts non-carbonaceous precipitates so water
Flowing rate at surface area- 2000 l/hrs./m2
becomes corrosive.
Volume of tank, V = D2 [0.011D + 0.785H] Normal dose of alum is 10 - 30 mg/l.
Environmental Engineering 593 YCT
Note- Filtration may help in removing bacteria, colour,
Alum used in raw water treatment while iron salt odour, taste, turbidity and colloidal impurities.
used in sewage treatment. Theory of filtration-
(ii) Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4.7 H2O)- Mechanical Upper layers particles are
It works in pH range > 8.5. Hence it is always used Straining removed
with lime.
Normal dose = 10 - 30 mg/l. Sedimentation Particles finer than voids are removed
(iii) Chlorinated Copper [Fe2(SO4)3 and FeCl3)- by sedimentation
Chlorine + copperas = chlorinated copperas. Biological Three Zones of purification
pH range 3.5 - 6.5 or > 8.5 action The surface coating is known as
(iv) Sodium Aluminate (Na2Al2O4)- ''Schmutzdecke''
Normal dose = 10 - 30 mg/l. The 'autotrophic' zone existing a few
Working pH range - 6.5 - 8.5. millimeters.
Note- The ''heterotrophic'' zone, which
Use of iron salts causes pitting & tuberculation in extends around 300 mm into the bed
pipes. Electrolytic In this theory, a filter helps purifying
Coagulant Property Changes water by changing the chemical
Alum Spongy floc resulting in large volume of characteristics of water.
sludge Types of filters
Chlorinated Effective for producing sludge for 1. Slow Sand Filters–
copperas activated sludge process. In this process, water is allowed to pass slowly
(Sulphate) through a layer of sand placed above the base
Ferric • 90% suspended impurities can be material.
chloride removed. The purification process aims at simultaneously
• Forms heavy, dense floc while settles improving the biological, chemical and physical
rapidly. characteristics of water.
• It is widely used in sewage treatment. It is very well suited for rural areas in developing
• pH of water should be- 5- 11. countries.
Ferric It is used with lime then it is more
sulphate effective than chlorinated copperas.
Calcium Hydroxide-
Sodium Aluminate + Ferric chloride-
Flocculation-
The process used to bring the coagulated particles
together so that they can combine to form large,
settleable and filterable masses of particles is called
flocculation. Design criteria-
Flocculation rate depends on- Filtration medium Sand
Turbidity More turbidity more Sand of Size 0.20 - 0.30 mm
flocculation Depth of filter 2.54 - 4.0 m
Type & dose of Iron coagulant forms 100 - 2000 m2
Plan area of filter
coagulant heavier floc Cleaning period 1 - 2 month
Temporal mean velocity Depends on power Rate of filtration2400 - 4800 l/m2/day
gradient P or 100 - 200 l/m2/hr.
shaft G =
µV Efficiency of bacteria 98 - 99%
removal
Where,
P = Power (watts) Effective Size (D10) of 0.2 - 0.35 mm
sand Particles
V = Volume of Tank
Note- Cleaning method By scraping of top sand layer
If coagulation, flocculation & sedimentation occurs (1.5 - 2 cm)
in a single tank it is called clari-flocculator. Uniformity 1.8 - 2.0
coefficient
Filtration-
The process of passing the water through the beds of Loss of head Initial - 15 cm
granular materials is known as filtration. Final - 100 cm
Filtration is most often used as limiting step to Initial cost High
remove the flocs and finer unsedimented particles. Depth of sand 90-110 cm

Environmental Engineering 594 YCT

Note- Uniformity Coefficient, Cu 1.3 - 1.7
Slow sand filter are not used for water if turbidity is Number of units N = 1.22 Q
> 50 NTU.
Size of particle and bed thickness material- Q = Plant capacity in
Layer Depth (in mm) Size (in mm) MLD.
Top 150 3-6 Loss of head Initial- 30 cm
Middle 6 - 20 Final- 3 m
150
 20 - 40 Removal of turbidity 40 ppm
150 Note-
Low 150 40 - 65 The colour of water also fades away. If falls to 10 on
Required number of filters as per treated filter the cobalt scale.
area- Important point regarding to rapid sand
Area No. of Filters filter-
< 20 m2 2 (1 + 1) Due to excessive negative head, air binding
20 - 250 m2 3 (2 + 1) phenomena is exist, which is cause of resistance to
250 - 650 m2 4 (3 + 1) filtration rate.
650 - 1200 m2 5 (4 + 1) Presence of clay particle in rapid sand filter which of
> 1200 m2 6 (5 + 1) mud ball formation.
2. Rapid Sand Filters (Gravity types)- Cracking of filter due to temperature variation
RSF is a common technique in developed countries Purpose of filters under drainage system-
for treating large quantities of drinking water. 1. For slow sand filter-
To receive and deliver the filtered water.
2. For rapid sand filter-
(a) To receive and collect filtered water.
(b) To allow the back washing for cleaning of filter.
DISINFECTION
Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation
or killing of pathogenic bacteria/micro-organisms.
Sterilization kills all types of harmful or harmless
substance present in water by the process of boiling.
Disinfectants-
Disinfectants Example
Oxidizing chemicals Bromine, Chlorine,
Design Criteria- Ozone, Iodine etc.
Depth of tank 2.5 - 3.5m Metal ions Silver and copper ions
Area 10 - 80 m2 each unit Surface active Cationic detergent
Rate of washing 15 - 90 cm Rise/minute chemicals
Cleaning period 2 - 3 days Alkalies and acids -
Rate of filtration 3000 - 6000 L/m2/ hrs. Method of Disinfection-
(30 × SSF) 1. Disinfection by Ultra-Violet Rays
Back washing time 30 min It is very effective in killing all types of bacteria
Turbidity removal 99% viruses and bacterial spores.
efficiency It is suitable for turbidity upto 15 ppm.
Bacterial removal 80% Suitable for health centers, swimming pools and
efficiency other small works.
Washing period 24 - 48 hrs. 2. Boiling method-
Sand Layer thickness 60 - 90 cm Not suitable for large scale water treatment.
Effective sand size (D10) 0.35 - 0.55 mm Boiling method does not safeguard of water against
Water depth over sand 1-2m future recontamination.
layer 3. Excess Lime Treatment-
Length width ratio 1.25 to 1.33 It increase pH so recarbonation is done to remove
Back wash velocity 45 cm/min. alkalinity.
Max. head loss 2.5 to 3.0 meters At pH 9.5-10.5, 99.9-100%, bacteria destroyed.
Water for back washing 2 - 4% of total water 10-20 ppm lime removes 99.93 or ≃ 100% bacteria.
filtered It kills present existing bacteria.
Environmental Engineering 595 YCT
4. Iodine and Bromine treatment- (iv) Hypochloritesion & bleaching powder
Dose- 8 ppm (v) Hypochlorous Acid
Contact period- 5 minutes. (vi) Chlorine tablet
It is suitable for swimming pools.
Order of power-
5. Ozone Treatment- HOCl > ClO 2 > Cl 2 > Chloramines
Ozone gas is the best bacteria disinfectant and very pH > 7.5
• NH 3 + Cl2  → HCl + NH Cl 2
effective in removing taste, smell, colour, iron- (Monochloromines)
manganese from water. pH < 7
• NHCl 2 + Cl 2  → HCl + NHCl 2
O3 → O 2 + O (Di-chloromines)
Nascent
pH < 4.4
Nascent oxygen is the powerful oxidizing agent. • NHCl 2 + Cl 2  → HCl + NCl 3
(Nitrogen trichloromines)
Ozoniser is used to produce ozone O3.
Effective dose- 2-3 ppm. Types of Chlorination-
Contact period- 10 - 15 min. Plain Done if water is only chlorinated.
It is more costly method than chlorination. chlorination And turbidity<10 NTU
Dose- 0.5 mg/ltr.
Adopted for large scale disinfection.
6. Potassium Permanganate Treatment (KMnO4)- Pre- Chlorine is added before
chlorination Sedimentation, filtration, coagulation
('Red Medicine') etc.
It is powerful disinfectants for well water supply in Residual chlorine- 0.1 - 0.5 ppm
rural areas. Normal dose- 5 - 10 ppm.
It is a powerful oxidizing chemical that completely Post- Chlorine added after the filtration
oxidizes organic materials. Chlorination process .
Dose- 1 - 2 ppm. drinking water safe so it must be
Contact period- 4 - 6 hrs. adopted
It is not used in the water supply system of cities. Contact period- 20 minute
7. Silver Treatment- Residual chlorine- 0.10-0.20 ppm
In this method the water is filtered with a filter, in Double When chlorination is done at two
which Katelyn silver is mixed in the sand. chlorination different points during the water
Does- 0.5 - 0.1 ppm. treatment process
It does not create any harmful effect on human Break point The difference of applied chlorine &
body. chlorination residual chlorine beyond breakpoint
8. Treatment with Chlorine- Residual chlorine at this stage = 0
pH >5
Cl 2 + H 2 O  → HOCl + HCl
Hypochlorous acid Super The application of chlorine beyond
chlorination the stage of break point.
pH > 8 + − residual chlorine – 0.2 to 0.3 ppm
HOCl ↽ pH < 7 H + Cl
⇀
De- The removal of excess chlorine from
Chlorine is mostly used for treatment in liquid form Chlorination water
because of is handling. It dissolves quickly in water. Note- Pre -chlorination is always followed by post
It is cost effective and a reliable because residual chlorination to ensure safety of water.
chlorine safe guards the water against future It improves coagulation and reduce load on filter.
recontamination. Dichloramine is more effective than other
Chlorine is mixed in water with chlorinator. chloramine because its pH value is approximately
Chlorine is more effective at higher temperatures. equal to water pH value.
Chlorine worked in two steps-
Chlorine is depend on pH value, it is more effective
(i) Kill pathogenic bacteria.
when pH < 8. (ii) Oxidized organic matters.
At pH > 8, bactericidal action increases.
Chlorine is applied in following forms-
(i) Free chlorine-
Available in liquid or gaseous form
(ii) Chloramines-
It forms more stable residual than chlorine alone
Contact period- 1-2 hrs.
(iii) Chlorine dioxide-
Better control over taste and odour than chlorine.
2.5 times faster than free chlorine
Environmental Engineering 596 YCT
 Testing of Chlorine Residue- The Nalgonda technique uses alum with prior
i. Orthotolidene Test mixing of lime (CaO) or sodium carbonate
ii. DPD Test (Diethyl Phenylene diamine test) (Na2CO3).
iii. Chlorotex Test (iv) Membrane filtration process-
iv. Starch Iodide Test (a) Reverse Osmosis (R.O.) process-
v. Colour matching method It is a simple solution for removing fluoride from
Methods of Removing Permanent drinking water. It is known as hyper filtration.
Hardness– Efficiency of fluoride removal 85-92%.
1. Zeolite Process ( permutit method) (b) Electro-dialysis-
Hardness can be removed up to zero value. Membranes allow the ions to pass but not the water.
No Drainage problem because of no sludge formed. (v) Bone charcoal-
It is simple process and useful for small town. It is the oldest known de-fluoridation technique used
When water contains iron & manganese, Zeolite and successfully removes arsenic from water.
process cannot be adopted. (vi) Ion exchange absorption technique-
ION exchange process is commonly used in industries Efficiency- 90 - 95%.
& individual residences. Desalination-
Zeolites are natural or synthetic cations or base It is the process of removing salts or other minerals
exchange hydrated SiO2 of sodium and aluminium. and contaminants from sea water, blackish water,
To regenerate zeolite bed prime solution 5 to 10% and waste water effluent and it is increasingly
(NaCl + 10% concentration) is added. common solution to obtain fresh water for human
2. Lime-Soda Process consumption and for domestic or industrial
Lime and sodium carbonate are used to remove utilization.
permanent hardness from water. Method of Desalination-
Hydrated lime or quick lime (CaO) are used for water (i) Freezing of water
softening.
(ii) Evaporation
It is standard water softening process and it carried out
(iii) Reverse Osmosis
either hot or cold.
(iv) Electrolysis
Used for highly turbid & acidic waters.
3. Demineralization/De-ionization Process Note-
To improve the quality of water demineralization process Copper sulphate is used to removal of algae from
is another method in water softening technique. water.
The demineralization process is mainly used for Activated carbon is used to control taste and odour
preparing water to be used for the industrial purposes. and to remove fluoride from water.
Copper sulphate (CuSo4.7H2O) removes Algae from
De-fluoridation and desalination-
water. It can also remove bacteria, odour and test
De-fluoridation- and colour etc.
The removal of fluoride from drinking water is
known as de-fluoridation. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
More Fluoride is present in ground water than The solid waste generated through domestic and
surface water mainly due to the leaching of minerals. commercial activities is called as municipal solid
waste (MSW), and is also called 'refuse'.
Methods to remove excess fluorine- Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a heterogeneous
(i) Activated Alumina (Prashanti Technology)- mixture of various kinds of solid waste which are
Activated alumina is an excellent medium to remove not transported with water as sewage, and may
excess fluorine along with NaOH solution. include biodegradable (putrescible) food wastes
The adsorption process is best carried out under called garbage and non-putrescible solid waste like
slightly acidic condition. paper, glass, rags, metal items etc. called rubbish.
(ii) Activated carbons- The density of garbage usually varies between 450
In these applications adsorption with activated to 900 kg/m3.
carbon is most commonly oriented towards the The density of rubbish usually varies between 50 to
400 kg/m3.
removal of species that are recognized as toxic The density of ashes generally varies between 700
pollutants like fluoride. to 850 kg/m3.
(iii) Nalgonda method ( NEERI 1974) - Disposal of municipal solid waste
It involves addition of Alum, salts lime, and bleaching (MSW) :
power followed by rapid mixing flocculation,
• Sanitary land-filling/ Controlled tipping :
sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. In this method, refuse is carried and dumped into
Aluminium salts responsible for removal of fluoride the low lying area under an engineered operation,
from ground water. designed and operated in an environmentally sound
Most commonly used in rural areas for ground water manner, as not to cause any public nuisance or
containing excess fluoride and Hand pump. hazards to public health.
Environmental Engineering 597 YCT
 The refuse is dumped and compacted in layers of • Vermi composting :
about 0.5 m thickness, and after the days work It is natural composting process of decomposition
when the depth of filling becomes about 1.5 m, it is of biodegradable organic matter by the soil
covered by good earth of about 15 cm thickness.
bacteria, it takes the assistance of cultured earth
worms.
• Incineration and thermal pyrolysis :
Burning of refuse at high temperatures in furnaces
called incinerators.
Thermal pyrolysis is the burning of refuse in the
presence of very sparce air or oxygen, so that the
wastes do not completely burn, but only smoulder
to produce charcoal like product.
This method of refuse disposal is very suitable to • Pyrolysis :
the heavier type of Indian refuse, and also to the Upon heating in closed containers in oxygen free
rural communities, hostels, camps etc. atmosphere, most of the organic substances of solid
So, that about 90% of Indian refuse is disposed of waste can be split through a combination of thermal
in this manner. cracking and condensation reactions into gaseous
• Shredding and Pulverisation : liquid and solid fraction.
Shredding refers to the actions of cutting and • Barging it out into the sea :
tearing. It is use in the past to dispose of refuse by throwing
Pulverisation refers to the actions of crushing and
it away into sea, after carrying it at reasonable
grinding.
Shredding and pulverising may help in reducing the distance from the coast (say 16 to 20 km inside the
overall volume of the original MSW, by as much as sea) on barges.
40%. The sea depth at such disposal point should not be
The pulverisation of MSW is usually achieved in less than 30 m.
hammer mill. ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION
• Composting :
It is a biological method of decomposing solid
wastes.
The final end product, is manure called the
compost or humus which demand as fertilizer for
forms.
The entire composting, thus gets completed in
about 3-4 months time.
The finally produced compost usually, has earthy
smell and a dark brown colour.
Indore method of composting :
It uses manual turning of piled up mass (refuse +
Note -
night soil) for its decomposition under aerobic
Sewage treatment units are normally design for 15-
conditions.
20 years for average flow.
Vegetable wastes and night soil are alternatively
piled in depths of about 7.5 to 10 cm each, to a total
depth of about 1.5 m in a trench.
A window is a long mound or stack of the organic
MSW dumped on land in a height of about 1.5 m to
2 m, usually about 2.5 m to 3 m wide at the base.
The entire composting process, thus takes about 3-4
month time to complete.
Bangalore method of composting :
It involves anaerobic decomposition of wastes, and
does not involve any turning or handling of the
mass, and hence cleaner than the Indore method.
This method is widely adopted by municipal
authorities throughout India.
The refuse and night soil, in this method are
therefore, piled up in layer in an underground
earthen trench (about 10 m × 1.5 m × 1.5 m).
Environmental Engineering 598 YCT
PRIMARY TREATMENT iv. Depth- 2.4 - 3.6 m
Under this treatment, floating and suspended v. Width- 6 m
organic matter mixed in sewage is removed. vi. Length- (4 - 5) times of width
Treatment Plant Treatment Activity Q
vii. Flow velocity- V =
Name B.D
Screens Used to remove large size
Q
i. Coarse screen or particles as suspended solids, viii Settling velocity- Vs =
racks leaves, paper rags, straws, B.L
(opening size- 45 mm) garbage, gravel, sand . BLD
ii. Medium screen- Note- ix. Detention time- t = For rectangular tank
Q
(Opening size 6 -40 inclination of screen should
mm) be 30°- 60°. ( 0.011d + 0.785D )
Fine screen removes 20% t = d2 For circular tank
iii. Fine screen Q
(Opening size 1.5 - 3mm) suspended particles.
Grit chamber It removes inorganic grit/ SECONDARY TREATMENT UNITS
( Installed before primary suspended particles whose BOD can be removed up to a maximum of 90 -
sedimentation tank) S.G > 2.65 and eff. size of 95% by biological/secondary treatment.
particles > 0.2 mm. Secondary Treatment Units-
• Proportional flow weirs are Treatment unit Contact Decomposition
provided at the outlet to mechanism Condition
control the speed of sewage in
Septic Tank Suspended Anaerobic
the grit chamber.
growth
Detention period - 40 - 60 sec.
Flow velocity- 0.15-0.30 m/sec. Imhoff tank suspended Anaerobic
Depth- 1-1.8 m growth
Detritus Tank- It removes grit and fine sand Oxidation pond suspended Aerobic
particle whose effective size ≤ growth
0.2 mm. Activated Sludge suspended Aerobic
Detention period- 3 - 4 min. process growth
Flow velocity- 0.9 m/sec. Rotating biological Attached Aerobic
Skimming Tank To separate grease, oil and contactor growth
Grease Trap other smooth substance from Aerobic treatment-
sewage. (A) Biological Filtration-
Detention period, 3 - 5 min. Working rate of aerobic bacteria is three times of
Grease and oil traps are used to anaerobic bacteria.
exclude grease and oil from It depend is aerobic or anaerobic bacteria.
waste water.
Detention period is 4 - 6 hrs.
Sedimentation Tank-
Sewage filters used for the biological treatment or
It is done to remove fine suspended and dissolved
sewage by aerobic bacteria and micro organisms.
substances.
Contact beds/ Removal Efficiency-
• It fulfill 30 - 35% BOD demand.
Bacteria beds • BOD- 60 - 70%
i. Over flow rate-
Design overflow rate is taken considering dia. of • Suspended matter - 80 - 90%
solid intended to be removed. • Organic matter- 60 - 80%
Filtration rate- 110 lit/day/m2
40000 - 50000 lit./ m 2 / day Rate of sewage filling- 4500 - 65000
For plain sedimentation m3/hectare /day
50000 - 60000 lit./ m 2 / day Intermittent • Rate of sewage- 800 - 1500
sand filter m3/hectare /day
For sedimentation with coagulation • BOD remove- 60 - 70%
25000 - 35000 lit./ m 2 / day • Filtration rate- 110 - 180 lit/day/m2
For secondary sedimentation tank Trickling filter • It has a comparatively low sludge
ii. Detention period - (1 - 2) Hrs. volume index.
It decide the efficiency and size of tank. • Worked by aerobic bacteria.
iii. Flow velocity (v)- ( 0.3 - 0.6) m/min. • Unit- kg/hectare- meter/day.
Environmental Engineering 599 YCT
 Note-
When there is no require re-circulation of treated
sewage in high rate trickling filter, the re-
circulation factor is unit.
Then, R = 0 Fh = 1 + 0 ∴ Fh = 1
Effluent-
Partially clean liquid, over the sludge and comes
out of the flowing tank is called effluent.
Clarifier-
A sedimentation tank which have mechanical
scraper for sludge discharge is called cleaner or
clarifier.
(B) Activated Sludge-
It is the biological process by which non settleable
substance occurring in dissolved and colloidal forms
are converted into settleable sludge which is
Trickling Filter removed from the liquid carrier.
Difference between low rate trickling filter Advantage-
& high rate trickling filter- (i) Highly efficient to removal of suspended solid, BOD
Property Low rate High rate and bacteria are around 90% each.
trickling filter
trickling filter (ii) Smaller area as compared to trickling filter.
Size of filter media 25 - 75 mm 25 - 60 mm (iii) No odors during the process.
Depth of media 2-3 1.2 - 1.8
Interval of doses 3 - 10 min. 15 second
Hydraulic loading 22 - 44 110 - 330
ml/hectare/dayml/hectare/day
Organic loading 900 - 2200 6000 - 18000
kg/hectare/daykg/hectare/day
Effluent BOD ≤ 20 ppm ≥ 30 ppm
Re-circulation No For hydraulic
provided loading
Sludge is obtained in Black colour & Brown colour Aeration Tank-
highly oxidized. & less oxidized 1. Detention/Aeration period-
Re-circulation ratio 0 0.5 - 3.0 The rate at which sewage is circulated in the
Cost of operation More less aeration tank, called aeration period.
Filter- Volume of Aeration tank V
Filter Hydraulic loading Organic loading t= =
Flow rate of sewage Q
m3/day/m2 g/d/m3
2. Organic Loading/Volumetric BOD Loading-
Low rate filter 1-4 80 - 320 Amount of BOD load applied per unit volume of
High rate filter 10 - 40 320 - 1000 aeration tank is called volumetric BOD loading.
with recirculation without recirculation
Organic loading = Total BOD applied in aeration tank
Re-circulation- Volume of aeration tank

Q× (BOD)5
=
V
Where,
Q = Sewage flow rate in m3 or litre and
Re-circulation ratio- (BOD)5 in mg/l or gm/m3 of the influent sewage
Volume of re - circulation sewage V V = Volume of aeration tank
R= or R = R 3. Food to micro organism ratio (F/M ratio)-
Volume of raw sewage VI
F Daily BOD load applied in aeration tank (gm)
Hydraulic Re-circulation/Re-circulation factor- ratio =
M Total microbial mass in the system (gm)
Volume of raw sewage + volume of re - circulation sewage
Fh =
volume of raw sewage Q.(BOD)5
=
X T .V
VI + VR
Fh = , Fh = 1 + R Where, XT = MLSS- Mixed liquor suspended solid
VI
in mg/l
Environmental Engineering 600 YCT
 F Settled volume of sludge ml/l
Aeration tank is design on the basis of ratio. S.V.I. = ×1000
M MLSS (gm/l )
M = X T .V = Total microbial mass in the system
(gm) V V
S.V.I. = ob ml/mg or S.V.I. = ob ×1000 ml/gm.
F X ob X ob
Rang of ratio- 0.2 - 0.5.
M 6. Sludge recycle and rate of return sludge-
F
If ratio < 0.2 then quantity of food in aeration QR XT XT
M = = − XT
tank reduced and bacteria died. Q X R − X T
(10 6
/ S.V.I )
F Where,
ratio ↓, BOD remove ↑.
M
4. Sludge Age- 106
XR =
It is the average time for which particles of S.V.I
suspended solids remain under aeration.
Sludge age indicates the residence time of biological 7. Sludge Density Index (S.D.I.)-
solids in the system. Sludge density index is used in place of sludge
Mass of suspended solids in the system volume index S.V.I.
Sludge age Q c = S.D.I. for-
Mass of solids leaving the system perday
Good sludge - 1 - 2
X T .V poor sludge > 0.3
Qc =
Q w .X R + ( Q − Q w ) .X E
S.D.I. = Percentage of suspended solids by weight ×100
Where, Percentage of sludge by volume
Qw = Wasted sludge volume/day
XR = Concentration of solids in the return sludge, mg/lit. MLSS(%)
Q = Sewage inflow/day = ×100
Settled volume of sludge in 30 minutes(%)
XE = Concentration of solid in the effluent mg/lit.
5. Sludge index/sludge volume index- 100
It is defined as the volume occupied in ml by one gm S.D.I. =
of solids in the mixed liquor after setting for 30 mint. S.V.I.
Comparison Between Activated Sludge Process And Trickling Filter-
Item Activated Sludge Process Trickling Filter

Flow diagram

Bio-reaction Fully aerobic. Anaerobes attached to media and aerobes

attached to them.
Microbes involved Aerobic bacteria, protozoa, algae, Facultative anaerobes, aerobes, protozoa, fungi,
etc. sludge warms, snails, insect larvae, etc.
Aeration Either diffused air supply or Sewage gets aerated during trickling. Bed
mechanical agitation. (media) gets aerated during resting period.
Period of aeration 6 to 10 hours. Relatively less.
Operation Continuous Intermittent, continuous
Shape or reactor Rectangular Circular
Depth Aeration tank- 3 to 4 m Standard rate trickling filter- 1.8 to 2.4 m
High rate trickling filter- 1 to 2 m
Media None Highly porous media having greater specific area.
Energy required High for aeration, mixing and Less for rotating the distributor arm and spraying.
maintenance in suspension and
sludge recycling.
Organic Loading 500 to 650 g/m3–d Standard rate trickling filter– 100 to 400 g/m3–d
High rate trickling filter–500 to 1500 g/m3–d
Head loss Very less More
Area required Less About 10 times more
Weather Works well in any weather Works well in summer and not in winter.
Pathogenic bacteria 90 to 95% 60 to 90%
remove efficiency
BOD 80 - 95% 75 - 80%
Suspended solid 95% 80%
Environmental Engineering 601 YCT
(C) Oxidation/Waste Stabilization Pond or Anaerobic treatment-
Sewage Lagoon- (A) Septic tank-
Aerobic bacteria present in oxidation pond oxidized Septic tank is anaerobic attached growth biological
the organic waste of the sewage in the presence of treatment system.
sunlight and bacteria released carbon dioxide, water A septic tank combines the function of
and ammonia, now algae growth occurs in the sedimentation tank, sludge digestion tank and
presence of sunlight. It utilizes the inorganic wastes sludge storage tank.
formed by organic matter decomposition and Suitable if the number of users is < 300.
releases oxygen. This mutually relationship is Capacity- 0.07 - 0.13 m3
called symbiotic relationship. Volume of septic tank
= Volume of effluent + Volume of sludge
or
(Sewage flow × detention period) + (Rate of
accumulation of sludge × cleaning period)

Design Criteria-
Area (each unit) 0.2 - 0.4 hectare
Depth 1 - 1.8
Detention time 2 - 6 weeks (168 - 1008)
hrs.
Properties of septic tank-
B.O.D. removal 80 - 90%
Width ≮ 0.9 m
Pathogenic bacteria remove 99.9%
Length 2 - 3 times the width
Sludge accumulation 2 - 5 cm/year
Depth 1.2 - 1.8 m
Length of tank (L ≯ 750m) 3 × width of tank Free board 0.30 m
Suspended solid removal 90% Detention period 12 - 36 hr.
Organic loading Hot countries- 150 - 300 Cleaning period 6 month - 3 year)
(In kg/hectare/day) Cold countries- 60 - 90
Rate of sludge accumulation 30 lit./person/year
(D) Oxidation ditch- COD reduction 25 - 50%
Oxidation ditch is a modified activated sludge
Dissolved matter/suspended 60 - 70%
biological treatment process that utilized long
solids removal capacity
solids retention times to remove bio-degradable
organics. According to IS : 2470 - Size of septic tank-
It is a modified form of activated sludge process. No. of Length Width Depth
Very high efficiency. person
Design Criteria- 5 1.5 0.75 1.0
15 2.0 0.90 1.3
Sewage loading rate 2.5 m3/kg/day
20 2.3 1.10 1.3
Detention period 10 - 15 hours 50 5.0 2.0 1.0
BOD removal 98 - 99% Note-
suspended solids 95% Soak pit-
removal Effluent received by septic tank is disposed in soak
Shape Oval pit.
Length 200 - 1000 m Minimum dia.- 0.9 m
Width 1-5m Minimum depth- 1 m
Depth 1 - 1.5 m (B) Imhoff/emscher/two storey digestion tank-
Note - It is an improve form of septic tank in which
In polluted waste water dissolve oxygen is sedimentation and digestion of sludge take place in
maximum at noon but in pure water it is maximum different chamber. Imhoff cone is used to measure
at mid night. settelable solid.
Environmental Engineering 602 YCT
 Treatment is accomplished by anaerobic bacteria. 2. Acid Organic acids and nitrogenous
Sewage aeration is not required at any stage. Regression compounds are decomposed to
By this treatment 60 - 65% solids and 35 - 40% form carbonate and ammonia like
BOD is removed. elements.
It consists of two chamber- Duration- 3 month
(i) Upper/Sedimentation Chamber- pH value increases- 6-7.
Sedimentation of sewage occurs here. 3. Alkaline This sludge is granular and stable
Working process is aerobic. Fermentation and does not give offensive odors.
Effluent released from this tank is quite clean and Duration- > 1 month.
the digested sludge is black and odorless. • Digested sludge pH > 7.
(ii) Lower/Digestion Chamber- Note-
The solids obtained from the sedimentation Order of sludge digestion-
chamber are digested, thus working condition is Acid Fermentation → Acid regression → Alkaline
anaerobic. fermentation.
The main gases released from the digestion
system/Sludge gases-
Methane (CH4) 60 to 75 %
Carbon Di oxide (CO2) 15 to 30%
Nitrogen (N2) 5 to 15%
Hydrogen (H2) 1 to 4%
Carbon Mono-Oxide (CO) 1%
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) 2%
Note-
Sludge digestion completed by the thermophilic
bacteria (at 54°C) in 10 - 15 days and by the
Mesophilic bacteria ( at 29°C) 30 days.
Sludge moister contents-
Dimension of Imhoff tank-
V1 (100 − P1 )
Upper/Sedimentation Chamber V2 =
(100 − P2 )
Length 30 m.
Width Where,
1 1
to of length V1 = Volume of raw sludge at moisture content
3 4 P1(%)
Depth of chamber 3 - 3.5 m V2 = Volume of digested sludge at moisture
Free board 0.45 m content P2 (%)
Flow velocity 30 to 45 cm/minute Sludge condition Moisture content
Surface loading rate (V0) ≯ 0.30 m/minutes Raw sludge 93%
Detention period Trickling filter sludge 90%
2 - 4 hrs.
Activated sludge 98%
Lower/Digestion Chamber
Sequential treatment process of sludge-
Rate of accumulation of 30 - 40 lit./person/year (i) Sludge thickening
sludge (ii) Sludge digestion
Capacity 0.028 - 0.056 m3/capita (iii) Sludge conditioning
Total depth 9 - 11m (iv) Sludge dewatering
Slope of hopper 1:1 (v) Sludge disposal
Sludge pipe dia. 15 - 20 cm. Technical terms related to sewage
Area (digestion chamber) 20% - 25% of scum treatment-
chamber area. (i) Mixed Liquor-
(C) Sludge Digester- When biologically activated sludge is added to raw
sewage, It is called mixed liquor.
Stages in Sludge Digestion- It acts as seeding, which facilitates the treatment of
1. Acid The fresh sewage sludge begins to sewage 25 - 40% of activated sludge (by volume) is
Fermentation/ be acted upon by anaerobic and added to the raw sewage.
Acid facultative bacteria called acid (ii) Supernatant liquor or effluent-
production formers. The waste water separated from solid is called
stage Duration- 7-15 days effluent.
pH value- 5-6. In supernatent liquor BOD is (1500 - 3000 ppm).
Environmental Engineering 603 YCT
 (iii) Sludge Bulking-
If the mixed liquid in the aeration tank is not well
aerated and sludge is not fully activated or become
Sick then its volume increases a lot, which is called
the bulking of sludge.
Bulking of sludge increases the sludge index, and
decreases its efficiency.
It can be controlled by chlorination.
(iv) Return-Sludge-
After aeration, some part of the sludge which settles
at the bottom of the final sedimentation tank and
which is biologically activated, is again mixed with
the raw sewage in the aeration tank.
The activated sludge thus returned is called return
sludge.
(v) Fresh Sludge-
The sludge separated from the fresh sewage is light
gray or yellowish gray in colour due to the high
amount of water in it. Anti siphonage /grevak/resealing trap-
It contains 60 - 70% organic matter & 80 - 95%
water. This trap prevents siphon action during flushing and
(vi) Digested Sludge- does not allow the vessel’s water-seal to break.It is
Sludge derived from septic tanks, Imhoff tanks and connected with top of P trap and water closet.
other digestive tanks is called digested sludge. Back-siphonage causes breaking of the water seal
It contains 90 - 94% water. therefore antisiphonage pipe is required.
It is granular & light black in colour due to iron- 4. Intercepting Trap/Sewer Trap/Master Trap
sulfide. It is used to prevent the entry of sewer gases from
1 public sewer line into the house drains.
Volume of digested sludge = × volume of
3 It is the last trap that connect the municipal sewer to
undigested sludge main sewer.
(vii) Sludge seeding- Water-seal depth- 75 - 100 mm.
Digested sludge is mixed in fresh sludge to increase
the activity and growth of microbes. Water seal-
This digested sludge is about 3-5% of the fresh Depth of water in the trap is called ‘Water Seal’.
sludge Efficiency of the trap is measured by the depth of its
(viii) Sludge Thickener- water-seal.
It is used to thickened the sludge by reducing water Due to the water seal the contaminated gases of the
content. It reduce the sludge volume which results sewer do not get out from the trap.
into a lesser volume of the digester.
Depth of water seal- 25-75 mm. Generally it is
PLUMBING taken 50 mm.
• Trap- Pipes used in sanitary system-
Traps are fitted below a plumbing fixture and retains 4. Vent Pipe and Anti-Siphonage Pipe-
small amount of water. Provided for ventilation purpose to facilitate the
It prevents entry of the foul gases from the sewer exhaust of foul gases into the atmosphere.
line. To prevent induced syphoning action, a vent pipe is
Classification of the trap- installed along with the sewage pipe.
A. On the Basis of Shape Anti-siphonage pipe protect the water seal of traps
P, Q and S traps are mostly used. against siphonage and backflow.
P trap is provided at the end of water closet. Note - Cowl is a perforated cap provided at the top of
V-trap is a simple trap, applied on a horizontal flow. vent pipe
D-trap has a higher sealing depth and its outlet part Size of Various Pipe Used in Sanitary-
is larger than the water inlet part. Type Diameter (mm)
Soil pipe 100
Waste water pipe
Horizontal 30-50
Vertical 75 - 100
Vent Pipe 50
Rain Water Pipe 150
Anti-siponage pipe 50

