BASICS AND

APPLIED
PHYSICS
(LECTURE NOTES)
REGULATIONS 2023

COMMON TO CSE, IT, AI&DS and CSBS

KNOWLEDGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)

SEPTEMBER - 2023

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 BASICS AND APPLIED PHYSICS (BAP)

UNIT I

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1.1. Classical free electron theory

1.2. Expression for electrical conductivity
1.3. Thermal conductivity, expression,
Wiedemann-Franz law – Success and failures
1.4. Fermi- Dirac statistics
1.5. Density of energy states
1.6. Electron in periodic potential
1.7. Energy bands in solids
1.8. Electron effective mass
1.9. Concept of hole

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INTRODUCTION
Low resistive materials are generally called conducting materials. These materials have high
electrical and thermal conductivity. The conducting property of a solid is not a function of
total number of the electrons in the metal, but it is due to the number of valence electrons so
called Free Electrons (or) Conduction Electrons. Hence in metals the electrical conductivity
depends on the number of free electrons available.
Basic definition
It is necessary to know the basic relations in electrical conductivity to understand its
derivation.
Ohm’s Law
When an electrical current flows through a conductor, then the voltage drop across the
conductor is given by the ohm’s law
𝑽
V = IR (or) I = 𝑹 ... (1)
Where, I – current in ampere,
R – resistance to the current flow in ohm
V – voltage drop across the conductor in volt.
Resistance (R)
The resistance R of a conductor is a geometry (length and area) and property dependent
factor of the material used.
𝒍
R∝𝑨
𝛒𝐥 𝒍
R =𝑨 = ... (2)
𝛔𝐀
1
ρ − Proportionality constant known as resistivity (ohm m) (ρ = )
σ
l − Length of the conductor (m)
A − Area of cross section (m 2)
σ – Electrical conductivity (ohm− 1
m− 1) (or) (mho m− 1) (or) siemens m− 1

(Sm− 1)
Current Density (J)
It is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of a current carrying conductor.
If I is the current and A is the area of cross-section, then current density is given by
𝑰
J=𝑨 … (3)
Its unit is Am− 2
Electrical Field (E)
The electrical field E in a conductor of uniform cross section is defined as the potential drop
(voltage) V per unit length.
𝑽
E= ... (4)
𝒍
Its unit is Vm− 1
Electrical Conductivity (σ)
The amount of electrical charges (Q) conducted per unit time across unit area (A) of a
conductor per unit applied electrical field (E) is defined as electrical conductivity. It is
denoted by σ and it is given by
Q
σ = t AE

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 𝑱
σ=𝑬
𝑄
where J is the current density and it is given by (𝑡𝐴)
A second form of ohm’s law is obtained by combining equations (1) and (2)
From eqn (1),
V = IR
From eqn (2),
𝑙
R= σA
𝐼𝑙
V= σA
Rearranging,
𝐼 𝑉
=σ l=σE
A
J=σE …..(5)
Relation between Current Density J, Drift Velocity νd and Mobility μ
Let n be the number of charge carriers per unit volume (also called charge carrier density) in
a conductor of length l with uniform cross sectional area A. The current flow through the
conductor is given by

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Main Stages of Free Electron theory of solids

(i) Classical free electron theory (Drude and Lorentz free electron theory)
This theory was proposed by Drude and Lorentz in the year 1900. According to this theory,
the free electrons are mainly responsible for electrical conduction in a metal. It obeys the
laws of classical mechanics. Here, the free electrons are assumed to move in a constant
potential.
(ii) Quantum free electron theory (Sommerfeld Quantum theory)
Quantum free electron theory was proposed by Sommerfeld in the year 1928. According to
this theory, the electrons in a metal move in a constant potential. It obeys the laws of
quantum mechanics. The wave nature of electron is taken into account to describe the
electron.
(iii) Zone theory or band theory of solids
This theory was proposed by Bloch in the year 1928. According to this theory, free electrons
move in a periodic potential. It explains electrical conductivity based on the energy bands.
CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS (CFE)
The classical free electron theory of metals was proposed by P. Drude in the year 1900 to
explain the electrical conduction in metal. This theory was further extended by H. A. Lorentz
in the year 1909.
We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with positively charged protons
surrounded by the electrons of negative charge.
The electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons and those in the outermost shell are
called valence electrons

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 Atom (Drude model)
In a metal, when the valence electrons of each atom detach from the orbit, then they move
freely throughout the metal. These electrons are known as free or conduction electrons.
Postulates of classical free electron theory
1. According to this theory, a metal consists of very large number of free
electrons. These electrons move freely throughout the volume of the metal.
The movement of the free electrons is mainly responsible for the electrical
conduction in the metal.
2. Drude assumed that the free electrons in the metal form an electron gas. They
move randomly in all possible directions just like the gas molecules move in
a container.
The arrangement of atoms in a metal is viewed as an array of atoms (ions) surrounded by a
gas of free electrons. Here, the mutual repulsion between the electrons is neglected.

3. In absence of an electrical field, the free electrons (electron gas) move in all
directions in a random manner.
They collide with other free electrons and positive ion core during the motion.
This collision is known as elastic collision.

Random motion of free electrons in the absence of electric field

(+ ve ion cores are not shown).
As the motion is random, the resultant velocity in any particular direction is zero.
4. When the electrical field is applied the electrons get some amount of energy.
These electrons begin to move towards the positive potential (in opposite
direction to the applied electrical field).

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 They continue to collide with positive ion cores fixed in the lattice. As a result,
the free electrons acquire a constant average velocity known as drift velocity.

Movement of free electrons with applied electrical field

5. The velocity and the energy distribution of free electrons are governed by
classical Maxwell distribution function.
6. Since the electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas, they obey the laws of kinetic
theory of gases.
Therefore, the free electrons are assigned with mean free path, mean collision
time and average velocity.

Drift velocity ( Vd )
It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electrons of a metal in a particular
direction by the application of an electrical field.
It is expressed as
𝛌
vd = 𝛕𝐜
where λ − mean free path
τc − collision time.
Mean free path (λ)
The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive collisions is
known as mean free path. It is represented by λ.
It is the product of drift velocity of free electrons (vd) and collision time (τc ).
λ = vd τc
Collision time (τc)
The average time taken by a free electron between any two successive collisions is known as
collision time of the electron. It means that the electron on an average travels for a time τc
before its next collision.
𝛌
It is given by τc = 𝐯𝐝
where λ - mean free path
vd - drift velocity
Relaxation time (τ)
The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium state from its disturbed
state due to the application of an external electrical field is called relaxation time.
In other words, it is the measure of time that the electrons can relax when the electrical field

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is removed. It is approximately equal to 10− 14 second.
EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL (Derivation)
We know in the absence of external electric field, the motion of electrons in a metal
moves randomly in all directions. When electric fi rod, the electron moves in opposite
direction to the applied field with velocity v d. this velocity is known as drift velocity.

