10.

1 INTRODUCTION

“Thanjavur Dancing”
• (In Tamil, it is called ‘Thanjavur
thalayatti bommai’)
• World famous Indian cultural
doll
 INTRODUCTION

• What does this doll do when

disturbed?
• It will dance such that the head and
body move continuously in a to and
fro motion, until the movement
gradually stops.
• Similarly, when we walk on the road,
our hands and legs will move front
and back.
 INTRODUCTION

• When a mother swings a cradle to • All these motions are different from
make her child sleep, the cradle is the motion that we have discussed so
made to move in to and fro motion. far.
• Generally, they are known as
oscillatory motion or vibratory motion.
• A similar motion occurs even at
atomic levels.
 INTRODUCTION

• When the temperature is raised, the

atoms in a solid vibrate about their
mean position or equilibrium position.
• The study of vibrational motion is very
important in engineering applications,
such as,
✓designing the structure of building,
✓mechanical equipments, etc.
 10.1.1 Periodic and nonperiodic motion

• Motion in physics can be classified as • Examples :

1. Repetitive (periodic motion) and ✓Hands in pendulum clock,
2. Nonrepetitive (non-periodic motion). ✓swing of a cradle,
❖1. Periodic motion ✓revolution of the Earth around the
• Any motion which repeats itself in Sun,
a fixed time interval is known as ✓waxing and waning of Moon, etc.
periodic motion.
 Periodic and nonperiodic motion

❖2. Non-Periodic motion • Example :

• Any motion which does not repeat ✓Occurrence of Earth quake,
itself after a regular interval of time is ✓Eruption of volcano, etc.
known as non-periodic motion.
 10.1.2 Oscillatory motion

“When an object or a particle moves • Examples;

back and forth repeatedly for some ✓our heart beat,
duration of time its motion is said to be ✓swinging motion of the wings of
oscillatory (or vibratory)” an insect,
• All oscillatory motion are periodic ✓grandfather’s clock
whereas all periodic motions need not (pendulum clock), etc.
be oscillation in nature
Oscillatory motion
Oscillatory or vibratory motion
10.2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

• Simple harmonic motion -

acceleration or force on the particle is
directly proportional to its
displacement from a fixed point and is
always directed towards that fixed
point
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

• In one dimensional case, • Multiply the equation by mass of the

• x - displacement of the particle and particle on both sides of equation
• 𝑎𝑥 - acceleration of the particle, then 𝑎𝑥 = - bx
m 𝑎𝑥 = - mbx
ax ∝ x
ax = - bx • From Newton’s second law,
force ( F= ma )
• b - constant which measures
𝐹𝑥 = -kx
acceleration per unit displacement
• Dimension - 𝑇 −2 . • k - force constant which is
defined as force per unit length
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

𝐹𝑥 = -kx • When the displacement of the particle

• Negative sign - displacement and force is taken towards left of equilibrium
(or acceleration) are in opposite position (x takes negative value), the
directions. force (or acceleration) will point
• When the displacement of the particle towards equilibrium (towards right).
is taken towards right of equilibrium
position (x takes positive value), the
force (or acceleration) will point
towards equilibrium (towards left)
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

❖Restoring force: • In vector notation

• It always directs the particle executing 𝐹Ԧ = -k𝑟Ԧ
simple harmonic motion to restore • 𝑟Ԧ - displacement of the particle from
to its original (equilibrium or mean) the chosen origin.
position. • The force and displacement have a
• This force (restoring force) is central linear relationship.
and attractive whose center of • The exponent of force 𝐹Ԧ and the
attraction is the equilibrium position. exponent of displacement 𝑟Ԧ are unity.
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