Environmental Engineering 604 YCT

 Plumbing System- Water Closet (W.C.) Pan-
1. Single Stack system It is connected to the sewage pipe by a trap on its
In this system, sewage from the toilet and sullage bottom.
from the bathroom, kitchen and sink are released in
The toilet pan should be firm and water resistant.
the same vertical pipe (soil pipe).
It is useful for up to five floor buildings. Flushing cistern-
• Water seal depth < 75mm. Minimum height of cistern-
• Stack pipe diameter < 100 mm. For high level - 15 cm
2. One Pipe System – For low level - 30 cm
There is two vertical pipes are fitted. A soil pipe Sink-
pipe that carry both sewage and waste water, while It is less deep, rectangular vessel, placed in kitchen,
vent pipe carry foul gases. toilet, hotel, etc. for washing utensils.
• Water seal depth- 75 mm.
Sink is generally made of glazed fire-resistant clay,
3. Two Pipe System-
This system consists of two pairs of two pipe (four marble, Stainless Steel, Mosaic etc.
vertical pipe) Height of sink of wash basin from floor- 75-80 cm
i). Sewage pipe & vent pipe for sewage and urinal Toilet Room Measurement-
ii). Waste water pipe & vent pipe are separately Bathroom- 1.10 m × 1.40 m (Min.)
installed for waste water & rain water. W.C.- 1.05 m × 1.40 m (Min.)
Mostly two pipe system is used for kitchen gardening.
Combined bathroom and toiled- 1.80m × 2.40 m
It is a satisfactory drainage system.
4. Partial ventilated, single/one pipe system- (Min.)
In this sewage and waste water are left in the same Note Point-
sewage pipe, but only toilet and urinal traps are The height of these rooms should not be less than 2.4
connected to the vent pipe. m.
Steps for laying sewer lines- A high level window of 0.30 m2 must be installed
1. Setting out center line. 2. Trenching in each room.
3. Timbering of trenches. 4. De-watering Min. area of water closet is 2.0 m2
5. Laying of pipe. 6. Jointing of sewer
W.C required for 200 women-
7. Connection of Sub sewer. 8. Sewer line testing.
9. Back Filling. 2% for cinema hall and
10. Appurtenances of Sewers. 1% for theater.
Sight Rail and boning rod are used to place the Dado-
gradient. It is the height of cement plaster in bathroom , flush
Sight Rail- latrine etc.
It is a long strip of rectangular block of wood or
aluminum used to check the gradient of pipe in a Height of dado- 2.00 m
trench. Questions Asked in Previous Years
It is placed in a horizontal position, just above the
sewer-trench. 1. The water distribution mains are designed for:
Boning/Traveler /T-shaped rod- (a) Maximum hourly demand
Boning rod is used to transfer the gradient displayed (b) maximum daily demand
by the sight rails to the invert of the sewer. (c) Average daily demand
(d) Maximum hourly demand on maximum day
Testing of Sanitary pipe lines-
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
Air Test Air pressure should be of 65 mm
water Ans. (d) :
• Air test is done for sewer pipe of • The sources of supply (such as wells) may be
large diameter. designed for maximum daily consumption or
• It is done for vertical and sometimes for average daily consumption.
underground pipes. • Coincident draft = Maximum daily demand+fire demand
Smoke To generate smoke, a fire is ignited by OR Maximum hourly demand, whichever is more.
Test soaking rags in oil or a smoke Note–The distribution system (to carry water from
machine is used. service reservoir to water taps) should be designed
• This test is suitable for vertical for maximum hourly demand of maximum day or
sullage pipe or rainwater pipe. coincident draft (whichever is more).
Colored This test is performed on a 4.5m static • The pipe mains (to take water from source to service
water Test head. reservoir) and filter and other treatment units are
Hydraulic Suitable for domestic underground designed for the maximum daily draft.
Test drains (Pipe sewer). • Pumps may be design for maximum daily draft plus
Smell Test - some additional reserve for breakdown and repair.

Environmental Engineering 605 YCT

2. Which of the following types of intakes Ans. (d) : Variation in rate demand– Some common
comprise intake towers having no water inside values are as under-
other than in intake pipes? • Maximum weekly demand = 1.48 × Avg. weekly
(a) River intakes demand
• Max. monthly demand = 1.28 × Avg. monthly
(b) Reservoir intakes demand
(c) Canal intakes • Max. daily demand =1.80 × Annual avg. daily
(d) Lake intakes demand
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift 2 • Max hourly demand = 1.50 × avg. hourly demand of
maximum day.
Ans. (b) : Reservoir intakes– These comprise intake
• Max hourly demand = 2.7 × Annual average hourly
towers having no water inside other than in the intakes demand.
pipes. The interior of the tower is thus made available 5. How to calculate the total quantity of water
for inspection and operation. The intake is usually required for the water supply scheme?
located either along the upstream toe of an earthen dam (a) Rate of consumption per capita per day ×
or within the body of a masonry dam. There are a Population
number of inlets protected by screens and at different (b) 5633√Population
levels since water level fluctuates. This enables to (c) 3182√Population
drawn in clearer water from surface. (d) Rate of consumption per capita per day/
Population
3. A geologic formation which stores water and is JKSSB JE 28/10/2021 Shift-II
also capable of transmitting water through its Ans. (a) : Thequantity of water required for which the
pores at a large rate is called: water supply scheme has to be designed requires
(a) Aquifer (b) Aquiclude following data–
(c) Aquifuge (d) Aquitard 1. Water consumption rate (per capita per day)
2. Population
HPPSC AE 08.10.2023 So, quantity of water required–
Ans. (a) : Aquifer– A permeable stratum or a q = Rate of consumption per capita per day × population
geological formation of permeable material, which is 6. What is (total annual average water consumption
capable of yielding appreciable quantities of ground- of community)/(population ×365)?
water under gravity, is known as an aquifer. (a) Percapita water demand
Aquifuge– It is that geological formation, which is (b) Discharge
neither porous nor permeable, and hence it neither (c) Water quality
(d) Amount of water level stored
contains nor yields ground water. DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-I
Exp - Granite rock, etc. Ans. (a) : Per capita water demand (q)– It is the
annual average amount of daily water required by one
person (in lit) and includes the domestic use industrial,
commercial, public use, wastes, theft etc.
Total yearly water reqiurement of the city in liter ( V )
q=
365 × Design population ( P )
Note– Domestic water demand = 135 LPCD
Total water demand = 270 LPCD
Full flushing = 200 LPCD
7. ________is the method of population forecast,
which assumes that the percentage increase in
Aquitard– It is that geological formation, which does population from decade to decade is constant.
not yield water freely to wells due to its lesser (a) Incremental increase method
permeability, although seepage is possible through it. (b) Geometrical increase method
The yield from such a formation is, thus insignificant. (c) Arithmetic increase method
Exp- Sandy-clay, etc. (d) Subtractive decrease method
KPSC AEE 16/06/2023
Aquiclude– It is highly porous, containing large
quantities of water, but can not yield water. Ans. (b) : Forecasting population method–
Arithmetical increase method– This method is based
Exp- Clay layer. on the assumption that the population is increasing at
4. The multiplying factor as applied to obtain the constant rate, it is most suitable for old cities and towns
peak hourly demand in relation to the average which have stabilized.
hourly demand is Geometrical increase method–This method is based
(a) 1.5 (b) 1.8 upon the percentage increase in the population from
(c) 2.0 (d) 2.7 decade to decade or at constant interval of time. It is
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-I suitable for large cities.
Environmental Engineering 606 YCT
 n 10. How many litres of water is required in steel
 r 
Pn = P  1 +  industry for the production of 1 tonne steel?
 100  (a) 1,75,000 (b) 60,000
Where, (c) 4,500 (d) None of these
Pn = Population after 'n' number of decade RPSC AE DLB 21/05/2023
P0 = Initial population considered Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
r = Assumed growth rate (%) 11. The water required for firefighting (known as
• This method is suitable for a new younger cities fire-demand) may be computed using National
expanding at faster rates. Board of Fire underwrites formula given as
• Geometric growth method, gives highest value of Q = 4 6 3 7 P ( 1 − 0 . 0 1 P ) where
forecasted population. (a) Q = quantity of water in m3/s and
Incremental increase method (or method of varying P is more than 2,00,000
increment)– In this method growth rate is not assumed to (b) Q = quantity of water in L/min and
be constant as in the arithmetic or geometric progression P is more than 2,00,000
methods, but is progressively increasing or decreasing. (c) Q = quantity of water in m3/s and
The population after n decades from present is given by– P is less than or equal to 2,00,000
n ( n + 1) (d) Q = quantity of water in L/min and
Pn = P0 + nx + y
2 P is less than or equal to 2,00,000
Where, DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-III
x = Average increase of population of known decades. Ans. (d) : Fire demand– It is quantity of water
y = Average of incremental increase of the known required for fire fighting purposes.
decades. • Some empirical formula, which is used to
8. In a water distribution system, the domestic determining the quantity of water for fire demand.
water demand to be considered as per IS : (i) Buston's formula, Q = 5663 P ; P → thousand,
1172- 1993 is: Q in litre/minute
(a) 110 litres per head per day (ii) Kuichling formula, Q = 3182 P ; P → thousand
(b) 100 litres per head per day P 
(c) 195 litres per head per day (iii) Freeman formula, Q = 1136  + 10  ; P →
(d) 135 litres per head per day 5 
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 thousand
(iv) National board of Fire Underwriter's formulas –
Ans. (d) : Under general conditions (As per 1172 : (a) When the population is less than or equal to 2 lakh.
1993) the minimum domestic water demand for a town
with full flushing system should be taken at 200 lpcd
while it can be reduced to 135 lpcd for economical (b) When population is more than 2 lakhs a provision
weaker section and LIG colonies (low income group) for 54600 lit/minute may be made with an extra
depending upon prevailing conditions. additional provision of 9100 to 36400 λ/minute for a
9. The industrial water demand for producing per second fire.
tonne of paper is 12. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) specifies
(a) 150 kilolitres/tonne (b) 200 kilolitres/tonne various water quality parameters and their
(c) 250 kilolitres/tonne (d) 300 kilolitres/tonne acceptable limits for drinking water. Which of the
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 following parameters is primarily controlled by
Ans. (d) : Water requirements of industrial disinfection during water treatment?
products– (a) Turbidity
Water (b) Hardness
Unit of requirement (c) Microbiological contamination
Industry
production (kilolitres per (d) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
unit) MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-III
Fertilizer Tonne 80-200 Ans. (c) : The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
Distillery Kilolitre 122-170 specifies various water quality parameters and their
Leather Tonne 4 acceptable limits for drinking water. Microbiological
Automobile Vehicle 40 contamination is primarily parameters controlled by
Paper Tonne 300 disinfection during water treatment.
Textile Tonne 90-150 13. For public water supply, the number on Cobalt
scale should not exceed
Petroleum Tonne 1-2
(a) 10 (b) 15
(crude)
(c) 20 (d) 25
Steel Tonne 200-250
(e) Answer not known
Sugar Tonne 1-2 TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
Environmental Engineering 607 YCT
Ans. (c) : For public water supply, the number on cobalt Ans. (d) : Water borne disease–Water borne diseases
scale should not exceed 20 and should preferably be are illnesses caused by microscopic organisms, like
less than 10. viruses and bacteria, that are ingested through
14. Hardness limit for public water supplies ranges contaminated water or by coming in contact with faces.
between (As CaCO3 in mg/lit.) Bacteria– Typhoid fever (Salmonella bacteria typhi
(a) 50 to 75 (b) 75 to 115 which is responsible for enteric fever)
(c) 115 to 200 (d) 200 to 300 Cholera (Vibrio choleraeboactrum)
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 Bacillary dysentry (sonnebacilus)
Virus– Jaundice (Hapatitis virus) Poliomyelitis
Ans. (d) : Protozoa– Amoebic dysentry
Classification Total hardness of mg/l of Mosquito-borne disease.
CaCO3 Exp– Maleria, yellow fever, dengue fever, filariasis and
Soft 50 fly borne disease, etc.
Moderately hard 50-150
19. Turbidity is mainly due to
Hard 150-300 (a) floating solids (b) suspended solids
Very hard >300 (c) colloidal solids (d) dissolved solids
15. Blue baby disease in the children is caused due APSC PWRD 23/07/2023 Paper-I
to presence of excess in water. Ans. (b) :Turbidity–If a large amount of suspended
(a) Ammonia (b) Nitrogen matter such as clay, silt or some other finely divided
(c) Chloride (d) Nitrates organic materials are present in water, it will appear to
ISRO URSC TA 18/04/2024 be muddy or cloudy or turbid in appearance.
Ans. (d) : Nitrate is not harmful as it fully oxides, but • It is not a direct quantitative measure of suspended solids.
too much of nitrate affects infants, because it cause Measurement of turbidity is done using the
blue baby disease or methemoglobinemia. following–
●Nitrate concentration should not be more than 45 1. Turbidity rod (Field method)
mg/l. Its concentration is measured by colour matching 2. Jackson's turbidimeter (Labmethod)
techniques, colour is formed by phenol disulphonic 3. Baylisturbidimeter (Labmethod)
acid + potassium hydroxide. 4. Nephelometer (Labmethod)
16. Hardness in a water can be determined by brown or blackish water.
(a) EDTA method 20. A water having pH = 9, will be
(b) Sedimentation method (a) Acidic (b) Alkaline
(c) Starch-iodide method (c) Neutral (d) None of these
(d) Methyl orange test UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
TNPSC AE CES (Civil) 06/01/2024 Ans. (b) : pH is measured by potentiometer in which
Ans. (a) :Hardness in water can be determined by potential exerted by H+ is measured.
EDTA method. • pH value is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
EDTA method– EDTA is a Ethylene diamine tetra water.
acetic acid used for determination of permanent • If the pH of water is more than 7, it will be alkaline
hardness. and if it is less than 7, it will be acidic.
• In the EDTA method water is titrated with ethylene • The maximum acidity will be at zero value of pH and
the maximum alkalinity will be at a value of pH
diaminetetracetic acid using erichrome black T (EBT)
equal to 14.
as an indicator.
17. The most common cause of acidity in water is
(a) CO2 (b) O2
(c) H2 (d) N
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
Ans. (a) : The most common cause of acidity in water is
carbon dioxide (CO2) Acidity can be caused by weak
organic acids such as acetic and tannic acids and strong
mineral acids including sulphuric and hydro-chloric
acids, however, the most common source of acidity in
unpolluted water is carbon dioxide in the form of
carbonic acid.
18. Which one is water borne disease?
(a) Typhoid (b) Cholera
(c) Infectious hepatitis (d) All of these
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II
Environmental Engineering 608 YCT
21. Which of the following method uses Ca (OH)2 Ans. (d) :
(slaked lime) for water softening? Water quality
(a) Versenate method (b) Hehner's method Instrument used
parameter
(c) Colorimetric method (d) Clark's method Colour Tintometer
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III Taste and odour Osmoscope
Ans. (d) : Water softening process– There are three Turbidity Turbidity rod,
general method used for water softening. jacksonturbiditimeter
(i) Clark's method– In this method, lime process or Alkalinity Titratant
slaked lime is used to reduce only carbonate hardness. Oxygen Winkler's method
The principal involved is to neutralize the CO2 with 25. In children "Methaemoglobinaemia" disease is
milk of lime [Ca(OH)2] forming normal carbonates caused by
which precipitate out when present in excess and are (a) Conversion of nitrites to nitrates
removed by settlement and filtration. (b) Due to total nitrogen
(ii) Lime and soda ash process (c) Conversion of nitrates to nitrites
(iii) Base exchange process. (d) Reaction between haemoglobin and CO2
22. Which of the following types of drinking water UPSC CRT AE 28/08/2022
is obtained by the reclamation process? Ans. (c) : Nitrate in water is almost completely
(a) Groundwater (b) Infiltrated water absorbed into the blood. Our bodies convert a portion
(c) Desalinated water (d) surface water of that nitrate into nitrite.
• Nitrite reacts with blood to create methaemoglobin.
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-III
26. In a water sample, if 2 mg of platinum cobalt
Ans. (c) : Reclamation process– When waste water is
salt is mixed in 1 lit. of distilled water, then the
converted into water that can be reused for other colour produced is:
purposes, it is defined as reclaimed water or recycled (a) 2 NTU (b) 2 true colour unit
water. (c) 1 true colour unit (d) 1 NTU
• The water produced through a potable reuse treatment DSSSB AE (Mains) 23.06.2024 Shift-III
process is commonly referred to a purified water. Ans. (b) : The standard unit of color is that which is
•Desalination water process of removing salts or other produced by one miligram of platinum cobalt in one
minerals and contaminants from waste water, brackish liter of distilled water.
water and sea water is known as desalinated water. • The maximum permissible color for domestic
Reclamation water in the source of desalinated water, supplies is 20 ppm.
which is used as drinking water. • If 2 mg of platinum cobalt is mixed in 1 liter of
23. Which of the following is NOT a dissolved distilled water then color produced is 2 TCU.
impurity present in water? 27. In drinking water, the amount of free ammonia
(a) Nitrates (b) Hydrogen sulphide should not exceed
(c) Salts (d) Silt (a) 0.15 mg/l (b) 0.30 mg/ l
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-III (c) 0.50 mg/ l (d) 1.00 mg/ l
MH Solapur Asst. JE Class-3 17/02/2024
Ans. (d) :
Ans. (a) : Free ammonia should not be more than 0.15
S.N. Type Constituents ppm
1. Suspended (a)Bacteria • organic ammonia should not be more than 0.3 ppm.
Impurities (b) Algae, Protozoa
•Kjedahl nitrogen ammonia= free ammonia + organic
(c) Silts ammonia
2. Dissolved (a) Salts 28. The polluted water is one which
Impurities (b) Metals and Compounds (a) contains pathogenic bacteria
(i) Nitrate (b) consists of undesirable substances rendering it
(ii) Silver unfit for drinking and domestic use
(iii) Lead (c) is safe and suitable for drinking and domestic
(iv) Arsenic use
(v) Manganese (d) is contaminated
(c) Gases Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
(i) Oxygen Ans. (b) :Polluted water–The polluted water is one
(ii) Carbon dioxide which consists of undesirable substances making it
(iii) Hydrogen Sulphide unfit for its use i.e. drinking. Polluted water can be
24. ______is used to measure the small colour quite harmful to all living organism especially for the
intensities of water. health of humans infectious diseases can be easily
(a) Threshold meter (b) Turbidity meter spread through contaminated water due to the presence
(c) Thermo meter (d) Tintometer of different harmful bacteria and germs.
SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023 • Diseases caused by water are cholera, typhoid etc.

Environmental Engineering 609 YCT

29. As per IS : 10500-2012, the permissible limit of 32. As per IS 10500-2012, the acceptable limit for
turbidity (in NTU) in the absence of alternate cadmium content in drinking water is_____ mg/l.
source is ______. (a) 0.005 (b) 0.001
(a) 5 (b) 15 (c) 1 (d) 10 (c) 0.009 (d) 0.003
ISRO SAC T.A. 21/06/2023 MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-I
Ans. (a) :As per IS 10500-2012, Table -1- Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
Organoleptic and physical parameters. 33. As per IS 10500 : 2012, the permissible limit of
Free residual chlorine in the absence of
Requirement Permissible limit alternate source in drinking water is :
Characteristic (Acceptable in the absence of
limit) alternate source (a) 0.3 mg/ℓ (b) 1.5 mg/ℓ
Colour 5 15 (c) 1.0 mg/ℓ (d) 0.2 mg/ℓ
(hazen units) DSSSB AE 27/09/2021 Shift-III
Odour agreeable agreeable Ans. (c): As per IS 10500-2012, Table-2 : general
pH value 6.5 to 8.5 No relaxation parameters concerning substances undesirable in
excessive in amount.
Turbidity 1 5
(NTU) Permissible
Characteristic Requirement
limit in the
Total dissolved 500 2000 (Acceptable
(mg/l) absence of
solid (mg/L) limit)
alternate source
30. The pH value of drinking water should be- Aluminium 0.03 0.2
(a) 7.0 (b) 4.5 Ammonia (as total 0.5 No relaxation
(c) 6.5-8.5 (d) Greater than 9.0 ammonia-N)
MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-II Anionic 0.2 1.0
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. detergents
(MBAS)
31. The acceptable limit required for lead as per
Barium 0.7 No relaxation
Indian Standard Drinking Water Specifications
(IS : 10500-2012) is Boron 0.5 1.0
(a) 0.01 mg/l (b) 0.02 mg/l Calcium 75 200
(c) 0.05 mg/l (d) 0.10 mg/l Chloramines 4.0 No relaxation
(Cl2)
NBCC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022
Chloride (Cl) 250 1000
Ans. (a) : As per IS 10500-2012, Table -3 : Copper (Cu) 0.05 1.5
Parameter concerning toxic substances- Fluoride 1.0 1.5
Permissible Free residual 0.2 1.0
Requirem
limit in the chlorine
Characteristic ent
absence of Iron 0.3 No relaxation
(mg/l) (Acceptabl
alternate Magnesium (Mg) 30 100
e limit)
source Manganese (Mn) 0.1 0.3
Cadmium 0.003 No relaxation Mineral oil 0.5 No relaxation
Cyanide 0.05 No relaxation Nitrate (NO3) 45 No relaxation
Lead 0.01 No relaxation Phenolic 0.001 0.002
Mercury 0.001 No relaxation compounds
Molybdenum 0.07 No relaxation (C6H5OH)
Nickel 0.02 No relaxation Selenium 0.01 No relaxation
Silver 0.1 No relaxation
Polychlorinated 0.0005 No relaxation
Sulphate (SO4) 200 400
biphenyls
Sulphide (H2S) 0.05 No relaxation
Polynuclear aromatic 0.0001 No relaxation
Total alkalinity 200 600
hydrocarbons (as calcium
Total arsenic 0.01 0.05 carbonate)
Total chromium 0.05 No relaxation Total hardness 200 600
Trihalomethanes (CaCO3)
(a) Bromoform 0.1 No relaxation Zinc 5 15
(b) Dibromochloro- 0.1 No relaxation 34. Acceptable limit of Chlorides (as Cl) for
methane drinking water as per IS 10500: 2012 is
(a) 250 mg/l (b) 300 mg/ l
(c) Bromodichloro- 0.06 No relaxation (c) 600 mg/ l (d) 1000 mg/ l
methane Rajkot Municipal Corp. AE 08/05/2022
(d) Chloroform 0.2 No relaxation Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
Environmental Engineering 610 YCT
35. Which of the following methods is used to 40. Cleaning period for a rapid sand filter is taken
measure the pH value of water? as–
(a) Electromagnetic method (a) 2 to 3 hours (b) 2 to 3 weeks
(b) Distillation method (c) 2 to 3 days (d) 2 to 3 months
(c) Electrometric method CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
(d) Reverse osmosis method Ans. (c) : Rapid Sand Filters–
UPMRCL JE 02/01/2023 • Depth of tank → 2.5 to 3.5m
Ans. (c) : Electrometric method- • Area →20 to 50 m2 each unit
● It is the most accurate and simple method of • Rate of washing → 15 – 90 cm Rise/minute
determining soil and water pH.
• Rate of filtration → 3000 – 6000 Ltr./m2/hour
● A sensing glass electrode is only used for testing the
pH of water or soil pH. • Rapid–Sand filter removes the turbidity of water upto
90%.
36. The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) of the
Swimming pool should not exceed • The colour of water also fades away. It falls to 10 on
(a) 500 mg/L (b) 1500 mg/L the cobalt scale.
(c) 750 mg/L (d) 2000 mg/L • Up to 90% of bacteria and microbes are destroyed.
GPSC AE Class-2, N.W.R. 05/09/2021 • Cleaning period → 1-3 days
Ans. (b) : According to GOI manual, acceptable limit • Sand Layer 60 – 75 cm deep
of TDS is 500 mg/L and cause for rejection is 2000 • Effective size of sand (D10) = 0.35 – 0.55 mm
mg/L • Depth of water over sand layer = 1 – 2 m
• The total dissolved solids (TDS) of the swimming • Back wash velocity = 45 cm/min.
pool should not exceed 1500 mg/L • Quantity of back washing = 4 – 5% of total filter
• The analysis of TDS is often made by determining water.
the electrical conductivity of water. • Number of units required n = 1.22 Q
37. The permissible limit for Total Dissolved Solids
Q = Plant capacity in MLD.
(TDS) in drinking water, as per Indian
standards, is : • Uniformity Coefficient = 1.2 – 1.7
(a) 2000 mg/L (b) 5000 mg/L
(c) 500 mg/L (d) 1000 mg/L
MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-III
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation.
38. In the design of sedimentation tank, essential
factor to be considered is :
(a) Detention period (b) Velocity of flow
(c) Depth of tank (d) All of the above
CSEB JE 03.03.2024
Ans. (d) : Parameters of sedimentation tank design–
To design sedimentation tank following elements are
required in the consideration– 41. _______ is the application of chlorine beyond
• Over flow velocity the stage of break point. It is most commonly
• Detention period added at the end of filtration.
• Flow through velocity (a) pre-chlorination
• Dimensions of the tank (depth of tank) (b) post- chlorination
• Sludge zone depth (c) super chlorination
• Efficiency. (d) break point chlorination
39. The uniformity co-efficient of sand used in MH WCD JE 15.07.2024 Shift-III
Filter bed of slow sand filter is Ans. (c) : Super chlorination–When excess chlorine (5
(a) 0.5 to 1.00 (b) 1.0 to 2.0 to 15 mg/L) is added in water during epidemic such that
(c) 2.0 to 3.0 (d) 3.0 to 5.0 it gives a residual of 1 to 2 mg/L beyond break point is
MH Solapur M.C JE Class2, 17.02.2024 called super chlorination.
Ans. (c) Filter media for slow sand filters – When chlorine residue is high excess chlorine will be
• It consists of sand layer 90 to 110 cm thick. removed by dechlorination agent. The various
• Effective size of sand varies from 0.20 to 0.35, dechlorinating agent are-
common value of 0.3. • Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3)
• The coefficient of uniformity varies from 2 to 3, • Activated carbon
common value being 2.5. • Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Environmental Engineering 611 YCT

42. Which of the following does not cause 46. What is generally done to remove pathogenic
permanent hardness in water? bacteria in drinking water?
(a) Sulphate (b) Chloride (a) Sedimentation (b) Disinfection
(c) Nitrate (d) Bicarbonate (c) Flocculation (d) Coagulation
PPSC JE 06/03/2022 JKSSB JE (Civil) 20/03/2022
Ans. (d) :If bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium and Ans. (b) : Disinfection– The process to remove
magnesium are present in water, the water is rendered pathogenic bacteria from drinking water is defined as
hard temporarily, as this hardness can be removed to disinfection of water.
some extent by simple boiling or to full extent by • Disinfection is also known as sterilization, sterilization
adding lime to the water, such a hardness is known as process, all organisms in water are usually killed by a
temporary hardness or carbonate hardness. physical phenomenon such as boiling for a long period.
• If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium or • Disinfection process is done by–
magnesium are present in water, they cannot be (i) Minor method– with excess lime, ozone, F–, Br–,
removed at all by simple boiling, such a hardness is KMnO4
known as permanent hardness or on-carbonate hardness. (ii) Major methods– chlorination
43. Temporary hardness of water is caused by 47. Which of the following processes of water
(a) carbonates of calcium and magnesium treatment is adopted to remove objectionable
(b) carbonates and bi carbonates of calcium and tastes, odour, and dissolved gases?
magnesium (a) Sedimentation (b) Aeration
(c) carbonates of nitrates and chlorides (c) Screening (d) Disinfection
(d) bi carbonates of nitrates and chlorides UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023 Ans. (b) : For surface waters, following are the
treatment process–
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
(i) Screening– It is used to remove all the floating
44. A horizontally flowing rectangular matter from surface water
sedimentation tank with continuous flow takes (ii) Aeration– Under the process aeration, water is
time______to fill the tank when there are no brought in intimate contact with air, so as to absorb
outflows. Assume Q = discharge, L= length of oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide gas. It may also
tank , B = width of tank, H = depth of tank. help in killing bacteria to a certain extent. It also help in
(a) Q/BLH (b) BLH/Q removing H2S gas, and iron and manganese to a certain
(c) Q/BL (d) Q/BH extent, from the untreated water.
MPPSC AE Civil Paper8 October 2023 • Aeration is done to remove objectionable tastes,
Ans. (b) : The capacity of a sedimentation tank is dissolved gasses and also removesodour.
calculated by detention period and over flow rate. • Dissolved gasses like CO2, H2S, Fe3+, M 2n + etc
LBH (iii) Sedimentation– It is used to suspended impurities.
Time =
Q (iv) Filtration– It removes very fine suspended and
where, colloidal impurities.
L= length of tank (m) (v) Disinfection– The process of killing pathogenic
B= width of tank (m) bacteria is known as disinfection of water.
H= Depth of tank (m) 48. In a water treatment plant, dissolved iron and
45. According to CPHEEO, find the range of manganese can be removed from water by
filtration rate of slow sand filters and rapid (a) Aeration and coagulation
sand filters (meters per hour), respectively, (b) Aeration and sedimentation
under normal operating condition. (c) Aeration and flocculation
(a) ≤ 5 and ≤ 25 (d) Aeration and filtration
(b) 0.1 to 0.2 and 4.8 to 6 UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I
(c) 1 to 3 and 2.5 to 5 Ans. (b) : Removal of iron and manganese– Iron and
(d) 0.5 to 0.8 and 10 to 25 manganese salts are generally found dissolved together
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023 in well water or anaerobic reservoir water in dissolved
state.
Ans. (b) : According to CPHEEO rate of filtration of
• If iron and manganese present in small quantity, they
various filters–
can be removed during, aeration followed by
• Slow sand filters– 0.1 to 0.2 m3/hr/m2 coagulation, sedimentation and filtration.
• Rapid sand filters– 3.0 to 6.0 m3/hr/m2 • The soluble ferrous and manganese compounds
• Pressure filter – 6.0 to 15.0 m3/hr/m2 present in water get oxidized to ferric and manganese
⇒ Slow sand filter is more efficient than rapid sand compounds which are insoluble and can be
filter in case of removing bacteria. sedimented out easily.

