Oscillations – Basic Notes

1. Periodic Motion:
A motion, which repeat itself over and over again after a regular interval of time is called
a periodic motion and the fixed interval of time after which the motion is repeated is
called period of the motion.
Examples :
(i) Revolution of earth around the sun (period one year)
(ii) Rotation of earth about its polar axis (period one day)
(iii) Motion of hour’s hand of a clock (period 12-hour)
(iv) Motion of minute’s hand of a clock (period 1-hour)
(v) Motion of second’s hand of a clock (period 1-minute)
(vi) Motion of moon around the earth (period 27.3 days)
2. Oscillatory or Vibratory Motion:
Oscillatory or vibratory motion is that motion in which a body moves to and fro or back
and forth repeatedly about a fixed point in a definite interval of time. In such a motion,
the body is confined with in well-defined limits on either side of mean position.
Oscillatory motion is also called as harmonic motion.
Example :
(i) The motion of the pendulum of a wall clock.
(ii) The motion of a load attached to a spring, when it is pulled and then released.
(iii) The motion of liquid contained in U- tube when it is compressed once in one limb
and left to itself.
(iv) A loaded piece of wood floating over the surface of a liquid when pressed down and
then released executes oscillatory motion.
3. Harmonic and Non-harmonic Oscillation:
Harmonic oscillation is that oscillation which can be expressed in terms of single
harmonic function (i.e. sine or cosine function). Example : y  a sin  t or y  a cos  t
Non-harmonic oscillation is that oscillation which can not be expressed in terms of single
harmonic function. It is a combination of two or more than two harmonic oscillations.
Example : y  a sin  t  b sin 2 t

4. General Terms used in this chapter

Time Period: It is the least interval of time after which the periodic motion of a body
repeats itself.
S.I. units of time period is second.
Frequency: It is defined as the number of periodic motions executed by body per
second. S.I unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
Angular Frequency: Angular frequency of a body executing periodic motion is equal to
product of frequency of the body with factor 2 . Angular frequency  = 2  n
S.I. units of  is Hz [S.I.]  also represents angular velocity. In that case unit will be
rad/sec.
Displacement: In general, the name displacement is given to a physical quantity which
undergoes a change with time in a periodic motion.
Examples :
(i) In an oscillation of a loaded spring, displacement variable is its deviation from the
mean position.
(ii) During the propagation of sound wave in air, the displacement variable is the local
change in pressure
(iii) During the propagation of electromagnetic waves, the displacement variables are
electric and magnetic fields, which vary periodically.
Phase: Phase of a vibrating particle at any instant is a physical quantity, which completely
express the position and direction of motion, of the particle at that instant with respect to
its mean position.

In oscillatory motion the phase of a vibrating particle is the argument of sine or cosine
function involved to represent the generalised equation of motion of the vibrating
particle.
y  a sin   a sin( t  0 ) here,    t  0 = phase of vibrating particle.

(i) Initial Phase Or Epoch: It is the phase of a vibrating particle at t = 0.

In    t  0 , when t = 0;   0 here,  0 is the angle of epoch.

(ii) Same Phase: Two vibrating particle are said to be in same phase, if the phase
difference between them is an even multiple of  or path difference is an even multiple of
( / 2) or time interval is an even multiple of (T / 2) because 1 time period is equivalent
to 2 rad or 1 wave length ()

(iii) Opposite Phase: When the two vibrating particles cross their respective mean
positions at the same time moving in opposite directions, then the phase difference
between the two vibrating particles is 180o
Opposite phase means the phase difference between the particle is an odd multiple of 
 3
(say , 3, 5, 7…..) or the path difference is an odd multiple of  (say , ,.......) or the
2 2
time interval is an odd multiple of (T / 2).

