INVESTIGATION OF FOAMING CAPACITY OF

DIFFERENT WASHING SOAP

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
TAKSHASHILA ACADEMY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

PRACTICAL EXAMINATION OF CHEMISTRY IN GRADE XII

BY
SWIKRITI KHATRI
NEB RESISTRATION NO.: 813272190288

I
 NOVEMBER, 2024

RECOMMENDATION

This is to recommend that, SWIKRITI KHATRI, NEB Registration

No.813272190288, has carried out project work entitled “INVESTIGATION OF
FOAMING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT WASHING SOAP” for the
requirement to the project work in grade XII in Chemistry under our supervision in
the Department of Chemistry, Takshashila Academy, Nepal.
To our knowledge, this work has not been submitted for any other degree.
She has fulfilled all the requirements laid down by National Examination Board,
Nepal for the submission of the project work for the partial fulfillment of grade XII.

….……………………
Sandesh Bhetwal
Supervisor
Department of Chemistry
Campus/Institute: Takshashila Academy
University:

11th November, 2024

II
 DECLARATION

This project work entitled “ INVESTIGATION OF FOAMING CAPACITY OF

DIFFERENT WASHING SOAP ” is being submitted to the Department of
Chemistry, Takshashila Academy, Nepal for the partial fulfillment of the requirement
to the project work in grade XII in Chemistry. This project work is carried out by me
under the supervision of Mr. Sandesh Bhetwal in the Department of Chemisrty,
Takshashila Academy. This work is original and has not been submitted earlier in part
or full in this or any other form to any university or institute, here or elsewhere, for
the award of any degree.

….……………………..
Swikriti Khatri
NEB Registration no.
813272190288

11th November, 2024

III
 LETTER OF FORWARD

Date: 11/11/2024

On the recommendation of MR. SANDESH BHETWAL, this project work is

submitted by Swikriti Khatri, NEB Registration no.:813272190288, entitled “
INVESTIGATION OF FOAMING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT WASHING
SOAP” is forwarded by the Department of Chemistry, Takshashila Academy for the
approval to the Evaluation Committee, Takshashila Academy, Nepal. She has fulfilled
all the requirements laid down by the National Examination Board, Nepal.

….……………………
Naresh Prasad Bhatta
Head of Department
Department of Chemistry
Takshashila Academy

IV
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

This project work entitled “ INVESTIGATION OF FOAMING CAPACITY OF

DIFFERENT WASHING SOAP” by Swikriti Khatri and NEB Registration No
813272190288. under the supervision of Sandesh Bhetwal, in the Department of
Chemistry, Takshashila Academy, is hereby submitted for the partial fulfillment of
the grade XII in Chemistry. This report has been accepted.

….………………….. ….
…………………….
Sandesh Bhetwal Naresh Prasad Bhatta
Supervisor Head of Department
Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry
Takshashila Academy Takshashila Academy

11th November, 2024

V
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I’m thankful to those people who encouraged me to do this project work. I’m also
thankful to those who made me complete this project successfully. I would also like to
express my profound gratitude to my team mates, Kalpana Dhital, Subodh
Khatiwada, Purnima Thapalia and Kabin Dawadi, for this group project for
supporting me in my research activity for the completion of this project.

I would also like to thank all of my chemistry teachers for supporting me to complete
this project work in a correct way. I’m thankful for the supervisor of this project
work, Mr. Sandesh Bhetwal, for his continuous encouragement and support
throughout this project. Similarly I would like to thank Mr. Naresh Prasad Bhatta,
head of the Department of the chemistry, for giving me an opportunity to perform this
project. And lastly I would like to thank Takshashila Academy for providing the
platform to conduct this project work.

