CENTER OF MASS AND RIGID BODIES

CENTER OF MASS
Every physical system has associated with it a certain point whose motion characterises the
motion of the whole system. When the system moves under some external forces, then this point
moves as if the entire mass of the system is concentrated at this point and also the external force
is applied at this point for translational motion. This point is called the center of mass of the
system.

CENTER OF MASS OF A SYSTEM OF 'N' DISCRETE PARTICLES

Consider a system of N point masses m1, m2, m3, ................ mn whose position vectors from
origin O are given by r1 , r2 , r3 ,............... respectively. Then the position vector of the center of
mass C of the system is given by
n

m r + m2 r2 + ........ + mn rn
m r
i=1
ii

rcm = 11 ; rcm =
m1 + m2 + ........ + mn n

m
i=1
i

m r
1
rcm = ii
M i=1

where, mi ri is called the moment of mass of the particle w.r.t O.

 n 
M=  mi  is the total mass of the system.
i = 1 
 
n
Note: If the origin is taken at the center of mass then m r
i=1
ii = 0. Hence, the COM is the point

about which the sum of “mass moments” of the system is zero.

POSITION OF COM OF TWO PARTICLES

Center of mass of two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r lies in between
the two particles. The distance of center of mass from any of the particle (r) is inversely
proportional to the mass of the particle (m)
i.e. r  1/m
r1 m
or = 2
r2 m1
or m1r1 = m2r2
 m2   m1 
or r1 =   r and r2 =  r
 m2 + m1   m1 + m2 
Here, r1 = distance of COM from m1
and r2 = distance of COM from m2
From the above discussion, we see that
r1 = r2 = 1/2 if m1 = m2, i.e., COM lies midway between the two particles of equal masses.
Similarly, r1 > r2 if m1 < m2 and r1 < r2 if m2 < m1, i.e., COM is nearer to the particle having larger
mass.

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 CENTER OF MASS AND RIGID BODIES

CENTER OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION

For continuous mass distribution the center of mass can be located by replacing summation sign
with an integral sign. Proper limits for the integral are chosen according to the situation

xcm =
 xdm , y cm =
 ydm , z cm =
 zdm
 dm  dm  dm
 dm = M (mass of the body)
1
rcm =
M 
rdm
Note: If an object has symmetric mass distribution about x axis then y coordinate of COM is
zero and
vice-versa
MOTION OF CENTER OF MASS AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM :
Velocity of center of mass of system
dr1 dr dr dr
m1 + m2 2 + m3 3 .............. + mn n
v cm = dt dt dt dt = m1v1 + m2 v 2 + m3 v 3 .......... + mn vn
M M
Here numerator of the right hand side term is the total momentum of the system i.e., summation
of momentum of the individual component (particle) of the system
Hence velocity of center of mass of the system is the ratio of momentum of the system to the
mass of the system.
 PSystem = M v cm
Acceleration of center of mass of system
dv1 dv dv dv
m1 + m2 2 + m3 3 .............. + mn n
acm = dt dt dt dt = m1a1 + m2a2 + m3a3 .......... + mnan
M M
Net forceonsystem Net External Force + Net internal Force Net External Force
= = =
M M M
(action and reaction both of an internal force must be within the system. Vector summation will
cancel all internal forces and hence net internal force on system is zero)
 Fext = M acm
where Fext is the sum of the 'external' forces acting on the system. The internal forces which the
particles exert on one another play absolutely no role in the motion of the center of mass.
If no external force is acting on a system of particles, the acceleration of center of mass of the
system will be zero. If ac = 0, it implies that vc must be a constant and if vcm is a constant, it implies
that the total momentum of the system must remain constant. It leads to the principal of
conservation of momentum in absence of external forces.
If Fext = 0 then = v cm constant
“If resultant external force is zero on the system, then the net momentum of the system
must remain constant”.

Motion of COM in a moving system of particles :

(1) COM at rest :
If Fext = 0 and Vcm = 0, then COM remains at rest. Individual components of the system may
move and have non-zero momentum due to mutual forces (internal), but the net momentum
of the system remains zero.

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(i) All the particles of the system are at rest.