(iv) Phase difference : If two particles performs S.H.M and their equation are
 y1  a sin( t  1 ) and y2  a sin( t  2 )
then phase difference   ( t  2 )  ( t  1 )  2  1

5. Simple Harmonic Motion:

Simple harmonic motion is a special type of periodic motion, in which a particle moves to
and fro repeatedly about a mean position under a restoring force which is always directed
towards the mean position and whose magnitude at any instant is directly proportional
to the displacement of the particle from the mean position at that instant.
Restoring force  Displacement of the particle from mean position.
F –x
F = – kx
Where k is known as force constant. Its S.I. unit is Newton/meter and dimension is
[MT –2].
6. Displacement in S.H.M:
The displacement of a particle executing S.H.M. at an instant is defined as the distance of
particle from the mean position at that instant.
As we know that simple harmonic motion is defined as the projection of uniform
circular motion on any diameter of circle of reference. If the projection is taken on y-
axis.
then from the figure y  a sin  t
Y
2 P
y  a sin t N
a
T y
 =t
y  a sin 2 n t X
O M
X

y  a sin( t   )
Y

where a = Amplitude,  = Angular frequency, t = Instantaneous time,

T = Time period, n = Frequency and  = Initial phase of particle
If the projection of P is taken on X-axis then equations of S.H.M. can be given as
x  a cos ( t   )
 2 
x  a cos  t 
T 
x  a cos (2n t   )

(i) y  a sin  t when the time is noted from the instant when the vibrating particle is at
mean position.
(ii) y  a cos  t when the time is noted from the instant when the vibrating particle is at
extreme position.
 (iii) y  a sin( t   ) when the vibrating particle is  phase leading or lagging from the
mean position.
Direction of displacement is always away from the equilibrium position, particle either
is moving away from or is coming towards the equilibrium position.
If t is given or phase ( ) is given, we can calculate the displacement of the particle.
T  2 2 T  
If t  (or   ) then from equation y  a sin t , we get y  a sin  a sin    a
4 2 T T 4 2
T
Similarly if t  (or    ) then we get y  0
2
7. Velocity in S.H.M:
Velocity of the particle executing S.H.M. at any instant, is defined as the time rate of
change of its displacement at that instant.
In case of S.H.M. when motion is considered from the equilibrium position
y  a sin  t
dy
so v  a cos  t
dt
 v  a cos t ……(i)

or v  a 1  sin 2  t [As sin t = y/a]

or v   a2  y2 …..(ii)
Important Points:
(i) In S.H.M. velocity is maximum at equilibrium position.
From equation (i) v max  a when cos  t =1 i.e. =t=0
from equation (ii) v max  a when y  0
(ii) In S.H.M. velocity is minimum at extreme position.

From equation (i) vmin  0 when cos  t = 0 i.e  t 
2
From equation (ii) vmin  0 when y = a
(iii) Direction of velocity is either towards or away from mean position depending on
the position of particle.
8. Acceleration in S.H.M:
The acceleration of the particle executing S.H.M. at any instant, is defined as the rate of
change of its velocity at that instant. So acceleration A  dv  d (a cos t )
dt dt
A   2 a sin  t ……(i)
A   2 y ……(ii) [As y  a sin  t ]
 (i) In S.H.M. as Accelerati on   2 y is not constant. So equations of translatory motion
can not be applied.
(ii) In S.H.M. acceleration is maximum at extreme position.
T
From equation (i) Amax   2 a when sin  t  maximum  1 i.e. at t  or t  
4 2

From equation (ii) | Amax |   2 a when y  a

(iii) In S.H.M. acceleration is minimum at mean position
T
From equation (i) Amin  0 when sin  t  0 i.e. at t  0 or t  or  t  
2
From equation (ii) Amin  0 when y  0
(iv) Acceleration is always directed towards the mean position and so is always
opposite to displacement
i.e., A  y

9. Comparative Study of Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration:

Displacement y  a sin  t
+a
 Displacement
Velocity v  a cos t  a sin( t  ) y 0 T 2T
2 –a y = a sin t
+a 
Acceleration A  a 2 sin  t  a 2 sin( t   ) v Velocity
0 T 2T
From the above equations and graphs we can – a v = a  cos t

conclude that. +a 2

Acceleration
(i) All the three quantities displacement, velocity a
0 T 2T
A = – a 2 cos t
and acceleration show harmonic variation with – a 2
T 2T Time
time having same period.
(ii) The velocity amplitude is  times the
displacement amplitude
(iii) The acceleration amplitude is  times the displacement amplitude
2