Environmental Engineering 612 YCT

49. In water treatment plants, the most commonly 53.
The addition of chlorine at intermediate points
used coagulant is : generally at service reservoirs and booster
(a) Alum (b) Chlorine pumping stations in water supply distribution
(c) Bleaching powder (d) Lime is called _____.
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
(a) pre-chlorination
Ans. (a) Coagulant– Coagulation is defined as the
addition of a chemical to a colloidal dispersion which (b) re-chlorination
results in particle destabilization by the reduction in (c) de-chlorination
forces. Which tend to keep particles apart. (d) post - chlorination
Common coagulants added in water– DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-II
• Alum Ans. (b) : Chlorination– Chlorination is the addition of
• Copperas chlorine to kill the pathogen bacteria in water.
• Chlorinated copperas Chlorine applied at various stages of treatment and
• Sodium aluminate distribution
• Lime (i) Pre-chlorination– When chlorine applied prior to
The most commonly used coagulant is alum.
the sedimentation and filtration process is known as pre-
50. The suitable method for disinfection of chlorination.
swimming pool water is
(a) Ultraviolet rays treatment (ii) Post-chlorination– Chlorine is added after all the
(b) Lime treatment treatment has been completed is defined as post
(c) Chlorination chlorination.
(d) Alum (iii) Re-chlorination– Application of excess chlorine to
KPSC AEE 16/06/2023 compensate for this may lead to unpleasant smell to
Ans. (a) : • Ultra violet rays treatment is a method forconsumers at the points nearer to treatment point in
disinfection, but it is less commonly used in swimming such cases chlorine is applied again that is re-
pools. chlorinated at intermediate points generally at service
• Lime treatment is not primarily used for disinfection but
reservoirs and booster pumping stations.
may be used for water conditioning and pH adjustment.
54. The dose of chlorination, beyond which any
51. As per CPHEEO (Central Public Health & further addition of chlorine will appear as free
Environmental Engineering Organization)
guidelines, the standard rate of filtration (in residual chlorine, is known as :
litre per minute/m2units) through a rapid sand (a) Double chlorination
filter is in the range: (b) Pre-chlorination
(a) 10 to 30 (b) 80 to 100 (c) Super chlorination
(c) 200 to 300 (d) 30 to 50 (d) Break-point chlorination
UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 27/06/2022 Shift-III
Ans. (b) :Rapid sand filter–
Rate of filtration– The standard rate of filtration Ans. (d) :Break point chlorination – It is a term
through a rapid sand filter is usually 80 to 100 which gives us an idea of the extent of chlorine added
l/minute/m2. to water. In facts it represents that much doses of
Rate of filtration of RSF 3000-6000 l/h/m2 chlorination, beyond which any further additional
Convering in l/min/m2→ 50-100 l/min/m2 chlorine will appear as free residual chlorine.
Therefore option (b) is most appropriate. Hence if chlorine is slowly added to the water and the
52. In disinfection, which of the following forms of residual is tested, it will be found that the residual will
chlorine is most effective in killing the
pathogenic bacteria? go on increasing with the addition of chlorine.
(a) Cl (b) OCl– • However, some chlorine is consumed for killing
(c) NH2Cl (d) HOCl bacteria, and thus the amount of residual chlorine shall
CHB JE 2023be slightly less than that added, if the additional
Ans. (d) : chlorine is continued beyond the point B, the organic
pH > 5

• Cℓ 2 + H 2 O ← → HOCl + HCl matter in present in water start getting oxidized, and
Hypochlorous acid
pH > 3
therefore, the residual chlorine falls down.
HOCl ←  → H + + OCl The point C is the point beyond which any further
unstable pH > 7

• HOCl is the most destructive it is 80% more effective addition of chlorine will appear equally as free
than OCl ion chlorine., Since nothing of it shall be utilized.
• Chloramines (ammonia + chlorine) for swimming The point C is called break point.
pools only. It contains 20% of available chlorine. Super chlorination– When excess chlorine (5 to
• Order of disinfectant in increasing order 15mg/l) is added during epidemic such that it gives a
N C l3 < N H 2C l < H O C l < O 3 residual of 1 to 2 mg/l beyond break point is called
• Stability order O 3 < H O C l < N H 2 C l < N C l 2 super chlorination.

Environmental Engineering 613 YCT

 57. If L, B and D are the length, width and depth or
water in a rectangular sedimentation tank in
which total discharge is Q. the settling velocity is
Q Q
(a) (b)
L.B D.B
Q Q
(c) (d)
D.D L.D
Tripura JE 2023
Discharged
Ans. (a) :Settling velocity =
Area of time
55. The efficiency of a sedimentation tank (in Q
percentage) is calculated using which of the Vs = , called surface over follow rate.
B.L
following formulas?
Where Q → Discharge
(a) (Settling velocity × Overflow velocity) ×100
B → Width of rectangular channel
(b) (Settling velocity / Overflow velocity) ×100
L → Length of tank
(c) (Settling velocity - Overflow velocity) ×100
(d) (Settling velocity + Overflow velocity) ×100 58. ‘When the pump is operated, the valve is
JKSSB JE (Civil) 20/03/2022 opened, but when the pump is suddenly
stopped the valve is automatically closed.’
Ans. (b) : Sedimentation tank– Purpose of These are the properties of the following type
sedimentation tank is to remove suspended solids, of valve.
where solids with higher density than fluid is under the (a) Sluice valve (b) Scour valve
action of gravity.
(c) Butterfly valve (d) Check valve
Setting velocity will be calculated by stoke's law.
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-I
Vs =
( γs − γ w )d2 Ans. (d) : Water distribution system :–
18µ Foot valve or Reflux valve or check valve or non-
Over flow velocity, V = Q returning valve–
BH • This valve is provided in the pipe line which draws
Efficiency of sedimentation tank water from the pump.
• These possess some automatic device which allows
the water to flow in one direction only.
56. Which one of the following occurs when Globe valve– Globe valve is used in pipelines for
neighboring particles come into contact with convenience in manually closing the pipes to control the
each other, changing particle size and flow of water. Its main advantages are quicker opening.
hindering settling? Butterfly valve– Butterfly valves tends to be
(a) Discrete particle settling cheaper than gate valves because they require less
(b) Flocculent settling material.
(c) Thickening • It is also another shut-off valve normally employed
(d) Fission both to isolated and control water flow.
UPSC CRT AE 28/08/2022 • Butterfly valves are lightweight, compact and easy to
Ans. (b) : Types of settling– operate manually.
Type I : Discrete settling– In discrete settling, • Involves slightly higher head loss than sluice valves
particles settle as individual entities and there is no and also are not suitable for continuous throttling.
significant interaction with neighbouring particles. Gate Valve or sluice valve–
Type II : Flocculent setting– In this condition, • These valve are used to regulate the flow of water
particles flocculate or coalesce during settling. through the pipes.
• by flocculation, neighboring particles come into • These valve are placed at the summit of the pressure
contact with each other and changing particle size and conduits.
hindered settling. • These valve are made up of cast iron with brass
bronze or stainless steel mounting.
Type III : Hindered or zone settling– This type of
settling refers to flocculent suspension of intermediate • They are either solid wedge or disc type.
concentration, inter particle forces hold the particles together Air relief valve–
and hence the mass of the particles subside as a whole. • These valve are placed along the pipe at 'summits' on
Type IV : Compression setting– It is refers to the both side of sluice valves and also down stream
flocculent suspension of so high concentration. Inter side of all other sluice valves.
particle forces hold the particles together and hence the • Float arrangement is provided is case of air relief
mass of the particles subside as a whole. valves.

Environmental Engineering 614 YCT

• Air relief valve function to release air pockets that Ans. (a) : Reflux valve or Check valves or Non-
collect at each high point of a full pressured pipeline. return valves–Check valves are also known as non-
Scour valve/blow-off/drain valve– return valves because they allow the flow of liquid in
• These valves are also known as washout valves. one direction and prevents it from flowing back in
opposite direction in a pipe flow system.
• To remove the water from pipe after closing the supply.
• These valves are necessary at low level points for 63. The type of layout of water supply distribution
completely empty the pipe for inspection repair etc. system that has only one main from which sub-
mains and laterals branch off, also most
59. Which of the following type of valve allows suitable for an irregularly grown city is
water to flow in one direction but prevents in (a) dead-end system (b) grid iron system
reverse direction? (c) ring system (d) radial system
(a) Sluice valve (b) Air relief valve UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I
(c) Reflux valve (d) None of these Ans. (a) : Layouts of distribution system– Following
CHB JE 28/01/2023 Shift-I four methods is use laying out distribution system–
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. (i) Dead end or tree system– In these systems one
60. Elevated reservoirs can be classified as .......... main pipe line runs through the centre of the populated
(a) Earth reservoir (b) Masonry reservoir area and sub mains take off from this to both the sides,
(c) Stand pipes (d) RCC this system is most suitable for an irregularly grown
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2 city, or older towns which have developed in a
haphazard manner, without properly planned roads.
Ans. (c) : Elevated reservoirs– When sufficient high
ground above the distribution area is not available for • This system is also called tree system.
the construction of ground reservoirs, from where water
can flow under gravitational force in the distribution
system, elevated reservoirs are constructed.
• Elevated workable is contains water at a certain
height.
• Generally two types of elevated reservoirs are
used which are
(i) Stand pipes (ii) Grid iron or reticular system– This system
(ii) Elevated tanks contains main line, sub mains and branch line and
61. What is the major function of a water water flow continuously in this system without
distribution system? stagnating.
(a) To carry water from the treatment plant to • It is more suitable for well planned cities.
individual homes • Large number of cutoff valves are required.
(b) To carry water from the source to the • It is used in city of roads of rectangular pattern
filtration unit Advantage–
(c) To carry water from individual homes to the • Dead ends are eliminated
treatment plant • At the time of fire, water can be diverted to affected
(d) To carry water from the source to the pump areas by closing the valves of other areas.
house (iii) Ring water or circular system– In this system
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I main pipe line is provided around the city or area
Ans. (a) : The basic function of a water distribution (peripherally). The branches are connected cross wise
to the main.
system is to transport the water from the treatment
facility to the customer. • In this system is used as a feeder placed centrally
around a high demand area, along with the grid iron
● In addition distribution system may also provide system and will improve the pressure at various
storage as well as provide flow and pressure adequate point.
for fire protection. • This system is suitable for towns having well
62. What is the function of a non-return valve? planned road.
(a) Allow the flow of liquid in one direction and (iv) Radial system–
prevents it from flowing back in opposite • The entire area is divided into various zones and one
direction in a pipe flow system reservoir is provided at the centre of each zone.
(b) Allows flow of liquid in a direction opposite • Water is taken from the water mains, and pumped
to the pumping direction of liquid into distribution reservoirs at different centers.
(c) Allow the flow of liquid in both upward and Water is supplied through radially laid distribution
downward direction in a pipe flow system pipes.
(d) Blocks the flow of fluid in all directions in a • This system ensure high pressures and efficient water
pipe flow system distribution, and only small area will be affected during
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I repair.

Environmental Engineering 615 YCT

64. The following water distribution system is 69. The standard BOD of water is taken for
suitable for irregular developing town or city (a) one day (b) three days
(a) Dead-end (b) Grid-iron (c) five days (d) seven days
(c) Circular (d) Radial SSC JE Civil 14/11/2022 Shift-I
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 Ans. (c) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)– It is the
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic
65. While testing for COD of sewage, organic biological organisms in a body of water or waste water
matter is oxidized by K2Cr2O7in the presence of sample to break down organic material present in a
(a) HCl (b) H2SO4 given water or waste water sample at certain
(c) HNO3 (d) None of these temperature (200C) over a specific time period (5 days).
Kerala PSC AE Water Authority 29/12/2022 70. BOD5 of sewage @ 20ºC is generally taken as
Ans. (b) : The COD test uses potassium dichromate in (a) 58% of total (b) 68% of total
presence of concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) (c) 78% of total (d) 88% of total
solution that oxidizes both organic and inorganic Kerala PSC AE Water Authority 29/12/2022
substances in waste water. Ans. (b) : Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)–
66. Imhoff cone is used to determine the quantity • The BOD test gives a measure of the oxygen utilized
of– by bacteria during oxidation of organic material
(a) dissolved solids (b) settleable solids contained in waste sample.
(c) colloidal solids (d) floating matter • BOD of water during 5 days at 200C is generally taken
UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I as the standard demand and it about 68% of the total
Ans. (b) : Imhoff cone– The quantity of settable solids demand.
can be determined using imhoff cone. Waste water is • A 10 days BOD is about 90% of the total.
allowed to stand in the cone for two hours and the • BOD at any time is given by–
quantity of solids settled down in the bottom is directly (
BOD = L 0 1 − 10 − K d .t )
read out, which gives an approximate of settable solids.
Where,
• It is conical glass vessel of a capacity 1 litre and
L0 = ultimate BOD
graduated up to 50 ml.
Kd = Deoxygenation constant
t = Time.
71. Threshold odour number (TON) can be
calculated by the equation ______.
Where
Vs = Volume of sewage
VD= Volume of distilled or odourless water
added to just make the sewage sample less
its odour
67. Aerobic bacteria can survive only in the VS + VD VS + VD
presence of : (a) TON = (b) TON =
VD VS
(a) Oxygen (b) Water
VD VS
(c) Sunlight (d) Food (c) TON = (d) TON =
UKPSC Draftsman 05/11/2023 VS + VD VS + VD
Ans. (a) : Faculative bacteria–The bacteria can survive MH Solapur Asst. JE Class-3, 17/02/2024
with or without free oxygen is called facultative bacteria. Ans. (b) : Threshold odour number (TON) -The
Aerobic bacteria– The bacteria can survive with oxygen. minimum odour of the sample that can be detected after
Anaerobic bacteria–The bacteria can survive without successive dilutions with odourless medium is thus
oxygen. known as threshold odour.
68. Which of the following compounds is used for V + VD
TON = s
algae control? Vs
(a) Copper sulphate (b) Calcium chloride Where,
(c) Ferric chloride (d) Ferric sulphate Vs= Volume of sewage
Assam PWD JE 13/08/2023 VD= volume of distilled or odourless water added to just
Ans. (a) : Algae are minute organism classified as plant make sewage sample loose its odour.
and proliferate in rivers and reservoir. 72. The ratio 5 day BOD to ultimate BOD is about
• Fairly alkaline water containing more concentration 1 2
of nitrates and phosphates promote to algae growth. (a) (b)
3 3
• The best way to kill algae is by prechlorination 3
before reaching the basins with dose of 1 mg/l. (c) (d) 1.0
4
• Algae control generally used copper sulphate or chlorine. CHB JE (Civil) 28/01/2023
Environmental Engineering 616 YCT
 Ans. (b) : Ans. (a) : Outfall sewer–The length of the main or
At 20°C – 5 day BOD, total BOD or ultimate BOD of trunk sewer between the connection of the lowest branch
68% oxygen demand fulfill. and final point of disposal is known as an outfall sewer.
[BOD]5 = 68% [BOD]ultimate House sewer–A house sewer is a term given to the
connection of the horizontal house drainage system to
(BOD)5 = BODu × [1-10− Kd .t ] …… (i) the public sewer.
KD(T) = K D20°C × [1.047]T −20 77. What is the unit of measurement for manhole
Generally, cover as per IS 1200?
KDvalue at 200C is 0.1 per day (a) Numbers (b) Cubic metre
From equation (i) (c) Running metre (d) Square metre
BOD5 = BODu ×[1–10–0.1×5] DSSSB AE (Mains) 30.06.2024 Shift-II
BOD5 = 0.6837 BODu Ans. (a) : Single units work like doors, windows trusses,
manhole cover as per IS 1200 are expressed in numbers.
BOD5 2
= 0.6837 ≈ • Manhole covers most commonly come in sizes from
BODu 3 300 mm × 300 mm to 1200 mm × 1200 mm, for
73. What is the BOD value of strong sewage? square/Rectangular covers and with 450 mm or 600 mm
(a) 250-350 ppm (b) 450-550 ppm diameter for circular covers.
(c) 550-650 ppm (d) 650-750 ppm 78. Which of the following sewer sections has the
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023 least perimeter for a given cross-sectional area?
Ans. (b) : Sewage with a BOD value of 300 ppm or (a) Egg-shaped sewer (b) Circular sewer
above and solids content 500 mg/l or more is called (c) Rectangular sewer (d) Parabolic sewer
strong sewage. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
• Sewage with a BOD of 100 ppm or less and suspended Ans. (b) : Circular section is the most economical
solids content 100 mg/l or less is called as weak sewage. section.
74. In chlorination process, trichloramines are • It is best suitable for diameter up to 900 mm.
formed below pH value of • This gives the least perimeter for a given area and
(a) 8.4 (b) 6.4 therefore, has the maximum hydraulic mean depth
(c) 4.4 (d) 2.4 for running full and half-full conditions, which
prevents possibility of deposit anywhere being of
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
circular curvature.
Ans. (c) : At pH < 5 chlorine does not react with water • The maximum velocity is obtained not when the
and remains as free chlorine. sewer is running full best when the depth of flow is
pH > 5
Cl 2 + H 2 O   → HOCl + HCl 0.81 times the full depth.
pH > 7.5
NH 3 + HOCl  → NH 2 Cl + H 2 O • The maximum discharge is obtained not when the
( 5 − 6.5 )
sewer is running full but when the depth is about 0.95
− 
NH 2 Cl + HOCl  pH → NHCl 2 + H 2 O times the full depth.
pH < 4.5
NHCl 2 + HOCl  → NCl3 + H 2 O 79. As per the Indian standard code (2470 - 1985,
Chloramines are combined of chlorine. It is less Part 1), the minimum width of the septic tank
effective than free chlorine (25 times lesser) but they assumed for design purpose is _________.
are stable and remain in water for greater duration. (a) 50 cm (b) 125 cm
75. Which of the following is the correct relation (c) 100 cm (d) 75 cm
between Oxygen deficit, Saturation dissolved SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
oxygen and Actual dissolved oxygen? Ans. (d) : As per IS:2470–Part-1 (1985)Cl 3.4.5.1–
(a) Oxygen deficit = Saturation DO – Actual DO Septic tank shall have a minimum width of 75 cm, a
(b) Oxygen deficit = Saturation DO × Actual DO minimum depth one meter below water level and a
(c) Oxygen deficit = Actual DO + Saturation DO minimum liquid capacity of 1000 liters.
(d) Oxygen deficit = Actual DO / Saturation DO 80. _____ is an inclined pipe extending from the
GSECL JE 2023 Shift-2 ground and connected to the underground
sewer.
Ans. (a) : Oxygen deficit– Oxygen sag curve is deficit (a) Catch basin (b) Flushing holes
in the stream or river at any point of time during the (c) Clean Outs (d) Lamp holes
self purification process is the difference between the MH Latur MNC JE (Water supply) 23.02.2024
saturation dissolved oxygen and actual dissolved
oxygen. Ans. (c) :Cleanout–
Oxygen deficit (D) = Saturation D.O. – Actual D.O.
76. The type of sewer that transports sewage to the
point of sewer treatment is called ____
(a) outfall sewer (b) main sewer
(c) house sewer (d) intercepting sewer
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
Environmental Engineering 617 YCT
 • A cleanout is an inclined pipe extending from the Ans. (d) : Soil pipe– A pipe which carries human
ground and connected to the underground sewer. A excreta from water closet to septic tank is called soil
clean-out is for cleaning sewer pipes. pipe. It is not connected to any other pipe except vent
• A clean-out is provided at the upper ends of lateral pipe.
sewers in place of manholes. Vent type– It is a pipeline installed to provide flow of
• A clean-out consists of a removing the top cover and air to or from a drainage system in order to protect the
forcing water through the clean out pipe to lateral water seal of traps against back pressure and siphonage.
sewers to remove obstacles in the sewer pipe. Waste pipe– A pipe which carries liquid waste that
81. Which of the following sewer appurtenances is does not include night soil.
used to collect the debris, sand, grit, etc., Anti siphonage pipe– It is a pipe to preserve the water
flowing with storm water? seal or traps through proper ventilation.
(a) Cleanouts (b) Manholes 85. A combined sewer is the one which transports
(c) Inlets (d) Catch basins (a) domestic sewage and storm water
DDA JE 01/04/2023 Shift-II (b) domestic sewage and industrial wastes
Ans. (d) : Catch basins– Catch basin nothing but (c) domestic sewage & over - head flow
street inlet provided with additional small settling (d) domestic sewage, industrial wastes & storm
basins. water
• Grit, sand debris etc. do settle in these basins and CHB JE (Civil) 28/01/2023
their entry into the sewer is thus prevented. Ans. (d) : Combined system– This system consists of a
• Hood is also provided which prevent the escape of single sewer line of large dia. through which the
foul gases through the sewer line. domestic sewage and storm water are allowed to flow
• It requires periodical cleaning, otherwise, the and are carried to the treatment plant.
settled organic matter may decompose, producing 86. Which of the following thermoplastic is used for
foul smell. manufacturing of drainage pipes and floor finishes?
(a) Polyvinyl acetate (b) Acrylic
(c) Polyvinyl chloride (d) Cellulose nitrate
SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
Ans. (c) : Polyvinyl chloride–It is in expensive and
durable thermoplastic polymer commonly used to
manufacture door and window profiles, tubing (drinking
and waste water), wine and cable insulations, medical
82. Which of the following is the purpose of equipment, drainage pipes and floor finishes and
providing catch pits in a sewer system? building and construction industries.
(a) To exclude grease and oil from sewage • It is available in powder form or granulers as a white,
(b) To hold and throw water into the sewer brittle solid substance.
(c) To prevent the entry of silt, grit, debris, etc. 87. The depth of the _________ sewers is one and half
contained in the rainwater times their width in olden form, it was used with
(d) To provide a connection between the high- a greater radius at the bottom, but in the new
level branch sewer to the low-level main shape, smaller radius is used at the bottom.
sewer (a) Horse-shoe type sewers
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I (b) Horse & Circular sewer
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. (c) Egg-Shaped Sewers
(d) Circular sewers
83. A ______ is fixed at the mouth of the inflow
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023
pipe to prevent the entry of debris.
(a) conduit (b) gutter Ans. (c) : Egg-Shaped Sewers– Egg shaped sewer have
better self cleansing velocity at small flow as compared
(c) catchment (d) mesh filter
to circular sewers.
GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024
• The depth of these is one and half times their width. In
Ans. (d) :Mesh filter–A mesh filter is fixed at the olden form it was used with a greater radius at the
mouth of the inflow pipe to prevent the entry debris. bottom, but in new shape, smaller radius is used at the
84. A pipe through which liquid waste without bottom. It gives higher velocity in low discharge.
human excreta flows is called : 88. A sewer that receives the discharge of a
(a) Soil pipe (b) Vent pipe number house sewers is called
(c) Anti-syphonage (d) Waste pipe (a) House sewer (b) Lateral sewer
Tripura JE 07.10.2023 (c) Main sewer (d) Sub main sewer
UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2 CHB JE (Building) 05/02/2023
Environmental Engineering 618 YCT
Ans. (b) : Lateral sewer– A sewer which receives Ans. (c) : The following stages of sludge digestion
discharge from number of independent houses is known process–
as lateral sewer. Acid fermentation stage– In this stage of sludge
Main sewer– These are main sewers to which lateral digestion, the fresh sewage sludge begins to be acted
sewers are connected. upon by anaerobic and facultative bacteria, called acid
Outfall sewer– The sewer which transports sewage to fermentation.
disposal point. • In this stage pH value of sludge highly acidic is less
House sewer– Pipe carrying sewage from building to than 6.
point of immediate disposal. Acid regression stage– In this intermediate stage,
89. The biological treatment techniques used can the volatile organic acids and nitrogenous compounds
be classified into attached growth processes of the first stage are attacked by the bacteria, so as to
and suspended growth processes. Which of the form acid carbonates and ammonia compounds.
following treatments is classified under • The decomposed sludge has a very offensive odour,
attached growth processes? and its pH value rises up to 6.8.
(a) Sludge digestion system
• In this stage volatile organic acid and nitrogenous
(b) Rotating biological conductor
compounds converted into acid carbonates and
(c) Aerated lagoon
ammonia compounds.
(d) Activated sludge process
Alkaline fermentation stage–
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
• During this stage, the liquid separates out from
Ans. (b) :
solids, and the digested sludge is formed.
Treatment
Aerobic Anaerobic • Digested sludge is alkaline in nature and pH is
units
slightly above 7.
Based on an 1. Trickling
• The BOD of the sludge also rapidly falls down
attached filter
growth during this stage.
2. Rotatory
system biological • Large volume of methane gas along with a small
contactor amount of carbon dioxide and nitrogen and evolved
Based on an 1. Activated 1. Up flow during this stage.
suspended sludge anaerobic 92. A parameter associated with the operation of
growth process sludge blanket activated sludge process is:
system 2. Oxidation reactor (a) Sludge volume index
pond 2. Septic tank (b) Chemical oxygen demand
3. Imhoff tank (c) Physical oxygen demand
90. Identify different stages in the treatment of (d) Respiration rate
sewage. SSC JE (Civil) 16/11/2022
(a) Primary treatment and disinfection Ans. (a) : Sludge volume Index (SVI)–
(b) Primary treatment and secondary treatment • It indicates physical state of sludge in the biological
(c) Disinfection and secondary treatment aeration system.
(d) Primary treatment, secondary treatment and • Generally SVI value should be (50-150) ml/gm
disinfection • SVI is defined as volume occupied in ml by 1 gm of
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III solid in the mixed liquor after settling for 30 minutes
Ans. (d) : • It units is ml/gm.
Activated sludge process–
• The returned sludge from SST is active & rich in
microbial masses. Hence it is called activated sludge.
93. The Sludge Volume Index (SVI) ranges
between
(a) 0 to 50 ml/gr. (b) 50 to 150 ml/gr.
(c) 150 to 200 ml/gr. (d) 200 to 250 ml/gr.
RPSC AE DLB 21/05/2023
91. In which stage of sludge decomposition does Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
BOD fall rapidly and large volumes of methane 94. Which of the following statements regarding
gas along with small amount of other gases are low rate trickling filters is INCORRECT?
evolved? (a) Nuisance of psychoda fly is found in this type
(a) Acid fermentation (b) Acid regression of filters.
(c) Alkaline fermentation(d) Alkaline regression (b) Recirculation of sewage helps in reducing the
JSSC JE (Civil) 04/11/2022 ponding.
Environmental Engineering 619 YCT
 (c) BOD removal efficiency is 75-80%. Ans. (a) : Putrefaction– The typical destruction of a
(d) Purification of sewage is brought about by body after death by bacteria is termed as putrefaction.
aerobic bacteria which forms a bacterial film Bacteria from the bowel (e.g. clostridia) and lungs
around the particles. thrive in the anaerobic environment and spread around
the body.
GSECL VS JE 07/09/2022 Shift-I
• It is the first purification by action of anaerobic bacteria.
Ans. (b) : Low rate trickling filters- The anaerobic process–
(i) Purification of sewage is brought about by aerobic • The end products of anaerobic decomposition are
bacteria which form a bacterial film around the methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen.
particles. • More effective where the sewage is highly
(ii) The size of filter media is 25-75 mm stone aggregate concentrated and contains plenty of solids.
and depth of filter is 2-3 m. 99. The Secondary treatment of sewage is carried
(iii) BOD removal efficiency is 75-80% out by the use of
(iv) Nuisance of psychoda fly is found in this type of (a) Screens (b) Grit chambers
filters. (c) Trickling filters (d) None of the above
(v) Filtration gets clogged due to growth of algae and GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2
fungi which is known as ponding. Ans. (c)
• It can be prevented by adding chlorine or copper Treatment processes classified
sulphate. Secondary Complete
Preliminary Primary
or biological final/tertiar
95. In trickling filter B.O.D is reduced to treatment treatment
treatment y treatment
(a) 30 to 40% (b) 40 to 60% Grit Sedimentation Chemical De-
(c) 60 to 80% (d) 80 to 100% chamber tank flocculation chlorination
KRIDL JE (Civil) 29.01.2023 and
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. sedimentatio
n
96. In the treatment of sewage, identify the aerobic
Detritus Septic tanks Intermittent
biological unit from the following: tanks sand filters
M. Oxidation ponds N. Septic tanks Skimming Imhoff tanks Conventional
O. Imhoff tanks P. Anaerobic lagoons tanks low rate
(a) O (b) P (c) N (d) M trickling filter
HRRL(HPCL) 07.08.2021 Coarse and Modern high
Ans. (d) Oxidation ponds/stabilisation symbolic fine screens rate trickling
pond/ lagoon– filter
•Oxidation pond is an open flow through an earthen Activated
sludge
channel, which provide comparatively long detention treatment in
time of (2–6) weeks. During which micro- organism aeration tank
comes in contact with organic matter and carries out its Secondary
decomposition in the presence of oxygen in suspension . settling tank
Aerobic process Anaerobic process Oxidation
Trickling filter Septic tank ponds
Activated sludge Imhoff tank 100. If the sewage contains greases and fatty oils,
process Anaerobic lagoons they are removed in
Oxidation pond up flow anaerobic sludge (a) Grit chambers (b) Detritus tanks
Rotatory biological blanket reactor (c) Sedimentation tanks (d) Skimming tanks
contractor (RBC) ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023
Sludge digestion tank
Ans. (d) : Skimming tank – A skimming tank is a
97. Which of the following unit works in anaerobic chamber so arranged that the floating matters like oil,
conditions? fat, grease etc., rises and remains on the surface of the
(a) Sludge digestion tank wastewater (sewage) until removed, while the liquid
(b) Sedimentation tank or Trickling filters flows out continuously under partitions or baffles.
(c) Activated sludge treatment Therefore, this process in a skimming tank is known as
(d) More than one of the above skimming.
CHB JE 28/01/2023 Shift-I
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
98. The first stage of sewage purification by the
action of anaerobic bacteria is termed as
(a) Putrefaction (b) Liquefaction
(c) Clarification (d) Oxidation
ESE 19.02.2023 Paper-II
Environmental Engineering 620 YCT
101. The sedimentation process takes place in which Ans. (b) : Eutrophication- Water eutrophication is
types of wastewater treatment component? mainly caused by excessive loading of nutrients into
(a) Imhoff tank water bodies like N and P. Excessive nutrients come
(b) Aeration tank from both points pollution such as waste water from
(c) Sludge digestion tank industry and municipal sewage and non-point pollution
(d) Skimming tank like irrigation water, surface runoff water containing
fertilizer from farmland etc.
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift 2
105. As per CPCB, the effluent discharge standards
Ans. (a) : Imhoff tank– Two storey digestion tank.
for nitrate nitrogen in to inland surface water
• It is an improvement over septic tank. The limitation should NOT be more than:
of septic tank is the disturbance of sludge digestion due (a) 5 mg/l (b) 10 mg/l
to flow of water. (c) 20 mg/l (d) 15 mg/l
• Primary sedimentation chamber consist of flow of UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I
waste water only. Ans. (b) : As per CPCB and the environment
• Digestion chamber includes the collection of sludge (protection) rules 1936, general standards for
and its decomposition reaction. discharge of environment pollutants.
• Detention period = 2 to 4 hours (usually 2 hours). Inland
Public Land for
• Sedimentation process takes place in imhoff tank. Parameter surface
sewers irrigation
102. Which of the following statements about the water
secondary treatment of sewage is INCORRECT? Oil and grease 10 20 10
(a) Oxidation of organic matter occurs in (mg/ l)
trickling filters under aerobic conditions. Free ammonia 5.0 – –
(b) Primary treatment of sewage is not essential (mg/l)
for efficient working of contact beds. BOD [3 days 30 350 100
0
(c) Secondary treatment methods are broadly divided at 27 C] mg/ l
into filtration and activated sludge process. COD (mg/l) 250 – –
(d) Activated sludge is biologically active. Nitrate 10 – –
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III nitrogen (mg/ l)
Suspended 100 600 200
Ans. (b) :Secondary treatment of sewage is a biological
solids (mg/l)
process which involves enzymatic degradation of the
Lead (as Pb) 0.1 1.0 –
organic matter in sewage by the action of aerobic
mg/l, max
heterotrophic microbes.
• Oxidation of organic matter occurs in trickling filters 106. The process of reducing the volume and weight
of solid waste through biological decomposition
under aerobic conditions.
is known as:
• Secondary treatment methods are broadly divided into (a) aerobic digestion (b) pyrolysis
filtration and activated sludge process. (c) incineration (d) recycling
• Activated sludge is biologically active. MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-I
103. The presence of excess aquatic plants in lake Ans. (a) :
implies: • In aerobic digestion the volume and weight of solid
(a) mesotrophic (b) oligotrophic waste reduce through biological decomposition.
(c) eutrophication (d) pollutionz • Compositing process-
DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II Organic matter + O2 + aerobic bacteria → CO2 + NH3
Ans. (c) : + H2O + other end products + Energy
• Eutrophic lakes do have a high level of productivity, 107. Which of the following wastes gives the
because of an abundant supply of algal nutrients. maximum energy recovery?
• Eutrophication of lakes is a natural process under (a) Food waste (b) Metal waste
which lakes set infested with algae and silt up (c) Rubber waste (d) Plastic waste
gradually to become shallower and more productive DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-III
through the entry and cycling of nutrients like carbon, Ans. (b) :Energy recovery–Energy recovery from
nitrogen and phosphorus. waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste
material into usable heat electricity or fuel through a
104. Eutrophication of water bodies is caused by
variety of processes method used to generate energy
the: from municipal waste are thermal treatment,
(a) discharge of toxic substances combustions, gasifications, pyrolysis, anaerobic
(b) excessive discharge of nutrients digestion and landfill gas recovery.
(c) excessive discharge of suspended solids • The metal waste gives the maximum energy
(d) excessive discharge of chlorides recovery.
TNPSC AE CES Civil 06/01/2024
Environmental Engineering 621 YCT
108. Which of the following characteristics Ans. (a) : Biomedical waste– Biomedical waste means
categorizes a waste as hazardous? hospital waste which is containing infectious materials.
(a) Radioactivity (b) Biodegradability • Waste like as hospital diagnosis, treatment and
(c) Recyclability (d) Compostability immunization of humans and animals or in research
OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024 activities.
Ans. (a) : HIV, hepatitis B and C types of disease mainly occurs
• The characteristics waste as hazardous is radioactivity. due to biomedical waste.
• Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial. There 113. What are the health hazards which can be
are four basic characteristic to hazardous waste are caused by E-waste?
ignitability, corrosively, reactivity and toxicity. (a) Lung cancer (b) Brain damage
109. Which pattern of refuse collection proves to be (c) DNA damage (d) All of the above
economical for cities situated on sloping hills? KPSC AEE 16/06/2023
(a) Fan pattern (b) Interceptor pattern Ans. (d) : Electronic waste or E-waste–Electronic
(c) Radial pattern (d) Zonal pattern waste or e-waste in short is used as generic term to
(e) Answer not known include all types of wastes containing electrically
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023 powered components.
Ans. (d) : Zone pattern– • It includes ever growing range of obsolete electronic
• City is divided into suitable zones and separate devices such as computers, severs, monitors, TVs,
interceptor is provided for each zone. telecommunication devices such as mobile phones and
• More numbers of interceptors are provided in this pagers, audio and video devices, printers, scanner, fax
pattern. machines, refrigerators, etc.
• Suitable and economical for sloping area than flat • The negative health effects of these toxins on human
areas. include brain, heart, liver, kidney and skeletal system
Fan pattern– damage, DNA damage etc.
• Single treatment plant is located at a certain common 114. The term that is used to indicate the
point and the entire sewage flow is directed towards
wastewater from bathrooms, kitchens wash
this point.
basins is:
• Suitable for a city situated at one side of the natural
(a) Sullage (b) Rubbish
water body, such as river.
(c) Sewage (d) Refuse
110. Which of the following toxic substances is
Bihar DLRS 29.08.2023
normally found in E-waste ‘cathode ray tubes
(CRT)’? Ans. (a) : Sullage– The waste water from bath rooms,
(a) Cadmium (b) Boron kitchens, washing places and wash basins is defined as
(c) Magnesium (d) Chromium sullage.
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 Rubbish– In indicates secondary solid wastes from
Ans. (a) : Toxic substances:- Many electronic devices offices, residences and other buildings. It also include
contain hazardous substances, including heavy metals waste building materials like as broken furniture, paper
(e.g., lead, mercury, cadmium), flame retardants, and rays etc.
toxic chemicals Refuse– It may be in liquid, semi-solid or solid form.
→ When these substances reach into the environment, Refuse term is used to indicate what is rejected or left
they can contaminate soil, water, and air. out as worthless.
111. Which of the following municipal solid wastes 115. Dissolved oxygen in a stream is
CANNOT be recycled? (a) maximum at noon
(a) Plastics (b) Papers (b) minimum at noon
(c) Fruit peelings (d) Glasses (c) maximum at midnight
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I (d) same throughout the day
Ans. (c) : Separating, recovering and reusing Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
components of solid waste that may still have economic Ans. (a) : Dissolved oxygen in a stream is reaching
value is called recycling. saturation or maximum concentration at noon, because
Example–Paper, metal, glass, plastic and rubber etc. in the throughout the morning hours, oxygen
• Fruit peelings are not recycled municipal solid wastes. concentrations rise due to the net photosynthetic activity
112. Which of the following sources of solid waste of phytoplankton and other aquatic plants, activity of
has the highest chance of causing infections like phytoplankton and other aquatic plants, reaching
Hepatitis B and C through skin route if not saturation or maximum concentration at noun.
handled properly? • The daily dynamics of dissolved oxygen in a typical
(a) Biomedical (b) Municipal artisanal fish pond in the tropics. Minimum dissolved
(c) Electronic (d) Industrial oxygen concentration are usually encountered just prior
SSC JE (Civil) 16/11/2022 to sunrise.