• The sketch between • Force verses displacement graph

➢cause (magnitude of force (|F |) and
➢effect (magnitude of displacement(|r|)
is a straight line passing through
second and fourth quadrant
1
• By measuring slope ,
𝑘
one can find the numerical value of
force constant k.
 10.2.1 The projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of SHM
• m – mass of a particle
• v – uniform speed of the particle along the circumference of a circle
whose radius is ‘r’ in anti-clockwise direction (Figure).
• Assume - origin of the coordinate system coincides with the center O of the circle.
 The projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of SHM
• ω - angular velocity of the particle and
• 𝜃 - angular displacement of the
particle at any instant of time ‘t’,
• Then θ = ωt.
• By projecting the uniform circular
motion on its diameter gives a simple
harmonic motion.
 The projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of SHM
• A map (or a relationship) can be • Project the position of a particle
associated between uniform circular moving on a circle, on to its
(or revolution) motion to vibratory vertical diameter or on to a line
motion. parallel to vertical diameter.
• Conversely, any vibratory motion • Do it for horizontal axis or a line
or revolution can be mapped to parallel to horizontal axis.
uniform circular motion.
• These two motions are similar in
nature
The location of a particle at each instant as projected on a
vertical axis
 The projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of SHM
• A specific example: • Motion of spring mass (or simple
➢a spring mass system (or oscillation of pendulum) related to uniform
pendulum) (Figure) circular motion
• When the spring moves up and down
(or pendulum moves to and fro), the
motion of the mass or bob is mapped
to points on the circular motion
 The projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of SHM
• If a particle undergoes uniform • The circle is known as reference circle
circular motion then the projection of of the simple harmonic motion.
the particle on the diameter of the
circle (or on a line parallel to the ❖Simple harmonic motion
diameter) traces straight line motion ‘motion of the projection of a particle on
which is simple harmonic in nature. any diameter of a circle of reference’
 10.2.2 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its
graphical representation - SHM
❖displacement • To derive displacement ‘y’ at that
“The distance travelled by the vibrating instant of time ‘t’ consider ΔOPN
particle at any instant of time ‘t’ from its
mean position is known as displacement
• P - position of the particle on a circle
of radius ‘A’ at some instant of time
‘t’ ( Figure)
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its graphical
representation - SHM
• ΔOPN

𝑂𝑁
sin𝜃 = ⟹ON = OP sin𝜃
𝑂𝑃

• But θ = ωt, ON = y and OP = A

y=A sin ωt
• The displacement y takes maximum
value (which is equal to A)
when sin ωt = 1.
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its graphical
representation - SHM
“Maximum displacement from the mean
y=A sin ωt
position is known as amplitude (A) of
the vibrating particle”
• For simple harmonic motion -
amplitude is constant.
• For any motion other than simple
harmonic,
✓amplitude need not be constant,
✓it may vary with time.
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its graphical
representation - SHM
❖Velocity
‘rate of change of displacement’
• Taking derivative of equation
y =A sin ωt
with respect to time
𝑑𝑦 𝑑(A sin ωt)
v= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑(sin ωt)
=A
𝑑𝑡
= Aωcos ωt
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its graphical
representation - SHM
v = Aωcos ωt 𝑦2
• = 1 − 2
𝐴

• Using trigonometry identity, 𝐴2 −𝑦 2

• =
𝐴2
• sin2 ωt + cos2 ωt = 1 1
• ∴ cos ωt = 𝐴2 − 𝑦 2
• ⇒ cos ωt = 1 − sin2 ωt 𝐴

• From the equation y = A sin ωt • Substitute this in the equation

𝑦 • v = Aωcos ωt
• ⟹ sin ωt =
𝐴 • We get
𝑦
• cos ωt = 1 − ( )2 • v= Aω
1
𝐴2 − 𝑦 2
𝐴 𝐴

v = ω 𝐴2 − 𝑦 2
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its graphical
representation - SHM
• For maximum displacement
v=ω 𝐴2 − 𝑦2 • y = A,
1
• From the above equation • v = Aω 𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 (y = A)
𝐴
➢when the displacement y = 0, • v = Aω
1
𝐴2 − A2
1 𝐴
• v = Aω 𝐴2 − 0 1
𝐴
1
• v = Aω 0
𝐴
• v = Aω 𝐴2 1
𝐴
1
• v = Aω 0
𝐴
• v = Aω 𝐴 • v=0
𝐴
• v = Aω • Velocity v = 0 (minimum).
• Velocity v = ωA (maximum)
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its graphical
representation - SHM
• As displacement increases from zero • This is repeated.
to maximum, the velocity decreases • Since velocity is a vector quantity,
from maximum to zero. equation

