BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

UNIT-I
STONES, BRICKS AND TILES

STONES:-
Stones are naturally available construction material. It is extract from rock. The stones must be hard,
tough, durable and free from defect. Its selection for a particular work is mainly governed by its
availability and the importance of the structure. The common type of stone employed for stone masonry
is:
1. Granite
2. Marble
3. Lime stone
4. Sand stone

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
1. Geological Classification
2. Physical classification
3. Chemical classification

Geological Classification
1. Igneous Rocks:
The inside portion of the earth's surface has high temperature and the molten rocky material
is known as magma which occasionally tries to come out to earth's surface through cracks or
weak portions. The rocks which are formed by the cooling of magma are known as the
igneous rocks.
Example: Granite, Dolerite, Basalt
2. Sedimentary Rocks:
These rocks are formed by the deposition of products of weathering on pre-existing rocks.
Example: Sandstone, Limestone, Gravel
3. Metamorphic Rocks:
The igneous and metamorphic rocks are changed in character when they are subjected to
heat and pressure. The process of change is known as metamorphism and the rocks formed
are called metamorphic rocks.
Example: Gneiss, Slate, Laterite
Physical classification
1. Stratified Rocks:
These rocks are layered structures. They possess planes of stratification or cleavage, which
can be easily split up along these planes.
Example: Sand stone, lime stone etc.

2. Un stratified Rocks:
This rock is not layered or structured. Their structure may be either crystalline or granular.
Hence they cannot be easily split into slabs.
 3. Foliated Rocks:
This rock can be split into slabs in a particular direction.
Example: Slate, Schist, etc.
Chemical classification
1. Argillaceous Rocks:
The rocks having alumina (Al2O3) or clay as their major constituents are known as
argillaceous rocks. They are brittle but hard and durable.
Ex: Laterite, Porphyry, Slate, etc.
2. Siliceous Rocks:
The rocks having silica (SiO2) as their major constituent are called siliceous rocks.
Ex: Granite, sand stone, Gneiss, Quartzite etc.
3. Calcareous Rocks:
The rocks having calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or lime as their major constituent are called
calcareous rocks.
Ex: Marble, Gravel, Dolomite, Lime stone, Kankar, etc.

PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF BUILDING STONES

1. Structure of stone 2. Texture

3. Durability 4. Hardness
5. Strength 6. Toughness
7. Porosity and absorption 8. Specific gravity
9. Resistance to fire 10. Resistance to electricity
11. Seasoning 12. Dressing
13. Cost

1. Structure of stone :
Structure of a stone indicates the manner in which particles of the stone are arranged.
A stone of igneous rock will have un stratified structure which will take more load
and hence it is better than other quality.
2. Texture:
The arrangement of minerals in a rock forms the texture of the stone. There are
different types of texture in a rock namely compact, crystalline, conglomerate
foliated, glassy etc. Compact, crystalline texture has better weather resistance and
soundness over the other textures. Generally igneous and metamorphic rocks such as
granite basalt traps, marble slates are of this type. The durability of the stone depends
on the texture of the stone.
3. Durability:
Good building stone should be durable enough to resist the weathering effects such
as rain, heat, snow and rain. The durability of stone depends on its chemical
composition.
4. Hardness:
Hardness is the property of a stone which resists abrasive forces developed due to
wear and tear, scratches and friction. Hardness is tested in the laboratory by mohr's
scale of hardness. The rate of hardness of a stone is expressed in numbers from 1 to
10. The more the number, the harder is the stone.
5. Strength:
Stone will take more compressive strength than tensile strength. Good building stone
should posses enough crushing strength to withstand the load to which they are
subjected. Depending on the structure and texture, its crushing strength varies
between 15 to 100 N/mm².
6. Toughness:
Stones should be tough enough to withstand stress developed due to vibration of
machines and moving loads on them.
7. Porosity and absorption:
Porosity is the void space between particles of stones. Good building stone should be
less porous. If it is porous more water absorption takes place. High porosity will
reduce the life of the structure. Stone should not absorb water more than 5% of
weight of the stone when it is fully immersed in water for 24 hours.
8. Specific gravity:
Stones used for heavy engineering structures like dams, barrages, docks and harbours
where more stress is expected should be of heavier variety (more specific gravity).
For coverings and domes lighter varieties of stones are preferred (less specific
gravity). The specific gravity of a good stone should be between 2.4 and 2.8
9. Resistance to fire:
When stone is exposed to fire it is damaged by the disintegration of particles. This is
due to unequal coefficient of thermal expansion of different rock forming minerals.
A good stone should constitute minerals having equal coefficient of thermal
expansion for better resistance to fire.
10. Resistance to electricity:
In dry conditions stones offer good resistance to electricity. If stones have more
porosity they will absorb more water and become wet when exposed to water. This
wetness in the stone offers low resistance to electricity. Hence less porous stones are
preferred where electric installations are required.
 11. Seasoning:
Stone extracted from parent rock will contain moisture in the body called quarry sap.
This moisture makes the stone soft and damages it. Hence to expel the sap, stones
after quarrying and dressing should be left for a period of 6 to 12 months under the
open shed for proper seasoning. This seasoning is effectively achieved in presence of
air and sunlight.
12. Dressing:
Giving a proper shape to a stone is called dressing. Dressing is essential in
construction for ornamental and structural work. However stones having good
dressing properties are weak in strength, durability and hardness.
13. Cost:
The cost of stone depends upon the type and the method of quarrying. The cost also
depends on transportation, distance and mode of transportation. Hence select the best
and economically feasible.