(iv) In S.H.M. the velocity is ahead of displacement by a phase angle  / 2

(v) In S.H.M. the acceleration is ahead of velocity by a phase angle  / 2
(vi) The acceleration is ahead of displacement by a phase angle of 
(vii) Various physical quantities in S.H.M. at different position :
Physical quantities Equilibrium position (y = 0) Extreme Position (y =  a)
Displacement y  a sin  t Minimum (Zero) Maximum (a)

Velocity v   a 2  y 2 Maximum (a) Minimum (Zero)

Acceleration A   2 y Minimum (Zero) Maximum (  2 a )

10. Energy in S.H.M:

A particle executing S.H.M. possesses two types of energy : Potential energy and Kinetic
energy
(1) Potential energy : This is an account of the displacement of the particle from its
mean position.
The restoring force F  ky against which work has to be done
x y 1 2
So U    dw    Fdx   ky dy  ky
0 0 2
1
 potential Energy U m 2 y 2 [As  2  k / m ]
2
1
U m 2 a 2 sin 2  t [As y  a sin  t ]
2
Important Points:
(i) Potential energy maximum and equal to total energy at extreme positions
1 2 1
U max  ka  m 2 a 2 when y  a ;  t   / 2 ; t  T / 4
2 2
(ii) Potential energy is minimum at mean position
U min  0 when y  0 ;  t  0 ; t  0
(2) Kinetic energy : This is because of the velocity of the particle
1 2
Kinetic Energy K mv
2
1
K ma 2 2 cos 2  t [As v  a cos  t ]
2
1
K m 2 (a 2  y 2 ) [As v   a 2  y 2 ]
2
(i) Kinetic energy is maximum at mean position and equal to total energy at mean
position.
1
K max  m 2 a 2 when y  0 ; t  0 ;  t  0
2
(ii) Kinetic energy is minimum at extreme position.
K min  0 when y  a ; t  T / 4 ,  t   / 2
(3) Total energy : Total mechanical energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
1 1 1
E  m 2 (a 2  y 2 )  m 2 y 2  m 2 a 2
2 2 2
Total energy is not a position function i.e. it always remains constant.
 (4) Energy position graph :
Energy
1
Kinetic energy (K)  m 2 (a 2  y 2 )
2
U
1
Potential Energy (U) = m 2 y 2
2 K

1 y =– a y=0 y =+ a
Total Energy (E) = m 2 a 2
2
It is clear from the graph that:
(i) Kinetic energy is maximum at mean position and minimum at extreme position
(ii) Potential energy is maximum at extreme position and minimum at mean position
(iii) Total energy always remains constant.
(5) Kinetic Energy K  1 m 2 a 2 cos 2  t  1 m 2 a 2 (1  cos 2 t )  1 E (1  cos ' t )
2 4 2
1 1 1
Potential Energy U m 2 a 2 sin 2  t  m 2 a 2 (1  cos 2 t )  E (1  cos  ' t )
2 4 2

where '  2 and E  1 m 2 a 2

Energy

2
i.e. in S.H.M., kinetic energy and potential E

energy vary periodically with double the

frequency of S.H.M. (i.e. with time period
T' T / 2 ) 0 T Time

From the graph we note that potential energy or kinetic energy completes two vibrations
in a time during which S.H.M. completes one vibration. Thus the frequency of potential
energy or kinetic energy double than that of S.H.M.
11. Time Period and Frequency of S.H.M:
For S.H.M. restoring force is proportional to the displacement
F  y or F  ky …(i) where k is a force
constant.
For S.H.M. acceleration of the body A   2 y …(ii)
 Restoring force on the body F  mA  m 2 y …(iii)

k
From (i) and (iii) ky  m 2 y   
m

 Time period (T )  2  2 m
 k

1 1 k
or Frequency (n)  
T 2 m
 In different types of S.H.M. the quantities m and k will go on taking different forms and
names.
In general m is called inertia factor and k is called spring factor.
Inertia factor
Thus T  2
Spring factor