v = Aωcos ωt

can also be deduced by resolving in to

components
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its graphical
representation - SHM
❖Acceleration
𝑑𝑣
‘rate of change of velocity’ a =
𝑑𝑡
• Taking derivative of equation 𝑑(Aωcos ωt)
=
𝑑𝑡
v= Aωcos ωt Aω𝑑(cos ωt)
=
with respect to time 𝑑𝑡
= Aω(-ωsin ωt)
= -Aω2 sin ωt
= - ω2 y (y= A sin ωt)
𝑑2 𝑦
a =
𝑑𝑥 2
= - ω2 y
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and its graphical
representation - SHM
• Observations: • Variation of displacement, velocity
➢At the mean position (y = 0), and acceleration at different instant of
time
✓velocity of the particle is maximum
✓acceleration of the particle is zero.
➢ At the extreme position (y = ±A)
✓velocity of the particle is zero
✓acceleration is maximum ∓A ω2
acting in the opposite direction.
➢ Any vibratory motion or revolution can be mapped to uniform circular motion.
➢ In other words, these two motions are similar in nature.
Displacement Time Graph
Velocity Time Graph
Acceleration Time Graph
Variation of displacement, velocity and
acceleration at different instant of time
 10.2.3 Time period, frequency, phase,
phase difference and epoch in SHM.
❖(i) Time period • Displacement of a particle executing
• Time taken by a particle to complete simple harmonic motion can be
one oscillation. (T). written either as sine function
• For one complete revolution, 2𝜋
y(t)= A sin ωt ⟹ = A sin t
T
the time taken is t = T,
or cosine function
• Therefore ωT = 2𝜋 2𝜋
2𝜋 y(t)= A cosωt ⟹ = A cos t
T
ω=
T
2𝜋 • T- represents the time period
T=
ω
 Time period, frequency, phase,
phase difference and epoch in SHM.
• Suppose the time t is replaced by t + T, • Thus, the function repeats after one
• Then the function time period.
2𝜋 • This y(t) is an example of periodic
• y(t + T) = A sin (t + T)
T function.
2𝜋 2𝜋
= Asin( t + T)
T T
2𝜋
= Asin( t + 2𝜋)
T
2𝜋
= A sin t = y(t)
T
(sin2𝜋 = 0)
y(t + T) = y(t)
 Time period, frequency, phase,
phase difference and epoch in SHM.
❖(ii) Frequency • Mathematically,
• The number of oscillations produced ✓frequency is related to time period by
by the particle per second is called
frequency. f=
1
T
• It is denoted by ‘f’.
• SI unit for frequency is
𝑠 −1 or hertz (Hz).
 Time period, frequency, phase,
phase difference and epoch in SHM
❖Angular frequency 2𝜋
• Comparing equation ω =
T
• The number of cycles (or revolutions) 1
and equation f =
per second is called angular frequency. T
• Denoted by the Greek small letter • Angular frequency and frequency
‘omega’- ω. are related by
ω = 2𝜋f

• SI unit for angular frequency is

rad 𝑠 −1 . (read it as radian per second)
 Time period, frequency, phase,
phase difference and epoch in SHM
❖ (iii)Phase The phase of vibrating
• Phase of a vibrating particle at any particle at two instant of time
instant completely specifies the state
of the particle.
• It expresses the
✓position and
✓direction of motion of the particle at
that instant with respect to its mean
position (Figure).
 Time period, frequency, phase,
phase difference and epoch in SHM
• (iii) Phase y = A sin (ωt +𝜑𝟎 ) ❑Phase difference:
• Consider two particles executing
• Where simple harmonic motions.
ωt +𝜑𝟎 = 𝜑 - phase of the vibrating • Their equations are
particle • 𝑦1 = A sin(ωt + φ1 ) and
• At time • 𝑦2 = A sin(ωt + φ2 ),
➢ t = 0 s (initial time), the phase • then the phase difference
φ = 𝜑𝟎 - epoch (initial phase) • Δφ = (ωt + φ2 ) − (ωt + φ1 )
where • = (ωt + φ2 − ωt - φ1 )
• 𝜑𝟎 - angle of epoch. • = φ2 - φ1
 10.3 ANGULAR SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
10.3.1.Time period and frequency of angular SHM
• When a body is allowed to rotate • A body (disc) allowed to rotate freely
freely about a given axis then the about an axis
oscillation is known as the angular
oscillation.
• The point at which the resultant torque
acting on the body is taken to be zero
is called mean position.
 10.3.1.Time period and frequency of angular SHM

• If the body is displaced from the • A body (disc) allowed to rotate freely
mean position, then the resultant about an axis
torque acts such that it is proportional
to the angular displacement and this
torque has a tendency to bring the
body towards the mean position.
 10.3.1.Time period and frequency of angular SHM

• 𝜃Ԧ - angular displacement of the • ‘I’ - moment of inertia of the body

body and and
• 𝜏Ԧ - resultant torque acting on the • 𝛼Ԧ - angular acceleration then
body 𝜏Ԧ = I 𝛼Ԧ = - k 𝜃Ԧ
𝜏Ԧ ∝ 𝜃 ⟹ 𝜏Ԧ = - k 𝜃
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑘
• But 𝛼Ԧ = (I 𝛼Ԧ = - k 𝜃 ⟹ 𝛼Ԧ = - )
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
• k - the restoring torsion constant,
which is torque per unit angular
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑘
displacement. = - 𝜃Ԧ
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
 Time period and frequency of angular SHM
𝑘
𝑑2 𝜃
= -
𝑘
𝜃Ԧ •- ω2 y = - 𝜃Ԧ
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
𝐼
𝑘
• This differential equation resembles • ω2 =
𝐼
simple harmonic differential equation.
𝑘
• So, comparing equation ω = rad𝑠 −1
𝐼
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑘
= - 𝜃Ԧ
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
with simple harmonic motion equation
𝑑2 𝑦
= - ω2 y
𝑑𝑥 2
 Time period and frequency of angular SHM