QUARRYINFG OF STONES:

Stones are extracted from natural rocks in different sizes. The various methods which
are involved in the extraction of stones from rock beds are collectively termed as
“Quarrying of Stones

Site Selection for Quarrying Of Stones

The quarry should be selected based on some conditions as follows.
1. The site should be near to human living areas where labor and tools are always
available, required materials also should be available.
2. At least one of type transportation facilities (road or railway or port or all) should
be available.
3. Clean water source should be available near the quarry site.
4. Good quality and quantity of stone should be available.
5. The site should be far from permanent structures like bridges, dams etc. because
the vibrations due to blasting in the site may cause harm to them.
6. Non-living area should be available to dump the refuse obtained in quarrying.
7. Proper drainage facility should be available.
Methods of Quarrying Of Stones

Quarrying can be done by three methods as follows:

1. Hand tools
2. Machine quarrying
3. Blasting
Quarrying of Stones using Hand Tools
In case of soft stones or for smaller works, quarrying is done by using hand tools.
There are various ways to quarry using hand tools and they are:
i. Excavating
ii. Heating
iii. Wedging

EXCAVATING
Excavating is preferred in case of soft stone surfaces. Hammers, pick axes, shovels are
used to excavate the stones.

HEATING
The top surface of rock is heated by placing wood with fuel on it. The fire will be
allowed for some hours and the top surface gets heated and separates from the rock. This
separated portion is removed by pick axes, crowbars etc. The stones obtained by heating
will be in good shape if the rock formation contains horizontal layers at shallow depth.
So, the stone obtained will be directly used for masonry works.

WEDGING
This method is applicable when the rock contains cracks or joints in it. Steel wedges or
steel points are put in these cracks or fissures and hit them with hammer. Then the rock
portion separates from parent rock. If natural cracks are there, then artificial holes are
drilled in the rock and wedging is done.

BLASTING FOR QUARRYING OF STONES

In this method explosives are used to separate the stones from parent rock. This process is
applied in case of hard stone or hard rock which does not contain any cracks or fissures.
The holes are drilled in the rock and explosives are arranged in the holes and blasted with
proper safety measures. The stones obtained through this process are not larger in size.
So, the main purpose of blasting is to obtain small stones which are used as ballast for
railway works, aggregate in concrete works etc.
Machine Quarrying of Stones
Machine quarrying is done by using channeling machines in the site. This type of
machine is driven by steam, compressed air or electricity. A groove is made using
this machine around the rock and the horizontal holes are drilled underneath the
block. Hence, the block gets separated from its bed. A large groove of 24-meter
length and 50 to 75 mm width and with a depth about 2 to 3.7 meter can be made
using channeling machine. So, larger blocks of stones can be obtained using this
method. Marbles, lime stones, etc. are quarried using machine quarrying.

PRECAUTIONS IN BLASTING

Accidents may take place during blasting. Following are some of the points which
should be taken note of:
1. Blasting should not be carried out in late evening or early morning hours. The
blasting hours should be made public and a siren should warn the workmen and
nearby public timely to retire to a safe distance.
2. The danger zone, an area of about 200 m radius, should be marked with red
flags.
3. First aid should be available.
4. The number of charges fired, the number of charges exploded and the misfires
should be recorded.
5. Explosives should be stored and handled carefully.
6. Detonators and explosives should not be kept together.
7. Cartridges should be handled with rubber or polythene gloves.
8. A maximum of 10 bore holes are exploded at a time and that also successively
and not simultaneously.