Environmental Engineering 622 YCT

116. How much approximate time it takes to Ans. (c) : In a direct discharge type of station, several
decompose paper? collection trucks empty directly into the transport vehicle.
(a) 1 month (b) 2 months • In a storage discharge type of station, refuse is first
(c) 10-30 days (d) 7 days
emptied into a storage pit or onto a platform and then
Andaman PWD Architectural Asst. 19/02/2023
machinery is used to hoist or push the solid waste into
Ans. (c) : The approximate time various materials
the transport vehicle.
take to decompose.
Materials Time taken to decompose 121. Pyrolysis is a thermochemical treatment
Vegetables, leaves 3-4 weeks process for organic waste. Which of the
following products is NOT typically generated
Paper a few months (10-30 days)
during pyrolysis?
Cotton 5 months
(a) Landfill gas (b) Char
Wood 10-15 yrs
(c) Bio-oil (d) Syngas
Aluminium foil 200-500 yrs
MH WCD JE 16.07.2024 Shift-II
Polythene bags one million years
Thermocol it never decomposes Ans. (a) : Pyrolysis- Upon heating in closed containers
in oxygen free atmosphere, most of the organic
117. Which term is not related to 3R used for solid
Waste Management substances of solid waste can be split through a
(a) Recycle (b) Reduce combination of thermal cracking and condensation
(c) Replace (d) Reuse reactions into gaseous (syngas, like, H, CH4, CO, CO2
Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021 and other gases), liquid (tar or bio-oil) and solid (like
Ans. (c) : The rule of 3R to get rid of waste includes charcoal inert material) fractions, this process is known
reduce, reuse and recycle and replace (regeneration) and as pyrolysis.
not related to the 3R solid waste management. • Pyrolysis is process in which algal biomass is
1. Reduce–It means 'using less of a resource to save converted into bio-oil, syngas and charcoal in the
more of it more the future'. absence of oxygen or air at a moderate temperature.
Example–Switching off fans and lights when not in use 122. The porosity of the municipal solid waste varies
to save electricity. typically from ............... depending on the
2. Reuse–This strategy implies using things again to compaction and composition of the waste.
increase their life and utility.
(a) 0.10 to 0.15 (b) 0.70 to 0.85
Example–Reusing old jam or pickle bottle to act as
storage containers. (c) 0.20 to 0.30 (d) 0.40 to 0.67
3. Recycle–It means collecting materials such as paper, MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II
metals, glass, plastic etc. Ans. (d) : Permeability of compacted wastes- The
Example–Making a flower vase from a waste plastic hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes in an
bottle. important physical property because it governs the
118. The 3R Principle is a concept for ________. movement of liquids and gases in a landfill.
(a) sanitation Permeability by depends on the other properties of the
(b) water treatment solid material include pore size distribution, surface
(c) waste management area and porosity.
(d) plastic waste treatment Porosity- It represents of amount of voids per unit
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I overall volume of material. The porosity of municipal
Ans. (c) :See the above explanation. solid waste various typically from 0.40 to 0.67
119. The method of refuse disposal, involving burial depending on the compaction and composition of the
in trenches, is called. waste.
(a) Incineration (b) Composting 123. As per the Constitution of India, management
(c) Pulverization (d) There is no such method of the municipal solid waste is the
CHB JE 28/01/2023 Shift-I responsibility of the ______.
Ans. (b) : Composting– This method of refuse, disposal, (a) urban local bodies
involving burial in trenches is known as composting. (b) World Health Organization
•Composting is the natural process of recycling of (c) Central Government
organic matter into a valuable fertilizer that can enrich
soil and plants. (d) State Government
120. ................ is one of the collection systems of MH WCD JE 14.07.2024 Shift-II
municipal solid waste. Ans. (a) : As per the constitution of India,
(a) Hauled container system management of the municipal solid waste is the
(b) Tilt frame container system responsibility of the urban local bodies, all urban local
(c) Transportation of solid waste system bodies are required to meticulously plan, implement
(d) Garbage collection system and monitor, all system of urban service delivery
GSECL JE 2023 Shift-2 especially that of municipal solid waste.
Environmental Engineering 623 YCT
124. Identify the INCORRECT statement with 127. What are the two types of energy recovery
respect to incineration of municipal solid waste. processes?
(a) Incineration is a waste treatment process that (a) Exothermic process and combustion
involves combustion of waste at very high
(b) Combustion and pyrolysis
temperature.
(b) Incineration results in the production of ash, (c) Endothermic process and pyrolysis
flue gas, and heat. (d) Exothermic process and pyrolysis
(c) Incineration is feasible for the segregated SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
fraction of high calorific value waste Ans. (b) :Energy recovery–Combustion and pyrolysis
(d) Incineration of waste is done in the absence are two common methods for recovering energy.
of oxygen
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 The most common type of combustion is for thermal
energy recovery, such as direct incineration and refuse
Ans. (d) : Incineration- Incineration means buring the
solid waste in well designed furnace. derived fuel (RDF) combustion for heat generation and
• It is the best method for the treatment of solid waste power recovery.
• Oxygen and heat is supplied so that the organic 128. Which of the following statements about
matter decompose is a limited time and then burnt. sanitary landfilling is INCORRECT?
• It does not produce any odour or dust. (a) Refuse is dumped into a low-lying area.
• It is highly expensive process. (b) Waste is stabilised by the aerobic process
• Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves alone.
combustion of waste at very high temperature. (c) Another name of sanitary landfilling is
• Incineration results in the production of ash, flue gas, controlled tipping
and heat.
(d) In the sanitary landfilling, filling of refuse is
• Incineration is feasible for the segregated fraction of
high calorific value waste actually carried out by dividing the entire
125. Which of the following statements about landfill area into smaller portions called cells.
municipal solid waste is INCORRECT? SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
(a) It includes putrescible and non-putrescible Ans. (b) Disposal of MSW [Refuge] by sanitary land
solid wastes. filling -
(b) It consists of fine dust, silt and sand. In this method of refuse disposal, refuse is carried and
(c) It is solid waste that is transported with water dumped in to the low lying area under an engineered
as sewage.
(d) It consists of garbage. operation.
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I • It is also known as controlled tipping method.
Ans. (c) : Municipal solid wastes are the all short of • The filling of refuse is actually done in sanitary land
solid waste from community. The MSW is a filling by dividing the entire land fill area into
heterogeneous mixture of various kinds of solid wastes, smaller portion, called cells.
which are not transported with water as sewage and • The land filling operation is essentially a biological
may include. method of waste treatment since the waste is stabilized
1. Biodegradable (putrescible) food waste called garbage. by aerobic as well as anaerobic bacterial process.
2. Non-putrescible solid wastes, called rubbish. 129. How is municipal solid waste classified on the
• Besides rubbish and garbage, the MSW may include basis of its source?
ash's, fine dust, silt and sand obtained from street
(a) Residential waste and industrial waste
sweepings.
(b) House refuse, street refuse and trade refuse
126. Which of the following is the hazardous waste (c) Residential refuse and non-residential refuse
produced by petroleum refining industries?
(d) Industrial waste and non-industrial waste
(a) Lead ash
(b) Spent clay-containing oil SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
(c) Tarry residues Ans. (b) : Municipal solid waste–The municipal solid
(d) Cyanide-containing sludge waste is a heterogeneous mixture of various kinds of
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III solid wastes which are not transported with water as
Ans. (b) : sewage and may include biodegradable and the non-
biodegradable solid waste.
Processes Hazardous wastes
• Municipal solid waste, based on the type of generated
Petroleum refining/ Oily sludge/emulsion / Spent
waste. The refuse may be classified depending on its
Re-processing of catalyst/Slope oil/Organic
used oil / Recycling residues from process/ source as–
of waste oil Chemical sludge from waste/ 1. House refuse
water treatment/ Spent clay 2. Street refuse and
containing oil 3. Trade refuse.

Environmental Engineering 624 YCT

130. A coloured liquid containing chlorinated • Solid wastes generated from different zones of the
hydrocarbons and toxic compounds is known city differs in characteristics. There solid waste
as leachate. It is collected from comprises refuse, ordinary refuse (includes garbage
(a) aerated lagoons and rubbish) and trash.
(b) digested sludge tank • Garbage comprises items that are highly
(c) sanitary landfills decomposable (putrescible food, waste vegetables
(d) septic tank and meat scraps).
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 • The term used to indicate the sundry solid waste from
offices, residences and other buildings, waste
Ans. (c) : Leachate may be defined as liquid that has building materials, broken furniture, rags etc.
percolated through solid waste and has extracted 133. .............. is a thermal waste treatment
dissolved or suspended material from it. technique that can be understood as a
• In most sanitary landfill the liquid portion of the controlled combustion process with the
leachate is composed of the liquid produced from the primary objective of volume reduction and
decomposition of the waste and liquid that has entered energy recovery from the waste stream.
the landfill, from enternal sources such as surface (a) Land fills (b) Recycling
drainage, rainfall, groundwater and water from (c) Composite (d) Incineration
underground springs. CRPF SI 25/06/2023
131. A coastal city produces Municipal Solid Waste Ans. (d) : Incineration– Incineration is the most
(MSW) with high moisture content, high popular water treatment engineering technique, when a
organic materials, low calorific value and low thermal waste treatment technique that can be
inorganic materials. The most effective and understood as a controlled combustion process with the
sustainable option for MSW management in primary objective of volume reduction and energy
that city is recovery from the waste stream is known as
(a) composting (b) incineration incineration.
(c) dumping in sea (d) landfill • In this treatment technique, where by heat produced
from combustion can be recovered and converted to
DDA Architectural Assistant 28-08- 2023 electric power.
Ans. (a) : Composting– Composting of refuse is a • End products of incineration include ash, heat and
biological method of decomposing solid waste. combustion gases. Reduction of waste volume by 80-
• If the organic materials excluding plastics, leather 90% is achieved with incineration.
and rubber are separated from the solid wastes and Most sanitary method of refuse disposal and ensurers
are subjected to decomposition, either aerobically or complete destruction of pathogenic bacteria more than
an aerobically the remaining end product is called 80% volume reduction takes place by this process.
compost and humus. The entire process involving 134. Which of the following is NOT a primary air
both the separation and bacterial conversion of the pollutant?
organic solid wastes is known as composting. (a) Nitrogen oxide (b) Formaldehyde
• The final compost should have an earthy smell and a (c) Sulphur dioxide (d) Halogen compound
dark brown colour. DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023
• Moisture content of the compost mass should Ans. (b) : Primary pollutants–
however be controlled to ensure optimum aerobic (i) Sulpher dioxide (SO2)
decomposition, because excessive moisture will (ii) Corbon monoxide (CO)
make it difficult to maintain aerobic conditions, (iii) Nitrogen's oxide (NO & NO2)
while deficient moisture inhibits biological life. A (iv) Lead (Pb)
moisture content of about 55% should be established, (v) Hydrocarbon
so that aerobic biological activity may proceed at an (vi) Radioactive substances
optimum rate. (vii) Suspended particulate matter
(viii) Halogen
132. Among the a waste materials given in the (ix) Nitric oxide
options, identify the solid waste which are NOT Secondary pollutants–
categorized as 'Rubbish'. (i) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) (ii) Ozone (O3)
(a) Non-combustible metals (iii) Formaldehydes (iv) Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN)
(b) Plastics (v) Photo-chemical smog
(c) Residues from burning of wood charcoal 135. Primary air pollutants are-
(d) Paper and cardboards (a) Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
DSSSB AE 28.11.2022 Morning (b) Ozone and carbon monoxide
Ans. (c) : Rubbish contains most dry, non- (c) Sulphur dioxide and ozone
decomposable (non-putrescible) material- glass, rubber, (d) Nitrogen oxide and ozone
tin cans also or combustible material- paper, textiles, GATE CE 04/02/2024 Forenoon
wooden articles, etc. Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.

Environmental Engineering 625 YCT

136. As per Environment Protection act, 1986, what Ans. (b) : In India,EIA was undertaken for the first time
are the permitted noise limits (in decibel) for in 1978-79 for the assessment of river valley projects.
the silence zone during day time and night EIA has now been made mandatory under the
time? Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 for 29 categories
(a) 50 and 40 respectively of development activities involving investments of Rs.
(b) 40 and 30, respectively 50 crores and above.
(c) 50 and 60, respectively 140. Noise becomes harmful when it exceeds 75
(d) 60 and 50, respectively decibels (dB) and is painful above –––– dB.
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I (a) 80 (b) 100
(c) 140 (d) 120
Ans. (a) :
GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II
Category of Limits in dB (A) Leqx
Ans. (d) :Noise pollution–It can be defined as any
Area/zone Day time Night time unwanted or distributing sound that effects the health
Industrial area 75 70 and well being of human and other organism.
Commercial area 65 55 • According to WHO, noise above 65 dB can be
Residential area 55 45 considered as noise pollution.
Silence area 50 40 • To be very precious, noise becomes harmful when
it exceeds 75 dB and painful above 120 dB is painful.
• There are four categories of zones.
• Day time shall mean the period from 6.00 am to 141. The diffusional mechanism of dust removal
10.00 pm. equipment predominates when the particle
diameters are less than ............
• Night time shall mean from 10.00 pm to 6.00 am.
(a) 0.2 µ.m. (b) 0.02 µ.m.
• Silence zone is an area comprising not less than 100
(c) 0.01 µ.m. (d) 0.001 µ.m.
meters around hospitals, educational institutions,
courts, religious places or any other area which is Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 2
declared as such by the competent authority. Ans. (a) : Inertia and diffusion, two-functions of
the bag filter are also obvious for the separation of
137. The most significant harmful primary gaseous pollutants.
pollutant, found in vehicular emission is
• It is precise because the filter cloth has such a
(a) Carbon monoxide CO function or combined with the nature of the dust, that
(b) Carbon dioxide CO2 the leakage of polluted gas be minimized.
(c) Sulphur dioxide SO2 • The inertial effect of the bag filter is directly
(d) Ozone O3 related to the diameter of the particles. The diffusion
(e) Answer not known effect is the opposite of the inertia effect, when the
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 particle size of the dust particles is less than 0.2 µm.
Ans. (a) : The most significant harmful primary gaseous 142. ________ is a silent killer because it is colourless,
pollutant, found in vehicular emission is Carbon odourless, tasteless, and nonirritating.
monoxide (CO). It is a colorless, odorless toxic non- (a) Carbon dioxide (b) Carbon monoxide
irritating gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of (c) Nitrogen dioxide (d) Sulphur dioxide
fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I
a major source of carbon monoxide. Ans. (b) : Carbon monoxide is known as the silent
138. _____ released by incomplete combustion of killer. During breathing hamoglobin (Hb) Present in the
fossil also results in air pollution. blood, combines with the oxygen reversibly to form
(a) Carbon Monoxide (b) Oxygen oxy-haemoglobin (HbO2) Hb+O2→ HbO2.
(c) Methane (d) Nitrogen Oxide •Carbon monoxide (CO) as an air pollutant is
GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II mainly generated from automobiles.
Ans. (a) : Carbon Monoxide–It is a product from the 143. Which of the following options is NOT an
incomplete burning of fuels such as petrol and diesel. ozone layer depleting chemical?
• It is a product as a result of the incomplete (a) Carbon tetrachloride (b) Copper sulphate
combustion of carbon. (c) Hydrochloric acid (d) Methyl chloride
UPPCL JE (Civil) 21/02/2022 Shift-II
• CO is mainly released into the air by automobile exhaust.
• It is a poisonous gas. Ans. (b) : Ozone layer depletion– Ozone does occur in
the troposphere and plays an important role in the
139. EIA has now been made mandatory under the chemistry of air pollution, however, about 90% of the
Environmental Protection Act, 1986 for ______ total ozone content of our atmosphere occurs in the
categories of developmental activities involving stratosphere at altitude between 15 to 50 km it occurs
investments of Rs. 50 crores and above. between stratosphere and mesosphere.
(a) 30 (b) 29 (c) 31 (d) 28 • Primary reason for ozone layer depletion is CFC
GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024 (chlorofluoro carbon) or freons.
Environmental Engineering 626 YCT
• The ozone layer acts as a filter for ultra violet (UV) Ans. (c) :
radiation from the sun. Pollutant Time Industrial, Ecologically
• Methane, destroys and thus affords protection to the weighte residential sensitive
ozone layer, similarly, NO2 reacts with Cl and helps d , rural and area
to prevent the depletion of ozone layers. average other area (notified by
Ozone depending substances are chemicals that central
destroy the earth's protective ozone layer, they include. govt.)
• Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) Sulphur Annual 50 20
• Carbon tetrachloride dioxide 24 hours 80 80
• Methyl chloroform (SO2),
• Hydrochloroflurocarbons (HCFCs) µg/m3
• Hydrocholric acid Nitrogen Annual 40 30
dioxide 24 hours 80 80
• Methyle chloride
(NO2),
• Methyl bromide (CH3Br)
µg/m3
• Bromo chloromethane (CH2BrCl)
Particulate Annual 60 60
• Halons matter (size 24 hours 100 100
• Where copper sulphate is not responsible for less than
ozone depletion. 10 µg/m3)
144. According to IS : 4954-1968, the acceptable or PM10,
outdoor noise level in urban residential area is: µg/m3
(a) 25-35 dB (b) 45-50 dB Particulate Annual 40 40
(c) 35-45 dB (d) 50-60 dB matter (size 24 hours 60 60
MH WRD JE 12/08/2022 Shift-II less than
Ans. (c) : IS 4954-1968 : Recommendations for 2.5 µg/m3)
Noise abatement in Town planning– or PM2.5,
• The acceptable noise levels for outdoor and indoor µg/m3
levels in different types of residential areas. 146. Which one of the following is not the
Outdoor greenhouse gas?
Noise level (a) Carbon-dioxide (b) Ozone
Location
(dB) (c) Methane (d) Chlorofluorocarbon
(i) Rural 25-35 GPSC AE (Civil) 18/09/2022
(ii) Sub-urban 30-40 Ans. (b) : The effect of increasing concentration of
(iii) Residential (Urban) 35-45 carbon dioxide is the much talked about topic related to
(iv) Urban (residential business) 40-50 global warming which is known as the greenhouse
(v) City 45-55 effect.
(vi) Industrial area 50-60 • The green house gases act like a thermal blanket
surrounding the earth as due to the presence of green
INDOOR : house gases, the het remains within the atmosphere and
Noise level does not escape out of it.
Location
(dB)
•Atmospheric temperature rises because of the release
(i) Radio and TV studio 25-30 of CO2.
(ii) Music room 30-35 The major green house gases are-
(iii) Hospitals, classrooms, 35-40 (i) Carbon dioxide [CO2]– 57%
autidotira (ii) Chlorofloro carbon [CFC]-25%
(iv) Apartment, hotels, homes 35-40 (iii) Methane [CH4]– 12%
conference, rooms, small (iv) Nitrous oxide [N2O]– 6%
offices
147. Which of the following is NOT a green house
(v) Court rooms, private offices 40-45
gas?
libraries
(a) Nitrous Oxide (b) Methane
(vi) Large public office, banks, 45-50
(c) Nitrogen (d) Carbon dioxide
stores etc.
ISRO URSC TA 18.04.2024
(vii) Restaurant 50-55
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
145. As per NAAQS of India, what is the maximum
permissible amount of PM2.5 (microgram per 148. Pollution cases can be classified into ........
cubic meter) in residential areas in a day? types.
(a) 40 (b) 20 (a) 5 (b) 2
(c) 60 (d) 80 (c) 6 (d) 4
Odisha Lift Irr. AEE 21/06/2023 NBCC SITE INSPECTOR 11/07/2021
Environmental Engineering 627 YCT
Ans. (b) : There can be two types based on special (b) Carbon credits are created when greenhouse
dimension. They are localized pollution cases (spill gases rise above a baseline.
accidents) and diffused pollution cases. (c) Carbon credits are used in signatory countries
149. The Indian Parliament passed a Central to the Kyoto Protocol.
Legislation named Air Pollution Control Act in (d) Carbon credits correspond to a determined
the year : tradable quantity of greenhouse gas emissions.
(a) 1980 (b) 1983 SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
(c) 1982 (d) 1981 Ans. (b) :Carbon credits–It is a tradable permit or
SSC JE Civil 15/11/2022 Shift-I certificate that provides the holder of the credit the right
Ans. (d) : The air (prevention and control of pollution) to emit one ton of carbon dioxide or an equivalent of
act of 1981 or the air act, in short was a law passed by another greenhouse gas. The main goal for the creation
the parliament of India to prevent and central the of carbon credits is the reduction of emissions of carbon
harmful effect of air pollution in India. credits and another greenhouse gases from industrial
• The environmental (protection) Act, 1986. activities to reduce the effect of global warning.
• The water (prevention and control of pollution) Act, • It is used in signatory countries to the kyoto protocol.
1986. 153. Which of the following statements about soil
150. As per IS 13311 (part 1), the natural frequency pollution is INCORRECT?
of transducers for a path length of more than (a) The area treatment method to prevent soil
1500 mm is _________. erosion involves treating the natural water
(a) greater than or equal to 50 kHz courses.
(b) greater than or equal to 10 kHz (b) Irrigation water can cause salinisation of soil.
(c) greater than or equal to 20 kHz (c) In temperate regions, DDT has a half-life of
(d) less than 5 kHz 10–15 years.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I (d) Storing surplus rainwater by constructing
Ans. (c) :As per IS 13311 (part 1), natural frequency bunds, ponds, etc. belongs to the category of
of transducers for different path lengths– area treatment method.
Path length Natural Min. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
(mm) frequency of transducers Ans. (a) : Statement (a) is incorrect because the area
transducers dimensions of treatment method to prevent soil erosion typically
(kHz) (mm) involves techniques such as contour plowing, terracing,
members planting vegetation, constructing retaining walls, using
Up to 500 150 25 mulch and practicing contour flowing.
500 to 700 > 60 70 • These techniques aim to washed away by water or
700 to 1500 > 40 150 blown away by wind.
Above 1500 > 20 300 154. As per Bureau of Indian Standards, IS 2296-
151. Ozone layer is important for us to protect us 1982, the water classified under Category-D is
from UV rays. Which of the following is correct for
regarding ozone? (a) Fish culture and wildlife propagation
(a) Ozone is a non-pollutant gas. (b) Irrigation and industrial cooling
(b) Ozone gets converted into oxygen in the (c) Outdoor bathing
human body. (d) Drinking water sources with conventional
(c) Ozone is a pollutant gas for human beings treatment followed by disinfection
and non-pollutant gas for animals. KPTCL AE 23.07.2022
(d) Ozone is a pollutant gas for both animals and Ans. (a) : As per IS 2296-
human beings. Class Description
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I A Drinking water without conventional
Ans. (d) : The ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs a treatment by after disinfection
portion of the radiation from the sun preventing it from B water for outdoor bathing
reaching the planet surface. Most importantly, it absorbs
C Drinking water with conventional
the portion of UV ray. Ozone is a pollutant gas for both
treatment followed by disinfection
animal and human being.
D water for fish culture and wildlife
152. Which of the following statements about
propagation.
carbon credits is INCORRECT?
(a) The carbon credit system makes emissions a E water for irrigation industrial cooling
commodity. and controlled waste disposal.
Environmental Engineering 628 YCT
155. Which of the following statements is 158. Particulate matter (fly ash) carried in effluent
INCORRECT? gases from the furnaces burning fossil fuels are
(a) The sound pressure of the faintest fastest better removed by
sound that can be heard by a normal healthy (a) Cotton bag house filter
individual is about 10 micropascals. (b) Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
(c) Cyclone
Sound level, L = log10 Q (bels) (d) Wet scrubber
Qo
CHB JE (Civil) 28/01/2023
(b) Where Q = sound intensity, Q0 = reference Ans. (b) :
sound intensity
Removal process Purpose
(c) The sound pressure is expressed on a Cotton bag house To remove particulate
logarithmic scale. filter matter found in smoke
(d) Measurements of the sound pressure on vapours, dust mists
logarithmic scales are called levels. Electrostatic Particulate matter (fly ash)
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I precipitator carried in effluent gases
Ans. (a) : The sound pressure of the faintest fastest from the furnaces burning
sound that can be heard by a normal healthy individual fossil fuels.
is about 20 micropascals. Cyclone To remove particulates from
an air, gas or liquid stream
Sound level, L = log10 Q (bels) without use of filters
Qo
Wet scrubber To remove pollutant from a
• Measurements of the sound pressure on logarithmic furnace fule gas or from
scales are called levels. other gas streams.
156. Fill in the blank with the CORRECT option : Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) are widely used
The large quantities of construction dust from in-
cement, concrete, silica and wood are (a) thermal power stations
collectively classified as ______. (b) pulp and paper industries
(a) PM10 (b) PM11 (c) chemical industries
(c) PM15 (d) PM20 (d) minning and metallurgical industries
UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022 Shift-I (e) iron and steel plants
Ans. (a) : Pollution– Large quantities of construction (f) chemical industries etc.
dust from cement, concrete, silica and wood are 159. Electrostatic precipitators are used as pollution
classified as PM10. control device for separation of
(a) SO2 (b) NO2
• PM10 means particle matter less than or equal to 10 (c) Hydrocarbon (d) Particulate matter
micrometers in diameter that is invisible to the naked UKPSC AE 16.08.2023 Paper-2
eye.
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
• Diesel engine exhaust of plant and other vehicles is
160. 'London Smog' was primarily caused by
also a large contribution to PM10.
(a) Burning of coal
157. According to environment pollution rules (b) Burning of oil
(1986), what is the permissible pH value of (c) Eruption of a volcano
effluents to discharge into inland surface (d) Forest fire
water? KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023
(a) 0 to 5.5 (b) 5.5 to 9.0 Ans. (a) : London smog– London smog usually
(c) 9.0 to 11.5 (d) 11.5 to 14.0 occurs during early morning house coal containing
SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023 large amount of sulphur, produce SO2 on burning
Ans. (b) : As per environment pollution rules 1986, which can result in smog. The main constituent of
general standards for discharge of environment london-type smog is soot, flyash, sulphur dioxide,
pollutants. sodium chloride and calcium sulphate particles. If
For inland surface water– concentrations are high enough sulphur dioxide produces
• Suspended solid – 100 ppm sulphuric acid. Due to the presence of reducing impurities
it is known as reducing smog. SO2 can severely affect
• pH value – 5.5 – 9.0 respiratory system. Higher amounts of SO2 can severely
• Temperature – 5 0C effect respiratory system. Higher amounts of SO2 can
• BOD at 5 days 200C –30 mg/l even lead to depth great smog of London in 1952 caused
• COD – 250 mg/l death of more than 4000 people.