1 Spring factor
or n
2 Inertia factor
In linear S.H.M. the spring factor stands for force per unit displacement and inertia
factor for mass of the body executing S.H.M. and in Angular S.H.M. k stands for restoring
torque per unit angular displacement and inertial factor for moment of inertia of the
body executing S.H.M.
m  Displacement
For linear S.H.M. T  2 m  m
 2
k Force/Displacement m  Acceleration
Displacement y
 2  2
Acceleration A
1 Accelerati
on 1 A
or n 
2 Dispalceme
nt 2 y

12. Differential Equation of S.H.M:

For S.H.M. (linear) Acceleration  – (Displacement)
A  y
or A   2 y
d2y
or   2 y
dt 2
d2y k
or m 2  ky  0 [As   ]
dt m

For angular S.H.M.   c and d 2

  2  0
dt 2

c
where  2 
I
[As c = Restoring torque constant and I = Moment of inertia]
13. Simple Pendulum:
An ideal simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass body suspended by a
weightless, inextensible and perfectly flexible string from a rigid support about which it
is free to oscillate.
But in reality neither point mass nor weightless string exist, so we can never construct a
simple pendulum strictly according to the definition. S

Let mass of the bob = m 

Length of simple pendulum = l T
l
Displacement of mass from mean position (OP) = x
y P
When the bob is displaced to position P, through a small
mg sin 
angle  from the vertical. Restoring force acting on the bob O mg mg cos

F  mg sin 
Arc OP x
or F  mg (When  is small sin  ~   = = )
Length l l
x
or F  mg
l
F  mg
   k (Spring factor)
x l

Inertia factor m  2 l
So time period T  2  2
Spring factor mg / l g

(i) The period of simple pendulum is independent of amplitude as long as its motion is
simple harmonic. But if  is not small, sin    then motion will not remain simple
harmonic but will become oscillatory. In this situation if 0 is the amplitude of motion.
Time period
l  1 2  0    02 
T  2 1  2 2 sin  2   .......  T0 1  16 
g      
(ii) Time period of simple pendulum is also independent of mass of the bob. This is why
(a) If the solid bob is replaced by a hollow sphere of same radius but different mass,
time period remains unchanged.
(b) If a girl is swinging in a swing and another sits with her, the time period remains
unchanged.
(iii) Time period T  l where l is the distance between point of suspension and center
of mass of bob and is called effective length.
(a) When a sitting girl on a swinging swing stands up, her center of mass will go up and
so l and hence T will decrease.
(b) If a hole is made at the bottom of a hollow sphere full of water and water comes out
slowly through the hole and time period is recorded till the sphere is empty, initially and
finally the center of mass will be at the center of the sphere. However, as water drains off
the sphere, the center of mass of the system will first move down and then will come up.
Due to this l and hence T first increase, reaches a maximum and then decreases till it
becomes equal to its initial value.
(iv) If the length of the pendulum is comparable to the radius of earth then
1
T  2
1 1 
g  
l R 
1 1 l
(a) If l  R , then  so T  2
l R g

(b) If l  R( )1/ l  1/ R so T  2 R  2 6.4  10  84.6 minutes

6

g 10
and it is the maximum time period which an oscillating simple pendulum can have
R
(c) If l  R so T  2  1hour
2g

(v) If the bob of simple pendulum is suspended by a wire then effective length of
pendulum will increase with the rise of temperature due to which the time period will
increase.
l  l0 (1    )
(If  is the rise in temperature, l0  initial length of wire, l = final length of wire)
T l 1
  (1    )1/ 2  1   
T0 l0 2
T 1 T 1
So  1    i.e.   
T0 2 T 2

(vi) If bob a simple pendulum of density  is made to oscillate in some fluid of density 
(where  <) then time period of simple pendulum gets increased.
As thrust will oppose its weight therefore mg'  mg  Thrust
Vg   g'   
or g' g  i.e. g '  g 1    
V   g 