DRESSING OF STONES
Tones obtained from quarrying do not contain required shapes and sizes. So, they
are cut into required sizes and shapes with suitable surfaces. This process is called
dressing of stones.
Objectives:
a. To reduce the size of the big blocks of stones so that they are converted to easily
lift- able pieces. This reduction in size is generally carried out at the quarry itself
because that saves a lot of transportation cost.
b. To give a proper shape to the stone. It is known that stones can be used at
different places in the building, e.g., in foundations, in walls, in arches or for
flooring, each situation will require a proper shape. This can be given at the quarry
and also at the site of construction.
c. To obtain an appealing finish. In a residential building, stones are used not only
because of their extra strength, hardness, and durability but also because of their
aesthetic value

BRICK:-
Bricks are the most commonly used construction material. Bricks are prepared by
moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning
these blocks.
COMPOSITION OF GOOD BRICK EARTH
The brick earth should contain the following constituents.
(a) Silica(50-60%)
(b) Alumina (20-30%)
(c) Lime (10%)
(d) Iron oxide (<7%)
(e) Magnesia (<1%)
(f) Alkalis (<10%)Silica

Silica
Brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 % of silica.
1. It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
2. It also affects the durability of bricks.
3. If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick
becomes brittle.
Alumina
1. Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
2. It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in
moulding operation.
3. If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.
Lime
1. The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick
earth.
2. It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
3. It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
4. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick looses its shape.
Iron oxide
1. A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.
2. It gives red color to the bricks.
3. It improves impermeability and durability.
4. It gives strength and hardness.
5. If present in excess, then the color of brick becomes dark blue or blackish.
6. If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish
in color.
Magnesia
1. Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia about <1%)
2. Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
3. It is responsible for reducing shrinkage
4. Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF BRICKS

There are four different operations are involved in the process of manufacturing of
bricks:
1. Preparation of clay
2. Molding
3. Drying
4. Burning

Preparation of clay for bricks manufacturing is done in six steps:

1. Unsoiling of clay we need pure clay for the preparation of bricks. The top layer
of soil may contains impurities, so the clay in top layer of soil about 200mm depth
is thrown away. This is called unsoiling.
2. Digging After the removal of top layer, the clay is dug out from the ground and
spread on the plain ground.
3. Cleaning In this stage, the clay is cleaned of stones, vegetable matter etc. if
large quantity of particulate matter is present, then the clay is washed and screened.
The lumps of clay are converted into powder with earth crushing rollers.
4. Weathering The cleaned clay is exposed to atmosphere for softening. The
period of weathering may be 3 to 4 weeks or a full rainy season. Generally, the
clay is dug out just before the rainy season for larger projects.
5. Blending If we want to add any ingredient to the clay, it is to be added in this
stage by making the clay loose and spread the ingredient over it. Then take small
portion of clay into the hands and tuning it up and down in vertical direction. The
process is called blending of clay.
6. Tempering In this stage, water is added to clay and pressed or mixed. The
pressing will be done by cattle or with feet of men for small scale projects, pug
mill is used as grinder for large scale projects. So, the clay obtains the plastic
nature and now it is suitable for molding.

Molding of clay for brick manufacturing

In the molding process, prepared clay is mold into brick shape (generally
rectangular). This process can be done in two ways according to scale of project.
1. Hand molding
2. Machine molding

1. Hand molding
If manufacturing of bricks is on a small scale and manpower is also cheap
then we can go for hand molding. The moulds are in rectangular shape made
of wood or steel which are opened at the top and bottom. The longer sides of
moulds are projected out of the box to serve it as handles. If we take
durability in consideration steel molds are better than wooden molds. In
hand molding again there are two types and they are
i). Ground molded bricks
ii). Table-molded bricks
i). Ground molded bricks

In this process of ground molding, first level the ground and sand or ash is
sprinkled over it. Now place the wet mold in the ground and filled it with tempered
clay and press hard to fill all corners of the mold. Extra clay is removed with metal
strike or wood strike or with wire. The mold is then lifted up and we have raw
brick in the ground. And again wet the mold by dipping it in water and repeat the
same process. The process of dipping mold every time to make bricks is called slop
molding. Sometimes, the inside surface of mold is sprinkled with sand or ash
instead of dipping in water this is called sand molding Frog mark of bricks are
made by using a pair of pallet boards. Frog mark means the mark of depth which is
placed on raw brick while molding. The depth may be 10mm to 20mm.Frog mark
stats the trademark of manufacturing company and also it is useful to store mortar
in it when the bricks is placed over it.

ii). Table-molded bricks

This process is similar to ground molding process, but here the bricks on molded
on the table of size 2m x 1m.Ground molding are economical when compared to
table molding.