….……………………….
Swikriti Khatri
NEB Registration no.
813272190288
November, 2024

VI
 ABSTRACT

The state of having or the process of producing light, frothy mass of bubbles is called
as foaming. Different types of ingredients and chemical compounds are used in the
formation of different types of soaps. It has been found that different types of soaps
containing different types of ingredients have different washing function as well.
Soaps may be used to wash clothes, wash dishes, wash face and body, etc. Their
function is determined by the nature of their ingredients. Similarly, foaming of the
soap is considered as a good quality of a soap. The more the foam of a soap, the more
it is famous and more used.

Through various experiments and tests the investigation on the foaming capacity of
different washing soap is done. It has been found that the lesser the surface tension,
the more the foam will be produced. The reason for the foaming of a soap solution is
that surfactants (or surface - active agents) , which are present in soap, reduce the
surface tension of water.

VII
 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

pH: Potential of Hydrogen

TDS: Total Dissolved Solids
CaCO₃: Calcium Carbonate (used for water hardness measurement)
NaOH: Sodium Hydroxide (a key ingredient in soap production)
KOH: Potassium Hydroxide (used for liquid soaps)
SLS: Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (common surfactant in soaps)
H₂O: Water
ML: Milliliter
FTIR: Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (for analyzing chemical
composition)
GC-MS: Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy
WHO: World Health Organization (standards for water quality)
CFU: Colony Forming Units (if microbiological tests are involved)
LPG: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (for heating during experiments)
UV: Ultraviolet (used in spectrophotometry for analysis)
RPM: Revolutions Per Minute (for stirring or centrifuge equipment)

VIII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Types of Soap Used in the Experiment……………………………………4

Details: Name, brand, ingredients, and type (e.g., bar, liquid, or powder).

Table 2: Water Samples Used………………………………………………………4

Details: Source of water (e.g., distilled, tap, hard water), pH, and TDS levels.

Table 3: Experimental Conditions for Foaming Capacity Test…………………….5

Details: Volume of water, soap concentration, temperature, and stirring speed.

Table 5: Effect of Water Hardness on Foaming Capacity………………………… 6

Details: Water hardness level (e.g., soft, medium, hard), foam height, and foam
stability.

Table 6: Effect of Temperature on Foaming Capacity…………………………… 6

Details: Temperature (°C), foam height, and foam stability.

Table 7: Effect of Soap Concentration on Foaming Capacity…………………… 6

Details: Soap concentration (g/L), foam height, and foam stability.

Table 9: Comparison of Foaming Capacity in Different Water Types…………… 9

Details: Water type (e.g., distilled, tap, seawater), foam height, and foam stability.

Table 10: Summary of Factors Affecting Foaming Capacity……………………10

Details: Variable tested (e.g., water hardness, temperature, concentration), key

observations, and conclusions.

IX
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Chemical Structure of Common Soap Ingredients……………………..1

Description: Structures of sodium stearate, potassium stearate, and other common

surfactants.

Figure 2: Experimental Setup for Measuring Foam Height………………………6

Description: Diagram or photo of the equipment and setup used for foam capacity
testing.

Figure 3: Comparison of Foam Heights Across Different Soap Types…………..8

Description: Bar graph comparing initial foam heights for various soap samples.

X
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Coverpage
INVESTIGATION OF FOAMING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT WASHING
SOAP..............................................................................................................................I
RECOMMENDATION.................................................................................................II
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................III
LETTER OF FORWARD............................................................................................IV
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL.................................................................................V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................VI
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................VII
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS..................................................VIII
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................IX
LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................X
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................XI
CHAPTER 1............................................................................................................1
1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1
1.1 General Introduction...................................................................................1
1.2 Rationale.....................................................................................................2
1.3 Objectives...................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................4
CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................8
1. MATERIALS AND METHODS...............................................................................8
2. 3.1 Materials Required...............................................................................................8
CHAPTER 4..........................................................................................................10
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..............................................................................10
Observation table............................................................................................10
Result..............................................................................................................11
Factors affecting the foaming capacity of the soap:.......................................11
CHAPTER 5..........................................................................................................12
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.......................................................12
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................13
APPENDIX..................................................................................................................13

XI
 CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Introduction

Soaps are sodium and potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic, palmitic and
oleic acids. Soaps can either be saturated or unsaturated in nature. They contain a long
hydrocarbon chain of about 10-20 carbon with one carboxylic acid group as the
functional group. A soap molecule is a tadpole shaped structure, whose ends have
different polarities. At one end is the long hydrocarbon chain that is non - polar and
hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble in water but soluble in oil. At the other end is the short
polar carboxylate ion which is hydrophilic, i.e., soluble in water but insoluble in oil
and grease.