Environmental Engineering 629 YCT

 FIBERS
Fiber is a class of material which are having
continuous filaments or having discrete elongated
pieces similar to the length of thread.
Burlap is coarse jute or hemp which is a natural
fibers. Hessian is a jute fabric. Silk and cotton are
produced from natural fibres.
Generally 1% of fibre is used in concrete. PLASTICS
Types of fibres Types of plastics
Steel fibres There are many types of plastic some of them like
The diameter maybe vary from 0.25 to 0.75 mm. PVC, RPVC, HDPE, GRP and FRB, coloured
Use of steel fibres makes significant improvement in plastic sheets are mostly used as a construction
flexural, impact and fatigue strength of concrete. material.
Steel fibres have finally strength i.e. 280 to 440 PVC
N/mm2 as well as high young's modulus. PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride) it is similar to
Steel fibres are used in shortcrete, precast concrete polyethlene.
construction and tunniel lining work. Globally over 50% of PVC is manufactured
products are used in construction.
It is resistant to fire, resistant to watery resistant to
corrosion and has light weight.

Carbon fibres-
They have very high tensile strength 2110 to 2815
N/mm2.
They are available in low weight.

RPVC (Rigid Polyvinyl Chloride)-

It is also termed as UPVC (Unplasticized Polyvinyl
Chloride).
It is more rigid and having very good tensile
strength.
It is more durable, strong and hard.
It has great stability.
UPVC or RPVC is often used in the building
Carbon fibres are use in cladding panels and shells industry as a low maintenance material.
and mostly used to reinforce composite materials. It is used for plumbing and drainage which consists
Glass fibres- of waste pipes, drain pipes, gutters and down pipes.
Glass may be softened and drawn mechanically into HDPE (High Density Polyethylene)-
thread or glass wool that finer than silk. HDPE is a polyethylene thermoplastic.
Tensile strength approaching 70,000 kg/m2. It has high tensile strength and good impact
25 mm of glass wool is equivalent in terms of resistance.
thermal insulation of 42 mm of brick 62 cm of It is light weight and has very low moisture
concrete. absorption.
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 630 YCT
 It can withstand temperature upto 120oC or 248oF
for short periods and 110oC continuously.
It is used for pipe fitting, wear plates, hinges and
cutting boards.
It is used for making water pipes for domestic water
supply
It is also used for making folding chairs and tables.
GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastic)-
It is uses in drinking water systems, cooling water
systems, waste water systems, sewage systems, gas
systems.
GRP brick panels can be used in the construction of Types of artificial timber
composite housing.
MPPT – Market potential for poly-timber
PMNW – Potential market for natural wood
PMLAS – Potential market for light aluminium sections
PMCPM – Potential market for ceiling proofing
materials.
ADVANCED CONCRETING METHODS
Under Water Concreting
FRP (Fibre glass reinforced plastic)- Bottom dump bucket or tremie pipers are used in
It has a good dimensional stability such that it holds under water concreting.
its overall form and shape even under severe Tremie method is an effective method of placing
mechanical and environmental stresses all around. concrete under water. Tremie means hopper.
It is durable and has a long working life.
The translucent FRP dome-lights can be used in
industrial, commercial and public building.
It is used for making roof sheets and doors and
window frames.
It is used for concrete shuttering as it gives the
excellent costing of concrete.

ARTIFICIAL TIMBER
The artificial timber is made of enhanced, modified
and thermoplastic material that is filled with wood
fibre and plant fibre.
It is termite proof as well as moisture proof lower
acidic or alkaline chemicals.
It has better insulation against heat and sound.
It is eco-friendly material and lighter than natural
wood.
It has higher strength and low density.
It is used to make door and window frames, planks,
round and square sections for furniture. In tremie method a tremie pipe is used to transport
It is used as a ceiling proofing material in the concrete, diameter of this pipe is 20 cm and is
construction line. easy to adjust its length.
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 631 YCT
 Conveying of RMC
After preparation of concrete in plant it is very
important that prepared concrete should be
transported at required place without disturbing its
characteristics like strength, workability, consistency
like wise.
Method adopted for conveying concrete are-
• Mortar pan • Crane, bucket and ropeway
• Belt conveyor • Skip and hoist
• Pump and pipeline • Wheel borrow, handcart
• Truck mixer and dumper
• Chute
Transit mixer

Concrete having slump about 15 to 20 cm is poured

into funnel, when whole length of pipe is filled with
concrete tremie pipe is lifted up using power hoist.
Properties of under water concrete-
No compaction requires, as hydrostatic pressure of
water does the same.
A high water/cement ratio is required for high
consistency.
Quantity of course aggregate should be 1.5 to 2 Transit mixer is simply a truck mounted mixer
times that of fine aggregates. having capacity 4 to 7 m3.
Ready mix concrete (RMC) For longer transportation transit mixer gives better
results.
Concrete, which is mixed at a central batching plant
and transported at the site by a suitable means like The safe time of transportation of RMC is lower
belt conveyor, transit mixture, chute is called as value of 90 minutes and time taken for 300
ready mix concrete. revolution of drum.
Tremix concreting method
In this method, excess water from all concrete is
removed by vaccum dewatering technique.
Equipments used in tremix concreting-
• Vaccum pump • A top cover
• Filter pads • Power trowel
The tremix vacuum system is a method for laying
high quality concrete floors at an acceptable cost.
Modes of ready mix concrete The tremix equipment for dewatering of concrete by
the vacuum process consists of vacuum pump P
• Plant mixed concrete- 4001, a top cover and filter pads.
Concrete is mixed in central batching plant. Then it Tremix vacuum system has reduce the water content
is transported to the site in agitator truck (2 to 6 in concrete by 20-25%.
revolution). Tremix vacuum system has increased compression
• Transit mixed type- and wear resistance, it reduced risk of shrinkage of
Mixing is done in agitator trucks, drum in which concrete.
concrete is kept revolve continuously around its In making tremix floor , the tremix vacuum pump is
central axis keeps concrete in uniform condition. used.

• Shrink mixed concrete- Special Concretes

It is combination of plant mix type and transit mix Roller compacted concrete-
type, in which concrete is mixed partly in plant and It is advanced type of concrete which is vitally used
partly during transit. is dam construction.

Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 632 YCT

 It is lean and almost dry concrete which is Fromwork is generally made from inexpensive timer
compacted with use of vibratory roller. planks, These are joined to form the required moulds
Due to roller compaction, it has high compressive of slab, beams, columns, foundations etc.
strength. Formwork consists of two parts: Mould or platform
It is more durable and has high shear strength. and Support system or centering.
Due to roller compaction, no patch of honey
Formwork for beams
combing occurs on the surface and the sides.
Roller compacted concrete is placed in thin layers so The soffit of the beam is supported by horizontal
as to allow complete compaction. planks and the sides are either provided along with
The thickness of layer ranges from 200 mm to 300 the formwork of slab or if a stand-alone separate
mm. beam, the sides are supported by shorings.
Roller compacted concrete is used as a base concrete
in the road construction (Delhi-Mathura).
High Impact Resisting Concrete :
It is more tough and has great resistance to abrasion.
It is hard. Hence it has great resistance to wear and
tear, indentation or penetration and scratching.
This type of concrete is moreover used in
constructing the industrial floor.
It is also used in constructing the railway platform
where the activities of goods, luggages etc are taken
place.
It is also used in constructing the air-port runways
and the dock yard.
Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) : Formwork for Slabs
A composite material consisting of mixtures of
Large planks, plywood or steel plates are used to
cement, mortar or concrete and discontinuous,
discrete, uniformally spread steel fibres. make the platform for slab.
It has high flexural strength and high resistance to The platform is supported on a number of timber
impact. poles or steel trestles which can be easily raised or
It avoids corrosion rust strains and it increases static lowered for purpose of levelling.
as well as dynamic tensile strength.
SFRC is used in tunnel lining, parkings, highways
pavements, airport runways, shotcrete, precast
concrete, industrial flooring and explosive resistant
structures etc.
Steel fiber content in SFRC is 0.5 to 2.5% by
volume of mix steel fiber content (according to
weight per volume) is 1% 780 N/m3.
ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Formwork
The moulds made up from some rigid material such Formwork for columns
as timber or steel plates are called "fromwork". The planks are built to form the vertical mould of
the column and the planks are supported by shoring.
The foundation of the column is supported by
formwork in the pit dug for that purpose.

Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 633 YCT

 Formwork for Well Foundation Pre-fabricated Construction
For placing concrete in well-type foundation, or for The method in which the various components of the
large diameter concrete piles, a tremie is used as building structure such as linear member (beam,
formwork.
column, lintel etc.) rigid frames, roofing and
The tremie is a pipe with a large funnel on top and
the length of the tremie can be increased by adding flooring member, R.C. door and window, wall
sections of pipe, whenever required for deep panels, etc. are casted in the factory and then
foundations. transported to the site where they are assembled is
Materials used for Formwork called as pre-fabrication and precast.
Usually, the timber scantlings consisting of
softwood planks and joists are very suitable.
However, for large projects involving repeated use
of the same formwork, steel formwork is used.
• Timber
Planks of rosewood chir, babbul, mango, neem,
jungle , wood etc. are most commonly used for
formwork.
It must be cheap, easily available and easy to work The pre-fabricated structures can be easily
manually or on machines. transported, assembled and dismantled. After
Lightweight and Stiff to avoid excessive deflection.
dismantling, again it is transported to the required
Not too green and not too dry and free from flaws,
knots etc. place where it can be reassembled easily.
The maximum allowable bending stress in 8.4 MPa A house being build with prefabricated concrete
3
and modulus of elasticity should be 9.8 × 10 MPa panels.
or more. Prefabricated steel and glass sections are widely
• Plywood used for the exterior of large buildings.
Plywood sheets bound with synthetic resin adhesive Pre-fabrication has become widely used in the
are widely used and its thickness is between 3 to 18 assembly of aircraft and spacecraft, with
mm.
components such as wings and fuselage sections
Sizes less than 6 mm are used as lining in the timber
formwork for getting a smooth surface finish or for often being manufactured in different countries or
curved surfaces. states from the final assembly site.
The advantage of plywood formwork is rapid fixing Methods of pre-fabrication
and stripping of formwork , no warping, swelling or Plant pre-fabrication: When the process in which
shrinkage during setting of concrete and have impact the various precast concrete components are
resistance.
manufactured in factory itself.
• Steel Site pre-fabrication: When the process in which
Steel formwork is common for big projects and for
the various precast concrete components are
repetitive type of work where formwork of same
size is required again and again. manufactured on site itself but not in factory.
The advantages of steel formwork are easy to Components of Pre-fabrication Work:
assemble, gives smooth surface and high strength Linear members: It includes the member like
and impact value. beams, lintels, columns, walls which are precasted
Stripping time of different type of for pre-fabrication work.
member according to IS : 456 : 2000- Rigid frames: It includes the R.C.C. portal frames.
Member Stripping time Roofing and flooring members: Various roofing
Vertical formwork of column, beam 16 - 24 Hours and flooring members are prefabricated in the
and wall factory and then transported to the site where they
Soffit of slabs (prop left under) 3 days are assembled.
Soffit of beam (prop left under) 7 days R.C. doors and window and Wall panels.
Removal of props for slab- Soil Reinforcing Techniques
(i) Spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days To make the soil reinforced by geosynthetic
(ii) Spanning over 4.5 m 14 days materials like geogrids, geotextiles or
Removal of props for beam- geocomposites, wire mesh rod of metals, wire grid,
(i) Spanning upto 6 m 14 days horizontal strip of metal which increases the tensile
(ii) Spanning over 6 m 21 days strength of soil.
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 634 YCT
 Derricks :
These are mounted on triangulate frame and their
load carrying capacity is 5-10 MT and its jib height
is 30 m. It is mainly used for factory columns,
trusses, frames, etc.

Geogrids are more suitable for non-cohesive soil

like sand or fine aggregates and grainy soil
containing gravels.
Geotextiles or reinforcing geocomposites are more
suitable for cohesive i.e. clay and fine-grained soils
i.e. loess.
The main object to provide the soil reinforcing
techniques is to increase tensile strength in the earth
mass in locations where the shear stresses are Crawler Cranes :
developed and finally it increases the stability of the When sites conditions are bad and ground is not
structure. levelled crawler cranes proves efficient and most
HOISTING AND CONVEYING EQUIPMENT suited for such conditions.
Crawler crane move slowly, but are capable to move
Hoisting Equipment on rough terrain and can travels with load hanging in
The equipment used for operation of hoisting is position.
called as hoisting equipment. Conveying Equipments
Hoisting means it is an operation consisting of Belt Conveyors :
lifting a load from one location and transport it to For the handling and transporting of materials belt
required location and then loading it down. conveyors are used. Belt conveyor carry a
Tower Cranes : continuous flow material at relatively high speed.
Tower cranes are the non-swinging type cranes Dumpers :
mounted on high steel tower. Dumper is a self propelled machine which works
with a diesel engine. It consists of a trolley or
container fitted on a truck, which can be tilted in one
or the other direction.
Dumper are used for loading, conveying and
dumping the material.
Tractor :
A tractor is a self propelled machine which works
with diesel engine having horse power varying from
20 to 200. Tractor are generally provided with
various attachments such as a dozer, scraper,
harrow, plough etc.
EARTH MOVING MACHINERY
Excavation Equipment
Bulldozers :
Bulldozers are the cheapest and first choice for
excavating and moving earth upto 100 m.
Bulldozer may be used for clearing the site.

These cranes are suitable for tall structure, high rise

building construction of buildings in conjusted area
in assembling of high industrial plants.
Mobile Cranes :
The mobile cranes are either tyre mounted or crawl
mounted. These are fittend on trucks with special
arrangements and facility.
They comes under a wide variety of design and
capacity, generally with 360o rotation or slewing
circle a low pivot and luffing jib.
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 635 YCT
 Bulldozers are high-powered tractors with crawler Drag Lines :
tracks fitted with a mould board or blade at the front It is most flexible excavating tool. However they are
for excavation upto a depth of 0.4 m by pushing the more suitable where swampy condition prevent
loosened material ahead of the machine. other equipment from being used.
Scrapers :
Scrapers are mainly used for earth work operations
of roads. It consist of a scrap with cutting edge.

It has more reach than a shovel both for excavating

as well disposal. It can dig far below its base almost
The capacity of scraper depends upon capacity of
bowl, its output depends on capacity of tractor type in any location.
of materials, haulling distance, management skilled Compaction Equipment
operators etc. Plain Rollers :
The capacity of scraper varies from 7.6 m3 and The plain steel rollers weighing from 5 m to 15 m
above. are used for ordinary rolling work, where deep
Power Shovels : compaction is not required.
Power shovel is an equipment used for excavating
earth. It has good control over digging.
Sheep Footed Rollers :
Whenever the compaction is to be done to a great
depth the place like in embankments or canal sheep
foot rollers are used.

These are mounted on crawler tracks or on rubber

tyre wheels.
JCB :
It is a typical type of multi-purpose excavator
machine which is based upon a tractor power unit
and very popular in the construction industry and The pressure variation below its feet is 4 to 7 kg/cm
commonly used by building contractors due to its and 25 to 70 kg/cm for light and heavy rollers
versatility of multi-purpose working. respectively.
Sheepsfoot rollers are used for compacting fine
grained soil such as heavy clays and silty clays.
Pneumatic Rollers :
In pneumatic tyred rollers, its weight plays an
important role while compacting soil with the helps
of kneading and vibrating. In this type of rolling
compaction is due to its tyred wheel.

Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 636 YCT

 These rollers can compact upto a depth of 60 cm and
are suitable for any type of soil.
Low workable concrete which contains large size
Vibratory Roller :
aggregates > 75 mm also mixed in it.
Vibratory rollers are the recent development of
Mixing efficiency of tilting mixer is depends upon.
compacting dry and lean concrete.
(i) Angle and shape of drum
Heavy rollers which vibrates while rolling is used
(ii) Angle and size blade
for the compaction of dry lean concrete. Mainly for
construction of construction of dams and pavements. Disadvantage of this mixer is sticking of concrete to
the bottom of drum.
CONCRETE MIXTURE
(c). Reversing type mixer -
A. Drum type mixers-
It is similar to non tilting type mixer but in this case
In this case concrete ingredients are mixed in a drum
reversal of rotation takes place for different action.
which is actually in double conical frustum shape.
These are suitable for dry concrete mixer.
(a) Non-Tilting type mixers-
B. Pan type mixers-
This types of mixers are not allowed to tilt and the
Pan type concrete mixers consists a circular pan in
drum rotates about its horizontal axis.
which concrete is mixed.
The concrete which is being mixed in the drum falls
Concrete mix is collected after mixing through
into the inclined chute and get discharge out
central hole provided in the pan.
ingredients are charged from one end and prepared
Pan type mixers are more efficient among the all
concrete is delivered from the other end.
types of batch mixers.
When a non-tilting mixers are used there is a
Concrete does not stick to the pan of this mixers.
possibility of vulnerable to segregation.
Used for small projects.
Rapid discharge of concrete is not possible.
Suitable for small materials < 75 mm.

(b) Tilting type mixers-

It is conical in nature and revolves around an
inclined axis. It can be tilted into different position STONE CRUSHERS
for discharging and mixing. It is most commonly used in road construction work,
It is rapid discharge process and used for large railway track work, railway, water conservation,
projects. chemical industries, mine and melting.
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 637 YCT
Types of Crusher
Primary crushers
Jaw crusher

Impact crusher

HOT MIX BITUMEN PLANT

Hammer mill
Secondary crushers
Cone crushers

BITUMEN PAVER

Roll crushers
Hammer mills
FLOOR POLISHING MACHINE

PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT

The method of driving a pile forcelly into the ground
is called as pile driving. The piles should be driven
vertically.
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 638 YCT
 Questions Asked in Previous Years Classification of prefabrication construction system–
(i) Partial prefabricated open system
1. Which of the following machines can be used
(ii) Open prefabricated system
for the top-soil removal?
(iii) Large prefabrication
(a) Jack hammer drill
(iv) Closed system of prefabrication
(b) Scraper
(v) Off site system
(c) Shuttle car
(vi) Cost in situ system
(d) Shredder
(vii) Total prefabrication
UPSSSC JE 19/12/2021
5. Low-emissivity coating on a glazing unit
Ans. (b) : Scraper– It is a machine can be used for the
top-soil removed. (a) Increases the SHGC
(b) Increases the VLT
• The bulb scrapes up the earth as the wagon pushes
(c) Reduces the SHGC
forward and forces the excavated material into the
wagon. (d) Increases the VLT and SHGC
CHB Asst. Architect 05.02.2023
2. Which material is commonly used as a thermal
insulation in buildings due to its low thermal Ans. (c) : Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)– The
conductivity and resistance to moisture. percentage of total solar radiant energy that is
(a) Fiberglass (b) Concrete transmitted through the assembly. This is the essential
characteristic for solar gain calculation. For ordinary
(c) Steel (d) Aluminum
windows without special coatings, the SHGC and the
RITES AM 05/05/2024
VLT are the same and sometimes called the shading
Ans. (a) : An insulating material, also called a thermal coefficient (SC).
insulator is any material that impedes heat transfer via However, with modern coated windows, the SHGC is
conduction, convection or radiation. It helps regulate
almost always lower than the VLT. Such window
the temperature of an object by reducing unwanted heat system are generally referred to as lowemissivity or low
gain or less.
and are used in most commercial construction.
Types of insulation material–
6. For high rise buildings, which types of crane
(i) Thermal insulation material – Fiberglass, mineral
are used
coal cellulose, polyurethane foam, polystyrene,
(a) Derrick crane
(ii) Electrical insulation material– Rubber, glass,
(b) Overhead gantry crane
ceramics plastics, mica etc.
(c) Tower crane
3. Which of the following tool is used to make
(d) Traveller crane
cylindrical holes by cutting the material?
JKPSC AE 02.10.2023
(a) Plumb bob (b) Hangers
Ans. (c) : Tower crane - It is used to build tall
(c) Measuring rape (d) Drill bits
structure such as skyscrapers. the basic components of a
MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-II
tower crane are a vertical tower also known as a mast
Ans. (d) : Drill bits is used to make cylindrical hole by and an outstretched jib.
cutting the materials such as wood metal, plastic and
Gantry crane - It is used for shipping dock, Port and
masonry. It typically consist of a rotating cutting tool
Lifting cargo off ship.
called a drill bit, which is powered either manually or
by motorized drill. 7. Which of the earth excavating equipment is
most suitable to excavate earth from a lower
Drill bit tools comes in various sizes and types
level?
depending on the specific application and material
(a) Power Shovel (b) Back-hoe
being drilled.
(c) Drag line (d) Bulldozer
4. Which of the following is NOT a type of
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
prefabricated construction system.
Ans. (b) : Back-hoe of the earth excavating equipment
(a) Partial prefabricated open system
is most suitable to excavate earth from a lower level.
(b) Open prefabricated system
8. Which of the following is NOT a drilling and
(c) Granular prefabricated system
boring tool in carpentry work?
(d) Large panel prefabricated system (a) Auger Bit
Odisha Lift Irr. JE 21/06/2023 (b) Carpenter's Brace
Ans. (c) : Prefabricated construction system– (c) Gimlet
Prefabricated structure are used for sites, which are not (d) Chisels
suitable for normal construction method. MH PWD CEA 28/12/2023 Shift-II
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 639 YCT
 Ans. (d) : Auger Bit–Auger is a tool that is used for 11. High powder content is a characteristic of
deep boring. which type of concrete?
Carpenter's brace–A brace is a hand tool used with a (a) Light weight concrete
bit (drill bit or auger) to drill holes, usually in wood. (b) Vaccum concrete
Pressure is applied to the top while the handle is rotated. (c) Ready mixed concrete
Gimlet– It is a hand tool for drilling small holes, (d) Self - compacting concrete
mainly in wood, without splitting. DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-II
• A smaller tool of larger size s called on auger. Ans. (d) : Self compacting concrete :–
9. During the construction of tall buildings, the • Self compacting concrete first introduced in Japan.
equipment used for hoisting, building materials • This type of concrete, which can flow and fill into
to the upper floors is a every corner of formwork, even in the presence of
(a) Goods lift congested reinforcement, purely by means of its own
(b) Capsule lift weight and without the need of vibrating compaction,
(c) Gantry crane tamping etc.
(d) Tower crane • In SCC, high amount of supplementary cementitious
materials, upto 70% of the total powder content, are
Andaman PWD Arch. Asst. 18/02/2023 Shift-III
added.
Ans. (d) : Tower crane– Tower cranes mainly used
Example:– Fly ash, silica flume, blast furnace slag
for transferring and lifting capacity from one place to
etc.
another place. It is used during the construction of tall
• Self compacting concrete is characterized by high
building for hoisting building materials to the upper
powder content.
floors.
12. The concrete in which no preliminary tests are
Gantry crane– Gantry cranes are widely used in
performed for designing the mix is called
industrial manufacturing to lift and move materials
(a) Rich concrete
supplies and products.
(b) Controlled concrete
Capsule lift– It is also known as glass lifts. It is
(c) Lean concrete
installed on the exterior face of the building or in the
(d) Ordinary concrete
lobby or at a place where it can enhance the elevation
TNPSC AE Civil 11.07.2022
and look of building.
Ans. (d) : The concrete are mainly divided into 2
10. Which of the following special types of concrete
categories ordinary concrete and controlled concrete.
is a crack fighter?
Ordinary concrete– The concrete in which no
(a) Ultra-High Strength Concrete
preliminary tests are performed for designing, the mix is
(b) Polymer Impregnated Concrete called ordinary concrete.
(c) Ferro-cement Concrete Control concrete– The concrete in which preliminary
(d) Fiber Reinforced Concrete tests are performed for designing, the mix is called
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 controlled concrete.
Ans. (c) : Ferro-cement Concrete–Ferro-cement is a 13. Crack Arrest mechanism is observed in
composite material in which the filler material, cement (a) High Strength Concrete
mortar is reinforced with fibres, usually steel mesh (b) Self-compacting concrete
dispersed throughout the composite, which results in (c) Fibre reinforced concrete
better in structural performances than individual ones. (d) Geo-polymer concrete
• In rationally designed ferro-cement structures the ISRO Scientist Eng . (Civil) 07/01/2024
reinforcements consists of small diameter wire Ans. (c) : Fibre reinforced concrete–A fiber
meshes where in uniform distribution of reinforced concrete requires a considerably greater
reinforcement is made possible throughout the amount of fine aggregate than that for conventional
thickness of the element because of the distribution concrete for convenient handling.
of such reinforcement over the entire matrix high • For FRC the cement paste required ranges between
resistance to cracking is achieved. 35 to 45% as against 25 to 35% in conventional
• Toughness, fatigue resistance, impermeability etc. concrete.
also improved. • The first flexural cracking load on a FRC member
• So, ferro-cement is a special types of concrete is a increases due to crack arresting mechanism of the
crack fighter. closely spaced fibers.

Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 640 YCT

 (c) Chute method
(d) Bucket placing method
DDA JE Civil 29/03/2023 Shift-III
Ans. (c) :
• The placing of concrete in an underwater
environment is done by Tremie method, Grouting
method and Bucket placing method.
• Chute method is used for underground concreting.
17. Identify the incorrect statement about
shotcrete:
(a) Shotcrete is used for thin, lightly reinforced
sections.
(b) Shotcrete is more formally called
pneumatically applied mortar or concrete.
← Behavior of fiber reinforced concrete (c) Shotcrete is used in stabilizing rock slopes.
• Enhance tensile strength is the primary purpose of (d) Shotcrete is the name given to mortar or
fiber reinforced concrete. concrete conveyed through a hose and
14. What is the primary purpose of fiber- pneumatically projected at a low velocity
reinforced concrete? onto a backup surface.
(a) Increase workability DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023
(b) Improve aesthetic appearance Ans. (d) : Shotcrete:– Shotcreting is a process that
(c) Enhance tensile strength involves spraying or depositing mortar made from very
(d) Reduce cost fine concrete on a prepare surface the spray velocity is
PSSSB JE (Civil) 21.01.2024 very high and the material deposited in surface is called
Ans. (c) : See the explanation of the above question. shotcrete.
(i) Shotcrete is used in stabilizing rock concrete.
15. Which of the following is a light weight and
manufactured aggregate, which is used to (ii) Shotcrete is used thin, lightly reinforced sections.
produce lightweight concrete? (iii) Shotcrete is more formally called pneumatically
DSSSB JE TIER-2 27.09.2023 applied mortar or concrete.
OR 18. Which of the following types of vibrators is
Which of the following is an artificial suitable for compacting screed concrete layer
aggregate? laid on existing floors with thickness less than
(a) Sandstone (b) Basalt 20 cm?
(c) Bloated clay (d) Granite (a) Form vibrator (b) Internal vibrator
MPPGCL JE 29/04/2023 Shift-I (c) Surface vibrator (d) Vibrating table
DDA JE Civil 01/04/2023 Shift-I
Ans. (c) : Light-weight aggregate concrete:– Very
often light weight concrete is made by the use of light Ans. (c) : Surface vibrator: These are also known as
weight agg. We have seen that different light-weight screed board vibrators. Surface vibrators are used for
agg. have different densities. floor and roof slabs and pavement surface. These are
Naturally when this aggregate is used, concrete of effective only up to a thickness of 150 mm of concrete
different densities are obtained. By using expanded but can be used up to 250 mm. Operating Frequency is
vermiculite, a concrete of density as low as 300 kg/m3 4000 cycle per minuet
can be produced, and by the use of expanded slag, Formwork Vibrator: These are also known as external
sintered flyash, bloated clay etc. a concrete of density or shutter vibrator and are used where compaction of
1900 kg/m3 can be obtained. concrete is required to be done in a very thin or very
• The strength of the light-weight concrete may also densely congested reinforced section.
very from about 0.3 N/mm2 to 40 N/mm2 19. ____________ vibrators are used for
• Bloated clay agg. is an artificial agg. compacting fresh concrete in columns, thin
walls or in the casting of precast units.
16. The placing of concrete in an underwater
(a) Platform (b) Surface
environment, which of the following methods
(c) Formwork (d) Screed
or techniques is NOT suitable?
(a) Tremie method UPPCL JE 22/06/2022 Shift-I
(b) Grouting method Ans. (c) : See the above explanation.
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 641 YCT
20. ................ is nothing but a table vibrator, but it 24. ............. is one of the widely adopted methods
is larger in size and this is used in the for transporting concrete vertically up for
manufacture of large prefabricated concrete multistorey building construction
elements such as electric poles, railway sleepers (a) Hoist
etc. (b) Chute
(a) Surface vibrator (c) Rope way
(b) Platform vibrator (d) Transmit mixer
(c) Chair vibrator Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift I
(d) External vibrator Ans. (a) :
Bihar DLRS 14.08.2023 Shift 1 Transporting
Use
Ans. (b) : Platform vibrators– Platform vibrators is method
nothing but a table vibrator, but it is larger in size. This Hoist method Multistorey building (Height)
is used in the manufacture of large prefabricated Chute Under ground Concreting
concrete elements such as electric poles. Railways Transmit mixer Long distance.
sleeper, prefabricated roofing elements etc. Sometime,
Ropeway Hilly areas.
the platform vibrator is also coupled with jerking or
shock giving arrangements such that a through Pan Very small work
compaction is given to the concrete. Belt conveyor Short distance
21. Guniting operation is performed by which of 25. Which of the following is also known as
the following machine? formwork vibrator?
(a) Cement gun (b) Trowel (a) Needle vibrator
(c) Sprinkler (d) Plumb bob (b) Screened vibrator
MH PWD CEA 16/12/2023 Shift-III (c) Internal vibrator
(d) External vibrator
Ans. (a) : Guniting:– The application of mortar or
MHADA JE 01/02/2022, Shift-I
concrete under pneumatic pressure through a cement
gun is known as guniting, concrete becomes extremely Ans. (d) : Formwork vibrator: It is also known as
strong and a high bond is achieved. external vibrator and is used for concreting columns,
thin wall or in the casting of precast unit
22. In the context of underwater concreting, what
• Surface Vibrator (Screed board vibrator)– Used for
is the primary purpose of employing a termite
road surface
pipe during placement?
(a) To aerate the concrete to make it lighter in • Needle vibrator (Internal, Immersion or poker
weight vibrator) – Used for mass concrete
(b) To separate the aggregate from cement paste 26. The placing of concrete in underwater works,
(c) To reduce washout risk by delivering which of the following methods is most
concrete to the final location suitable?
(a) Chute
(d) To increase the rate of concrete hardening
(b) Conveyer belts
BHEL Supervisor Trainee (Civil) 21.01.2024
(c) Tremie method
Ans. (c) : In underwater concreting, termite pipes are
(d) Slip-form technique
used to reduce wash out risk by delivering concrete to
UPPCL JE 22/06/2022 Shift-I
the final location.
Ans. (c) : Under water concreting– Concrete is to be
23. Which type of mixers are also known as forced
placed under water or in a trench filled with the
action type mixers and are used for large size bentonite slurry. In such cases use of bottom dump
works? bucket or tremie pipe is used. It is a satisfactory method
(a) Tilting mixers of placing concrete under water by the use of tremie
(b) Reversing drum mixers pipe.
(c) Non-tilting mixers 27. Identify the INCORRECT statement regarding
(d) Pan-type mixers ready-mix concrete (RMC). Consider that
BSF SI (Works) 06.08.2023 ordinary Portland cement is used for making
Ans. (b) : Reversing Drum Mixer:– These are also RMC.
known as forced action type mixers and are used for (a) Ready-mix concrete packed in bags should be
large size works. added with a hydration activator while mixing
• It consist of a horizontal non-tilting type drum. with water.

Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 642 YCT

 (b) The mix design of RMC is tailor made to suit 30. As per IS 456 : 2000, what is the minimum
the placing methods of the contractor. period before striking formwork for vertical
(c) Ready-mix concrete increases the speed of formworks to columns, walls and beams?
construction. (a) 7 days
(d) Ready-mix concrete in wet condition is (b) 7 hours
transported by using a transit mixer from the (c) 16 – 24 days
batching plant to the construction site. (d) 16 – 24 hours
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III PCMC JE CIVIL 28/05/2023
Ans. (a) : Ready mixed concrete:– Conveyance of Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
concrete over long distance in case of ready mixed 31. The form work form the slabs excluding props,
concrete is likely to pose a serious problem on account can be removed only after
of faster loss of slump. The transit mixer drum may be (a) 1 day
covered with insulating material using transport the (b) 4 day
RMC. (c) 7 days
(d) 14 days
• RMC increases the speed of construction
JKSSB Draftman 24.09.2023
• RMC can achieve any desired strength of concrete.
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
• The mix design of RMC is tailor made to suit the
32. As per IS 456 : 2000, what is the minimum
placing methods of the contractor.
period required for the removal of soffit
• Ready-mix concrete in wet condition is transported by formwork to slabs (props to be refixed after
using a transit mixer from the batching plant to the removal of formwork), is?
construction site. (a) 3 days
28. Removal of props under slabs spanning upto (b) 7 days
4.5 m is (c) 14 days
(a) 3 days (b) 7 days (d) 16 – 24 hours
(c) 14 days (d) 21 days JKSSB JE 30/10/2021 Shift-I
GPSC AE Class-2, R & B.Dept. 02/04/2023 Ans. (a) : See the above explanation.
Ans. (b) : 33. According to IS : 456-2000, the minimum
As per IS 456 : 2000 clause 11.3 stripping time period before striking formwork for props to
Types of formwork Min. period beams spanning up to 6 m is :
(a) 7 days
a. Vertical formwork to columns 16-24 h
(b) 3 days
walls, beams
(c) 21 days
b. Soffit formworks to slab (props to 3 days
(d) 14 days
be refixed immediately after removal
UPPCL JE (Civil) 22/06/2022 Shift-II
of formwork)
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation.
c. Soffit formwork to beams (props 7 days
34. Identify the types of formwork according to the
to be refixed immediately after given circumstances.
removal of formwork) A. Used in countries where labour in de-
d. props to slabs shuttering and oiling is costly.
(i) Spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days B. To reduce construction joints in tall
(ii) Spanning over 4.5 m 14 days cylindrical towers.
e. Props to beams and arches C. To reduce shuttering material cost in a
(i) Spanning up to 6 m 14 days multibay building.
(ii) Spanning over 6 m 21 days (a) A. Slip formwork B. Moving formwork C.
29. As per IS 456 : 2000, what is period of removal Jump formwork
of props to beam and arches which is spanning (b) A. Lost shuttering B. Jump formwork C. Slip
formwork
upto 6 m?
(c) A. Slip formwork B. Moving formwork C.
(a) 21 days (b) 7 days
Lost formwork
(c) 3 days (d) 14 days
(d) A. Lost shuttering B. Slip formwork C.
HPCL Officer 23/12/2023 Moving formwork
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. DSSSB AE (Mains) 22.06.2024 Shift-II
Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 643 YCT
Ans. (d) : Lost shuttering–Shuttering required to cast Ans. (c) : Transit mixer–It is one of the most popular
concrete against existing structures often involves equipment for transporting concrete over longer
extensive measures taking up considerable space, time distance particularly in RMC.
and cost. Using special geocomposites as lost shuttering • The capacity of each transit mixer is about 6 m3.
(sacrificial shuttering) • Skip and hoist is the most widely adopted technique
Slip formwork–Slip formwork is a construction for transporting at a higher level.
technique that allows for continuous and seamless 37. Identify the ODD one with respect to method of
pouring of concrete to create vertical structures like compaction
walls, columns and towers. Slip formwork ensure a high (a) Tamping
degree of precision and uniformity in the finished (b) Compaction using needle vibrator
structure resulting in smooth and durable surfaces. (c) Ramming
Moving formwork–Jump form, also known as (d) Rodding
jumpsystem formwork and slipform areboth used in MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024
construction involving concrete. They are most often Ans. (d) : Rodding is nothing but packing the concrete
self. Climbing form that are used in the construction of with a rod about 2m long and 16 mm diameter to pack
tall buildings or other sizeable structures. the concrete between the reinforcement and sharp
35. It consists of two filtering grids which are corners and edges
reinforced by vertical & horizontal stiffeners → Rodding is done continuously over the complete area
and linked by articulated connectors which can to effectively pack the concrete air
be folded to transport on-site. Which type of 38. _____ are generally synthetic polymeric
shuttering is this? materials & consist of either woven or
(a) Umbrella Shuttering nonwoven fabrics. The are generally used for
(b) Aluminium Shuttering separation, drainage, filtration &
(c) Plastic Shuttering reinforcement.
(d) Coffer Shuttering (a) Geomembrane
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 06/11/2022 Shift-II (b) Geo-composites
Ans. (d) : Type of shuttering: (c) Geogrid
(i) Coffer shuttering:– It consists of two filtering grid (d) Geotextiles
which are reinforced by vertical and horizontal stiffeners UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I
and linked by articulated connectors which can be folded Ans. (d) : Geotextiles– are any permeable textile
to transport on-site. material used with foundation, soil, rock, earth or any
(ii) Plastic shuttering:- Light weight shuttering used for other geotechnical engineering related material, as an
large sections. Less durable as compare to metal integral part of man-made project, structure or system.
shuttering • These are generally synthetic polymeric materials and
(iii) Aluminum shuttering consists of either woven or non-woven fabrics and are
(iv) Plywood shuttering generally used for separation, drainage, filtration and
(v) Steel shuttering reinforcement.
(vi) Fabric shuttering 39. Which of the following types of fibre is
(vii) Timber shuttering classified as a synthetic fibre?
(viii) Permanent insulated shuttering (a) Polyester fibre
(ix) wall shuttering (b) Basalt fibre
(x) Beam shuttering (c) Steel fibre
36. Which of the following methods of (d) Jute fibre
transportation of concrete is useful for SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
transporting the concrete to a relatively greater Ans. (a) : Synthetic fibres are four types, namely–
distance from batching plant? 1. Rayon
(a) Pump and pipe line 2. Nylon
(b) Wheel barrow 3. Polyester
(c) Transit mixer 4. Acrylic
(d) Crane and bucket method Natural fibres–Silk, cotton, hemp, jute, cashmere,
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III camel hair, ramie.

Advanced Construction Techniques & Equipment 644 YCT

TYPES OF ESTIMATES

Approximate / Preliminary or Abstract (b) The expenditure of the work exceeds more than 10%
Estimate of the administrative approval.
1. Unit Rate Estimate (c) The material deviation is required.
Unit rate estimating consists of choosing a standard (d) It is found that the sanctioned estimate is more than
unit of accommodation and multiplying an the actual requirement.
approximate cost per unit. 2. Supplementary estimate-
Approx cost = No of unit × unit rate It is required when further development is required
during the progress of original work.
2. Plinth Rate Estimate
It is prepared when original sanctioned estimate is
(Approximate estimate = plinth area × plinth area
likely to exceed more than 5% due to changes in
rate)
quantity of materials or rates.
It is 10-20% more than the carpet area.
3. Annual repair and maintenance estimate-
3. Cubic Rate Estimate
It is prepared to know the maintenance cost of the
(Approximate estimate = Volume of building × Rate building which will keep the structure in safe and
per volume) perfect condition.
Volume = L × B × H This estimate prepared for annual repairs or
• This method is most accurate in approx estimation maintenance. Here the estimated cost should be
method. within 1.5% of the total/capital cost of building.
It consists, white washing, painting, minor repairs etc.
Detailed Estimate (Most reliable
4. Item rate or detailed estimate-
estimate)- It is an accurate method of estimating in which the
To prepared detailed estimate detailed drawing and entire building work is subdivided into individual
specifications are required. It consists of working item of work.
out the quantities of each item of work and working Objects of detailed estimate-
the cost. 1. Administrative approval
It is prepared for technical sanction and useful for 2. Technical sanction
the execution of project. 3. Accurate idea for the cost of construction
Total actual cost = Quantity × rate of item 4. To determine earnest money and security deposit
Classification of detailed estimate- 5. For inviting tender
1. Revised estimate- It is prepared when- 6. Forecasting of material required and project
(a) Original sanction amount or estimate exceed more duration.
than 5%. 7. It serves as a guide during the execution of the work.
Estimating and Costing 645 YCT
 Some important area used in building- Sills of door and openings, area occupied by walls,
Built up area- pillars and any other intermediate support are not
It is defined as the area covered by the building just included in the floor area of the building.
above the plinth level.
Total Floor area of all floors
Super built up area = (Built up area + Common area) Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R) =
Area of plot
Max. Built up area for a building-
Plot area Max. built up area Carpet Area-
up to 200 m2 60% of the plot area It is an useful or liveable area or rentable/Lettable
200 - 500 m2 50% of the plot area area.
2 Carpet area = Total floor area – Circulation area
500 - 1000 m 40% of the plot area
Above 1000 m2 33.33% of the plot area It is generally 50 to 60% of the plinth area.
Plinth area- Circulation Area-
It is the built up covered area of a building measured It is the floor area which are used to movement of
at the floor level of any storey by taking external people using the building.
dimensions. Circulation area is approximately equal to (plinth
Plinth offset excluded if any.
area – carpet area).
Plinth area = Built - up area − Deduction
It is two types as-
As per IS:3861-2002 Included and Excluded area 1. Horizontal circulation area-
Included Area Excluded Area It is the area of the buildings for horizontal
• Area of porch other than • Architectural bands, movement of the users.
cantilevered. cornices cantilevered
porch etc. Its included area of verandahs, passages, porches,
balconies, corridors.
• Internal shafts for • Internal sanitary shaft
sanitary installation provided these more It is 10-15% of plinth area.
provided these do not than 2m2 in area. 2. Vertical circulation area-
exceeds 2m2 in area, air Area required for vertical movement of the users is
condition ducts, lifts etc. called vertical circulation area.
• Opening of elevators, • Open staircase, open Example-Area occupied by staircase, lifts, entrance
door and window sills platform
hall, ramps, escalators.
• Headroom other than • Head room at terrace
terrace level, area of level, terrace at first It is 4-5% of the plinth area.
barsati at terrace level floor. Deduction made for plastering & pointing-
• Air conducting ducts and • Area of lofts, balcony. Area of Deduction
lift well with landing. opening
• Machine room and • Spiral staircase Up to 0.5 No deduction
porches, excluding the including landing. m2 Only one face
cantilevered ones.
0.5 m2 to Made for both faces
• If there are any common • Towers, domes
walls b/w two buildings, projecting above the 3 m2 (But the area of soffit, Jamb and
half the area of such walls terrace level at terrace. > 3 m2 sill shall be measured and added)
shaft be considered. No deduction shall be made for ends of joists, steps,
Floor area- beams, posts, rafters etc.
It is the total floor area between the walls, i.e. As per IS-1200, deduction made for openings of
Floor area = Plinth area − Area occupied by walls brickwork-
No deduction shall be made for-
Plinth area = L1 × B1 (i) Openings up to 0.1m2 or 1000 cm2
Floor area = L× B (ii) Ends of beam, purlins, post, rafters etc. up to 0.05
m2 or 500 cm2 Chajjas where thickness does not
exceeds 10 cm.
(iii) Wall plate, bearing of chajjas, bed plate where
thickness does not exceeds 10 cm.
(iv) Volume occupied by reinforcement.
(v) Bearing of floor and roof slab are not deducted
from the masonry in the superstructure.
Estimating and Costing 646 YCT
 MODE OF MEASUREMENTS Iron grill, Collapsible Sq. m Per Sq. m
gate
Unit of Measurement and payments for various
item of Civil work- Rolling Shutter Sq. m Per Sq. m
Particular of Item M.K.S. System Iron gate (may also be by Sq. m Per Sq. m
Measurement Payment weight, quintal)
unit unit Painting, Varnishing (No. Sq. m Per Sq. m
Brick, Earth Tile (with Thousand Per of Coat specified)
measurement) Thousand Removing of paint or Sq. m Per Sq. m
Floor Tile, glass Tiles Hundred Per Varnish
Hundred Plastering - cement Sq. m Per Sq. m
Stone Ballast Cu.m Per Cu. m mortar, Lime mortar and
C.C./R.C. Chajja Cu.m Per Cu. m mud mortar
Reinforcement Bars Quintal Per Quintal Pointing - struck, flush, Sq. m Per Sq. m
Electrification Light, Fan, Point Per Point weather, etc.
Plug points Dado (Thickness and Sq. m Per Sq. m
Surface-dressing upto15 Sq.m Per Sq. m type specified)
cm depth Skirting (Thickness type metre Per m
Foundation excavation Cu.m Per Cu. m and height specified)
Earth work dressing Sq. m Per Sq. m Earth filling on base of Cu.m Per Cu. m
Shuttering work Sq. m Per Sq. m road, with rolling
RCC work Cu. m Per Cu. m Soling coat of brick Sq. m Per Sq. m
Centering and form work Sq. m Per Sq. m Pile driving or Sinking metre Per m
Concrete Jaffier, Sq. m Per Sq. m Painting Furniture's No. Per no.
D.P.C. Sq. m Per Sq. m
Supply of water closet, No. Per no.
Roof bitumen painting Sq. m Per Sq. m W.C. (size specified)
Half brick thick masonry Sq. m Per Sq. m
Supply of paint ready Litre Per Litre
(upto 10 cm Thick)
mix.
In Super Structure brick Cu. m Per Cu. m
Explosive for blasting kg Per kg
masonry work (> 10 cm
thick) Important unit conversion-
Honey - Comb brick Sq. m Per Sq. m 1m = 39.37 inch
masonry work = 3.28 feet
Flat and edge soling of Sq. m Per Sq. m 1 mile = 1.6 km
brick 1 feet = 0.3048 m
2
Brick bat coba Sq. m Per Sq. m 1m = 10.75 feet2
Cornice, string course m Per m 1 feet2 = 0.093 m2
Roof of Corrugated sheet Sq. m Per Sq. m 1 cum = 35.29 C.ft.
Doors/windows of Cu. m Per Cu. m 1 C.ft. = 0.0283 cum
Chowkhat, Beam etc. 1 yard = 3 feet
Door and window Sq. m Per Sq.m • Number of brick in 1 cum masonry = 500
shutters or leave • Number of brick in 1 cum Lot = 650
Paneled, partition wall Sq. m Per Sq.m • Brick flat soling per m2 - 32
Fabric reinforcement, Sq. m Per Sq.m • Brick edge soling per m2 - 54
wire netting Specification of cement bag-
Barbed wire facing metre Per metre Plan area 0.30 Sq.m or 3000 cm.2
Rivet, Bolts and Nuts, quintal Per quintal Volume 0.0347 cum
Anchor bolts, Lewis Height 18 cm
bolts, Holding down Length 70 cm
bolts, etc. Width 42 cm

Estimating and Costing 647 YCT

Plastering specification-
(ii) Length of short wall = C/C length of wall − Half breadth at
No. of plastering coat Thickness each ends of wall.
Single coat plaster 10-15 mm
(Both internal and external) (iii) Quantity of item = Total length of wall × breadth ×
depth/Thickness.
Two Coat Plaster
Volume covered by door, window, ventilators
(a) Backing Coat 10-12 mm
should be deducted if available in superstructure.
(b) Finishing Coat 3-8 mm
Note-
Three Coat plaster Length of long wall decreases from earthwork to brickwork
(For very rough surface, both internal and in superstructure while the short wall increases.
external) It is accurate method and used in all government
(a) Base Coat 10-15 mm department.
(b) Second Coat 3-8 mm C/C refers centre to centre distance.
(c) Finishing Coat 3-5 mm Plan- Length and width or top views are shown.
Building Estimation- Elevation- Length/width and height or side views
Building estimation is determining the probable cost are shown.
of buildings before the construction proceeds, in 2. Centre Line Method-
order to achieve success in the project. This method of building estimation is suitable for
Building estimation is also beneficial for passing the walls of same thickness or symmetrical cross
tenders. section.
Quantities of earthwork, foundation concrete, Steps for quantity calculation-
brickwork in plinth, foundation and superstructure 1. Calculate total centre line length of item.
can be worked out from the following methods. Total Quantity of item = C/C Length × breadth ×
1. Long wall-short wall method 2.
depth/Thickness.
2. Centre line method
3. Crossing method 3. Crossing method-
4. Bay method This method is adopted when external walls is of
5. Service unit method one thickness and interior walls of different
1. Long wall-short wall method- thickness.
In this case centre line method is used for external
walls and long wall short wall method is used for
interior walls.

RATE ANALYSIS
Determination of rate per unit of a particular item of
work from the cost of quantity of materials, cost of
labours etc. for its completion is known as analysis
of rates or rate analysis.
Schedule of rates-
It is a documents that contains detail description of
all the items of work (quantities are not mentioned)
together with current rates.
Number of brick required-
• Per cubic meter brick masonry - 500
• Per cubic meter brick in lots - 650
It is also called PWD method or out to out and in • Per square meter brick flat soling - 32
to in method. It is useful for all types of the wall.
• Per square meter brick edge soling - 54
In this method, the wall along the length of room is
Data about cement bag-
considered to be long wall while the wall normal to
Weight of 1 bag cement 50 kg
its is said to be short wall.
0.0347 cum or
To get the length of long wall or short wall firstly
34.722 = 35 Litre
calculate the centre line length of individual walls
Volume of 1 bag cement 1440 kg/m3
then-
28.80 = 30 bag
Length of long wall = C/C length of wall + Half breadth at
(i) Density of cement
each ends of wall 1 Cubic meter cement
Estimating and Costing 648 YCT
 Specification of cement bag- R.C.C. Work 3.0 m3
Plan area 0.30 Sq.m or 3000 cm.2 12 mm thick plaster work 8.0 m2
Volume 0.054 cum Pointing work 10.0 m2
Height 18 cm White washing/colour washing
Length 70 cm 1 Coat 200 m2
Width 42 cm 3 Coat 70 m2
Plastering specification- Excavation of soil 1.0 m3
No. of plastering coat Thickness Earthwork in the excavation in 2.0 m3
Single coat plaster 10-15 mm hard soil
(Both internal and external) Excavation in ordinary soil 3.0 m3
Two Coat Plaster Ashlar stone dressing 0.70 m3
(a) Backing Coat 10-12 mm Flagstone dressing 1.50 m3
(b) Finishing Coat 3-8 mm Stone arch work 0.40 m3
Three Coat plaster Lime concreting (1 : 2 : 4) 5.00 m3
(For very rough surface, both internal and Sawing hard wood 4.00 m2
external) Sawing soft wood 6.00 m2
(a) Base Coat 10-15 mm
Half brick wall in partition 5.00 m3
(b) Second Coat 3-8 mm
Painting large surface 35 m2
(c) Finishing Coat 3-5 mm st
Distempering I coat 35 m2
Factors affecting rate of particular item- Door/window painting or 25 m2
1. Profit st
varnishing, I coat
2. Overhead and establishment charges DPC 2.5 cm thick 200 m2
3. Cost of labour and their wages
Dry volume for various work:
4. Quantity of material and their costs.
5. Location of site of work and the distance from Work Description Dry Volume
source and conveyance charges. coefficient
Task work or out turn work- P.C.C. work, C.C. and all 1.52 to 1.55
It is the capacity of doing work by a skilled labour in types of concrete work
the form of quantity of work per day. excluding C.C. floor
Work done per day per mason for a For brick masonry 0.30 cum
Random Rubble masonry 0.42 cum
particular item-
Coursed Rubble masonry 0.40 cum
Item Description Work Done per
day per mason 12 mm thick plaster work 0.0196 m3 ≃ 0.02 m3
Earth work in excavation in rock 1.0 m3 Painting work 0.006 m3
Disposal of surplus earth < 30 m 2.83 m3 C.C. floor-
Brick work in foundation and 1.50 m3 2.5 cm thick 0.1875 m3 or 7.5 m2
plinth with mud-mortar 5 cm thick 0.0825 m3
Brick work in super structure with 1.25 m3 7.5 cm thick 0.12375 m3
mud-mortar Capacity of truck-
Brick work in foundation and 1.25 m3
Truck 3 Tone 5 Tone 8 Tone
plinth (sub-structure) with lime or
Capacity Capacity Capacity
cement mortar.
Brick transport 1000 brick 1500 brick 2500 brick
Brick work in super structure with 1 m3
Ballast, Brick, 2.80 m3 4.20 m3 5.60 m3
lime mortar or cement mortar.
Kankar, Sand (100 feet3) (150 feet ) (200 feet3)
3
Brick work in partition wall 5.0 m2
Random rubble stone masonry in 1.0 m3 Volume of reinforcement for various member in case
lime or cement mortar of absence of detail design-
Course rubble stone masonry lime 0.80 m3 Member Volume in % of the total
or cement mortar concrete volume
Lime concrete or cement concrete 8.5 m3 Slab/Lintel 0.7 - 1
(P.C.C.) in foundation and plinth Beam 1-2
Lime Concrete in Roof Terracing 6.0 m3 Column 0.8 - 6
1 : 2 : 4 C. C. work 5.0 m3 Footings/Foundation 0.5 - 0.8

Estimating and Costing 649 YCT

 Volume of steel in RCC work when items are not Ans. (a) : The service units for various structures are
specified - 0.6 - 1%. given in the below table–
Concrete masonry unit (IS : 2185 - 1)- Types of construction Service unit
(Hollow and solid concrete block) 1. School, college Classroom
Length - 400, 500 or 600 mm 2. Hospitals Bed
Height - 200 or 100 mm 3. Hotel Room
Width - 50, 75, 100, 150, 200 4. Hostel Students
250 or 300 5. Theatre Seat
Calculation of material in concrete (A : B : C)- 6. Stadium Seat
Quantity of particular item = 7. Jail Kotani
A or B or C, which is required 8. Stable Animal
× K dry × Vconc.
∑ (A + B + C) 9. Water tank Liter
10. Dam Hectare meter
A
1. Quantity of cement = × K dry × Vconc. 3. Which of the following factors is not accounted
∑(A + B + C) in the cost estimation of a reinforced concrete
B (RC) water tank?
2. Quantity of sand = × K dry × Vconc. (a) Density of water
∑(A + B + C)
(b) Height of water tank
or (c) Thickness of RC slab and wall
= Quantity of cement × Sand proportion/ratio (d) Length of water tank
3. Quantity of Aggregate SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
C Ans. (a) : Density of water–This factor is not typically
= × K dry × Vconc.
∑(A + B + C) considered in the cost estimation because its a physical
property of water and doesn't directly impact the
or
construction cost of the water tank.
= Quantity of cement × Agg. proportion/ratio
Factors to be consider during the cost estimation of
Where,
a reinforced concrete (RC) water tank–
(A : B : C) = Cement : Sand : Aggregate
• Length of water tank
A = Cement proportion
• Thickness of RC slab and wall
B = Sand proportion
C = Aggregate proportion • Height of water tank
Kdry = Dry volume coefficient • Weight of RC
Vconc.= Volume of wet concrete • Grade of concrete.
4. The capacity of doing work by a skilled labour
Questions Asked in Previous Years in the form of quantity of work per day is
1. In approximate quantities method of preparing known as ________.
approximate estimate, wall foundations are (a) out-turn work
measured in _______. (b) extra work
(a) kilogram (b) cubic meter (c) standard work
(c) square meter (d) running meter (d) lift work
SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I SSC JE (Pre) 05/06/2024 Shift-I
Ans. (d) : Approximate quantity method– Ans. (a) : Out-turn work–The capacity of doing work
Approximate total wall length is found in this method in by a skilled labor in the form of quantity of work per
the running meter. This total length is then multiplied
day is known as the task work or out turn of the labor.
by the rate per running meter of the wall to get a fairly
Day work–The method of valuing work on the basis of
accurate cost.
time spent by the contractor's work people, the materials
• The running meter cost for the foundation and super
structure method. used and the plant employed.
2. In the case of preliminary estimate prepared 5. As per IS dimensioning shall be done normally
per unit basis, the service units to be in ...............
considered for a school and hospital are (a) Millimeters
respectively _____. (b) Meters
(a) classroom and bed (b) bench and ward (c) Centimeters
(c) bench and bed (d) classroom and ward (d) Feel and Inches
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
Estimating and Costing 650 YCT
Ans. (a) : Dimensioning–Defines dimension as a 9. In steel and iron works, dimensions excepting
numerical value expressed in appropriate units of cross-section and thickness of plate shall be
measurement and indicated graphically on technical measured to nearest ________ m except for
drawings with lines, symbols and notes. reinforcement in reinforced concrete works.
(a) 0.005 (b) 0.001
The most commonly used unit for length is the
(c) 0.002 (d) 0.003
millimeter.
SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
In civil engineering and architectural drawing, inch or
Ans. (b) :
foot is often used as a unit of length. angle are measured
Item Measurement
in degree.
accuracy
6. The nominal lead and lift allowed for the Length, width and height 0.01 m
earthwork in the excavations of the foundations (linear measurement)
are– Area 0.01 m2
(a) 30 m and 1.5 m (b) 20 m and 1.5 m Volume 0.01 m3
(c) 15 m and 3.0 m (d) 20 m and 3.0 m Wood work 0.002 m
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 Steel work 0.001 m
Ans. (a) : Volume of wood work 0.001 m3
• Lead is the average horizontal distance between 10. As per IS standards on method of
center of excavation to center deposition. measurement of building and civil engineering
• Lift is the average height through which the earth works, the dimensions have to be measured to
has to be lifted from the source of the place of the nearest ________.
spreading. (a) 0.1 m (b) 0.01 m
• Normally earth work is estimated for 30 m lead and (c) 1.0 m (d) 0.001 m
1.5 m lift. SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-I
7. The expected out-turn for earthwork in the Ans. (b) : Unit of measurement of skirting as per IS
excavation in ordinary soil per workman per 1200 is running meter.
day is As per IS : 1200 (Part-II) : 1974, Dimensions shall be
calculated to the closest 0.01 m except for the thickness
(a) 1.00 cum (b) 2.00 cum
of the slab, which shall be calculated to the closest
(c) 3.00 cum (d) 4.00 cum 0.005 m.
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023 • Area – 0.01 m2 and cubic content = 0.01 m3
Ans. (c) : 11. Lime concrete and cement concrete bedding in
Particulars of items Expected out turn flooring work is measured in
(per mason per day) (a) cubic metres (b) running metres
Earthwork in the 3 cum (c) square metres (d) numbers
excavation in ordinary soil MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-II
Brickworks in lime or 1.25 cum Ans. (a) : Unit of measurement and payments for
cement mortar in various item.
foundation and plinth M.K.S. system
Particular of
Random rubble stone 1 cum item Measurement
Payment unit
unit
masonry in lime or cement
Lime concrete Cubic meter per cum
mortar
Cement Cubic meter per cum
Earthwork in the 2 cum concrete
excavation in hard soil
D.P.C. Square meter Per sq. m
Cement concrete work 5 cum R.C.C./R.C. Cubic meter per cum
RCC 3 cum chajja
Reinforced brickwork 1 cum Honey-comb Square meter Per sq. m
8. Expected out turn of cement concrete 1:2:4 per brick masonry
mason per day is– work or (10
cm thickness
(a) 1.0 m3 (b) 1.5 m3
3 of brick
(c) 2.5 m (d) 5.0 m3 masonry)
Pune Metro JE (Civil) 18/10/2021 Earth work Square meter Per sq. m
Ans. (d) : See the above explanation. dressing
Estimating and Costing 651 YCT
12. Quantity of brick walls is measured in sq.m. if (ii) Surface dressing and sq.m
the thickness of the wall is leveling, tile flooring
OR (iii) Stones- quarrying, blasting cum.
Brick walls are measured in sq m if the (iv) RCC slab roofing, RB Slab cum.
thickness of the wall is roofing
(a) 10 cm (b) 15 cm 16. The unit of measurement of wall painting in
(c) 20 cm (d) None of the above building is?
Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023 (a) kg (b) cum
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. (c) sqm (d) mm
13. Deductions in Plastering and Painting shall be SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning)
made for ______. Ans. (c) :
(a) Openings exceeding 5m2 each Unit of
SN. Particular item
(b) Beams measurement
(c) Posts 1. Wall painting, Surface painting Square meter
(d) Openings exceeding 0.5m2 each 2. Damp proof course Square meter
Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 Shift II 3. Earth work in excavation Cubic meter
Ans. (d) : Deduction related to plastering are as filling
follows– 4. Steel reinforcing bars in RCC Kg/Quintal
• No deduction is made for the end of beams, posts, and reinforced brick work
rafters etc. 5. Rivets, bolts, nuts etc Quintal
• For small opening upto 0.5 m2 area, no deduction in 6. Iron grill Sq.m
plastering is made. 7. RCC and RB slab roof Cubic meter
• For the opening of size 0.5 to 3 m2 area the deduction 8. Lean concrete roof Square meter
is made on one face of the wall. 9. AC sheet roofing Square meter
• For opening of size above 3 m2, the deduction is 17. In Detailed Cost Estimates, what is the
made on both faces of the wall, but the area of the significance of the term "contingencies"?
sill, jamb and soffits of the opening is added. (a) Labor wages
14. Cement grouting of the concrete is measured in: (b) Direct material costs
(a) Cubic meter (b) Meter (c) Unforeseen events and risks
(c) Number (d) Square meter (d) Fixed project costs
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 18/05/2022 OMC JE (Civil) 23/01/2024
Ans. (d) : Cement grouting of the concrete is measured Ans. (c) : In detailed cost estimates, 'contingencies'
in Square meter refer to the provision for unforeseen events and risks
Particulars of Items Units of that may occur during the project, such as changes in
measurement regulations, unexpected delays, or price fluctuations. It's
essentially a buffer to account for uncertainties.
Grouting of cracks, joints meter
18. Cost of how many factors play a major role in
Water-closet No.
rate analysis?
Electrification Light Point Point (a) Four (b) Three
Plastering m2 (c) Two (d) Five
Cavity wall m2 PGCIL DT 08/02/2024
15. Which of the following is the correct unit of Ans (d) : The rates of a particular item of work
measurement for the item of work 'earth filling depends on the following–
in foundation trenches'? 1. Specification of works and materials, quality of
(a) Tonnes (b) Cubic meter materials, proportion of mortar method of
(c) Square meter (d) Loads constructional operation etc.
NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-I 2. Quantities of materials and their rates.
Ans. (b) : 3. Location of the site of work and its distance from the
Particulars of item Unit of sources of materials and the rate of transport,
measurement availability of water.
(i) Earthwork: Excavation, m3 (cum.) 4. Profits and miscellaneous and overhead expenses of
Filling, Casting, banking, contractor.
filing in foundation trenches. 5. Labor cost and their wages.