𝑘 • The time period (from equation)

ω = rad𝑠 −1 1 1
𝐼 (f = ⟹T= )
T 𝑓
• The frequency of the angular harmonic 1
T=
motion (from equation) 1 𝑘

ω 2𝜋 𝐼
(ω = 2𝜋f ⟹ f = )
2𝜋

1 𝑘 𝐼
f= Hz T=2𝜋 second
2𝜋 𝐼 𝑘
 10.3.2 Comparison of Simple Harmonic Motion and
Angular Simple Harmonic Motion
❖Linear simple harmonic motion, • spring factor stands for torque constant
• 𝑟Ԧ - linear displacement of the particle ✓moment of the couple to produce unit
• F = -k 𝑟Ԧ - restoring force angular displacement or
• k - spring constant or force constant ✓restoring torque per unit angular
(force per unit displacement) displacement.
• Inertia factor is mass of the body • Inertia factor stands for moment of
executing simple harmonic motion. inertia of the body executing angular
❖Angular simple harmonic motion, simple harmonic oscillation.
• 𝜃Ԧ - angular displacement of the
particle
 10.4 LINEAR SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR (LHO)
10.4.1 Horizontal oscillations of a spring-mass system
• m – mass of a block (system) • Horizontal oscillation of a spring-mass
• Attached to a massless spring system
• k - stiffness constant or force constant
or spring constant
• System is placed on a smooth
horizontal surface (frictionless
surface)
• 𝑥0 - equilibrium position or mean
position of mass m when it is left
undisturbed
10.4.1 Horizontal oscillations of a spring-mass system

• Suppose the mass is displaced through

a small displacement x towards right
from its equilibrium position and then
released, it will oscillate back and forth
about its mean position 𝑥0
• F - restoring force (due to
stretching of the spring) -
proportional to the amount of
displacement of block.
 Horizontal oscillations of a spring-mass system

• For one dimensional motion, • The restoring force is linear with the
F𝛼x displacement (i.e., the exponent of
F= -kx force and displacement are unity)
• where (-) negative sign implies that the • For linear oscillations
restoring force will always act ✓Hooke’s law is valid (force and
opposite to the direction of the displacement have a linear
displacement. relationship).
• This equation is called Hooke’s law • Newton’s second law can be applied
 Horizontal oscillations of a spring-mass system

• From Newton’s second law, • Comparing the equation

• Equation for the particle executing 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
=- x with
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
simple harmonic motion
• Simple harmonic motion equation
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑦
m = -kx = - ω2 y
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 2
=-
𝑚
x -ω2 =-
𝑚
2 𝑘
ω = OR
𝑚
𝑘
ω=
𝑚
 Horizontal oscillations of a spring-mass system

• Angular frequency or • Time period of the oscillation is

natural frequency of the oscillator is
𝑘 1
ω= rad 𝑠 −1 T=
𝑚 𝑓
1
• The frequency of the oscillation is =
1 𝑘

ω 2𝜋 𝑚
f= 𝑚
2𝜋 = 2𝜋 second
𝑘
1 𝑘
= hertz
2𝜋 𝑚
 Horizontal oscillations of a spring-mass system

• In simple harmonic motion, the x(t) = A sin (ωt + 𝜑)

time period of oscillation is OR
independent of amplitude. x(t) = A cos (ωt + 𝜑)
• This is valid only if the amplitude
• Where A, ω and 𝜑 are constants.
of oscillation is small.
• General solution for differential
• The solution of the differential 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
equation =- x is
equation of a SHM is 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
• x(t) = A sin(ωt +φ)+ B cos(ωt +φ)
• Where A and B are constants.
10.4.2 Vertical oscillations of a spring

Springs • Consider a massless spring with

stiffness constant or force constant k
attached to a ceiling
 Vertical oscillations of a spring

• 𝐹1 - the restoring force due to

stretching of spring.
• Due to mass m, the gravitational force
acts vertically downward.
• L- length of the spring before loading • Free-body diagram
mass m • When the system is in
• m – mass of the block attached to the equilibrium
other end of spring,
𝐹1 + mg = 0
• l – elongational length of the spring
 Vertical oscillations of a spring

• But the spring elongates by small • Apply a very small external force on
displacement l, therefore the mass
𝐹1 𝛼 l ⟹ 𝐹1 = -kl ✓mass further displaces downward
• Substituting the above equation in by a displacement y,
𝐹1 + mg = 0 ✓it will oscillate up and down.