2. Machine molding of bricks

The bricks required are in large quantity, then machine molding is economical and
also saves more time. Here also we are having two types of machines

i) Plastic clay machines

ii) Dry clay machines

i) Plastic clay machines

These machines contain an opening in rectangular shape and when we place

the tempered clay in to this machine it will come out through this opening.
Now, the rectangular strips coming out the opening are cut by wires to get
required thickness of brick. So, these are also called wire cut bricks. Now
these raw bricks are ready for the drying process.
 ii) Dry clay machines

Dry clay machines are more time saving machines. We can put the blended
clay into these machines directly without tempering. Means tempering is
also done in this machine by adding some water. When the required stiffness
is obtained the clay is placed in mold and pressed hard and well-shaped
bricks are delivered. These are called pressed bricks and these do not require
drying they may directly send to burning process.

Drying of raw bricks

1. After molding process the bricks contain some amount of moisture in it. So,
drying is to be done otherwise they may cracked while burning. The drying of
raw bricks is done by natural process.

2. The bricks are laid in stacks. A stack consists 8 to 10 stairs. The bricks in
these stacks should be arranged in such a way that circulation of air in between
the bricks is free..

3. The period of drying may be 3 to 10 days. It also depends upon the weather
conditions.

4. The drying yards are also prepared on higher level than the normal ground
for the prevention of bricks from rain water.

5. In Some situations artificial drying is adopted under special dryers or hot

gases.

Burning of bricks

1. In the process of burning, the dried bricks are burned either in clamps (small
scale) or kilns (large scale) up to certain degree temperature. In this stage, the
bricks will gain hardness and strength so it is important stage in manufacturing
of bricks.

2. The temperature required for burning is about 1100°C. If they burnt beyond
this limit they will be brittle and easy to break. If they burnt under this limit,
they will not gain full strength and there is a chance to absorb moisture from the
atmosphere.
3. Hence burning should be done properly to meet the requirements of good
brick.

Bricks can be burnt using the following methods:

(a) Clamp Burning

(b) Kiln Burning

(a) Clamp Burning

A typical clamp is the bricks and fuel is placed in alternate layers. The amount
of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each brick tier consists of 4-5
layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free circulation of hot
gasses. After 30 per cent loading of the clamp, the fuel in the lowest layer is
fired and the remaining loading of bricks and fuel is carried out hurriedly. The
top and sides of the clamp are plastered with mud. Then a coat of cow dung is
given, which prevents the escape of heat. The production of bricks is 2-3 lacs
and the process is completed in six months. This process yields about 60 per
cent first class bricks.

(b) Kiln Burning

The example of this type of an over ground, rectangular kiln is shown in Fig.
After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading
is done. Since the walls and sides get cooled during reloading and are to be
heated again during next firing
TILES:-

The thin slabs prepared from clay in various shapes and are used for covering of
roofs, for flooring or for making drains are called "Tiles".

Tiles are manufactured from stronger clay. They require more care in their
manufacturing because they are very thin and liable to be damaged in drying
and burning by way of cracking and warping. Tiles may be moulded by hand or
by machine. The machine made tiles may have a minimum thickness of 10 mm
where the handmade tiles thickness varies from 12 to 15 mm.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TILES

A good tile should process the following characteristics.

1. It should be free from flaws like bends, cracks, twist warping and other
defects.

2. It should be regular in shape and size.

3. It should have uniform color.

4. It should be sound hard and durable.

5. It should be well burnt.

6. It should be easily cleaned or wiped.

7. It should give a ringing sound when struck with each other.

8. It should have even and compact granular structure.

9. It should fit in firmly and properly when placed in position.

10. It should be non slippery. It should have resistance to dampness.

MANUFACTURING METHODS

The manufacturing process for tiles involves several steps, including mining,
mixing, shaping, drying, firing, and polishing. Steps

• Mining: Raw materials like clay and feldspar are extracted from the ground

• Mixing: The raw materials are ground and mixed in the correct proportions
to create a uniform blend

• Shaping: The mixture is shaped into the desired size and shape

• Drying: The shaped tiles are dried in a controlled environment to remove

excess moisture

• Firing: The tiles are fired in a kiln at high temperatures to harden them and
remove any remaining water

• Glazing: The tiles are covered with a glaze and patterns using inkjet
printing

• Polishing: The tiles are polished to give them a perfect finish

• Rectification: The tiles are rectified to ensure they have precise dimensions

• Sealing: A sealer is applied to the polished tiles to close any micropores.