Lorentz force acting on the electron F = eE --- (1)

This force is known as driving of the electron. Due to this force, the electron gains
acceleration ‘a’. From motion, the Newton’s force second law of
F= ma --- (2)
From equations 1 & 2
ma = eE (or)
a = eE/m -- (3)
The acceleration of electron is given by
Acceleration (a) = Drift velocity (v d) / Relaxation time (τ)
a = Vd/τ
Vd = a τ
Substituting equation (3) in ( 4)

v d = [e τ /m ] E ---(5)
Where ‘σ’ is the electrical conductivity of velocity is given as
J = ne v d --(6)
Substituting equation (5) in (7), we have
J = ne [e τ/m] E ---(7)
2
J = [ne τ / m] E , in terms of effective mass m* of an electron,
J = [ne2 τ/m* ] E ---(8)
From microscopic form of Ohm’s law, the current density ‘J’ is expressed as,
J=σE ---(9)
On comparing equations (8) & (9) , we have Electrical conductivity
σ = ne2 τ / m* ---(10)
From equation (10), we know that with increase of electron concentration ‘n’, the
conductivity ‘σ’ increases. As m* increases, the motion of electron becomes slow and the
electrical conductivity.

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THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Definition
It is defined as the amount of heat flowing per unit time through the material having unit area
of cross section per unit temperature gradient.

𝑑𝑇
ie)., Q = K 𝑑𝑥
Thermal conductivity of the material
𝑑𝑇
K = Q / 𝑑𝑥
Q –Amount of heat flowing per unit time through unit cross sectional area
dT/dx –Temperature gradient.

Expression for thermal conductivity

Let us consider a uniform rod AB with temperatures T1 (Hot) at end A and T2 (cold) at end B.
Heat flows from hot end A to the hold end B. Let us consider cross sectional area C which is
at a distance equal to the mean free path (λ) of t in fig.

The conduction electron per unit value is n and average velocity of these electrons is v.
During the movement of electrons in the rod, the collision takes place. Hence, the electrons
near A lose their kinetic energy while electrons near B gain kinetic energy.
At A, average kinetic energy of an electron = 3/2 kT ------(1)

Where k- Boltzmann’s constant and T is temperature

At B average kinetic energy of the electron

= 3/2 k (T –dT) ------(2)
The excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron from A to B
= 3/2 kT - 3/2 k (T –dT)
= 3/2 kT - 3/2 kT + 3/2 k dT ------(3)
Number of electrons crossing per unit area per unit time from A to B
= 1/6 nv.
The excess of energy carried from A to B per unit area in unit time

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 = 1/6 nv X 3/2 kdT
= 1/4 n v k dT ------(4)

Similarly, the deficient of energy carried from B to A per unit area per unit time
= -1/4 n v kdT ------(5)
Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time

Q =1/4 nvkdT –(-1/4 nvkdT )

Q = 1/4 nvkdT + 1/4 nvkdT

Q = 1/2 nvkdT ------(6)

But from the basic definition of thermal conductivity, the amount of heat conducted per unit
area per unit time
Q = K dT/ λ
[Q = K dT/dx ; λ = dx]
½ n v k dT = K dt/λ
K = ½ nv k λ ---------- (7)
We know that for the metals
Relaxation time = collision time

τ = τ c = λ/v
τ v = λ ------(8)
Substituting equation 8 in the equation 7, we have
K=½nvkτv
K = ½ n v2 k τ ---(9)

WIDEMANN –FRANZ LAW

Statement
It states that for the metals, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. This ratio is a constant for all metals at
given temperature.

K/σ ∞ T
K / σ = LT

Where L is a proportionality constant. It is known as Lorentz number. Its value is 2.44 X

10-8 WΩK-2 at T = 293 K.

Derivation
Widemann –Frantz law is derived from the expressions of thermal conductivity and
electrical conductivity of metal.

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We know that,
Electrical conductivity of a metal σ = ne2τ / m ----(1)
Thermal conductivity of a metal K = ½ n v2k τ ----(2)
Thermal conductivity = ½ n v2 k τ
Electrical conductivity = ne2 τ / m
K / σ = ½ mv2 k / e2 ---(3)
We know that the kinetic energy of an electron
Or ½ mv2 = 3/2 kT ---(4)
Substituting equation 4 in equation 3, we have
K / σ = 3/2 kT X k / e2
= 3/2 [k/e] 2 T
K / σ = LT ---(5)
where L = 3/2 [k/e] 2 is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number
K / σ α T ----(6)

Thus it is proved that, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of a

metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.

Conclusion
Wiedemann –Franz law clearly shows that if a metal has high thermal conductivity, it
will also have high electrical conductivity.

LORENTZ NUMBER

The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) of of the metal and absolute temperature (T) of
the metal is a constant. It is known as Lorentz number and it is given by

𝐾
L = σT

MERITS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRTON THEORY

1. It is used to verify Ohm’s Law.
2. The electrical and Thermal conductivities of metals can be explained by this theory.
3. It is used to derive Wiedemann- Franz law.
4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

It is a macroscopic theory. Classical theory states that all free electrons will absorb energy,
but quantum theory states that only few electrons will absorb energy. This theory cannot
explain the Compton effect, photoelectric effect, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism etc., The
theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific heat are not
matched.

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The Lorentz number by classical theory does not have good agreement with experimental
value and it is rectified by quantum theory.

FERMI DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

The classical and quantum free electron theories failed to explain many electrical and
thermal properties of solids. However, these properties can be easily understood using
Fermi –Dirac statistics.

Fermi –Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integral spin. The particles
like electrons are the examples of half integral spin and hence they are known as Fermi
particles or Fermions.

Definition
The expression which gives the distributions of electrons among the various energy
levels as a function of temperature is known as Fermi distribution function. It is the
probability function F(E) of an electron occupying given energy level at absolute
temperature.
It is given by

Where
E –Energy of the level whose occupancy is being considered

EF –Energy of the Fermi level

K –Boltzmann’s constant

T –Absolute temperature

The probability value of F(E) lies between 0 and 1. If F(E) = 1, the energy level is
occupied by an electron. If F(E) = 0, the energy level is vacant. If F(E) = ½ or 0 .5 then there
is a 50% chance for the electron occupying in that energy level.