— xixi—
1.2 Rationale

When soap is shaken in water, it becomes a soap solution that is colloidal in nature. If
we agitate the soap having colloidal nature, it tends to concentrate the solution on the
surface and causes foaming. This helps the soap molecule to make a uni-molecular
film on the surface of the water and to penetrate the fabric. The long non - polar end
of a soap molecule that are hydrophobic gravitate the dirt and surround it (fat or oil
with dust absorbed in it). The short polar end containing the carboxylate ion, face the
water way from the dirt. A number of soap molecule surround or encircle the dirt in a
clustered structure called micelles, which encircles such particles and emulsify them.

Cleansing action of soap decreases in hard water. Hard water contains calcium and
magnesium ions which react with sodium carbonate to produce insoluble carbonates
of higher fatty acids.

2C 17 H 35 COONa + Ca2+¿ ¿ (C 17 H 35 COO)2 Ca↓ + 2 Na+¿¿

( water soluble ) ( ppt )
2C 17 H 35 COONa + Mg 2+¿¿ (C 17 H 35 COO)2Mg↓ + 2 Na+¿¿

This hardness can be removed by the addition of sodium carbonate.

Ca
2+¿ ¿
+ Na2 CO 3 CaCO3 ↓ + 2 Na+¿¿

Mg
2+¿¿
+ Na2 CO 3 MgCO 3 ↓ + 2 Na+ ¿¿

When sodium or potassium soaps are added to the water containing calcium and
magnesium ions (hard water), it results in the formation of scum which applies grey
appearance on the cloth. To achieve the same washing of cleaning action, more soap
must be added.

2C 17 H 35 COONa + Ca2+¿ ¿ (C 17 H 35 COO)2 Ca↓ + 2 Na+¿¿

( water soluble ) ( ppt )

— xixi—
Hard water is the water that has high mineral content (mainly magnesium and calcium
ion) in contrast with soft water. Hard water primarily consists of calcium and
magnesium metal cations and sometimes other dissolved compound such as
bicarbonates and sulphates. Calcium enters the water as either in the form of
limestone and chalk, calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ), or calcium sulphate (CaSO 4 ), in the
form of other mineral deposits. When sodium carbonate is added to the tap water, the
calcium and magnesium ion precipitate as their corresponding carbonates i.e. foaming
capacity of soap increases.

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 General objective

 To identify the foaming capacity of different washing soap.

1.3.2 Specific objective

 To figure out the role of different soaps in various sectors.

 To identify the different types of chemicals used in the manufacture of the soap
so that different soaps have different functions.
 To get some knowledge about the process of saponification.

— xixi—
 CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The foaming capacity of a soap is determined by the type of soap and it’s
concentration. This may be compared between different soap samples by shaking the
same concentration of solution.The foam is created and the time taken for the foam to
vanish in each scenario is compared. In this simple way the comparison between the
capacity of foaming of different washing soap is done.

2.1 Types of soap

The type of the fatty acid and the length of the carbon chain determines the unique
properties of various soap. Tallow or animal fat gives primarily sodium stearate, a
very hard and insoluble soap. Fatty acids with longer chain are even more insoluble.
Coconut oil is a source of lauric acid which can be made into sodium lourate. This
soap is very soluble and will lather easily even in sea water. Fatty acids with only 10
or fewer carbons are not used in soaps because they irritate the skin and have
objectional odors.