• We get –kl + mg = 0
mg = kl or
𝑚 𝑙
=
𝑘 𝑔
 Vertical oscillations of a spring

• Restoring force due to this • Mass moves up and down with

𝑑2 𝑦
stretching of spring acceleration 2 , by drawing the
𝑑𝑡
(total extension of spring is y + l ) is free body diagram for this case, we get
𝐹 2 𝛼 (y + l)
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐹 2 = -k (y + l) - ky –kl +mg = m
𝑑𝑡 2
𝐹 2 = - ky –kl
• Net force acting on the mass due to
this stretching is
F = 𝐹 2 + mg
F = - ky –kl + mg
 Vertical oscillations of a spring

• The gravitational force opposes the • Applying Newton’s law, we get

restoring force.
𝑑2 𝑦
• Substituting equation m 2 = - ky
𝑑𝑡
mg = kl in equation 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑘
= - y
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
F = - ky –kl + mg
F = - ky –kl + kl • The above equation is in the form of
F = - ky simple harmonic differential equation.
 Vertical oscillations of a spring

• Therefore, the time period is • The time period can be rewritten using
𝑚 𝑙
𝑚 equation =
T = 2𝜋 second 𝑘 𝑔
𝑘
𝑙
T = 2𝜋 second
𝑔

• Acceleration due to gravity g can

be computed from the formula
𝑙
g = 4𝜋 2 m 𝑠 −2
𝑇2
 10.4.3 Combinations of springs

• Combination of spring as a • Spring constant or force constant or

shock-absorber in the motor cycle stiffness constant
✓measure of the stiffness of the spring.
• Larger the value of the spring
constant, stiffer is the spring.
• This implies that
✓we need to apply more force to
compress or elongate the spring.
 Combinations of springs

• Smaller the value of spring constant, ➢a. Springs connected in series

the spring can be • When two or more springs are
✓stretched (elongated) or compressed connected in series, we can replace (by
with lesser force removing) all the springs in series with
• Springs can be connected in two ways. an equivalent spring (effective spring)
• a. Springs are connected in series whose net effect is the same as if all
(springs can be connected end) the springs are in series connection
• b. Springs are connected in parallel
 Combinations of springs
a. Springs connected in series
• 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , 𝑘3 … value of individual
spring constants (known quantity),
• 𝑘𝑠 - effective (or equivalent)
spring constant (unknown
quantity)
• 𝑘1 & 𝑘2 - spring constants of two
springs connected to a • The results thus obtained can be
mass ‘m’ in series generalized for any number of springs
in series
 Combinations of springs
a. Springs connected in series
• F - applied force towards right as • Spring constants for different spring
shown in Figure are different and the connection
points between them is not rigidly
fixed, the strings can stretch in
different lengths
 Combinations of springs
a. Springs connected in series
• 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 - elongation of springs from
their equilibrium position
(un-stretched position) due to the
applied force F.
• Net displacement of the mass point is
x = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 • For springs in series connection
• From Hooke’s law, the net force - 𝑘1 𝑥1 = - 𝑘2 𝑥2 = F

F = - 𝑘𝑠 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 ⟹ 𝑥1 = - & 𝑥2 = -
⟹ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = - 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘𝑠
 Combinations of springs
a. Springs connected in series
• Therefore, substituting equation • If “n” springs are connected in series,
𝐹 𝐹
𝑥1 = - & 𝑥2 = - the effective spring constant in series is
𝑘1 𝑘2
in equation 1 1 1 1 1 𝑛 1
𝐹 = + + … = σ𝑖=1
𝑘𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛 𝑘
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = - 𝑖
𝑘𝑠
the effective spring constant • If all spring constants are identical i.e.,
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘3 = 𝑘𝑛 = k then
- - =-
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑠
1 1 1
+ = or 1
=
𝑛
⟹ 𝑘𝑠 =
𝑘
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑠
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘𝑠 𝑘 𝑛
𝑘𝑠 = 1 2 N𝑚−1
𝑘1 +𝑘2
 Combinations of springs
a. Springs connected in series
1 𝑛 𝑘 • From equation,
= ⟹ 𝑘𝑠 =
𝑘𝑠 𝑘 𝑛 𝐹 𝐹
𝑥1 = - & 𝑥2 = -
𝑘1 𝑘2
• Effective spring constant reduces by
• we have,
the factor “n”.
• F = 𝑘1 𝑥1 = 𝑘2 𝑥2 or
• For springs in series connection
• 𝑘1 𝑥1 = 𝑘2 𝑥2
✓effective spring constant is lesser than
• Ratio of compressed distance
the individual spring constants
or elongated distance 𝑥1 & 𝑥2 is
𝑥2 𝑘1
=
𝑥1 𝑘2
 Combinations of springs
a. Springs connected in series
• The elastic potential energy stored in • Then, their ratio is
first spring is
1 1 2
2
𝑈1 = 𝑘1 𝑥1 and 𝑈1 𝑘1 𝑥1
2
2 = 1
𝑈2 𝑘 𝑥 2
2 2 2
• Second springs is 𝑘1 𝑥1 2
1 2
= ( )
𝑈2 = 𝑘2 𝑥2 𝑘2 𝑥1
2 𝑘1 𝑘2 2
= ( )
𝑘2 𝑘1
𝑘
= 2
𝑘1
 Combinations of springs
a. Springs connected in series
 Combinations of springs
b. Springs connected in parallel
• When two or more springs are • 𝑘𝑝 - effective (or equivalent) spring
connected in parallel, we can replace constant (unknown quantity).
(by removing) all these springs with • 𝑘1 & 𝑘2 - spring constants of two
an equivalent spring (effective springs attached to a mass m (Figure)
spring) whose net effect is same as if
all the springs are in parallel
connection
• 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , 𝑘3 … value of individual
spring constants (known quantity),
 Combinations of springs
b. Springs connected in parallel
• F -force applied towards right (Figure) • Net force for the displacement of mass
• Both the springs elongate or compress ‘m’ is
by the same amount of displacement. F = -𝑘𝑝 x
• 𝑘𝑝 - effective spring constant
• x – elongation of first and second
springs due to force ‘F’
• Net force