Effect of temperature on Fermi function

The effect of temperature on Fermi function F(E) can be discussed with respect to equation 1.
At 0 kelvin.
At 0 kelvin, the electron can be filled only upto a maximum energy level called Fermi energy
level (EF0), above EF0 all the energy levels will be empty. It can be proved from the
following conditions.
When E<EF, equation 1 becomes

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 1 1
F(E) = 1+𝑒 −∞ = 1 = 1

(i.e., 100% chance for the electron to be filled within the Fermi energy level) When E>E F,
equation 1 becomes
1 1
F(E) = 1+𝑒 ∞ = ∞ = 0

(i.e zero% chance for the electron not to be filled within the Fermi energy level)

1 1
F(E) = 1+1 = 2 = 0.5

When E = EF, equation 1 becomes (i.e., 50% chance for the electron to be filled within the
Fermi energy level)

This clearly shows that at 0 kelvin all the energy states below EF0 are filled and all those
above it is empty. The Fermi function at 0 kelvin can also be represented graphically as
shown in fig.

Fermi energy and its importance Fermi energy level

Fermi energy level is the maximum energy level upto which the electron can be filled at ok.
Importance:
Thus it acts as a reference level which separates the vacant and filled energy states at 0k. It
gives the information about the filled electron states and the empty states.

At 0k, below Fermi energy level electrons are filled and above Fermi energy level it will be
empty. When the temperature is increased, few electrons gains thermal energy and it goes to
higher energy levels.

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DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES

Number of energy levels in a cubical metal piece

To find the energy levels in a cubical metal piece and to find the number of electrons that can
be filled in the given energy level, let us construct a sphere of radius ‘n’ in the space.

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ELECTRON IN PERIODIC POTENTIAL
Band theory of solids (Zone theory)
The free electron theory explains the properties like thermal conductivity, electrical
conductivity and specific heat of most of the metals.
But, it fails to explain why some solids are conductors, some are insulators and others are
semiconductors.
A solution to this problem was given by band theory of solids and is called zone theory.
According to free electron theory, the potential energy of the electron inside the crystal
through which an electron moves is supposed to be constant (zero). So it is completely free to
move about in the crystal, restrained only by the surface of the crystal.
Postulates
1. According to band theory, potential energy of electron within the crystal is periodic due to
periodicity of the crystal i.e., free electrons move inside periodic lattice field.
2. The potential energy of the solid varies periodically with the periodicity of space lattice ‘a’
which is nothing but interatomic spacing.Inside a real crystal, the electrons (–) move through
periodic arrangement of positively charged holes (+) as shown in the fig(a)
Fig (b) shows one dimensional periodic potential distribution for a crystal. It is assumed that
the potential energy of the electron at the positive ion site is zero and is maximum when it is

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half way between the adjacent nuclei.

One dimensional periodic potential distribution for a crystal

ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

A solid contains an enormous number of atoms packed closely together. In the case of a
single isolated atom, there are discrete energy levels, 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s …. These energy levels
can be occupied by the electrons of the atom, as shown in fig.
All the atoms of a solid, if assumed isolated from one another, can have completely identical
electronic schemes of their energy levels. Then the electrons fill the levels in each atom
independently.
When the atoms come close together, they strongly interact and the outer electron orbitals
overlap with each other.
Hence, the interactions of large number of atoms form closely spaced energy levels known as
permitted energy band. The permitted energy bands are separated by energy gap E g. The
lower completely filled band is valence band and upper unfilled band is called conduction
band

Definition
A set of such closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band.

Concept of valence band, conduction band and forbidden band

• The energy bands in a solid correspond to the energy levels in an atom. An electron in
a solid can have only those discrete energies that lie within these energy bands. These bands

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are, therefore, called allowed energy bands.
• These (allowed) energy bands are, in general, separated by some gaps which have
no allowed energy levels. These gap (regions) are known as forbidden energy bands
• Band corresponding to valence electrons is called valence band and the band beyond
forbidden band is called conduction band, into which, the electrons pass, and move freely.
• The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons. The band formed
by a series of energy level containing the valence electrons is known as Valence Band.
• Valence band is also defined as a band which is occupied by the valence electrons.
The valence band may be partially or completely filled up depending on the nature of the
material.
• The next higher permitted band is the conduction band. The energy levels occupying
this band is defined as the lowest unfilled energy band. This band may be empty or partially
filled. In conduction band, the electrons can move freely.

Energy bands in solid Valence band, conduction band

and forbidden gap

• Both conduction band and valence bands are separated by a region or gap known as
forbidden band or gap which is shown in the fig. This band is collectively formed by a series
of energy levels above top of the valence band and below the bottom of the conduction band.
• The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is called the
forbidden energy gap or forbidden band
It should be noted that no electron can exist in this band. When an electron in the valence
band absorbs enough energy, it crosses the forbidden gap and enters into the conduction
band.

Classification of Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators

On the basis of width of forbidden gap valence and conduction band the solids are classified
into insulators, semiconductors and conductors.

Insulators
• The band structure of insulators is as shown in fig
• The energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very high and is about 10 eV.
• The forbidden energy band is very wide. Due to this, electrons cannot jump from valence
band to conduction band. In insulator, the valence electrons are bound very tightly to their
parent atoms.

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 Energy band for insulator
• The conduction band is completely vacant and valence band is completely filled.
• Even at high electric field, no electron will jump from valence band to the conduction band
because of large energy gap. Hence, the electrical conductivity is zero.
Semiconductors
• The band structure of semiconductors is as shown in fig.
• The forbidden gap is very small. Germanium and Silicon are the best examples of
semiconductors.
The energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very small. It is about 0.5 eV
to 1 eV.

Energy band for semiconductors

• As temperature increases, the bonds in the valence band break up and the created electrons
move from valence band to the conduction. The vacancies created in the valence band due to
breaking of bonds are termed as holes.
• Hence, conduction band is partially filled and valence band is partially vacant. These
electrons and holes are responsible for electrical conduction.
Conductor
• The band structure of conductors is as shown in fig.
• There is no forbidden gap, both valence and conduction bands overlap each other.