(ii) Particles are moving such that their net momentum is zero.
Example:

(iii) A bomb at rest suddenly explodes into various smaller fragments, all moving in different
directions then, since the explosive forces are internal & there is no external force on the
system for explosion therefore, the COM of the bomb will remain at the original position
and the fragment fly such that their net momentum remains zero.
(iv) Two men standing on a frictionless platform, push each other, then also their net
momentum remains zero because the push forces are internal for the two men system.
(v) A boat floating in a lake, also has net momentum zero if the people on it changes their
position, because the friction force required to move the people is internal of the boat system.
(vi) Objects initially at rest, if moving under mutual forces (electrostatic or gravitation)also
have net momentum zero.
(vii) A light spring of spring constant k kept compressed between two blocks of masses m1
and m2 on a smooth horizontal surface. When released, the blocks acquire velocities in
opposite directions, such that the net momentum is zero.
(viii) In a fan, all particles are moving but COM is at rest

(2) COM moving with uniform velocity :

If Fext = 0, then Vcm remains constant therefore, net momentum of the system also remains
conserved. Individual components of the system may have variable velocity and momentum
due to mutual forces (internal), but the net momentum of the system remains constant and
COM continues to move with the initial velocity.
(i) All the particles of the system are moving with same velocity.
e.g.: A car moving with uniform speed on a straight road, has its COM moving with a
constant velocity.

(ii) Internal explosions / breaking does not change the motion of COM and net momentum
remains conserved. A bomb moving in a straight line suddenly explodes into various
smaller fragments, all moving in different directions then, since the explosive forces are
internal & there is no external force on the system for explosion therefore, the COM of
the bomb will continue the original motion and the fragment fly such that their net
momentum remains conserved.
(iii) Man jumping from cart or buggy also exert internal forces therefore net momentum of the
system and hence, Motion of COM remains conserved.

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(iv) Two moving blocks connected by a light spring on a smooth horizontal surface. If the
acting forces is only due to spring then COM will remain in its motion and momentum will
remain conserved.
(v) Particles colliding in absence of external impulsive forces also have their momentum
conserved.
Momentum Conservation :
The total linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of the total mass of the
system and the velocity of its center of mass. P = M v cm
→
Fext = dP
dt
→
If Fext = 0  dP = 0 ; P = constant
dt
When the vector sum of the external forces acting on a system is zero, the total linear momentum
of the system remains constant.
IMPULSE
Impulse of a force F acting on a body for the time interval t = t1 to t = t2 is defined as :
t2 dv
 = t1
Fdt 

 = Fdt = m  dt
dt = mdv

 = m( v 2 - v1 ) = ΔP = change in momentum due to force
t2
Also, Re s =  t1
FRe s dt = ΔP (impulse - momentum theorem)

P1 + P2 + P3 + .... + Pn = constant.
COLLISION OR IMPACT
Collision is an event in which an impulsive force acts between two or more bodies for a short
time, which results in change of their velocities.

Note :
(a) In a collision, particles may or may not come in physical contact.
(b) The duration of collision, t is negligible as compared to the usual time intervals of
observation of motion.
(c) In a collision the effect of external non impulsive forces such as gravity are not taken into a
account as due to small duration of collision (t) average impulsive force responsible for
collision is much larger than external forces acting on the system.
The collision is infact a redistribution of total momentum of the particles. Thus, law of
conservation of linear momentum is indispensable in dealing with the phenomenon of collision
between particles.
Line of Impact
The line passing through the common normal to the surfaces in contact during impact is called
line of impact. The force during collision acts along this line on both the bodies.
Direction of Line of impact can be determined by:
(a) Geometry of colliding objects like spheres, discs, wedge etc.
(b) Direction of change of momentum.
If one particle is stationary before the collision then the line of impact will be along its motion after
collision.