F = -𝑘1 x - 𝑘2 x
 Combinations of springs
b. Springs connected in parallel
• Equating the two equations • If all spring constants are identical i.e.,
F = -𝑘𝑝 x & F = -𝑘1 x - 𝑘2 x 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘3 = 𝑘𝑛 = k then
- 𝑘𝑝 x = -𝑘1 x - 𝑘2 x 𝑘𝑝 = nk
- 𝑘𝑝 x = - x ( 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ) • Effective spring constant increases by
𝑘𝑝 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 a factor n.
• For the springs in parallel connection,
• Generalizing, for n springs connected
the effective spring constant is greater
in parallel
than individual spring constant.
𝑘𝑝 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑘𝑖
 10.4.4 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
• Simple pendulum
• Pendulum - mechanical system
which exhibits periodic motion.
• It has a bob with mass ‘m’ suspended
by a long string (assumed to be
massless and inextensible string) and
the other end is fixed on a stand
(Figure)
 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
• At equilibrium, the pendulum does not • When a pendulum is displaced
oscillate and hangs vertically through a small displacement from its
downward. equilibrium position and released, the
• Such a position bob of the pendulum executes to and
is known as fro motion.
mean position or
equilibrium
position.
 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
• ‘l’ - length of the pendulum (taken as ➢(i) F = mg - gravitational force acting
the distance between the point of on the body which acts vertically
suspension and the centre of downwards.
gravity of the bob) • (ii) ‘T’ - tension in the string which
• Two forces act on the acts along the string to the point of
bob of the pendulum suspension
at any displaced
position (Figure),
 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
• Resolving the gravitational force into ➢b. Tangential component:
its components: • The component perpendicular to the
➢a. Normal component: string
The component • i.e., along tangential direction of arc of
along the string but swing,
in opposition to the 𝐹𝑝𝑠 = mg sinθ
direction of tension,
𝐹𝑎𝑠 = mg cosθ.
 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
• The normal component of the force is,
along the string

𝑣2
T – 𝐹𝑎𝑠 = m
𝑙
‘v’- speed of the bob
𝑣2
T- mg cosθ = m
𝑙
 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
• From the Figure,
✓tangential component 𝑊𝑝𝑠 of the
gravitational force always points
towards the equilibrium position
✓it always points opposite to the
direction of displacement of the bob
from the mean position
 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
• Tangential force is nothing but the • where,
restoring force. s - position of bob which is measured
• Applying Newton’s second law along along the arc.
tangential direction, we have • Expressing arc length in terms of
𝑑2 𝑠 angular displacement i.e.,
m 2 + 𝐹𝑝𝑠 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑠
⟹ m 2 = - 𝐹𝑝𝑠 s=lθ
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑠 Then its acceleration
m 2 = -mg sinθ 𝑑2 𝑠 𝑑2 θ
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑠 𝑑𝑡2 = l 𝑑𝑡 2
= -g sinθ
𝑑𝑡 2
 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
• Substituting equation • For small oscillations (assumption)
𝑑2 𝑠 𝑑2 θ sinθ ⋍ θ
=l
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 θ 𝑔
in equation 2 = -
𝑑𝑡 𝑙
sinθ
𝑑2 𝑠 this equation becomes
= - g sinθ
𝑑𝑡 2
• This is the oscillatory differential
we get
equation.
𝑑2 θ
l = - g sinθ
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 θ 𝑔
𝑑2 θ 𝑔 =- θ
= - sinθ 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑙
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑙
 Oscillations of a simple pendulum in SHM and
laws of simple pendulum
𝑑2 θ 𝑔
• The frequency of oscillations is
=- θ ω
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑙
f=
• The angular frequency of this 2𝜋
1 𝑔
= hertz
oscillator (natural frequency of this 2𝜋 𝑙
system) is
𝑔
• Time period of oscillations is
𝜔2= 1 1
𝑙 T= = 1
𝑔 𝑓 𝑔
⟹𝜔= rad 𝑠 −1 2𝜋 𝑙
𝑙
𝑙
= 2𝜋 second
𝑔
 Laws of simple pendulum