• The electrons free to move within the conductor are responsible for electrical conduction.
• As temperature increases, the electrical conduction decreases, because mobility decreases

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due to large number of collisions with ions.
• The most important fact in conductors is that due to the absence of forbidden gap, there is
no structure to Fig Energy band diagram for conductor Electrical Properties of Materials
establish holes. The total current in conductors is due to only the flow of electrons.
EFFECTIVE MASS OF ELECTRON AND HOLE
Effective mass of electron
The mass acquired by an electron when it is accelerated in a periodic potential is called
effective mass of an electron. It is denoted by m∗.
Explanation:
When an electron is accelerated by an electrical or magnetic field in a periodic potential, the
mass of the electron is not a constant. But, it varies with respect to the field applied. This
varying mass is called effective mass (m∗)
Derivation of effective mass of electron
Consider a crystal subjected to an electric field of intensity ‘E’. Due to this applied field, the
electron gains a velocity which can be described by a wave vector k.
According to wave mechanics, a particle moving with a velocity v is equivalent to a wave
packet moving with a group velocity vg.
∴ Group velocity with which the electron can travel

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Effective mass as a function

CONCEPT OF HOLE: (OR) EFFECTIVE OR NEGATIVE MASS OF ELECTRON

The effective mass plays an important role in conduction process of semiconductors and
insulators since they have full or almost filled valence bands.
We can find that the effective mass m∗ is negative near the zone edges of almost filled
valence bands. Physically speaking the electrons in these regions are accelerated in a
direction opposite to the direction of the applied field. This is called the negative mass
behaviour of the electrons.
The electrons with the negative effective mass is considered as a new entity having the same
positive mass of that of an electron but with positive charge. The new entity is given the
name “hole”.
The holes are not real particles like electrons or positrons, but it is a way of
looking at the negative mass behaviour of the electrons near the zone edge.
We look upon the motion of the effective negative mass electrons as the motion
of positive holes or positive vacant sites in a nearly full band and allow the electrons in the
band to carry the current. The positive hole conduction and effective negative electron mass
conduction are in equilibrium. The calculations made on the hole picture appear to be more
convenient and hence the hole concept is advantageously retained. Several phenomena like
Hall effect, Thomson effect, etc find ready explanation on the basis of the hole concept.

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 BASICS AND APPLIED PHYSICS (BAP)

UNIT II

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

2.1. Introduction to semiconductor physics (Qualitative)

2.2. Intrinsic Semiconductors
2.3. Extrinsic semiconductors (Qualitatively)
2.4. Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor
2.5. Variation of carrier concentration with temperature
2.6. Variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration
2.7. Hall effect and devices
2.8. PN diode
2.9. Ohmic contacts
2.10. Schottky diode
2.11. Microprocessor (Qualitatively).

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2.1. Introduction to Semiconductor Physics

2.1.1. Definition for Semiconductor based on Electrical Resistance - The resistivity of a

semiconductor is lesser then an insulator but more than that of a conductor. The value of
resistivity is in the order of 10-4 to 0.5 Ωm.

2.1.2. Definition for Semiconductor based on Energy Band - A semiconductor has nearly
empty conduction band and almost filled valance band with very small energy gap (≈ 1 eV).

Fig. 2.1. Schematic diagram of semiconductor

2.1.3. General Properties of Semiconductors

(i). They are formed by covalent bonds.
(ii). They have an empty conduction band at 0 K.
(iii). They have almost filled valance band.
(iv). They have small energy gap
(v). They possess crystalline structure.
(vi). They have negative temperature co efficient of resistance (𝑅 𝛼 1/𝑇).
(vii). If the impurities are added to a semiconductor, its electrical conductivity increases.
Similarly, if the temperature of the semiconductor increased, its electrical conductivity
increases.

2.1.4. Classifications of Semiconductors under Composition

The semiconductors are classified mainly into two types based on composition of materials
such as elemental semiconductors and compound semiconductors.

2.1.5. Elemental Semiconductors

These semiconductors are made from a single element of fourth group elements of the
periodic table. They are also known as indirect band gap semiconductors. The examples are
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si).
We have classified direct and indirect semiconductors as follow. When Conduction Band
Minima (CBM) and Valence Band Maxima (VBM) are located at the same k- space region,

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then it is known as direct bandgap semiconductor. When Conduction Band Minima (CBM)
and Valence Band Maxima (VBM) are located at the different k- space region, then it is
known as indirect bandgap semiconductor.

2.1.6. Compound Semiconductors

Semiconductors which are formed by combining third and fifth group elements or second and
sixth group elements in the periodic table are known as compound semiconductors. These
compound semiconductors are also known as direct band gap semiconductors.
Ex: Combination of third and fifth group elements such as (i) Gallium Phosphide (GaP) (ii)
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) (iii) Indium Phosphide (InP) (iv) Indium Arsenide (InAs) and also
combination of second and sixth group elements such as (i) Magnesium Oxide (MgO) (ii)
Magnesium Silicon (MgSi) (iii) Zinc Oxide (ZnO) (iv) Zinc Sulphide (ZnS).

S. No Indirect band gap materials Direct band gap materials

1. This is made by single element like This is made by compounds such as GaA,
Si, Ge. GaP, CdS, MgO.
Hence, elemental semiconductors are Therefore, compound semiconductors are
mostly direct band gap mostly indirect band gap semiconductors.
semiconductors.
2. The recombination process take The recombination process take place
place through traps, which exist directly.
within band gap.
3. Heat is produced due to k-space Photons are emitted during recombination
alignment during recombination process.
process.
4. Life time of charge carriers is more. Life time of charge carriers is less.
Therefore, this materials are used for Therefore, this type of semiconductors are
manufacturing the diodes, transistors. used for making LED, LASER, IC’s.
5. Current amplification is more. Current amplification is less.

2.1.7. Classifications of Semiconductors under Purity

Further, semiconductors are classified into two types according to purity. The first one is (i)
Intrinsic semiconductor and another is (ii) Extrinsic semiconductor.

2.2. Intrinsic Semiconductors

A semiconductor in extremely pure form, without the addition of impurities is known as
intrinsic semiconductors. The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be
changed due to thermal excitation.
The valance band is completely filled and the conduction band is empty at 0 K. The carrier
concentration (i.e) electron density (or) hole density will be equal and increases exponentially
with increasing temperature.
𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉
𝐸𝐹 =
2

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2.3. Extrinsic Semiconductors
A semiconductor in extremely impure form, with the addition of impurities is known as
extrinsic semiconductors. The extrinsic semiconductor is classified into two types (i) n- type
semiconductor and (ii) p- type semiconductor.
N-type Semiconductor - The Fermi energy lies exactly between minimum energy level of
conduction band and donor energy level.
𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑑
𝐸𝐹 =
2
P-type Semiconductor - The Fermi energy lies exactly between the acceptor energy level
and the maximum energy level of valence band.
𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑎
𝐸𝐹 =
2

S. No Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

1. It is the purest form of It is due to adding Impurities to

semiconductor mostly. semiconductor mostly.

2. Charge carriers are only due to Charge carriers are due to impurities
thermal agitation. and thermal agitation.

3. They have low electrical They have high electrical conductivity.

conductivity.