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Classification of collisions
(a) On the basis of line of impact
(i) Head-on collision : If the velocities of the colliding particles are along the same line
before and after the collision.
(ii) Oblique collision : If the velocities of the colliding particles are along different lines
before and after the collision.
(b) On the basis of energy :
(i) Elastic collision : In an elastic collision, the colliding particles regain their shape and
size completely after collision. i.e., no fraction of mechanical energy remains stored as
deformation potential energy in the bodies. Thus, kinetic energy of system after collision
is equal to kinetic energy of system before collision. Thus in addition to the linear
momentum, kinetic energy also remains conserved before and after collision.
(ii) Inelastic collision : In an inelastic collision, the colliding particles do not regain their
shape and size completely after collision. Some fraction of mechanical energy is retained
by the colliding particles in the form of deformation potential energy. Thus, the kinetic
energy of the particles after collision is not equal to that of before collision. However, in
the absence of external forces, law of conservation of linear momentum still holds good.
(iii) Perfectly inelastic : If velocity of separation along the line of impact just after collision
becomes zero then the collision is perfectly inelastic. Collision is said to be perfectly
inelastic if both the particles stick together after collision and move with same velocity,
Note : Actually collision between all real objects are neither perfectly elastic nor perfectly
inelastic, its inelastic in nature.
Examples of line of impact and collisions based on line of impact
(i) Two balls A and B are approaching each other such that their centers are moving along line
CD.

Head on Collision
(ii) Two balls A and B are approaching each other such that their center are moving along dotted
lines as shown in figure.

Oblique Collision
(iii) Ball is falling on a stationary wedge.

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COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (e)

The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of the impulses of reformation and deformation
of either body.

e=
Impulseof reformation
=
 F dtr

Impulseof deformation
 F dtd

Velocity of seperation along line of impact

=
Velocity of approach along line of impact
The most general expression for coefficient of restitution is
velocity of separation of points of contact along line of impact
e=
velocity of approach of point of contact along line of impact

Example for calculation of e

Two smooth balls A and B approaching each other such that their centers are moving along line
CD in absence of external impulsive force. The velocities of A and B just before collision be u 1
and u2 respectively. The velocities of A and B just after collision be v 1 and v2 respectively.
Just Before collision Just After collision
u1 u2 v1 v2

Line of impact Line of impact

C D C D
A B A B
u12> u v12< v
u2 v v2
u1 v v1
ND ND NR
NR m1
m1 m1

 
m2 m2 m2

Deformation Reformation

 Fext = 0 momentum is conserved for the system.

 m1u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2)v = m1v1 + m2v2
m1u1 + m2u2 m v + m2 v 2
 v= = 1 1 .......(1)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Impulse of Deformation :

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JD = change in momentum of any one body during deformation.

= m2 (v – u2) for m2
= m1 (–v + u1) for m1

Impulse of Reformation :
JR = change in momentum of any one body during Reformation.
= m2 (v2 – v) for m2
= m1 (v – v1) for m1

Impulse of Reformation(JR ) v 2 − v1 Velocity of separation along line of impact

e= = =
Impulse of Deformation(JD ) u1 − u2 Velocity of approach along line of impact

Note : e is independent of shape and mass of object but depends on the material. The
coefficient of restitution is constant for a pair of materials.
(a) e = 1 Impulse of Reformation = Impulse of Deformation
Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
Kinetic energy of particles after collision may be equal to that of before collision.
Collision is elastic.
(b) e = 0 Impulse of Reformation = 0
Velocity of separation = 0
Kinetic energy of particles after collision is not equal to that of before collision.
Collision is perfectly inelastic .
(c) 0 < e < 1 Impulse of Reformation < Impulse of Deformation
Velocity of separation < Velocity of approach
Kinetic energy of particles after collision is not equal to that of before collision.
Collision is Inelastic.
Note : In case of contact collisions e is always less than unity.
 0e1
LINEAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION IN PRESENCE OF EXTERNAL FORCE.
dP
Fext =  Fext dt = dP  dP = Fext )impulsive dt
dt
 If Fext )impulsive = 0  dP = 0
or P is constant
Note : Momentum is conserved if the external force present is non-impulsive. eg. gravitation or spring force
RIGID BODY :
Rigid body is defined as a system of particles in which distance between each pair of particles
remains constant (with respect to time). Remember, rigid body is a mathematical concept and
any system which satisfies the above condition is said to be rigid as long as it satisfies it.

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 A & B are beads which move on a circular fixed ring

⚫ If a system is rigid, since there is no change in the distance between any pair of particles
of the system, shape and size of system remains constant. Hence we intuitively feel that
while a stone or cricket ball are rigid bodies, a balloon or elastic string is non rigid.
But any of the above system is rigid as long as relative distance does not change,
whether it is a cricket ball or a balloon. But at the moment when the bat hits the cricket
ball or if the balloon is squeezed, relative distance changes and now the system behaves
like a non-rigid system.