• The time period of a simple pendulum 𝑙

T= 2𝜋 s
❖a. Depends on the following laws 𝑔

➢(i) Law of length ➢(ii) Law of acceleration

• For a given value of acceleration due • For a fixed length, the time period
to gravity, the time period of a simple of a simple pendulum is inversely
pendulum is directly proportional to proportional to square root of
the square root of length of the acceleration due to gravity.
pendulum
1
T𝛼 𝑙 T𝛼
𝑔
 Laws of simple pendulum

• The time period of a simple pendulum

𝑙
❖b. Independent of the following factors T= 2𝜋
𝑔
s
➢(i) Mass of the bob
• The time period of oscillation is independent of mass of the simple pendulum.
• This is similar to free fall.
• Therefore, in a pendulum of fixed length, it does not matter whether an elephant
swings or an ant swings.
• Both of them will swing with the same time period.
 Laws of simple pendulum

• The time period of a simple pendulum

𝑙
T= 2𝜋 s
𝑔
➢(ii) Amplitude of the oscillations
• For a pendulum with small angle approximation (angular displacement is
very small), the time period is independent of amplitude of the oscillation
Oscillation of liquid in a U-tube:

• A – uniform cross sectional area of

U-shaped glass tube which
consists of two open arms
• h – height of the non-viscous
incompressible liquid in side the
U-shaped tube
• ρ - density of the liquid
Oscillation of liquid in a U-tube:

• If the liquid and tube are not disturbed

then the liquid surface will be in
equilibrium position O.
• It means the pressure as measured at
any point on the liquid is the same and
also at the surface on the arm (edge
of the tube on either side), which
balances with the atmospheric pressure
Oscillation of liquid in a U-tube:

• Due to this the level of liquid in each

arm will be the same.
• By blowing air one can provide
sufficient force in one arm, and the
liquid gets disturbed from equilibrium
position O, which means, the pressure
at blown arm is higher than the
other arm
Oscillation of liquid in a U-tube:

• This creates difference in pressure

which will cause the liquid to oscillate
for a very short duration of time about
the mean or equilibrium position and
finally comes to rest.
• Time period of the oscillation is
𝑙
T= 2𝜋 s
2𝑔
• l-total length of liquid column in
U- tube
 10.5 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

❖a. Expression for Potential Energy • Force - vector quantity.

• For the simple harmonic motion, the • In three dimensions it has three
force and the displacement are related components.
by Hooke’s law • Further, the force in the above
Ԧ - k 𝑟Ԧ equation is a conservative force field;
𝐹=
such a force can be derived from a
scalar function which has only one
component.
 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

• In one dimensional case • Comparing

𝑑𝑈
• F= - k x & F= -
F= - k x 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑈
• - =-kx
• Work done by the conservative force 𝑑𝑥
• dU = kxdx
field is independent of path.
• This work done by the force F during
• Calculating potential energy (U)
𝑑𝑈
a small displacement dx stores as
F= -
𝑑𝑥 potential energy
 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
• Potential energy • For the particle executing simple
𝑥 1 ′2 𝑥 1 harmonic motion from equation
U(x)= ‫׬‬0 𝑘𝑥 ′ 𝑑 ′
𝑥 = k𝑥 ⦗0 = k𝑥 2
2 2 y = A sin ωt , we get
• From equation ω =
𝑘 x = Asin ωt
𝑚 1
U(x) = m ω2 (Asin ωt)2
• ⟹ k = m ω2 2
• Substituting ‘k’ in the above equation
1
U(x)= m ω2 𝑥 2 1
2 U(t) = m ω2 A2 sin2 ωt
• ω - natural frequency of the 2

oscillating system.
 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

1
U(x) = m ω2 A2 sin2 ωt
2

• Variation of potential energy

with time t
 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
b. Expression for Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy • velocity is
1 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑(Asin ωt)
KE = m 𝑣𝑥 = 2 m ( )2 • 𝑣𝑥 = =
2 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑(sin ωt)
• Since the particle is executing simple • =A
𝑑𝑡
harmonic motion, 𝑥
• = Aω cosωt (cos ωt = 1 − ( )2 )
𝐴
⟹from equation
𝑥 2
x = Asin ωt • = Aω 1 − ( )
𝐴

𝑣𝑥 = ω 𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
b. Expression for Kinetic Energy
• Hence, • Variation of kinetic energy with time t.