4. They have low operating They have low operating temperature

temperature

5. At 0K, Fermi energy lies between At 0K, Fermi energy is close to

valence band & conduction band conduction band in n- type
exactly semiconductor and close to valence band
in p- type semiconductor

2.4. Carrier Concentrations in intrinsic semiconductors

Definition
The number of electrons in CB per unit volume of the material is called as electron
concentration (n) Similarly, the number of holes in VB per unit volume of the material is
called hole concentration (p). In general, the number of charge carriers per unit volume of the
materials is called carrier concentration. It is also known as density of charge carriers.
We know that, intrinsic semiconductor behaves as insulator at 0K. But, some electron moves
from valance band to conduction band as temperature increases is shown in figure b. The
result is both electrons in conduction band and holes in valance band will contribute to
electrical conductivity. Therefore, the carrier concentration (or) density of electrons (ne) and
holes (nh) has to be calculated.
Assume that electron in the conduction band as a free electron of mass m*e and the hole in

30
the valance band behave as a free particle of mass m*h. The electrons in the conduction band
have energies that lying from Ec to ∞ and holes in the valence band that lying from -∞
to Ev. In figure, Ec represents the lowest energy level of conduction band Ev represents the
highest energy level of the valance band.

Fig 2.2. Energy band diagram of semiconductor at T = 0K and T >OK.

2.4.1. Density of Electrons in Conduction Band (CB)

The number of electrons per unit volume in conduction band for energy between E and E +
dE is given by
∞
ne = ∫𝐸 𝑍(𝐸)𝑑𝐸. 𝐹(𝐸) ------ (1)
𝑐
From Fermi – Dirac statistics, we can write
1
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 3⁄
Z(E) dE = 2. 4 [ ] 2 𝐸 2 dE ------ (2)
ℎ2
Considering minimum energy of CB as Ec and the maximum energy can go up to ∞. We can
write equation (2) as
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 3⁄
Z(E) dE = 2 [ ] 2 .(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )1/2 𝑑𝐸 -------- (3)
ℎ2
We know, Fermi function, probability of finding an electron in a given energy state is
1
F (E) = 1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 --------- (4)
Substituting equation (4) and (3) in equation (1) we have density of electrons in conduction
band within the limits Ec to ∞ is
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 3⁄ ∞ (𝐸−𝐸𝑐 )1/2
ne = 2 [ 2
] 2∫
𝐸 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝐸 ----------- (5)
ℎ 𝑐 1+𝑒
Since to move electron from VB to CB the energy required is greater than 4KBT (i.e.,) E – EF
>> KBT or (E – EF)/KBT >> 1 (or) 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 >> 1. Therefore,
1 + 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
Therefore, equation (5) becomes
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 3⁄ ∞ (𝐸−𝐸𝑐 )1/2
ne = 2 [ ] 2∫
𝐸𝑐 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑑𝐸
ℎ2
∗
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒 3⁄ ∞
ne = [ ] 2 ∫ (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )1/2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝐸 --------- (6)
2 ℎ 2 𝐸𝑐

31
Let us assume that
E –Ec = 𝑥KBT
E = Ec + 𝑥KBT
Differentiating E with respect to 𝑥, we get
𝑑𝐸
= KBT,
d𝑥
dE = KBT.d𝑥
Limits:
When E = Ec;
𝑥= 0
When E = ∞;
𝑥= ∞
Limits are 0 to ∞
Therefore, equation (6) can be written as
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 3⁄ ∞
ne = 2 [ ] 2 ∫ (𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇)1/2 . 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇−𝐸𝑐 )/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 KBT d𝑥
ℎ 2 0
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 −𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 3⁄ ∞
ne = 2 [ ] 2 ∫ (𝑥)1/2 (𝐾𝐵 𝑇)3/2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℎ2 0
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄ ∞
ne = 2 [ ℎ2
] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
∫0 𝑥1/2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄ √𝜋
ne = 2 [ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
.
ℎ2 2
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶
1 8𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄
ne = [ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
4 ℎ2
𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪
𝟐𝝅𝒎∗𝒆 𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟑⁄
ne = 𝟐[ ] 𝟐 𝒆 𝑲𝑩 𝑻
---------- (7)
𝒉𝟐
Equation (7) is the expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band (CB)
of intrinsic semiconductor.

2.4.2. Density of Holes in Valence Band (VB)

We know F(E) represents the probability of filled states. As the maximum probability 1, the
probability of un filled states will be [1 –F(E)].
Example, if F(E) = 0.8 then 1 –F(E) = 0.2. The meaning is 80% chance of finding an electron
in VB and 20% chance of finding a hole in VB.
Let the maximum energy in valance band be Ev and the minimum energy be -∞. Therefore,
density of hole (nh) in valance band is given by
𝐸
𝑣
∫−∞ 𝑍(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 [1 − 𝐹(𝐸)] --------- (8)
We know that
∗ 3
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ
Z(E) dE = 2 [ 2 ] ⁄2 .(𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)1/2 𝑑𝐸 --------- (9)
ℎ
1
1−𝐹(𝐸) = 1 − 1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
1−𝐹(𝐸) = 1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸− 𝐸𝐹
Here, E − Ev  KBT. Hence,  1 (or) 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇  1. Therefore, the denominator
𝐾𝐵 𝑇

32
of above equation become as follows
1 + 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ~ 1
1−𝐹(𝐸) = 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ------- (10)
Substituting equation (10) and (9) in (8), we get
∗ 3
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ 𝐸𝑣
nh = 2 [ ] ⁄2 ∫−∞ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)1/2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝐸 ------ (11)
ℎ2
Let us assume that
Ev –E = 𝑥KBT,
Differentiating E with respect to 𝑥, we get
dE = - KBT.d𝑥,
Limits: when E = ∞;
Ev –(-∞) = 𝑥;
𝑥=∞
when E = Ev;
𝑥=0
Therefore, limits are ∞ to 0
Substitute these limitations in equation (11) becomes
∗ 3 1 𝐸𝑣 −𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇−𝐸𝐹
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ ⁄2 0
nh = 2 [ ] ∫ (𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇) 2. 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
(−𝐾𝐵 𝑇)𝑑𝐸
ℎ2 ∞
To exclude the negative sign, the limits can be interchanged.
∗ 3 1 3 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ ⁄2 ∞ 2
nh = [ ] ∫0 𝑥 (𝐾𝐵 𝑇) . 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
2 ℎ2
∗ 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄ ∞
nh = 2
[ ℎ2
] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
∫0 𝑥1/2 . 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∗ 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄ √𝜋
nh = [ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 ℎ2 2
∗ 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
1 8𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄
nh = [ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
4 ℎ2
𝑬𝑽 −𝑬𝑭
𝟐𝝅𝒎∗𝒉 𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟑⁄
nh = 𝟐[ ] 𝟐 𝒆 𝑲𝑩 𝑻
-------- (12)
𝒉𝟐
Equation (12) is the expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band (VB) of
intrinsic semiconductor.