Estimating and Costing 652 YCT

 19. The schedule of rates (SOR) is a document used Ans. (a) :
in construction projects to list standard rate of Item Measurement unit
............... Masonry Cu.m
(a) Materials (b) Work Items Honey-comb brick Sq.m
(c) Labour (d) All of the above work
ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024 Brick on edge work Sq.m
Ans. (d) : The schedule of rates (SOR) is a White washing Sq.m
comprehensive document used in construction projects Cornice, string course m
to list standard rates for materials, service and work
23. As per IS 1200 (Part II) : 1974, each linear
items. It helps estimate project costs and ensures
dimension of a building (except for thickness of
fairness in public works. slab) and civil engineering works shall be
20. The approximate quantity of out-turn of Brick measured nearest to............. .
work is lime or cement mortar in (a) 0.1 m (b) 1 m
superstructure per day per mason is (c) 0.001 m (d) 0.01 m
(a) 1.25 cu.m (b) 1.00 cu.m MH PWD JE 16/12/2023 Shift-I
(c) 0.90 cu.m (d) 1.30 cu.m Ans. (d) : As per IS : 1200 (Part-II) : 1974, Dimensions
(e) Answer not known shall be calculated to the closest 0.01 m except for the
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 thickness of the slab, which shall be calculated to the
Ans. (b) : closest 0.005 m.
Particulars of items Quantity • Area – 0.01 m2 and cubic content = 0.01 m3
1. Brick works in lime or cement mortar 1.25 cum 24. As per IS 1200 (Part 2) : 1947, the method of
in foundation and plinth measurement (units) of reinforced/plain
2. Brick works in lime or cement mortar 1.00 cum concrete precast wall panels is:
in super structure (a) Square metre
3. Brick works in mud mortar in 1.50 cum (b) either in cubic metre or in running metre
foundation and plinth stating the size
4. Brick works in mud mortar in super 1.25 cum (c) in running meters stating the size
structure (d) cubic metre
21. A detailed description of the quality of CRIS JE 19/02/2023
materials and workmanship required to Ans. (a) : As per IS : 1200 (Part-2) 1974,
complete an engineering project in accordance measurement reinforcement/plain concrete
with its drawings and details is known as : Classification Method of measure
(a) Estimate Wall panel/floor/roof slabs m2
(b) Specification Light weight partitions m2
(c) Costing Jallies in sqm of opening
(d) Item rate filled stability
GSSSB Planning Asst. 30/03/2024 thickness
Ans. (b) : Specification–A specification is a specific Waffle unit sqm or numbers
description of a particular subject. An engineering Water tank in number
specification contains details description of all Hollow block work solid in cum or sqm
workmanship and materials which are required to block work
complete an engineering project in accordance with its Fencing pasts in number or cum
drawing and details. The technical drawings of a Beams unit and column running or number
structure will show the proportions and relative trusses channel unit an
positions of the various components of the structure. purlin string, lacing course,
22. According to the principle of units of coping, bed plate etc.
measurements, work consisting cubical 25. What is the recommended one mazdoor output
contents involves constant for north zone for a m3 reinforced
(a) Masonry cement concrete in situ in suspended floor/roofs
(b) Honeycomb brick work excluding formwork and reinforcement?
(c) Brick on edge work (a) 1.55 days (b) 1.75 days
(d) White washing (c) 2.50 days (d) 2.95 days
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023 M.P. NHM Sub Engineer Civil 20-09-2023
Estimating and Costing 653 YCT
 Ans. (c) : 27. In which type of estimate should each item of
Description of work Unit Unit Reco. the project be broken down into its parts and
labours day estimated?
(a) Detailed estimate
Reinforced cement m3 Mason 0.17
(b) Model estimating
concrete in situ in Mazdoor 2.00
(c) Assembly estimating
foundation, footings, Bhisti 0.90
(d) Square foot estimate
bases for columns, etc. Mixer 0.07
MH WRD JE 12/08/2022 Shift-II
excluding from work and
reinforcement Ans. (a) : Detailed estimate- It is most reliable
estimate. A detailed estimate is prepared after its
Reinforced cement m3 Mason 0.24
complete set of drawings a ready. The quantities of
concrete in situ in Mazdoor 2.50 various items of work are worked out from such
suspended floor/roofs Bhisti 0.90 drawings and are multiplied by the present rates of
excluding form work, Mixer 0.07 items of works to arrive at the estimate cost of the work.
and reinforcement • It is prepared by after its complete set to drawing are
R.C.C in situ in m3 Mason 0.30 ready.
'CHAJJAS' up to 15 cm Mazdoor 3.50 • The quantity of item workout from drawing and each
in thickness excluding Bhisti 0.90 rates are described in details.
form work and Mixer 0.10 Purpose of detailed estimate–
reinforcement • Technical sanction
R.C.C in situ beams, m3 Mason 0.20 • Administrative approval
excluding form work and Mazdoor 3.00 • Framing and inviting tender
reinforcement Bhisti 0.90 • To know material required and project duration
Mixer 0.07 • Accurate ideal of cost of construction.
R.C.C in situ, column, m3 Mason 0.23 28. In the approximate estimate, estimate, the
pillars in ground floor Mazdoor 3.50 contingency amount is generally_______.
Bhisti 0.90 (a) 5-10% of the total estimate
Mixer 0.10 (b) 2-3% of the total estimate
R.C.C in situ stairs m3 Mason 0.30 (c) 12-15% of the total estimate
Mazdoor 4.30 (d) 18-20% of the total estimate
Bhisti 0.90 NBCC Sr. Project Executive Civil 25-09-2023
Mixer 0.07 Ans. (a) : Approximate estimate for main parts of a
26. Which method of estimation is most suitable project for buildings, services like sanitary, water
for the early stages of a project when only supply, drainage electrification, boundary wall, roads if
preliminary plans are available? any cost of land etc. are made separately.
(a) Cube Rate Estimate • At the end a general abstract of cost is drawn. Provision
of contingencies 5 to 10% is added with the abstract which
(b) Plinth Area Estimate
is the total approximate cost of the project.
(c) Detailed Estimate
29. Which of the following methods of estimation is
(d) Approximate Estimate
suitable for walls of similar cross section?
JSSC JDLCCE JE 10/10/2023 (Gen. Engg.) (a) Long wall method
Ans. (d) : Preliminary or Approximate Estimate of (b) Partly cross wall method
Abstract Estimate- (c) Short wall method
Preliminary or Approximate or Abstract Estimate is (d) Centre Line method
required for preliminary studies of various aspects of a SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
work or project, to decide the financial position and Ans. (d) : Centre line method– This method is suitable
policy for administrative sanction by the competent for walls of similar cross sections. Here the total centre
administrative authority. line length is multiplied by breadth and depth of
• It is an estimate which is very near to find estimate respective them to get the total quantity of a time.
Detailed or item rate estimate- It includes the When curved walls or partitions or verandah walls join
quantities and cost of everything required for with main all the centre line lengths gets reduced by
satisfactory completion of work. Such a detailed half of breadth for each junction.
estimate is prepared for technical sanction, Such junction or joints are studies carefully while
administrative approval and also execute a contract with calculating total centre line length. The estimates
the contractor. prepared by this method are most accurate and quick.

Estimating and Costing 654 YCT

30. Long wall-short wall method is also called ____ When cross walls or partitions or verandah walls join,
(a) general method with main all, the centre line length gets reduced by half
(b) centre line method of breadth for each junction.
(c) separate or individual wall method The estimated prepared by this method are most
(d) single wall method accurate and quick.
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023 This method is adopted for circular, hexagonal,
octagonal etc. shaped building estimate.
Ans. (c) : Long wall and short wall method is also
In centre lime method the sum total length of centre
called separate or individual wall method. lines of walls, long and short walls has to be found out.
Separate wall method is of very descriptive nature Centre line method of estimation is most suitable for
estimation. In this detailed estimation is done. All the walls roads for canals
of different width are taken separately into consideration. • In the ‘Center Line Method’ of estimation for T
31. In which of the following methods of junction, half width length has to be deducted from
approximation the cost of the structure is the total centre line length for a particular item.
determined by multiplying the total number by • for total length of the central line at the corner
the unit rate of each item? where two walls meet is no deduction.
(a) Plinth area method 33. Which estimate is accurate and consist of
(b) Unit base method assessing the volume & cost of each work item?
(c) Cubical contents method (a) Supplementary estimate
(d) Approximate Quantity method (b) Plinth area estimate
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024 (c) Detailed estimate
Ans. (b) : The following are the methods used for (d) Revised estimate
preparation of approximate estimates- ISRO URSC Draughtsman 18/04/2024
(i) Plinth area method Ans. (c) : The accurate estimate that consist of
(ii) Cubical contents method assessing the volume and cost of each work item is
(iii) Unit base method detailed estimate.
(i) Plinth area method – The cost of construction is • During the execution of project, structural
determined by multiplying the plinth area with the modification are required or addition work is added
plinth area rate. for construction. The estimate for additional work is
(ii) Cubical contents method– This method is called supplementary estimates.
generally used for multi-storeyed buildings. It is more • A plinth estimates is a type of cost estimation method
accurate than the other two methods plinth area and unit used in construction to determine the total cost of
base method. building based on its plinth area.
(iii) Unit base method– The cost of the structure is 34. Which estimate breaks down the work into
determined by multiplying the total number of units by smallest details, itemizing materials, labor, and
the rate of each item is called unit base method. In the overhead costs ?
case of hospital. The unit is 'one bed' and in the case of (a) Detailed Estimate
schools colleges, the unit considered to be 'one student'. (b) Preliminary Estimate
32. In which of the following methods, cross- (c) Abstract Estimate
sectional area is multiplied with the centre line (d) Quantity Survey Estimate
length to obtained the quantity? JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 13/10/2023
(a) Centre line method Ans. (a) : A detailed estimate provides a comprehensive
(b) Crossing method breakdown of all the components involved in a project,
(c) In to in method including materials, labour and overhead costs. It
involves a thorough analysis of the project
(d) Out to out method
requirements, specification and quantities needed for
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-II
each task.
Ans. (a) : The method where the cross-sectional area is
35. Which of the following estimates mostly
multiplied with the centreline length to obtain the
resembles a detailed estimate ?
quantity is centre line method.
(a) Annual maintenance estimate
Centre line method– This method is suitable for walls
(b) Rough estimate
of similar cross section. Here the total centre line length
(c) Quantity estimate
is multiplied by breadth and depth of respective item to
(d) Item rate estimate
get the total quantity at a time.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III
Estimating and Costing 655 YCT
Ans. (d) : Detailed estimate or item rate estimate or 38. Revised estimate is prepared when the original
Unit quantity estimate:- It is an accurate estimate and estimate exceeds
consists of working out the quantities of each item of (a) 2% (b) 5%
works and working the cost. (c) 8% (d) 10%
(e) Answer not known
• The dimension length, breadth and height of each
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024
time are taken out correctly from drawing and
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation.
quantity of each item are calculated and abstracting
39. An abstract of estimated cost is prepared after
and billing is done.
obtaining the cost of each individual item of
• Total quantity method is a type of detailed estimate. work and then adding them all together. This
The detailed estimate is prepared in two stages– estimated cost is increased by 5% to account
• Details of measurement and calculation of quantities. for any unforeseen expenses, which are
• Abstract of estimated cost. referred to as:
(a) departmental charges
36. Total quantity method is a type of _____. (b) work charged establishment
(a) revised estimate (c) contingencies
(b) preliminary estimate (d) overhead charges
(c) detailed estimate SSC JE (Pre) 07/06/2024 Shift-I
(d) approximate estimate Ans. (c) : In rate analysis, contingency cost refers to an
SSC JE (Civil) 15/11/2022 allowance made for uncertainties or unexpected
Ans. (c) : See the above explanation. situations that may arise during the course of a
construction project. It is essentially a provision to cover
37. Which of the following type of estimate is a additional expenses that were not initially accounted for in
detailed estimate? the project estimates. This could includes factors such as
(a) Approximate quantity method estimate changes in project scope unforeseen site conditions or
(b) Plinth area estimate unexpected price fluctuations.
(c) Revised estimate ● In an estimate a certain amount in the form of
(d) Cube rate estimate contingencies of 3% to 5% of estimated cost.
SSC JE (Pre) 06/06/2024 Shift-III 40. What percentage of contingencies and work
charged establishment cost, respectively, will
Ans. (c) : Types of estimate– be added while preparing detailed estimate?
1.Preliminary/approximate/abstract/rough cost (a) 5% and 5% (b) 5% and 2%
estimate (c) 2% and 5% (d) 1.5% and 2.5%
• Plinth are estimate UPPCL JE 21/02/2022 Shift-I
• Cubical rate estimate Ans. (b) :
• Unit rate method/serve unit method Work % of estimate
• Typical bay method Contract charge 10
2. Detailed or Item rate estimate– Labour charge 25
• Unit quantity method Electrification 8
• Total quantity method Sanitary and water supply charge 8
• Supplementary estimate Contingencies charge 3 to 5
• Revised estimate Work charge establishment 1.5 to 2
• Annual repair estimate Tools and plants 1 to 1.5
• Supplementary and revised estimate 41. If detailed drawings are not available, the steel
• Complete estimate reinforcement may be calculated
Revised Estimate- Revised Estimate is a detailed approximately on the percentage basis of
_________.
estimate and is required to be prepared under any one
(a) concrete (b) brickwork
of the following circumstances.
(c) size of bending (d) height of building
(i) When the original sanctioned estimate is exceeded SSC JE 10/10/2023 (Morning)
or likely to exceed by more than 5%
Ans. (a) : If detailed drawings are not available, the
(ii) When the expenditure on a work exceeds or likely steel reinforcement may be calculated approximately on
to exceed the amount of administrative sanction by the percentage basis of concrete.
more than 10% (i) For raft footing – 0.5% to 0.8%
(iii) The material deviation is required (ii) For slab/lintel 0.7% to 1%
It is found that the sanctioned estimate is more than (iii) For beams 1% to 2%
actual requirement. (iv) For columns 1% to 5%

Estimating and Costing 656 YCT

42. Identify the name of the given formula used for • When it is found that the sanctioned estimate is more
the estimation of the quantity of earthwork. than the actual requirement
Quantity of Earthwork = (Bdm + Sdm2 )× L • When there are material deviations from the original
(a) Prismoidal formula method proposal even though the cost may be met from the
(b) Mid-sectional area method sanctioned amount
(c) Average cross-sectional area method 45. The method of preparing Supplementary
(d) Mean sectional area method estimate is same as_____
MH PWD JE 15/12/2023 Shift-III (a) Detailed estimate
Ans. (b) : Mid-sectional area method– (b) Preliminary estimate
Quantity of earth work = ( Bd m + Sd m2 ) × L (c) Revised estimate
Whe (d) Quantity estimate
B = Width of road SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
S = Slope Ans. (a) : Detailed estimates- A detailed estimates
L = Length of road includes comprehensive calculations of quantities and
(d + d2 ) cost for all materials, labor equipment and other
dm = Depth as mid-section = 1 expenses required for the entire project. this estimate
2 provides a through and precise breakdown of the
The formula used for finding the amount of earthwork project, ensuring that it meets the necessary stands of
using the mid-sectional method. and requirements for both administrative approval and
43. For Simpon's Rule to be valid, the number of technical sanction.
strips or Intervals must be______. Preliminary estimate- The estimate is a rough estimate
(a) Prime which is normally be estimated on approximate square
(b) Odd feet rate. In this estimate the specifications and are only
(c) Even for the temporary purpose.
(d) Any Integer value in multiple of 3
Supplementary estimate- During the progress of the
NBCC Sr. Project Executive Civil 25-09-2023 work some modifications or additions due to material
Ans. (c) : Simpson’s rule– Also known as prismoidal deviation of a geological, geo-technical and structural
formula. For Simpon's Rule to be valid, the number of nature from the design originally approved may be
strips or Intervals must be even. through necessary for the development of a project.
d
V = ( A1 + A n ) + 4 ( A 2 + A 4 .... + A n −1 ) + 2 ( A3 + A 5 ..... + A n − 2 )  The method of preparing supplementary estimate is
3
same as detailed estimate.
• It is also used for determining storage capacity storage
46. If building works is estimated by calculating
∆h
(∆S) = [ A1 + 4A 2 + A3 ........] the overall perimeter of the building and
3 subtracting from this four times the thickness
44. Revised estimate is NOT prepared under which of the wall to obtain the centre line length, then
of the following circumstances? this method is called:
(a) When the expenditure of a work exceeds or is (a) Individual wall method
likely to exceed the amount of administrative (b) Crossing method
sanction by more than 20% (c) Centre line method
(b) When it is found that the sanctioned estimate
(d) Long wall and short wall method
is more than the actual requirement
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
(c) When there are material deviations from the
original proposal, even though the cost Ans. (c) : Crossing method– In this method calculate
may be met from the sanctioned amount the overall perimeter of the building and subtracting
(d) When the original sanctioned estimate from this four times the thickness of wall to obtain the
exceeded or was likely to exceed by more centre line length. This method is now rarely use.
than 5% either from the rates being found Centre line method– In this method calculate the total
insufficient, or from any cases whatsoever, centre line length of walls in a building and multiply the
except important structural alternations. same by the breadth and depth of the respective item to
MPPGCL JE 01/06/2024 get the total quantity at a time. This method is adopted
Ans. (a) : Revised Estimate- When a sanctioned for circular, hexagonal, octagonal etc. shaped building.
estimate is likely to be exceeded by more than 5% either Long and short wall method– Length of long and
from the rates being found insufficient due to change to short walls are multiple separately by the branch and
price level or from any cause whatever, except height of the corresponding layer and are added to get
important structural alternations an estimate is prepared the quantity. Such lengths of long and shorts walls vary
which is called a revised estimate. in every layer of footing.

Estimating and Costing 657 YCT

47. The type of estimate which is prepared during 50.
When the sanctioned estimate is likely to be
the initial stages of a project when the design is exceeded by more than 5% either from the
not yet finalized, is known as insufficient fund or, price level, or whatever,
(a) Cube Rate Estimate other than structural alteration, then the
(b) Preliminary Estimate estimate which is prepared is called:
(c) Revised Estimate (a) supplementary estimate
(d) Plinth Area Estimate (b) unit rate estimate
UPSC ESIC JE CIVIL Paper 8 October 2023 (c) detailed estimate
Ans. (b): Preliminary/Approximate/Rough estimate– (d) revised estimate
This is an approximate estimate made to find-out an MH WRD JE 09/08/2022 Shift-I
approximate cost in a short time and thus enable the Ans. (d) : See the above explanation
responsible authority concern to consider the financial
51. The type of estimate to cover additional works
aspect of the scheme for according sanction to the same. necessary for the development of the project
Method of preparing preliminary estimate– which was not considered in the original
(a) Unit rate estimate estimate, while the work is in progress is :
(b) Plinth area estimate (a) Revised (b) Maintenance
(c) Cube rate estimate (c) Supplementary (d) Detailed
48. The detailed estimate prepared for renovation SJVNL Field Engg. 18/03/2023
or renewal of structure, damaged works, minor Ans. (c) : Supplementary estimate– While a work is in
improvements in buildings is called______. progress some additional works may be through
(a) maintenance estimate necessary for development of a project which was not
(b) supplementary estimate foreseen when the original estimate was formed and the
(c) special estimate expenditure for such supplementary work can not be
(d) annual repair estimate meet up from saving else where within the grant and
estimate is then prepared to cover up all such works
SSC JE (Civil) 16/11/2022
which known as supplementary estimate.
Ans. (d) : Annual repair estimate– The annual estimate
is also called as annual maintenance estimate which isThe abstract should show the amount of original
estimate and the total amount including the
prepared to know the maintenance costs of the building
supplementary amount for which sanction is required.
which will keep the structure in safe condition. White
washing, painting, minor repairs, etc. are taken into 52. When a series of cross-sectional area is
consideration while preparing annual repair estimate for a calculated at equidistant points, the volume
building. may be worked out by ______.
Abstract estimate– The abstract estimate is the third and (a) trapezoidal formula
the last stage in a detailed estimate. The amounts and rates (b) prismoidal formula
of everything from work touched base in the initial two (c) mid-sectional area method
stages are presently entered in the abstract form. (d) mean-sectional area method
Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 shift 1
49. A revised estimate for a construction
Ans. (a) : Trapezoidal formula–It is used for
project is usually prepared if the calculation of earthwork volume and is also known as
sanctioned estimate value exceeds the average end area formula. It is also known as
(a) 1.5% (b) 2% average end-area method.
(c) 3.5% (d) 5% • When a series of cross-sectional area is calculated at
Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 Shift II equidistant points, the volume may be worked out by
Ans. (d) : Revised estimate–It is a detailed estimate trapezoidal formula.
and is required to be preferred under any one of the  A + A2 
following circumstances V = d 1 + A 2 + A 3 ...... + A m 
 2 
(i) When original sanctioned estimate is exceeded by
more than 5% 53. For mortgage purposes, the mortgage value of
a property is taken as
(ii) When expenditure on a work exceeds or likely to
exceed the amount of administrative sanction by 1 2
(a) to of capitalized value
more than 10%. 2 3
(iii) When there is material deviation from original 1 3
(b) to of capitalized value
proposal. 3 4

Estimating and Costing 658 YCT

 1 1 Deferred annuity–If the payment of annuity begins at
(c) to of capitalized value some further date after a number of years.
8 16
Annuity–Annuity is the annual period payments for
1 1
(d) to of capitalized value repayments of the capital amount invested by a party.
5 10 These annual payments are either paid at the end of the
(e) Answer not known year or at the beginning of year, usually for a specified
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 number of years.
Ans. (a) : Mortgage– The owner of a property can raise 56. For calculating annual property depreciation,
loan on interest against the security of his property. the following described formula is used by
Such advancement of money against any form of which method of depreciation calculation?
security is called as mortgage. OriginalCost - Scrap Value
Annual Depreciation =
• For mortgage purposes, the mortgage value of a Life in years
1 2 (a)
Declining balance method
property is taken as to of capitalized value .
2 3 (b)
Quality survey method
(c)
Straight line method
54. The method of valuation which is adopted to
(d)
Sinking fund method
value underdeveloped properties is known as
SSC JE (Civil) 15/11/2022
(a) Depreciation method of valuation
(b) Valuation based on cost Ans. (c) Straight line method–It is used for all the
assets which do not get obsolete during its utility period.
(c) Development method of valuation
Original Cost − Scrap value
(d) Rental method of valuation Annual Depreciation =
(e) Answer not known Life in years
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 C−S
=
Ans. (c) : Development method of valuation–This N
method of valuation is used for the properties which are 57. Which one of the following is an external
in the underdeveloped stage or partly developed and obsolescence?
partly underdeveloped stage. If a large place of land is (a) Poor original location
required to be divided into plots after providing for (b) Change in type of construction
roads, parks etc. this method of valuation is to be (c) Change in utility demand
adopted. In such cases, the probable selling price of the (d) Poor on eccentric original design
divided plots, the area required for roads, parks etc. and UPSC ESIC JE CIVIL Paper 8 October 2023
other expenditures for development should be known. Ans. (a) : Obsolescence–This may be defined as the
55. The annual periodic payments for repayment less in the value of the property due to change in fashions
of the capital amount invested by a in design, in structure, in adequancy to present or growing
party is known as needs, necessity for replacement due to new invention etc.
(a) Capitalized value An apartment which becomes increasingly difficult to rent
(b) Capital cost out is said to suffer from obsolescence.
(c) Annuity Obsolescence may be–
(d) depreciation A. Internal Obsolescence–
Kerala PSC (PWD) Draftsman 15/06/2023 (i) Poor on eccentric original
(ii) Change in type of construction
Ans. (c) : Annuity certain–It is the amount of annuity
(iii) Change of kind of construction
is paid for a definite number of periods or years, ex:-
(iv) Change in utility demand
Installments of payment for land, bank security
B. External Obsolescence–
deposits.
(i) Poor original location
Perpetual Annuity– The payments of the annuity that
(ii) Change in the character of the district
continues for an indefinite Period of time or we can say
(iii) Specific detrimental influences, such as due to
has no end is called a perpetual annuity. For example
construction of factories, stockyards, proximity of
pension, royalty.
public building, traffic location and noises etc.
• A perpetuity is annuity that has no end, or a stream of (iv) Zoning law
cash payment that continues forever.
58. Plinth area does not include ..............
Annuity due–If the amount of annuity is paid at the
(a) Carpet area (b) Parasitic area
beginning of each period of year and payments
(c) Cantilevered porch (d) Exterior walls
continued for definite number of periods.
Bihar DLRS 13.08.2023 Shift-I
Estimating and Costing 659 YCT
Ans. (c) : Plinth area– The plinth area is the covered When interest rates can not reasonably be predicted, the
built-up area measured at the floor level of any story or sinking fund method is generally undesirable.
at the floor level of the basement. • Sinking funds depends on the scrap value and life of
Following area are included in plinth area– the building.
(a) Excluding plinth offsets A certain amount of gross rent is set aside annually as
(b) Area of the wall at the floor level sinking fund to accumulate the total cost of construction
(c) Area of internal shaft for sanitary installation and when the life of the building is over. It is established by
garbage chute. a society's by law. This annual sinking fund is also
• Following area are not included in plinth area taken as outgoings
measurement- S ×i
(a) Cantilever porch ( I) = n n
(b) Balcony
(1 + i ) − 1
(c) Area of loft Sn = Sinking fund to be accumulated in 'n' years
(d) Internal sanitary shaft upto 2m2 area i = Rate of interest in decimal
(e) Garbage shaft I = Yearly installment of sinking fund
59. Which of the following expressions is used to 62. Fill in the blank with the correct option :
calculate ‘Annual Depreciation’ by straight line Straight line method, constant percentage
method ? Where ‘Ci’ is the original value, ‘Cs’ method, sinking fund method and quantity
is the scrap value and ‘N’ is the life of structure survey method are used to determine...............
in years. (a) Depreciation (b) Salvage value
(a) (Cs – Ci)/N (b) (Ci – Cs)/N (c) Municipal taxes (d) Annuity
(c) Cs/(N × Ci) (d) (Ci + Cs)/N UPSSSC JE 19/12/2021
TNPSC AE CES (CIVIL) 06/01/2024 Ans. (a) : Depreciation–Depreciation is the gradual
Ans. (b) : Straight line method– Assume depreciation loss in the value of the property due to its tear of life
by same amount. wear, tear and decay. This is an assessment of the
C − Cs physical wear and tear the building or property and is
D= i naturally dependent on its original condition quality of
N
Where, maintenance and made of use.
Ci = original value Methods of calculating depreciation–
Cs = scrap value 1. Straight line method
N = Life of structure 2. Constant percentage method
• It is used for all the assets which do not get absolute 3. Sinking fund method
during its utility period. 4. Quantity survey method.
60. Amount shown in the account book after 5. Diminishing value method
allowing necessary depreciation is called 6. Declining balance method
(a) Salvage value (b) Scrap value 63. In the context of method of calculating
(c) Book value (d) Ratable value depreciation, which of the following method is
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024 assumed that the property loses its value by the
Ans. (c) : Book value- It is the amount shows in the same amount every year?
account book after allowing necessary depreciation. The (a) Constant percentage method
book value of property at a particular year is the original (b) Quantity survey method
cost minus the amount of depreciation year. (c) Sinking fund method
Book value = Original cost – Depreciation (d) Straight line method
Scrap value - value of dismantle materials of properties M.P. NHM Sub Engineer Civil 20-09-2023
at the end of its utility period. Ans. (d) : The straight line method assumes that the
Salvage value - Estimated value of property at the end property depreciates by the same amount each year over
of life without dismantled. its useful life.
61. The calculation of a sinking fund depends on This means that the depreciation expenses remains
the ______ and life of the building. constant throughout the asset's life, making it one of the
(a) Scrap value (b) Salvage value simplest and most commonly used depreciation methods.
(c) Market value (d) Cost of land 64. The usable part of liveable area of a building is
JSSC JE (Civil) 04/11/2022 also known as :
Ans. (a) : Sinking fund method– In this method the (a) Horizontal circulation area
depreciation is assumed to be annual. Sinking fund plus (b) Circulation area
the interest of the accumulated sinking fund till that year. (c) Carpet area
Estimating and Costing 660 YCT
 (d) Plinth area Book value – The value of property shown in the
Kerala PSC Asst. Prof. 12/06/2023 account book in that particular year which is original
Ans. (c) : Carpet area- It means the net usable area of cost minus total depreciation till that year. Book value
an apartment excluding the area covered by the external decreases gradually year by year up to the limit of scrap
wall, area under service shafts, exclusive balcony or value till its utility period.
verandah area. 68. The value of the property recorded in the
Carpet area = Total floor area – (circulation area + register of the municipality or any government
non-useable area) agency in order to determine the taxes to be
Note– CA in residential area (50-65%) and in collected from the owner of the property is
commercial area (65-75%). called :
• A carpet area which includes the inner walls and (a) book value (b) market value
balcony of the structure at floor is called built up area. (c) assessed value (d) capitalized value
65. ________ of a building or property is the NHPC JE 04/04/2022 Shift-II
method of calculating the present marketable Ans. (c) : Assessed value– It is the value of a property
cost of a building. recorded in the resister of a municipality in order to
(a) Qualification (b) Evaluation determine the amount of municipal taxes to be collected
(c) Valuation (d) Generation from the owner of the property. Generally the assessed
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I value is determined from the gross annual rent at which
Ans. (c) : Valuation of a building or property is the the land or building might at the time of assessment be
method of calculating the present marketable cost of a reasonable expected to let from year to year, less in the
building. case of building, and allowance of 10% for the cost of
Method of valuation– The different methods of repairs and for all other expenses necessary to maintain
valuation commonly adopted are – the building.
• Rental method of valuation • In case if the gneiss annual rent of a property can not
be easily estimated then an amount of 5% of the
• Initial cost based valuation
estimated out of the property shall be considered.
• Direct comparison method of valuation
69. Companies may depreciate their assets fully to
• Profit based valuation
$0 because the __________ is so minimal.
• Development method of valuation
(a) Scrap value (b) Market Value
• Depreciation method of valuation (c) Salvage Value (d) Book Value
66. ______ is the estimated cost that a fixed asset MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 07/11/2022 Shift-II
can be sold for after factoring in full depreciation.
Ans. (c) : Salvage value– It is the estimate value of a
(a) Salvage value (b) Market value
built up properties at the end of its useful life being
(c) Scrap value (d) Book value
dismantled. Salvage value will be high when a building, a
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 08/11/2022 Shift-I
machine becomes useful after replacement and remolding.
Ans. (a) : Salvage value– The value of the property Companies may depreciate their assets fully to $0
(without being dismantled) at the end of the useful life because the salvage value is so minimal.
period is known as salvage value.
70. Which one of the following is NOT a direct cost
• The property after being discarded at the end of utility
in estimation?
period, is sold as it is without being Broken into pieces
and amount released after subtracting its cost of (a) Rent for machinery (b) Labor wages
removal sale. (c) Site office expenses (d) Cost of materials
NBCC Sr. Project Executive Civil 25-09-2023
67. If a building is to be dismantled after the
period of its utility is over, the amount that can Ans. (c) : Direct cost- It is the cost directly involved
be fetched from the sale of old material is with the completion of the project. It is includes the raw
known as: material consumed during production, hire charges for
(a) capitalized value (b) book value tool and equipment, wages to labour etc.
(c) scrap value (d) salvage value
ITBP OVERSEER 27/09/2023
Ans. (c) : Scrap value:- If a building is to be
dismantled after the period of its utility is over, the
amount that can be fetched from the sale of old material
is known as scrap value. It is the value of dismantled Indirect cost–It is the cost not directly involved but it is
material of a property at the end of its utility period and necessary for the safe and timely completion of the
absolutely useless except for sales as scrap. project.