1
KE = m 𝑣𝑥 2
2
1
= m(ω 𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )2
2
1
= m ω2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
2
OR
1
KE = m [Aω cosωt]2
2
1
= m ω2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ωt
2
 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
c. Expression for Total Energy
• Total energy is the sum of kinetic • Alternatively from equation
,

1
energy and potential energy U(t) = m ω2 A2 sin2 ωt
2
and equation
E = KE + U 1
1 1 KE = m ω2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ωt
E = m ω (𝐴 − 𝑥 ) + m ω2 𝑥 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
• Total energy
1 1
1 1 1 E = mω2 A2 sin2 ωt + mω2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ωt
E = m ω2 𝐴2 𝑥 2 − m ω2 𝑥 2 + mω2 𝑥 2 2
1
2
2 2 2
• Cancelling 𝑥 2 term = m ω2 A2 (sin2 ωt + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ωt)
2
• From trigonometry identity
1
E = m ω2 𝐴2 = constant sin2 ωt + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ωt = 1
2 1
• E = m ω2 𝐴2 = constant
2
 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
c. Expression for Total Energy
1
E = m ω2 𝐴2 = constant
2
• which gives the law of conservation of
total energy.
• Total energy is the sum of kinetic • Thus the amplitude of simple
energy and potential energy
harmonic oscillator, can be expressed
• E = KE + U(x)
1 1
in terms of total energy.
• E= 𝑃2 𝑥 + m ω2 𝑥 2 = constant
2m 2
2𝐸 2𝐸
A= 2 = (k= m ω2 )
mω 𝑘
Conservation of energy – spring mass system
Conservation of energy – simple pendulum system
 10.6TYPES OF OSCILLATIONS
10.6.1Free oscillations
❖Free oscillation or free vibration. ❖Examples:
“When the oscillator is allowed to ➢(i) Vibration of a tuning fork.
oscillate by displacing its position ➢(ii) Vibration in a stretched string.
from equilibrium position, it oscillates ➢(iii) Oscillation of a simple pendulum.
with a frequency which is equal to the ➢(iv) Oscillations of a spring-mass
natural frequency of the oscillator” system.
✓Amplitude,
✓Frequency and
✓Energy of the vibrating object
remains constant
 10.6.2 Damped oscillations
• During the oscillation of a simple • Oscillation is not sustained and the
pendulum energy of the SHM decreases
✓amplitude of the oscillation is constant gradually indicating the loss of energy.
and • Energy lost is absorbed by the
✓total energy of the oscillator is surrounding medium.
constant.
• In reality, in a medium, due to the
presence of
✓friction and
✓air drag - amplitude of oscillation
decreases as time progresses.
 Damped oscillations

• If an oscillator moves in a resistive ❖Examples

medium, its amplitude goes on ✓(i) The oscillations of a pendulum
decreasing and the energy of the (including air friction) or pendulum
oscillator is used to do work against oscillating inside an oil filled
the resistive medium. container.
• The motion of the oscillator is said to ✓(ii) Electromagnetic oscillations in a
be damped and the resistive force (or tank circuit.
damping force) is proportional to the ✓(iii) Oscillations in a dead beat and
velocity of the oscillator ballistic galvanometers
 Damped harmonic oscillator –
amplitude decreases as time increases.
 10.6.3 Maintained oscillations

• While playing in swing, the ❖Example:

oscillations will stop after a few ✓The vibration of a tuning fork getting
cycles, this is due to damping. energy from a battery or from external
• To avoid damping we have to supply a power supply.
push to sustain oscillations.
• By supplying energy from an external
source, the amplitude of the oscillation
can be made constant.
 10.6.4 Forced oscillations

• Any oscillator driven by an external periodic agency to overcome the

damping is known as forced oscillator or driven oscillator.
• The body executing vibration initially vibrates with its natural
frequency and due to the presence of external periodic force, the body
later vibrates with the frequency of the applied periodic force.
❖Example:
✓Sound boards of stringed instruments
 10.6.5 Resonance

• Special case of forced vibrations • Such a phenomenon is known as

• Frequency of external periodic force resonance and the corresponding
(or driving force) matches with the vibrations are known as resonance
natural frequency of the vibrating vibrations.
body (driven). ❖Example
• As a result the oscillating body begins ✓The breaking of glass due to sound
to vibrate such that its amplitude
increases at each step and ultimately it
has a large amplitude.
The breaking of glass due to sound
 THANK YOU
• R. EZHILARASU
• GOVERNMENT GIRLS HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
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