⚫ For every pair of particles in a rigid body, there is no velocity of seperation or approach
between the particles. i.e. any relative motion of a point B on a rigid body with respect to
another point A on the rigid body will be perpendicular to line joining A to B, hence with
respect to any particle A of a rigid body the motion of any other particle B of that rigid
body is circular motion.

Let velocities of A and B with respect ground be and respectively in the figure below.

A VA
1
B

VB 2

If the above body is rigid VA cos 1 = VB cos 2 (velocity of approach / seperation is zero)
VBA = relative velocity of B with respect to A.
VBA = VA sin 1 + VB sin 2 (which is perpendicular to line AB)
B will appear to move in a circle to an observer fixed at A.

 W.r.t. any point of the rigid body the angular velocity of all other points of the rigid body is same.

 Suppose A, B, C is a rigid system hence during any motion sides AB, BC and CA must rotate
through the same angle. Hence all the sides rotate by the same rate.

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From figure (i) angular velocity of A and B w.r.t. C is ,

From figure (ii) angular velocity of A and C w.r.t. B is ,

I. Pure Translational Motion :

A body is said to be in pure translational motion, if the displacement of each particle of the system
is same during any time interval. During such a motion, all the particles have same displacement
(s) , velocity (v) and acceleration (a) at an instant.
Consider a system of n particle of mass m1, m2, m3, ...... mn undergoing pure translation.
then from above definition of translational motion

a1 = a2 = a3 = ......an = a (say)
and v1 = v 2 = v3 = ......vn = v (say)

From newton's laws for a system.

→ = → + → + → + ......................
Fext m1a1 m2 a 2 m3a3
→
→ =M a
Fext
Where M = Total mass of the body
P = → + → + → + ......................
m1v1 m2 v 2 m3 v 3

P = →
Mv
1 1 1
Total Kinetic Energy of body = m1v12 + m2v22 + ................. = Mv2
2 2 2

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II. Pure Rotational Motion :

Figure shows a rigid body of arbitrary shape in rotation about a fixed axis, called the axis of
rotation. Every point of the body moves in a circle whose center lies on the axis of rotaion, and
every point moves through the same angle during a particular time interval. Such a motion is
called pure rotation.
We know that each particle has same angular velocity (since the body is rigid.)
so, v1 = r1, v2 = r2, v3 = r3 ...... vn = rn
1 1
Total Kinetic Energy = m1v12 + m2v22 + ..........................
2 2
1
= [m1r12 + m2r22 + ..........................] 2
2
1
= 2 Where  = m1r12 + m2r22 + ............. (is called moment of inertia)
2
 = angular speed of body.
III. Combined Translational and Rotational Motion :
A body is said to be in combined translation and rotational motion if all point in the body rotates
about an axis of rotation and the axis of rotation moves with respect to the ground. Any general motion of
a rigid body can be viewed as a combined translational and rotational motion.
MOMENT OF INERTIA (I) ABOUT AN AXIS :
(i) Moment of ineria of a system of n particles about an axis is defined as 
 = m1 r12 + m2 r22 + ..................+ mn rn2
n
i.e. =  mr
i =1
ii
2

where, ri = It is perpendicular distance of mass mi from axis of rotation S units of Moment of

nertia is Kgm2. Moment of inertia is a scaler positive quantity.

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(ii) For a continuous system :

=  r (dm)
2

where dm = mass of a small element

r = perpendicular distance of the mass element dm from the axis
Moment of Inertia depends on :
(i) density of the material of body
(ii) shape & size of body
(iii) axis of rotation
In totallity we can say that it depends upon distribution of mass relative to axis of rotation.

Note : ⚫ Moment of inertia does not change if the mass :

(i) is shited parallel to the axis of the rotation because r i does not change.
(ii) is rotated about axis of rotation in a circular path because r i does not change
RADIUS OF GYRATION :
Is a measure of the way in which the mass of rigid body is distributed with respect to the axis of
rotation, we define a new parameter, the radius of gyration (K). It is related to the moment of
intertia and total mass of the body.
 = MK2
where  = Moment of Inertia of a body
M = Mass of a body
K = Radius of gyration

K=
M
 Length K is the geometrical property of the body and axis of rotation.
S.. Unit of K is meter.