2.5. Density of Intrinsic Carrier Concentration with Temperature

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is equal
to the concentration of holes in the valance band. Therefore, ne = nh,
Carrier concentration = ne × nh = ni2
ni2 = ne × nh ------------- (1)
Substitute ne, nh values in equation 1
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 ∗ 𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄ 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄
ni2 = 2[ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
× 2[ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐶
2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3
ni2 = 4[ ] (𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ )3/2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ------- (2)
ℎ2
Where, 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 = Eg is forbidden energy gap. Therefore, equation (2) becomes,
𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐶
2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3
ni2 = 4[ ] (𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ )3/2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

33
 −𝐸𝑔
2 2𝜋𝐾 𝑇
ni = 4[ ℎ2𝐵 ]3 (𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ )3/2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
----------- (3)
Taking square root on both sides in equation (3), we have
−𝐸𝑔
2 1/2 2𝜋𝐾 𝑇
(ni ) = [4[ ℎ2𝐵 ]3 (𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ )3/2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
]1/2
−𝑬𝒈
𝟐𝝅𝑲𝑩 𝑻 𝟑/𝟐
ni = 𝟐[ ] (𝒎∗𝒆 𝒎∗𝒉 )𝟑/𝟒 𝒆𝟐𝑲𝑩 𝑻 --------- (4)
𝒉𝟐
The equation (4) is expression for intrinsic carrier concentration. Thus, it is found that ne = nh
= ni where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
The conclusion is
(i) In an intrinsic semiconductor the density of electrons in CB is equal to the density of holes
in VB.
(ii) ne and nh increases exponentially as the temperature increases.

2.6. Fermi Energy Level and Its Variation with Temperature

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is equal
to the concentration of holes in the valance band. We know that ni = pi, therefore,
ne = nh ----------- (1)
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 ∗ 𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄ 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3⁄
2[ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 2[ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2 ℎ 2
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹
3⁄ 3⁄
[𝑚𝑒∗ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = [𝑚ℎ∗ ] 2 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶
𝑚∗ 3 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
{𝑚∗ℎ } ⁄2 = 𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹
𝑒
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑚∗ 3⁄
{𝑚∗ℎ } 2 = 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝑉+𝐸𝐹 )/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑒
Taking log on both sides,
𝑚∗ 3⁄
𝑙𝑜𝑔{𝑚∗ℎ } 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝑉+𝐸𝐹)/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑒
3 𝑚∗
𝑙𝑜𝑔{𝑚∗ℎ } = (𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐹 )/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 𝑒
3 𝑚∗
𝐾 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔{𝑚∗ℎ } = (2𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑉 )
2 𝐵 𝑒
3 𝑚∗
2𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 + 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔{𝑚∗ℎ }
𝑒
𝑬𝑪 +𝑬𝑽 𝟑 𝒎∗𝒉
𝑬𝑭 = + 𝟒 𝑲𝑩 𝑻𝒍𝒐𝒈{𝒎∗ } ---------- (2)
𝟐 𝒆

𝑚∗
If 𝑚𝑒∗ = 𝑚ℎ∗ , then 𝑙𝑜𝑔{𝑚∗ℎ } = 𝑙𝑜𝑔{1} = 0 (since log {1} = 0)
𝑒
𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉
𝐸𝐹 = 2
On other hand, at T = 0K,
𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉
𝐸𝐹 = 2
The conclusion is Fermi energy level lies in the midway between Ec and Ev when 𝑚𝑒∗ = 𝑚ℎ∗
and T = 0K (Shown in Fig. a). Its position is independent of temperature. As the temperature

34
rises, it shifts upward since 𝑚𝑒∗ > 𝑚ℎ∗ .
The following Figure shows the position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor at various
temperatures. In reality, 𝑚𝑒∗ > 𝑚ℎ∗ , Fermi level is just above the middle of energy gap it rises
slightly with increasing temperature.

Fig. 2.3. Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor at various temperatures.

2.7. Hall effect:

Measurement of conductivity will not determine whether the conduction is due to electron or
holes and therefore it will be very difficult to distinguish between p- type and n- type
semiconductors.
Therefore, Hall Effect is used to distinguish between the two types of charge carriers and
their carrier densities and is used to determine the mobility of charge carriers.
Statement
When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying current (I) is placed perpendicular to a
magnetic field (B), a potential difference (electric field) is developed inside the conductor in
a direction perpendicular to both current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as
Hall Effect and the voltage thus generated is called Hall voltage.

Theory - Hall Effect in n- type Semiconductor

Let us consider a n-type semiconductor material in the form of rectangular slab. In such a
material current flows in X –direction and magnetic field B applied in Z- direction. As a
result, Hall voltage is developed along Y –direction as shown in figure.

Fig. 2.4. Hall effect in n- type semiconductor

35
Since the direction of current is from left to right the electrons moves from right to left in X-
direction as shown in figure.
Now due to magnetic field applied the electron moves towards downward direction with
velocity v and cause negative charge to accumulate at face (1) of the material as shown in fig.
therefore the potential difference is established between the face (2) and face (1) of the
specimen which gives rise to EH in the negative Y direction.

Fig. 2.5. Lorentz force experienced by electrons in n-type semiconductor

Here, the force due to potential difference (electric field)

= -e EH ---(1)
Force due to magnetic field
= - Bev ---(2)
At equilibrium conditions, equation (1) = equation (2)
-e EH = - Bev
EH = Bv --- (3)
We know the current density 𝐽𝑥 in the X- direction is
𝐽𝑥 = -ne ev
−𝐽𝑥
v= --- (4)
𝑛𝑒 𝑒
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3) we get
−𝐵 𝐽𝑥
EH = ---- (5)
𝑛𝑒 𝑒
EH = RH. 𝐽𝑥 . B ---- (6)
Where RH is known as the Hall co –efficient, is given by
1
RH = - 𝑛 ---- (7)
𝑒𝑒
The negative sign indicates that the field is developed in the negative Y –direction.

Hall Effect in p –type Semiconductor

Let us consider a p-type semiconducting material for which the current is passed along X –
direction from left to right and magnetic field is applied along Z –direction as shown in fig.
since the direction of current is from left to right, the holes will also move in the same
direction as shown in fig.

36
 Fig. 2.6. Hall effect in p- type semiconductor

Now due to magnetic field applied the holes moves towards downward direction with
velocity v and accumulates at the face (1). A potential difference is established between face
(1) and (2) in the positive Y - direction.