T' g 
   1
T g'  
(vii) If a bob of mass m carries a positive charge q and pendulum is placed in a uniform
electric field of strength E directed vertically upwards.
qE
In given condition net down ward acceleration g '  g 
m
g
+
l
So T  2
qE
g + + + + + +
m
l
If the direction of field is vertically downward then time period T  2
qE
g
m
(viii) Pendulum in a lift : If the pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of the lift.
(a) If the lift is at rest or moving down ward /up ward with constant velocity.
l 1 g
T  2 and n
g 2 l
(b) If the lift is moving up ward with constant acceleration a
l 1 ga
T  2 and n
ga 2 l
Time period decreases and frequency increases
(c) If the lift is moving down ward with constant acceleration a
l 1 g a
T  2 and n
g a 2 l
Time period increase and frequency decreases
(d) If the lift is moving down ward with acceleration a  g
l 1 gg
T  2  and n =0
gg 2 l
It means there will be no oscillation in a pendulum.
Similar is the case in a satellite and at the centre of earth where effective acceleration
becomes zero and pendulum will stop.
(ix) The time period of simple pendulum whose point of suspension moving horizontally
with acceleration a
a
l
T  2 and   tan (a / g )
1

( g  a 2 )1/ 2
2

(x) If simple pendulum suspended in a car that is moving with a


constant speed v around a circle of radius r.
g
l
T  2
2
 v2 
g   
2

 r 
(xi) Second’s Pendulum : It is that simple pendulum whose time period of vibrations is
two seconds.
l
Putting T = 2 sec and g  9.8m / sec2 in T  2 we get
g
4  9.8
l  0.993 m = 99.3 cm
4 2
Hence length of second’s pendulum is 99.3 cm or nearly 1 meter on earth surface.
g Earth
For the moon the length of the second’s pendulum will be 1/6 meter [As g moon  ]
6
(xii) In the absence of resistive force the work done by a simple pendulum in one
complete oscillation is zero.
 (xiii) Work done in giving an angular displacement  to the pendulum from its mean
position.
W  U  mgl (1  cos )
(xiv) Kinetic energy of the bob at mean position = work done or potential energy at
extreme
KEmean  mgl (1  cos )
(xv) Various graph for simple pendulum

T T2 T g
T
l  T2 l  T2 l  T2 T

l l T T

14. Spring Pendulum:

A point mass suspended from a mass less spring or placed on a frictionless horizontal
plane attached with spring (fig.) constitutes a linear harmonic spring pendulum
inertia factor
Time period T  2
spring factor
k

m m
T  2 and
k
1 k
Frequency n 
2 m

Important Points:
(i) Time period of a spring pendulum depends on the mass suspended
1
T m or n
m
i.e. greater the mass greater will be the inertia and so lesser will be the frequency of
oscillation and greater will be the time period.
(ii) The time period depends on the force constant k of the spring
1
T or n k
k
(iii) Time of a spring pendulum is independent of acceleration due to gravity. That is why
a clock based on spring pendulum will keep proper time everywhere on a hill or moon or
in a satellite and time period of a spring pendulum will not change inside a liquid if
damping effects are neglected.
(iv) If the spring has a mass M and mass m is suspended from it, effective mass is given
M
by meff  m 
3 k

m1 m2
m
ff
So that T  2
e

k
(v) If two masses of mass m1 and m2 are connected by a spring and made to oscillate on
1 1 1
horizontal surface, the reduced mass mr is given by  
mr m1 m2

mr
So that T  2
k
(vi) If a spring pendulum, oscillating in a vertical plane is made to oscillate on a horizontal
surface, (or on inclined plane) time period will remain unchanged. However, equilibrium
position for a spring in a horizontal plain is the position of natural length of spring as
weight is balanced by reaction. While in case of vertical motion equilibrium position will
be L  y0 with ky0  mg