TORQUE :
Torque represents the capability of a force to produce change in the rotational motion of the body.
Torque about a point :

→ → →
Torque of force F about a point  = r  F
Where F = force applied
P = point of application of force
Q = Point about which we want to calculate the torque.
r = position vector of the point of application of force w.r.t. the point
about which we want to determine the torque.

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 = r F sin = r⊥F = rF⊥

Where  = angle between the direction of force and the position vector of P wrt.
Q.
r⊥ = r sin  = perpendicular distance of line of action of force from point Q
,it is also called force arm.
→
F⊥ = F sin  = component of F perpendicular to r
S unit of torque is Nm
 Torque is a vector quantity and its direction is determined using right hand thumb rule and its
always perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the body.

EQUILIBRIUM
A system is in mechanical equilibrium if it is in translational as well as rotational equilibrium.
For this : Fnet = 0 net = 0 (about every point)
Y
F1

F2
F5
X

F4 F3
From (6.3), if Fnet = 0 then net is same about every point
Hence necessary and sufficient condition for equilibrium is Fnet = 0 , net = 0 about any one point,
which we can choose as per our convenience. ( net will automatically be zero about every point)


unstable stable Neutral

equilibrium equilibrium equilibrium
The equilibrium of a body is called stable if the body tries to regain its equilibrium position after
being slightly displaced and released. It is called unstable if it gets further displaced after being
slightly displaced and released. If it can stay in equilibrium even after being slightly displaced and
released, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

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Angular momentum of a particle about a point.

L = r P  L = rpsin
or L = r⊥ P or L = P⊥ r

Where P = momentum of particle

r = position of vector of particle with respect to point O about which angular
momentum is to be calculated .
 = angle between vectors r & P
r⊥ = perpendicular distance of line of motion of particle from point O.
P⊥= component of momentum perpendicular to r .
SI unit of angular momentum is kgm2/sec.

Angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about fixed axis :

A

r1

r2

rn

B
Angular momentum of a rigid body about the fixed axis AB is LAB = L1 + L2 + L3 +....... +Ln
L1 = m1 r1r1 , L2 = m2 r2r2 , L3 = m3 r3r3 , Ln = mn rnrn
LAB = m1 r1r1 + m2 r2r2 + m3 r3r3 ........ + mn rnrn
n=n n = n 
LAB = 
n =1
mn (rn )2 ×  
 mn (rn )2 = H 
 n=1 
LAB = H 
LH = IH 
LH = Angular momentum of object about axis of rotation.
IH = Moment of Inertia of rigid body about axis of rotation.
 = angular velocity of the object.

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Conservation of Angular Momentum

dL
Newton's 2nd law in rotation :  =
dt
where  and L are about the same axis.
 Angular momentum of a particle or a system remains constant if ext = 0 about the axis of rotation.
Even if net angular momentum is not constant, one of its component about an axis remains
constant if component of torque about that axis is zero
Impulse of Torque :  dt = J J → Charge in angular momentum.

(i) Suppose a ball is tied at one end of a cord whose other end passes through a vertical hollow tube.
The tube is held in one hand and the cord in the other. The ball is set into rotation in a horizontal
circle. If the cord is pulled down, shortening the radius of the circular path of the ball, the ball
rotates faster than before. The reason is that by shortening the radius of the circle, the moment of
inertia of the ball about the axis of rotation decreases.Hence, by the law of conservation of angular
momentum, the angular velocity of the ball about the axis of rotation increases.[fig. (1)]

(ii) When a diver jumps into water from a height, he does not keep his body straight but pulls in his
arms and legs toward: the centre of his body. On doing so, the moment of inertia I of his body
decreases. But since the angular momentum I  remains constant, his angular velocity 
correspondingly increases.Hence during jumping he can rotate his body in the air - fig. (2)]

(iii) In, a man with his arms outstretched and holding heavy dumb bells in each hand, is standing at the
centre of a rotating table. When the man pulls in his arms, the speed of rotation of the table
increases. The reason is that on pulling in the arms, the distance R of the dumbells from the axis of
rotation decreases and so the moment of inertia of the man decreases. Therefore, by conservation
of angular momentum, the angular velocity increases. [fig. (3)]

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In the same way, the ice skater and the ballet dancer increase or decrease the angular velocity of
spin about a vertical axis by pulling or extending out their limbs

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