Fig. 2.7. Lorentz force experienced by holes in p-type semiconductor

Here, the force due to potential difference (electric field)

= -e EH ----(8)
Force due to magnetic field
= Bev ----(9)
At equilibrium conditions, equation (1) = equation (2)
e EH = Bev
EH = Bv --------------(10)
We know the current density 𝐽𝑥 in the X- direction is
𝐽𝑥 = nhev
𝐽
v = 𝑛 𝑥𝑒 -----------(11)
ℎ
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3) we get
𝐵 𝐽𝑥
EH = 𝑛ℎ 𝑒
EH = RH 𝐽𝑥 . B

37
Where RH is known as the Hall co –efficient, is given by
1
RH = 𝑛 ----(12)
ℎ𝑒
The positive sign indicates that the field is developed in the positive Y –direction.

Hall coefficient in terms of hall voltage

If the thickness of the sample is t and the voltage developed is VH, then
Hall voltage
VH = EH .t ---((13))
Substituting equation (6) in equation (13), we have
VH = RH 𝐽𝑥 B .t ----(14)
If b is the width of the sample, then
Area of the sample = b.t
Current density (𝐽𝑥 ) = 𝐼𝑥 / bt ----- (15)

Substituting equation (15) in equation (14) we get

𝑅𝐻 𝐼𝑥 𝐵𝑡
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑏𝑡

𝑅𝐻 𝐼𝑥 𝐵
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑏

𝑉𝐻 𝑏
Hall Coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 = ------------ (16)
𝐼𝑥 𝐵

The sign for 𝑉𝐻 will be opposite for n and p type semiconductors.

2.7.4. Mobility of charge carriers

We know that Hall coefficient,
1
RH = - 𝑛
𝑒𝑒
The above expression is valid only for conductors where the velocity is taken as the drift
velocity. But for semiconductor velocity is taken as average velocity so RH for n- type
semiconductor is modified as
3𝜋 1
RH = - 8 𝑛𝑒 𝑒
1.18
RH = - ------- (1)
𝑛𝑒 𝑒
We know the conductivity for n type is
𝜎𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒

𝜎
𝜇𝑒 = 𝑛 𝑒𝑒 -------- (2)
𝑒
From equation (1) we can write

38
 1 𝑅 𝐻
= - 1.18 -------- (3)
𝑛𝑒 𝑒

Substituting equation (3) in equation (2) we get

𝜎𝑒 𝑅𝐻
𝜇𝑒 = - 1.18
We know that,
𝑉𝐻 𝑏
𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼𝑥 𝐵

For n-type semiconductor, the mobility of electron is

𝑒 𝜎 𝑉 𝑏
RH = - 1.18 ( 𝐼𝐻𝐵 )
𝑥

Similarly, for p-type semiconductor, the mobility of hole is

𝜎 𝑉 𝑏
ℎ
RH = - 1.18 ( 𝐼𝐻𝐵 )
𝑥

2.7.5. Experimental Determination of Hall Effect

A semiconducting material is taken in the form of a rectangular slab of thickness t and
breadth b. A suitable current 𝐼𝑥 ampere is passed through this sample along X- axis by
connecting it to a battery.
This sample is placed in between two poles of an electro magnet such that magnetic field is
applied along Z –axis.

Fig. 2.8. Experimental arrangement to measure Hall effect

Due to Hall Effect, Hall voltage (VH) is developed in the sample. This voltage measured by
fixing two probes at the centers of the bottom and top faces faces of the sample. By
measuring Hall voltage, Hall coefficient is determined from the formula

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 𝑉𝐻 𝑏
Hall coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼𝑥 𝐵
From the hall coefficient, carrier concentration and mobility can be determined.

Applications of Hall Effect

It is used to determine whether the material is p-type or n-type semiconductor. (i.e.,) if RH is
negative then the material n-type. If the RH is positive, then the material is p-type.
(i) It is used to find the carrier concentration
(ii) It is used to find the mobility of charge carriers μe, μh.
(iii) It is used to find the sign of the current carrying charges.
(iv) It is used to design magnetic flux meters and multipliers on the basis of Hall voltage.
(v) It is used to find the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.

2.8. PN Junction Diode

A two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows the electric current to
flow only in one direction while blocking the electric current in the opposite or reverse
direction, is known as PN junction diode. This device is forward biased, allowing the electric
current to flow. On the other hand, in reverse bias conditions, it blocks the electric current
flow.
A diode is a semiconductor device that operates as a ‘current one-way switch’. It permits
current to flow freely in one direction but significantly limits current flow in the other.
Diodes can convert alternating current (ac) into pulsating direct current (dc). Hence, they are
also known as rectifiers (dc). Diodes are classified by type, voltage, and ability to transmit
current in their own unique way. Each type has a different application according to its
functioning.
Working Mechanism
An interface or a boundary within a semiconductor device, between the P-type and the N-
type semiconductor material, is called the PN junction. The P-side, or positive side, of a
semiconductor, contains more holes than the N-side, or negative side, which has more
electrons. The PN junction in a semiconductor is created by the doping process. A PN
junction diode is a semiconductor device that is formed through this method and used in
allowing the flow of electric current in one direction and blocking in the opposite.

The symbol of the PN junction diode is depicted as a triangle pointing towards a line or
running through one vertex. This arrangement shows the direction of current flow in the
circuit from the positive anode terminal to the negative cathode terminal.

First discuss the process of doping to get a better understanding of the working principle of
the PN junction diode. The technique used to increase or decrease the number of holes and
electrons in a semiconductor is known as doping process.

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 Fig. 2.9. Symbol of the PN junction diode

To make N-type semiconductor material, atoms with one additional valence electron than
silicon are employed. For this purpose, elements from group V of the periodic table are used.
These elements have 5 valence electrons out of which 4 participate in the covalent bond
formation with silicon and an additional valence electron is left unbound. As a result, more
electrons are introduced to the conduction band, increasing the total amount of electrons in
the system.

Fig. 2.10. Forward and reversed bias in PN junction diode

The elements from the 3rd group of the periodic table are mixed to create a P-type
semiconductor. As a result, P-type materials only have three valence electrons to interact with
silicon atoms. The total effect is a hole, as there aren’t enough electrons to create the four
covalent bonds that encircle the atoms and nuclei. The amount of electrons trapped in bonds
is larger in P-type materials, thus increasing the number of holes.

There is always more of one type of carrier than the other in doped material, and the carrier
with the larger concentration is referred to as a ‘majority carrier,’ while the carrier with the
lesser concentration is referred to as a ‘minority carrier.’ When these two types of
semiconductors are joined together, a PN junction type of diode is formed. The I-V
characteristic of the PN junction diode is given below.