R
L ky0 L + y0
m
k

mg

(vii) If the stretch in a vertically loaded spring is y 0 then for equilibrium of mass m,
m y0
ky0  mg i.e. 
k g

m y0
So that T  2  2
k g
Time period does not depends on ‘g’ because along with g, yo will also change in such a
y0 m
way that  remains constant
g k
(viii) Series combination : If n springs of different force constant are
k1
connected in series having force constant k 1 , k 2 , k 3 ....... respectively
then k2
1 1 1 1
    ........ k3
k k1 k 2 k3
e ff
m
If all spring have same spring constant then Series combination

k
k 
ff
e n
 (ix) Parallel combination : If the springs are connected in parallel then
k  k1  k 2  k3  …….
eff
If all spring have same spring constant then k1 k2 k3

k  nk
eff
(x) If the spring of force constant k is divided in to n equal parts then m
spring constant of each part will become nk and if these n parts Parallel combination
connected in parallel then
k  n2k
eff
(xi) The spring constant k is inversely proportional to the spring length.
1 1
As k 
Extension Length of spring
That means if the length of spring is halved then its force constant becomes double.
(xii) When a spring of length l is cut in two pieces of length l1 and l2 such that l1  nl2 .
If the constant of a spring is k then
k (n  1)
Spring constant of first part k1 
n
Spring constant of second part k2  (n  1)k
k1 1
and ratio of spring constant 
k2 n

15. Various Formulae of S.H.M:

S.H.M. of a liquid in U tube S.H.M. of a bar magnet in a magnetic field
If a liquid of density  contained in a vertical U I
T  2
tube performs S.H.M. in its two limbs. Then MB
L h I = Moment of inertia of magnet
time period T  2  2
2g g M = Magnetic moment of magnet
where L = Total length of liquid column, B = Magnetic field intensity
h = Height of undisturbed liquid in each limb
(L=2h)
S F

h
F N

S.H.M. of a floating cylinder S.H.M. of ball in the neck of an air chamber

If l is the length of cylinder dipping in liquid 2 mV
T
l A E
then time period T  2
g m = mass of the ball
V = volume of air- chamber
l
A = area of cross section of neck
 E = Bulk modulus for Air
S.H.M. of a small ball rolling down in S.H.M. of a body suspended from a wire
hemi-spherical bowl mL
T  2
R r YA
T  2
g m = mass of the body L
R
R = radius of the bowl L = length of the wire
r =radius of the ball Y = young’s modulus of wire m

A = area of cross section of wire

S.H.M. of a piston in a cylinder S.H.M of a cubical block
Mh M
T  2 T  2 
PA L
M = mass of the piston M = mass of the block
A = area of cross section
L = length of side of cube
h = height of cylinder
P = pressure in a cylinder  = modulus of rigidity L

S.H.M. of a body in a tunnel dug along any S.H.M. of body in the tunnel dug along the
chord of earth diameter of earth
R
T  2
R g
T  2 = 84.6 minutes R
g R T = 84.6 minutes
R = radius of the earth = 6400km
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/s2 at earth’s
surface

S.H.M. of a conical pendulum S.H.M. of L-C circuit

O
L cos  T  2 LC
T  2
g  L = coefficient of self inductance
L = length of string L T C = capacity of condenser
 = angle of string from the vertical
g = acceleration due to gravity

16. Free, Damped, Forced and Maintained Oscillation:

(1) Free Oscillation:
(i) The oscillation of a particle with fundamental frequency under the influence of
restoring force are defined as free oscillations
(ii) The amplitude, frequency and energy of +a

oscillation remains constant

y 0
(iii) Frequency of free oscillation is called natural t
frequency because it depends upon the nature –a

and structure of the body.

(2) Damped Oscillation:
(i) The oscillation of a body whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are defined as
damped oscillation
(ii) In these oscillation the amplitude of oscillation +A
decreases exponentially due to damping forces like
frictional force, viscous force, hystersis etc. y 0 t
(iii) Due to decrease in amplitude the energy of the
oscillator also goes on decreasing exponentially –A

(3) Forced Oscillation:

(i) The oscillation in which a body oscillates under the influence of an external periodic
force are known as forced oscillation
(ii) The amplitude of oscillator decrease due to damping forces but on account of the
energy gained from the external source it remains constant.
(iii) Resonance: When the frequency of external force is equal to the natural frequency
of the oscillator. Then this state is known as the state of resonance. And this frequency is
known as resonant frequency.
(4) Maintained Oscillation:
The oscillation in which the loss of oscillator is compensated by the supplying energy
from an external source are known as maintained oscillation.