Estimating and Costing 661 YCT

 CONTRACTS • Cost plus variable percentage contract–
In this contractor will be paid on the varying
Contracts is an undertaking by person or firm to do
percentage basis, this percentage is linked with cost
work under certain terms and condition.
of construction, it increases or decreases or increase
The work may be of construction, repairs, supply of in cost of construction from estimated amount.
materials, labours etc.
Labour contract-
As Indian contract act 1872, contract is an
In this contractor quotes rates for all items of work
agreement enforceable at law but each agreement is
only for labour and not for materials.
not necessarily a contract.
Demolition contract-
TYPES OF ENGINEERING CONTRACT In this the owner invites tender for demolition of an
Lump sum contract- existing structure and disposal of demolished
In this the complete work as per plan and material.
specification is carried out by contractor for certain Fee contract-
fixed amount as per agreement. In this the owner gives contractor a fixed amount as
This contract is suitable when the number of items fee for his services.
are limited or when it is possible to work out exact Target contract-
quantities or work to be executed. This contract is combination of cost plus percentage
Through it is lump sum contract contractor will be and cost plus variable fee contract.
paid at regular interval of 2-3 month as per progress Negotiated contract-
of work on the basis of certificate issued by engineer This contracts are not suitable for PWD work.
in change. As contract is given to selected person by mutual
Item rate contract- negotiation chances of disputes will be less.
It is also called as unit price contract. Note :-
In this contract contractor are required to quote rates The all in one contract include three separate
for each individual items of work on the basis of services like sales, monitoring and service.
schedule of quantities supplied by department. An annuity contract is a method of converting
This type of contract is suitable for work executed wealth into a stream of income.
by government, PWD, Railway department. Classification of contractor-
This contract is also suitable for building roads, For general work-
bridges etc.
Class I - No limit, Class II - upto 3 crore
Percentage rate method-
Class III - upto 1 crore, Class IV - upto 50 lakh
In this method bill of quantities consist of
Class V - upto 15 lakhs, class VI - upto 5 lakhs
description of item as per sanctioned estimate with
their quantities, rates, unit and amount. Class VII - upto 2 lakhs.
Diploma holders, degree holders can get registration
Contractor is asked to quote only percentage above
in class VII contractor directly and they will be
or below the rates shown in schedule. exempted from payment of earnest money at time of
It is suitable for private work. submitting tender.
Due to assurance of profit better quality of work is
assured. TENDER AND TENDER
Classification of percentage rate method- DOCUMENTS
• Cost plus percentage rate contract- The tender is defined as an offer in writing for
This type of contract is suitable for foundation execution of certain specified work or for supply of
condition, construction of expansive structure etc. specified materials subject to certain terms and
This contract is not suitable for government work conditions such as rates, time limits etc.
and works of public bodies. Necessity of tender-
• Cost plus fixed fee contract- To execute work within specified time limit
In this type of contract owner agrees to pay according to specification.
contractor the fixed amount as his fee irrespective of To supply materials, labours.
the cost of work. For transportation of materials.
Contracts and Accounts 662 YCT
Types of tenders- Rejection of all tenders-
Local tender- When minimum number of tenders to ensure
The work which can be fulfilled in our country local adequate competition is not received.
tender are invited by the respective competent When any fraud is detected.
authority. The lowest tender has quoted very high rates than
Global tender- estimated rate.
Global tenders are invited to get competitive offers Corrigendum to tender notice and its necessity.
from various specialized firms or reputed Tender document-
manufactures throughout the world. Tender document is very important document for
Global tenders are invited for big projects such as contractor as well as owner, department which gives
construction of airport, under water construction, detailed procedure about tendering and filling the
expressway etc. tender.
Open tender- List of tender document-
Open tender is suitable for public works any • Title page
contractor can enter into competition and due to • Index
which this tender ensure minimum cost.
• Tender notice
It is not suitable for specialized job.
• General instructions
Limited tender-
• Special conditions and terms
In this type of tender limited number of contractors
are invited for filling up tender as limited contractors • Form of contract
are invited, quality of work is assumed. • Schedule 'A'
Negotiated tender- • Schedule 'B'
In this type of tender contract is given by negotiation • Schedule 'C'
with one or two contractor. • Specification
Tender notice- • A complete set of drawing
Tender notice is very important document for any • Schedule rate
work. It is published through leading news papers. Terms related to tender document-
All tender notices should be published in standard Time limit-
format which includes name of work, estimated cost, Contractor should aware about time limit and thus
time limit, security deposit, earnest money details should maintain progress of work to completion
etc. with in limit.
Important terms in tender- Penalty-
Earnest money- If contractor fails to give satisfactory work as per
While submitting tender contractor has to deposit specification condition of contract then penalty is
certain amount about 1 to 2% of estimated cost with imposed on contractor penalty is sort of fine.
department as earnest money as guarantee of the A maximum penalty upto 10% of contract amount
tender, so that contractor may not refuse to accept
can be imposed on contractor.
work or run away when his tender is accepted.
Subletting of contract-
Security deposit-
Subletting contractor who is awarded with tender
After acceptance of tender, contractor has to deposit
gives or transfer some portion of work to another
a certain amount with the department or owner is
contractor to carry out work.
called as security deposit, it varies from 5 to 10% of
total estimated cost of work. Subletting of work is not advisable. Due to
Validity period- subletting, it is very difficult to fix responsibility and
It is a period within which the rates quoted by the setting the accounts.
contractor are valid. Escalation-
Period depends upon the importance of work, Contract generally takes long time to complete and
amount involve and time of completion. It ranges in this period there may be possibility of change in
from 30 to 90 days. prices, Escalation clause which protects the
Right to reject one or all tenders- contractor against raise in the prices of materials or
Rejection of lowest tender- labours etc.
When tender is not submitted in particular form sold Defect liability period-
by department. Defect liability period is period in which contractor
Earnest money is not enclosed along with tender. is supposed to remedy all defect due to faculty
Tender is not signed by contractor. material, bad workmanship this period is generally
If contractor is black listed by any department. adopted as 12 months often completion of work.
Contracts and Accounts 663 YCT
Liquidated damages- Indent (Form no.7)-
It is an amount of compensation payable to owner Material from the stock are issued on demand in a
by contractor due to delay in construction of work it proper form no. 7 is termed as indent which is
has no relation with actual damage. prepared by sub-divisional officer or assistant
Procedure of submitting filled tender document- engineer.
Tenders are submitted in envelops marked as 1, 2, 3 Bills (Form no. 24 to 27)-
and 4. A detailed account of claim for works done or
Envelope -1 supply made is called as bill.
It contain earnest money deposit in the form Bill consists of quantities, rates and amount due.
indicated in the notice of invitation to tender.
White bills are generally used for running bills
Envelope -2
whereas the yellow forms are used for final bills.
It contains income tax clearance certificate.
Cash book (Form no. 1)-
Solvency certificate from bank
The most important document in the form of account
List of work of similar nature and magnitude carried
record of the division.
out by tenderer.
Complete details of work in hand at the time of Day to day cash transaction which are made, are
submission tender. entered strictly in order of occurrence.
Details of plants and machinery available. Mode of payment to the contractor-
Details about firm Measurement book (MB) play a vital role because
Covering letter to tender etc. the payment to be given to the contractors work or
Envelope -3 material supply are made on the basis of
This envelop contain priced tender form. measurement entered in the measurement book.
Envelope -4 SPECIFICATIONS
This envelope contains all above three envelops and
Detail information about qualities of materials, their
it is properly sealed and endorsed on outside face
properties, proportions, mixing and laying in
tender for name of project.
position, workmanship etc.
Opening sequence of envelop- (4 → 1 → 2 → 3)
Types of specifications-
ACCOUNTS & PAYMENT Brief specification-
General information for the quantities of materials,
Various account forms-
nature and class of work is short and not with the
Measurement book (MB) (form no. 23)- lengthy detailed specification.
It is a special type of book in which measurement of They do not form the part of the contract document.
all the construction work done, and supplies with Detailed specification-
respect to a sanctioned estimate are recorded. It shows quality, quantity, materials and their
All payment of all work is done base on entries done proportions, method of preparation and execution,
in MB. tools and plants, equipments, machinery describe in
All the pages of measurement book are machine detailed specification.
numbered. Consider part of contract document.
Measurement book includes following three Standard specification book-
particulars : The government or semi-government like P.W.D.,
• Instructions for writing the columns for various MSEB, MIDC, Municipal Corporations makes the
particulars standard specification for most of the works and
• Contents of area these standard specification are printed and
• Details of actual measurement of the work in the numbered and made available in the booklet form.
form of number (No), length (L), breadth / width (B) Specification of excavation-
and depth (D). Excavation exceeding 1.5 m in width as well as 10
Nominal muster roll (NMR) (Form no. 21)- m2 in plan but not exceeding 300 mm in depth is
The muster roll which is maintained to keep the called surface excavation.
record of works being done by a labour employed on It is measured in m2.
each day. Excavation more than 300 mm in depth is measured
Imprest cash (Form no. 2)- in m3.
A standing advance or advance amount of a fixed Trench-
sum of money given to sub-divisional officer and A narrow excavation where depth is greater than the
sub-assistance engineer, so as to make day to day width, but not wider than 15 feet (4.5m) is known as
petty payments. trench.
Contracts and Accounts 664 YCT
 Indicating works left in excavated trenches to 2. Bend length of Bent - up/Cranked bar-
facilitate the measurement of borrow pits are known
as Tell-Tales. For uneven or sloping ground,
diagonal "Tell-tales" shall be left.
Average Depth-
Shallow Excavation - up to 1.5m deep
Medium Excavation - 1.5 m - 3.0 m deep
d d
Deep Excavation - > 3.0 m deep Here, sinθ = ⇒ x1 = ..........( i )
Lead- x1 sin θ
It is the average horizontal distance b/w the centre of d d
excavation to the centre of deposition. tan θ 1 ⇒ x 2 = ..........( ii )
x2 tan θ
The cost of conveyance of materials depends on
lead. ∵ x1 always will > x 2
Lead is taken as 30 m.
∴ Additional length of bar,
 1 1 
ℓ a = x1 − x 2 = d  −
 sin θ cos θ 
if θ = 45°, Then
 1 
ℓa = d 
1/ 2 
− 1 =
2 −1 d( )
Lift-
It is the average height b/w the borrow pit and the = (1.414 − 1) d
centre of deposition or place of spreading.
= 0.414d ≃ 0.42d
Normally earthwork is estimated for 1.5m lift and
30m lead. 3. overlap length-
According to C.P.W.D. lead is taken 50m. (a) For tension member- 40φ
Multiplying factor other than metalled road for the
(b) For compression member - 50φ
estimation of lead-
1. For Metal track Lead × 1.0
2. For Cartz track lead × 1.10
3. For Sandy track lead × 1.40
Side Slope-
4. Stirrups-
In cutting (H : V) 1
1:1-1:1
In filling (H : V) 2
1
1 :1- 2 :1
2
Scale for Plotting of Longitudinal Section-
Horizontal Scale 1 cm = 10 m to 1 cm = 30 m
Vertical Scale 1 cm = 1 m to 1 cm = 5m
BAR BENDING SCHEDULE (B.B.S.) Length of beam
BBS is a list or reinforcement bars for a given Number of stirrups = +1
Spacing
reinforced concrete work item and presented in
tabular form for easy visualization. Note-
BBS provides detail of reinforcement cutting and
Span length / width of memebr
bending length. Number of bar = +1
It provide the better estimation of steel requirement C / C Spacing
for each and every structural member. • Total length of bar = Cutting length × Total No. of bar
1. Hook length-
• Extra length equal to dia. of bar (φ) is taken at each
bend.
φ2
Weight of bar per m length = or0.00612 φ 2 kg
162.2
Where,
Total hook length= 4 φ + φ + 4φ = 9φ φ = Dia. of bar (in mm)
Contracts and Accounts 665 YCT
 Shape of Bar Hook length Bend length Total length of bar Total weight calculation
Straight bar
9φ+9φ - l + 18 φ

Total weight of bar

= No. of bar × weight of
bar per m length
Double Bent up bar
l + 2 × 9 φ + 2× 0.42 d
φ2
9φ+9φ 2 × 0.42 d = l + 18 φ + 0.84 d No. of bar × kg
162.2
OR
No. of bar × 0.00612φ2 kg
Overlap bar
9φ+9φ - 40 φ to 50 φ + 18 φ

Stirrups

4l + 2 × 9 φ + 3 φ
9φ+9φ 3×φ = 4l + 18 φ + 3 φ
= 4l + 21φ

Questions Asked in Previous Years 3. Which of the following contract types is usually
1. ________estimates are either submitted to the followed by Railway department for
construction purposes?
client to secure tender contracts or to secure
(a) Lump-sum (b) Percentage Rate
the project
(c) Item Rate (d) Piece work
(a) Preliminary (b) Detailed
CSPTCL JE 03/03/2024
(c) Bid (d) Rough
Ans. (c) : Item rate contract–Contractors are required
SSB SI PIONEER (Civil) 22.01.2024
to quote rates for individual items of work on the basis
Ans. (c) : Bid estimates are either submitted to the of the schedule of quantities furnished by the client's
client to secure tender contracts or the secure the department. Indian railways and many public sector
project. Validity of the bit should be 90 days from the units use this method of contracts.
data of opening of tender. 4. The head of the division of public works
2. Fixed-price contracts are also known as department is
(a) Time & materials contracts (a) chief engineer
(b) Cost-plus contracts (b) superintending engineer
(c) Lump-sum contracts (c) executive engineer
(d) Unit pricing contracts (d) divisional engineer
GSSSB Planning Assistant 30.03.2024 Shift-II APSC PWRD 23/07/2023 Paper-I
Ans. (c) :
Ans. (c) : Lump-sum contracts–In Lump-sum contract
Chief Engineer Head of Department
the contractor undertakes the execution or construction of
a specific work with all its contingencies to complete it in Superintending Engineer Respective Circles
all respects within a specified time for a fixed amount. Executive Engineer Respective Division
• Fixed price contracts are also commonly known as Assistant Engineer Sub- Divisional office
lump-sum contracts. Junior Engineer Section office

Contracts and Accounts 666 YCT

5. The essential element of contract is (a) HAM contract (b) BOT contract
(a) Security deposit (c) EPC contract (d) Item rate contract
(b) Estimated cost JKSSB JE 29/10/2021 Shift-II
(c) Tender notice Ans. (a) : Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM) is a mix of
(d) Offer and acceptance EPC and BOT Annuity model. In this model, the project
UKPSC JE (Civil) 24/12/2023 Paper-I cost is shared by the government and the private player
Ans. (d ) : There are seven essential elements an in the ratio of 40:60 respectively.
agreement must have to be considered a valid contract. 10. Which of the following is not a type of
The elements of a contract include identification, contract?
meeting of the minds competency and capacity, contract (a) Open tender (b) Item rate contract
legality, offer and acceptance and consideration. (c) Lump-sum contract (d) BOT
6. In the cost-plus contract method, the JKSSB JE 29/10/2021 Shift-II
contractor is paid: Ans. (a) : Types of contracts in construction–
(a) Only if the project is completed under budget • Lump sum contract
(b) The actual costs minus any overruns • Cost plus contract
(c) The actual costs plus a fixed percentage as • Unit price contract
profit • Item rate contract
(d) A fixed sum regardless of the costs • BOT
JSSC JDLCCE JE 16/10/2023 (Civil) • Time and material contract
Types of tenders–
Ans. (c) : Cost plus contract– In tendering for work on
• Open tender
a cost plus basis the contractor is paid the actual cost of
• Limited tender
the work, plus an agreed percentage addition to allow
• Single tender.
for profit.
11. A binding legal agreement is a mutual
7. Which of the following IS codes provide 'Safety
arrangement between two or more persons that
standards during excavation'?
is enforceable by law is called .............
(a) IS 1121 : 1992 (b) IS 3764 : 1992
(a) mutual fund (b) loan
(c) IS 3696 : 1992 (d) IS 2386 : 1992
(c) contract (d) job
MH WRD JE 12/08/2022 Shift-II JKSSB JE 29/10/2021 Shift-II
Ans. (b) : IS : 3764 : 1992– Safety standard during Ans. (c) : Contract–A binding legal agreement is a
excavation. mutual arrangement between two or more persons that
IS : 3696 (Part-2) 1991– Scaffolds safety and ladders, is enforceable by law is called a contract.
code for safety. • It is important to document when dealing with any
IS : 4081-1986- Safety code for blasting and related work with the tendering process.
drilling operation. The following are varies types of contracts–
IS : 2386-1 (1963)– Method of test for aggregate for • Item rate contract
concrete. • Lump sum contract
8. The contractor is paid a certain percent of the • Labor contract etc.
actual cost of construction as a profit in which 12. When an offer with certain terms and
type of contract? conditions is given in written form it is called as
(a) Lump-sum contract _______
(b) BOT contract (a) Tender (b) Contract
(c) Cost plus percentage contract (c) Agreement (d) Notice
(d) Schedule contract GPSC AAE (GMC) 19/09/2021
JKSSB JE 28/10/2021 Shift-II Ans. (a) Tender-When an offer with certain terms and
Ans. (c) : Cost plus percentage contract–In tendering conditions is given in written form it is called as tender.
for work on a cost plus basis the contractor is paid the •Tender notice, tender form and condition of contract
actual cost of the work. Plus an agreed percentage are included in tender document.
addition to allow for profit. This type of contract is 13. What is the full form of EMD?
generally adopted when conditions are such that labor (a) Earnest Money Deposit
and materials rates are liable to fluctuate. (b) Early Money Deposit
9. Which of the following contracts has contractor (c) Extra Money Deposit
and government's share as 60% and 40% of (d) Emergency Money Deposit
total project's cost respectively? JKSSB JE 30/10/2021 Shift-I
Contracts and Accounts 667 YCT
Ans. (a) : The full form of EMD is earnest money Ans. (a) : Lump-sum contract– In this form of
deposit. contract (PWD form 12) the contractor are required to
Earnest money:- While submitting a tender the quote a fixed sum for execution of a work complete in
contractor is to deposit a certain amount, about 2% of all respect i.e. according to the drawing, design and
the estimated cost, with the department, as earnest specification supplied to them with the tender within
money as guarantee of the tender. the specified time.
14. The amount of E.M. D. to be deposited by the • The department schedule of rates for various item of
tenders is? work are also provided which regulates the payment to
(a) 1% of estimated cost
the contractor in respect of the items of works involved
(b) 2% of estimated cost
for any additions and alteration not covered by the
(c) 5% of estimated cost
original work.
(d) 10% of estimated cost
(e) Answer not known 18. When the engineering department takes up the
TNPSC AE (Civil) 27/05/2023 work of other department, ______ percentage
Ans. (b) : See the above explanation. amount of estimated cost is charged.
(a) 5 to 10 (b) 10 to 15
15. Which of the following rules of measurement
book is true? (c) 15 to 20 (d) 20 to 25
(a) Dimensions should be entered in the order of Bihar DLRS 16.08.2023 Shift II
length, breadth, and thickness Ans. (b) : When the engineering department takes up
(b) Measurements can be recorded before the work of other department, 10 to 15 percentage
completion of a work amount of estimated cost is charged.
(c) Measurements of the same item under • Work charge establishment– 2 to 2.5%
different conditions can be recorded together • Contractor's profit– 10%
(d) Description of work is not necessary for
19. When tender is available to only limited
recording measurement
number of contractors to fill up such tender is
SSC JE (Civil) 15/11/2022
called as _______
Ans. (a) : Measurement book–All the work executed (a) Specified Tender (b) Selected Tender
shall be measured and entered in a permanent record is
(c) Local Tender (d) Invited Tender
called Measurement Book. It is a complete
measurement of some physical intervention which can SJVNL Field Engg. 22/01/2024
be recorded in the time of complete of any physical Ans. (b) : Selected or limited tender– For this type of
intervention. tender the architect after consolation with his client
• In measurement book dimension should be enter in invites a limited number of contractor for filling up the
the order of length, breadth and thickness. tender of the project, It result in competition on a small
16. Which of the following contracts enforces the scale. But it process to be useful for specialized.
contractor to perform all the engineering, 20. --------is based on estimate quantities of the
procurement and construction activities? items involved in the work.
(a) BOT contract (a) Competitive contract
(b) EPC contract (b) Turn-key contract
(c) Item rate contract (c) Guaranteed maximum contract
(d) Hybrid Annuity Model (d) Unit price contract
JKSSB JE 27/10/2021 Shift-II GSSSB AAE (Civil) 17/12/2023
Ans. (b) : EPC contract–An EPC contract is a type of Ans. (d) : A unit price contract is based on estimated
construction contract used in the engineering, quantities of the items involved quantities of the item
procurement and construction (EPC) industry. In an involved in the work. Under this type of contract, the
EPC contract, the contractor is responsible for the entire
client pays. The contractor based on the actual
project, from designing and engineering to procuring
quantities of work completed, multiplied by
materials and equipment to constructing and installing
predetermined unit prices for each item or activity. This
the project.
allows for flexibility in project scope changes and
17. Which of the following contract is not
encourages efficient project management.
measurement contract?
(a) Lump-sum contract 21. What is the primary purpose of a "Bill of
(b) Item rate contract Quantities" in cost estimates for works?
(c) Percentage rate contract (a) To provide a detailed list of materials and
(d) None of the above labour
MPPSC AE 03/07/2022 (b) To calculate the project profit margin
Contracts and Accounts 668 YCT
 (c) To prepare architectural drawings (d) The contractor’s profit directly depends on
(d) To determine the project schedule the time of completion; hence for getting
JSSC JE (Civil Engg.) 18/10/2023 more profit, the contractor tries to complete
Ans. (a) : The primary purpose of a 'Bill of quantities' is the work as early as possible.
to provide a detailed list of materials and labour UPPCL JE 22/06/2022 Shift-I
required for a construction project, aiding in accurate Ans. (c) : Item rate contact– It is also known as unit
cost estimation and procurement planning. price contract or schedule contract. For item rate
controls, contractor are required to quotes for
22. While submitting tender by three envelope
individual items of work on the basis of schedule
method, which envelope contains the priced
of quantities furnished by the department.
tender form with the signature of tenderer?
Advantage of item rate contract–
(a) Envelope: 3
(i) This form of contract ensure a more details
(b) Envelope: 1 and 2
analysis of cost by the contractor and as such as
(c) Envelope: 1 more scientific. The departmental offices are to
(d) None of the above workout the schedule of quantities against each
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 item of work and the contractors are to work out
Ans. (a) : Basically, there are two types of enveloping the rate against such item.
tendering processes that you are aware of– (ii) Since the contractor are to write of their
(i) Three envelop system individual rates of individual item in figures as
(i) Two envelop system well as in words.
Three envelop system–In this case, the bidder is asked (iii) The contractor work out the rates of all items of
to submit the document as below– the schedule in order to put it in the tender. Thus,
Envelop 1 – Document related to eligibility criteria unworkable rated tender may be avoided which
Envelop 2 – Technical bid leads smooth progress and timely completion of
Envelop 3 – Financial bid a work.
(iv) As the contractor gets the payment against the
23. Safety Management at construction sites aims at
actual quantities of items done by him, the
minimizing casualties and damage to manpower method is economical. No possibility for excess
by payment except for some terms and conditions.
(a) Ensuring Safe Working Environment through
25. Consider the following statements in a situation
well-Planned Safety Policy.
where cement and steel are supplied by the
(b) Organized enforcement of safety measures.
department.
(c) Creating safety awareness through education & I: 10% profit should be added on the cost of
training. cement and steel.
(d) All of the above. II: Cost of carriage from godown to site work
GPSC WSSB EE 05.02.2023, Paper-2 should be added. Which of the following
Ans. (d) : Safety Management at construction sites options is true?
aims at minimizing casualties and damage to (a) Both statements I and II are true
manpower by– (b) Only statement II is true
• Ensuring Safe Working Environment through (c) Only statement I is true
well-Planned Safety Policy. (d) Both statements I and II are false
• Organized enforcement of safety measures. SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning)
• Creating safety awareness through education & Ans. (b) : Material cost–The rate of various materials
training. as per specifications for the items under consideration
24. Select the advantage of Item Rate Contract. can be chalked out from market survey. The costs of
(a)The total cost of the work can only be materials are taken as delivered at site of work.
computed after completion of the entire project This is inclusive of–
(b)The owner tries to get the maximum work out • The first class (cost at origin)
of money he spends, whereas the contractor • Cost of transport, railway freight (if any) etc.
tries to get the maximum profit, causes • Local taxes and other charges.
conflicting interests 26. Which of the following keeps a record of
(c) As the contractor gets the payment against receipts, issues and running balance of certain
the actual quantities of items done by him, items of stock, especially of fitting items?
the method is economical. No possibility for (a) Stock items (b) Value account
excess payment except for some terms and (c) Quantity account (d) Bin card
conditions SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning)
Contracts and Accounts 669 YCT
Ans. (d) : Bin card–A bin card keeps a record of 30. Which of the following is NOT a fundamental
receipts, issues and running balance of certain items of building block in estimating construction
stock, especially of fitting items. Immediately after labour estimates?
transactions, the entries of receipts or entries of issues (a) Work hour unit rates per quantity
are posted by bin card from the register of "stock (b) Project owner
receipts and issues" and balances are worked out and (c) Crew mix
also entered in bin card. (d) Project quantities
27. Miscellaneous expenses such as office expenses, SSC JE Civil 14/11/2022 Shift-I
stationery, postal expenses, etc., falls under Ans. (b) The fundamental of a building block in
________. estimating construction labour estimate as follows-
(a) extra expenses
• Work hour unit rates per quantity
(b) overhead expenses
• Crew mix
(c) surcharge expenses
(d) additional expenses • Project quantities
SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning) Project owner–It is a person (Party or parties)
responsible for funding the design construction,
Ans. (b) : Overhead expenses are all costs on the
operation and maintenance of a trade project or simple
income statement except for direct labour, direct
project.
material and direct expenses. Overhead expenses
include accounting fee, insurance, interest, legal fees, 31. One of the merits of the ______contract is that
taxes, travel, expenditures, office expenses, stationary, there is no need for detailed drawings at the
postal expenses etc. time of allotting the contract and same will be
28. Charged establishment is the amount of prepared after the contract is awarded.
expenditure incurred on (a) Cost plus percentage of cost
(a) Incidental expenses (b) Lumpsum
(b) Engaging addition staff (c) Cost plus and cost free
(c) tool & plants (d) Item rate
(d) Contingencies MH WRD JE 09/08/2022 Shift-I
OSSC JE RE-Exam 03.09.2023 Ans. (d) : Item rate contact– It is also known as unit
Ans. (b) : Charge establishment is the amount of price contract or schedule contract. For item rate
expenditure incurred in engaging additional staff. controls, contractor are required to quotes for individual
• Work changed, establishment charges include items of work on the basis of schedule of quantities
temporary establishments as are employed for the furnished by the department.
execution or the intermediate technical supervision or ● One of the merits of the Item rate contract is that there
department stores and machinery in connection with a is no need for detailed drawings at the time of allotting
specific work. the contract and same will be prepared after the contract
29. Among the following, which is not a is awarded.
construction contract? 32. 10% of the cost of work is given to the
(a) Lumpsum contract contractor as mobilization advance
(b) Cost plus contract (a) When 10% of the work is completed
(c) Lumpsum plus contract (b) When work at site is started
(d) Turnkey contract (c) before start of construction, for preparation to
BMRCL 2023 start the work
(d) during construction work for payment of
Ans. (c) : Following are the different types of
salary to staff
contracts for execution of civil engineering works–
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Paper-II
(a) Item rate contract
Ans. (c) : Mobilization advance is given to a contractor
(b) Percentage rate contract
physical and manpower resources for transfer to a
(c) Lump-sum contract constructor site until the completion of the contract.
(d) Labor contract • It is 10% of the work cost.
(e) Material supply contract
33. Which term indicates the stages in which the
(f) Pieces work agreement total predetermined cost of construction of the
(g) Cost plus percentage rate contract project is to be spread over?
(h) Cost plus fixed fee contract (a) Financial planning (b) Cost determination
(i) Cost plus sliding (c) Cost planning (d) Budget planning
(j) Turnkey contract SSC JE 11/10/2023 (Morning)
Contracts and Accounts 670 YCT
Ans. (c) : Cost planning–It indicates the stages in 37. In BOT (Build-Operate-Transfer) based project,
which the total predetermined cost of construction of the most important evaluation criterion is
the project is to be spread over. (a) Financial internal rate of return
Budget planning–It is a cost estimate or a financial (b) Internal rate of return
plan that outlines the expected construction costs and (c) Benefit-cost ratio
expenses associated with a project. (d) Present value
34. Security Deposit deducted from the contract’s NBCC JE (Civil) 08/05/2022
bill is Ans. (c) : The BOT scheme is essentially a form of
(a) released to enhance to site security after the leasing, where the government allow a private
completion of the work
entrepreneur to design, finance and built an
(b) refunded when the defect liability period of 6
infrastructure facility.
months or one monsoon whichever is later is
over • In BOT based project, the most important evaluation
(c) refunded when the contractor has completed criterion is benefit-cost ratio.
the outlined work 38. In which of the following types of contract is
(d) refunded when there is a good progress of the quantity of work NOT mentioned and only
work the rate is mentioned?
GPSC AAE (GMC) 19/09/2021 (a) Work order agreement
Ans. (b) : Security deposit– Security at 10% of the (b) Piece- work agreement
contract value shall be deposited to the project authority (c) Lump sum contract
in the form of a demand draft or bank guarantee with a (d) Item rate contract
validity up to the end of the contractual completion time MH WRD JE 06/08/2022 Shift-II
of the awarded work. Ans. (b) : Price work agreement– As the name
• EMD deposited at 2.5% shall be considered as the signifies, the piece work agreement is that for which
initial security deposit and balance of 7.5% shall be only a rate is agreed upon without reference to the total
deducted at 10% of each running bill during execution quantity of work to be done or the quantity of work to
of the project as retention money and shall help up to
be done within a given period. In case of petty work
the end of the defect liability period.
value up to Rs. 10,000/- each inclusive of cost of
35. The amount paid by the contractor to the material may be carried out through contraction by
organization before getting the work order as a piece work agreement.
guarantee of execution of the work as per
contract is termed as : 39. Identify the incorrect pair :
(a) Security deposit (b) Liquidated damage (a) Piece work contract- Petty work and regular
(c) Bank guarantee (d) Earnest rate maintenance works.
MPSC MES 29/10/2022 Paper-2 (b) Lump sum contract- Adopted for buildings,
Ans. (a) : See the above explanation. bridges, electrical works, etc.
(c) Item rate contract -Payments were done
36. Analyzing and preparation of comparative
earlier to the construction.
statement of contractor is done at which step of
tendering process? (d) Labor contract-Not practiced in government.
(a) Submission of Tender CHB SDE (Building) 29/01/2023
(b) Opening of Tender Ans. (c) : Piece work contract– Petty work and regular
(c) Scrutiny of Tender maintenance work.
(d) Acceptance of Tender Lump sum contract– It is adopted for buildings,
GPSC AAE (GMC) 19/09/2021 bridges, electrical works etc.
Ans. (c) : Scrutiny of tender– After tender have been Item rate contract– Payments made by detailed
opened a comparative statement is prepared in the office measurement of different item.
of the tender opening authority and signed by him. Labor contract– No practiced in government.
• Open tender in which the clients advertises this
40. What is the purpose of a tender document?
tender in the local newspaper and is available for all
interested contractor. (a) To provide information to the architect for a
• Letter of acceptance of tender and written order to building project
commence work. In order to avoid legal (b) To provide information to potential bidders
complications. It is essential that the date of for a building project
accepting the tender and the date of written order to (c) To provide information to the client for a
commence work forms part of the agreements. building project
Contracts and Accounts 671 YCT
 (d) To provide information to the contractor for a 9. Cost plus aiding or fluctuating fee-scale contract
building project 10. Turnkey contract
PGCIL DT (Civil) 05/05/2023 EPC contract–Engineering procurement and
Ans. (b) : A tender document is a formal invitation to construction industry. Contractor is responsible for
tender issued by a potential customer to invitation only entire project from designing to procurement,
pre-qualified supplies. construction and installation.
• A tender document is a formal document that is used 44. What is a contract in the context of civil
to provide information to potential bidders for a engineering projects?
building project. (a) A document outlining the project
41. Which of the following includes the cost of hire specifications and requirements
charges for the vehicle for an 8-hour working (b) A document detailing the project
environmental impact
period in a day with the cost of the driver?
(c) A legal agreement between the project owner
(a) Loading of the vehicle
and the contractor
(b) Labour cost
(d) A document of a Memorandum of
(c) Cost of owing Understanding
(d) Miscellaneous UPSC ESIC JE CIVIL Paper 8 October 2023
SSC JE 09/10/2023 (Morning)
Ans. (c) : Contract–An agreement enforceable by law
Ans. (c) : Cost of owing–Owing cost means cost of is contract. The contract invariably follows a proposal
purchasing the construction equipment whether its new from one party and its acceptance by the other. In
or used one. absence of any of the above elements of a contract if
• Cost of hire charges for the vehicle for an 8 hours becomes void, i.e. without a legal effect or voidable, i.e.
working period in a day with the cost of the driver is which can be avoided by any of the parties to it.
called cost of owing. 45. National Building Code of India, Part 5 is
42. Among the following types of contracts, which about:
one belongs to Public-Private Partnership? (a) Landscaping
(a) Lumpsum contract (b) Building Materials
(b) Unit rate contract (c) Fire and Life Safety
(c) Build-operate-transfer (d) Administration
(d) Turnkey contract DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28/06/2022 Shift-I
KRIDL AE (Civil) 05/02/2023 Ans. (b) : National building code of India.
Ans. (c) : A build operate transfer (BOT) contract is a Part-1 → Definition
model used to finance large projects, typically Part-2 → Administration
infrastructure projects developed through public Part-3 → Development control rules and general
private partnership. building required
• BOT projects are normally large scale Greenfield Part-4 → Fire and life safety
infrastructure projects that would otherwise be Part-5 → Building material
financed built and operated solely by the government. Part-6 → Structural design
43. Which of the following is not a type of 46. The first stage of a construction is
contract? (a) preparation of estimate
(a) Lump-sum (b) Item rate (b) survey of the site
(c) EPC (d) Running item (c) Initiation of the proposal
ISRO Technical Assistant Civil 20-09-2023 (d) preparation of tender
Ans. (d) : Following are the different types of Assam PSC JE 16/07/2023
contracts for execution of civil engineering works– Ans. (c) : Pre-tender stage–
1. Item rate contract • Initiation of proposal and preparation of schemes..
2. Percentage rate contract • Technical sanction
3. Lump-Sum contracts • Acceptance of proposal in accordance to its
4. Labour contract feasibility and acquisition of land.
5. Material supply contract • Survey of site
6. Peace Work Agreement • Preparation of drawing, design estimate
7. Cost plus percentage rate contracts • Accord of administrative approval and allotments of
8. Cost plus fixed fee contract funds.
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