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 Fig. 2.11. I-V characteristic of PN junction diode

2.9. Schottky Diode

Definition
It is a junction formed between a metal and n-type semiconductor. When the metal has a
higher work function than that of n-type semiconductor then the junction formed is called
schottky diode. Figure shows schottky diode and its circuit symbol.

Fig. 2.12. Symbol of the Schottky diode

The electrons in the conduction level of the semiconductor move to the empty energy states
above the Fermi level of the metal.
This leaves a positive charge on the semiconductor side and a negative charge (due to the
excess electrons) on the metal side as shown in figure. This leads to a contact potential.

Fig. 2.13. Depletion layer in Schottky junction

When a Schottky junction is formed between metal and semiconductor, Fermi level lines up.
Also a positive potential is formed on the semiconductor side. The formation of a depletion
region of width WD is shown below.
Working
The voltage is applied to the diode in two methods.
Forward bias

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In this the metal is connected to positive terminal and n type semiconductor is connected to
negative terminal of the battery. The electrons injected from the external circuit into the n
type semi-conductor. This leads to a current in the circuit.
Reverse bias
A metal is connected to negative terminal and n type semiconductor is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery. This increases the width of the depletion region and hence
there is no flow of electron from semiconductor to metal. Now it acts as a rectifier.

Fig. 2.14. Schottky junction energy band

V-I Characteristics
The V-I characteristics of the junction is shown in figure. There is an exponential increase in
current in the forward bias while there is a very small current in reverse bias.

Fig. 2.15. V-I characteristics of the Schottky diode

Advantages of Schottky diode
(i) It has a very low cut-in voltage of about 0.3 V.
(ii) Schottky diode has very low switching time.
(iii) Schottky diode has very low power consumption.

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(iv) It has a very rapid response to a change in bias.
(v) The Schottky diode is closer to the ideal diode.
(vi) Schottky diode has negligible storage time.
The disadvantages of Schottky diode is more expensive.
Application of Schottky diode
(i). Schottky diode is used as a fast switching device in digital computers.
(ii). It can be used in clamping and clipping circuit.
(iii). The Schottky diode is used in AC to DC (ADC) converters.
(iv). It is used in mixer and detectors.
(v). The Schottky diode is used in RADAR system
(vi). It is used in switch mode power supply.
(vii). Schottky diodes are used as general-purpose rectifier.
(viii). It is used to detect signals.
(ix). It is used in logic circuit.

Table: Difference between Schottky and PN junction diodes

S. No Schottky Diode PN Junction

1. Forward current due to thermionic Forward current due to diffusion currents

emission (majority carrier (majority carrier transport
transport)

2. Reverse current only due to Reverse current due to minority carriers

majority carriers that overcome diffusing to the depletion layer and
the barrier (less temperature drifting to the other side (strong
dependents) temperature dependence)

3. Cut-in voltage is small. It is about Cut-in voltage is large. It is about 0.7 V.

0.3 V.

4. High switching speed, because of Switching speed limited by the

majority carrier transport. No recombination time of the injection
recombination time needed. minority carriers.

2.10. Ohmic Contact

Definition
An ohmic contact is a type of metal semiconductor junction. It is formed by a contact of a
metal with a heavily doped semiconductor. When the semiconductor has a higher work
function than that of metal, then the junction formed is called the ohmic junction.
Here, the current is conducted equally in both directions and there is a very little voltage drop
across the junction. Before contact, Fermi levels of the metal and semiconductor are at
different positions as shown in figure.
Working
After contact, the ohmic junction is shown in figure(b). At equilibrium, the electrons move

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from the metal to the empty states in the conduction band of semiconductor. Thus, there is an
accumulation region near the interface (on the side of conductor). It results in line up of
Fermi levels of metal and semiconductor as shown in figure (b). The accumulation region has
a higher conductivity than the bulk semiconductor due to this higher concentration of
electrons.

Fig. 2.16. Ohmic junction (a) before and (b) after contact.
Thus, a ohmic contact behaves as a resistor conducting in both forward and reverse bias.
The resistivity is determined by the bulk resistivity of the semiconductor.

Fig. 2.17. Ohmic contact: Metal – semiconductor contact

Voltage – Current (V-I) Characteristics

The volt ampere (V-I) characteristic of the ohmic contact is shown in figure. The current is
directly proportional to the potential across the junction and it is symmetric about the
region, as shown in figure. Thus, ohmic contacts are non-rectifying and show negligible
voltage drop and resistance irrespective of the direction and magnitude of current.

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 Fig. 2.18. Voltage – Current (V-I) characteristic of ohmic contact.

Applications
We can use this interface to form many devices.
(i) Rectifying contact as a gate
(ii) Two ohmic contacts as a source and drain
(iii) We can form MES-FET (Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor), an important
microwave device.
(iv) Generally, use of ohmic contact is to connect one semiconductor device to another, an
IC, or to connect an IC to its external terminals.
Table: Difference between schottky and ohmic contact
S. No Schottky diode Ohmic contact
1. It acts as rectifier It acts as a resistor
2. Very low forward resistance but very Resistance is same in both forward and
high reverse biased resistance reverse bias
3. Work function of metal is greater Work function of metal is smaller than
than that of semiconductor that of semiconductor Фm  Фsemi.
Фm > Фsemi.

2.11. Microprocessor
Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a small chip capable
of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and communicating with the other
devices connected to it.
Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit. ALU performs
arithmetical and logical operations on the data received from the memory or an input device.
Register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L and
accumulator. The control unit controls the flow of data and instructions within the computer.

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 Fig. 2.19. Block Diagram of a Basic Microcomputer
Working
The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a sequential order. The microprocessor
fetches those instructions from the memory, then decodes it and executes those instructions
till STOP instruction is reached. Later, it sends the result in binary to the output port.
Between these processes, the register stores the temporarily data and ALU performs the
computing functions.
List of terms used in a Microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the frequently used terms in a microprocessor −
 Instruction Set − It is the set of instructions that the microprocessor can understand.

 Bandwidth − It is the number of bits processed in a single instruction.

 Clock Speed − It determines the number of operations per second the processor can
perform. It is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also known as
Clock Rate.
 Word Length − It depends upon the width of internal data bus, registers, ALU, etc.
An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a time. The word length ranges
from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.
 Data Types − The microprocessor has multiple data type formats like binary, BCD,
ASCII, signed and unsigned numbers.
Features of a Microprocessor
Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of any microprocessor −
 Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices and results its
low cost.
 Size − The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.
 Low Power Consumption − Microprocessors are manufactured by using metal oxide
semiconductor technology, which has low power consumption.
 Versatility − The microprocessors are versatile as we can use the same chip in a
number of applications by configuring the software program.
 Reliability − The failure rate of an IC in microprocessors is very low, hence it is
reliable.

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