Types of tiles

Ceramic Tiles

The ingredients of the ceramic tiles are clay, sand, and other natural substances.
Ceramic tiles are commonly used tiles in residential building projects. These are
mainly used in interior walls and floors

Mosaic Tiles

Mosaic tiles are made of porcelain and clay composition. This type of tiles are
decorative pieces and commonly used in bathrooms, kitchen backsplash, and
small counter space area.
Porcelain Tiles

Porcelain tiles are actually the ceramic tiles. The material used to make ceramic
tiles also used for making porcelain tiles. But the clay grain used to make
porcelain tiles is finer than the ceramic tiles. It is also fired in higher
temperature than the ceramic tiles.

GYPSUM:-

Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral containing Calcium sulfate dihydrate

(CaSO4:2H2O).It is found in the form of rock in nature having white colour.It
is widely used in fertilizers, moulds, sculptures and as a plaster material.

Uses of Gypsum

1. Gypsum is non-combustible and contains crystal water. These superior

qualities are used in building elements that prevent a fire from spreading for up
to 4 hours.

2. Gypsum provides sound insulation. Gypsum boards, used as part of

insulation materials, provide a sound barrier between rooms and spaces.

3. Gypsum has a low thermal conductivity. When used with insulation materials
for walls and linings, it can trap heat in rooms and buildings.

4. Gypsum can improve the impact resistance of areas that need strong walls,
such as schools, public buildings and hospital corridors.

5. Gypsum is easy to install and to disassemble. At the end of use it can be

completely recycled into new gypsum products.

GLASS:-

Glass is an inorganic product of fusion, which has been cooled to a solid state
condition without crystallizing. Slow cooling process leads to formation of
crystal nuclei and crystallization takes place. If the cooling rate is fast, leaving
no time to the formation of crystal nuclei, structure of super cooled liquid state
turns to rigid and forms a glass.
 Uses of Glass

1. Soda lime glass: It is used in the manufacture of glass tubes, laboratory

apparatus, plate glass, window glass etc.

2. Potash lime glass: It is used in the manufacture of glass articles, which have
to with stand high temperatures.

3. Potash-Lead glass: It is used in the manufacture of artificial gems, electric

bulbs, lenses, prisms etc.

4. Common Glass: It is mainly used in the manufacture of medicine bottles.

ALUMINUM:-

Aluminum is a popular building material because it's lightweight, strong, and

resistant to corrosion. It's used in many ways in construction.

USES OF ALUMINUM

• Window and door frames

Aluminum is a popular choice for window and door frames because it's
durable, lightweight, and airtight.

• Roofing

Aluminum sheets can be used for roofing, and aluminum is also used in
domed roofs.

• Cladding

Aluminum cladding is often used for aesthetic purposes, and it can be made
to look like wood grain, stone, or metal.

• Structural support

Aluminum reinforcement bars (rebars) are used in concrete structures to

provide extra strength and stability. Aluminum frame connectors can also be
used to join pieces of aluminum together.
 • Air conditioning and heating

Aluminum tubing is used in air conditioning and heating systems because

it's lightweight, cheaper, and more recyclable than copper.

• Solar panels

Aluminum is used for the frames and fixing systems for solar panels.

• Furniture

Aluminum is a good choice for outdoor furniture because it's durable,

lightweight, and can be formed into many shapes.

• Architectural fittings

Aluminum is used for architectural fittings like handles, knobs, clamps, and
holding fixtures.

BITUMEN:-

Bitumen, also known as asphalt, is a black, viscous substance that is used in many
industries, including construction, roofing, and lubrication

• Roads: Bitumen is a binding agent in asphalt concrete, which is used to

make roads and highways. It makes roads durable and able to withstand
heavy traffic and extreme weather.

• Airports, bridges, dams, and water tanks: Bitumen is used in the

construction of these structures.

• Roofing

• Waterproofing: Bitumen's adhesive and waterproofing properties make it a

good choice for roofing. It prevents water penetration and protects against
wind, rain, and UV damage.

• Waterproofing

• Sealant: Bitumen can be blended with other materials to create a sealant.

• Pavement: Bitumen can be used to prevent water from leaking through

pavement, which protects the underlying buildings.