The general formula of soap is CH3-(CH2)nCOONa. Soaps are useful for cleaning
because soap molecules have both hydrophilic end, that dissolves in water, as well as
hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve in polar grease molecules. Applied to a
soil surface, soapy water effectively holds particles in a colloidal suspension so it can
be rinsed off with clean water. The hydrophobic portion dissolves dirt and oil where
the ionic end dissolves in water. The resultant forms a round structure called micelle.
Therefore it allows water to remove normally-insoluble matter by emulsification.

— xixi—
 Types of soap used in experiment

S.N. Soap name Brand Ingredients Types

1. Dove beauty bar Dove Sodium lauroyl isethionate, Bar soap
stearic acid, sodium tallowate, (Moisturizing)
sodium isethionate, water,
fragrance, glycerin
2. Pears Transparent Pears Sorbitol, water, sodium palm Bar soap
Soap kernelate, sodium palmate, (Glycerin-based)
glycerin, rosemary extract
3. Dettol Original Dettol Sodium palmate, sodium palm Bar soap
Antibacterial soap kernelate, glycerin, (Anti-bacterial)
chloroxylenol, fragrance
4. Lux Soft touch Lux Sodium palmate, sodium palm Bar soap
soap kernelate, glycerin, perfume, (Fragrance-based)
rose extract, milk cream
5. Dr. Bronner’s Dr. Organic coconut oil, organic Liquid soap
Pure-Castile Soap palm kernel oil, organic olive (Natural)
Bronner’s
oil, organic hemp oil, essential
oils

Water sample used

Water
Source/Type Characteristics
Sample
Distilled Laboratory-prepared Free of impurities, minerals, and ions; neutral pH
Water or bottled (close to 7).
Domestic water Contains moderate levels of dissolved minerals
Tap Water
supply (e.g., calcium, magnesium).
Artificially prepared High concentration of calcium (Ca²⁺) and
Hard Water
or natural magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions; reduces foaming.
Treated or naturally Low levels of dissolved minerals, enhancing foam
Soft Water
soft water production.
Seawater or saline High concentration of dissolved salts (e.g.,
Salt Water
solution sodium chloride), which can affect foaming.

— xixi—
Experimental conditions for the foaming capacity test

Condition Details
Prepare solutions with different soap concentrations (e.g., 1g/L,
Soap Concentration
2g/L, 3g/L) to study its effect.
Use various water samples such as distilled, tap, hard, soft, and
Water Type
saltwater for comparison.
Keep the water volume constant (e.g., 100 mL) across all
Volume of Water
experiments for consistency.
Test the foaming capacity at different temperatures (e.g., 20°C,
Temperature
30°C, 40°C) to observe changes.
Use a mechanical stirrer or manual shaking with fixed
Agitation Speed
revolutions per minute (e.g., 100 RPM).
Time of Measure foam height at specific intervals (e.g., 0 min, 5 min, 10
Observation min) to assess foam stability.
Container Use the same container size and shape to ensure uniform
Dimensions conditions for foam formation.
Adjust the pH of water (if necessary) to observe its impact on
pH Level
foaming behavior.
Addition of Introduce impurities (e.g., oil, dirt, or salts) to simulate real-
Impurities world conditions.

— xixi—
Effect of water hardness, temperature and soap concentration in foaming
capacity of soap:

Impact on Foaming
Factor Description Observation
Capacity
Presence of
Reduces foaming by Foam height decreases
Water calcium (Ca²⁺) and
forming insoluble as water hardness
Hardness magnesium (Mg²⁺)
precipitates (soap scum). increases.
ions in water.
Moderate temperatures Optimal foaming at
Affects soap
improve foaming; very 30–40°C; lower or
Temperature solubility and
high or low temperatures higher temperatures
bubble stability.
reduce foam stability. reduce foam capacity.
Determines the Increased concentration
Foam height increases
availability of enhances foaming until
Soap with concentration,
surfactant the critical micelle
Concentration then plateaus after
molecules in the concentration (CMC) is
saturation.
solution. reached.

Fig: measurement of length of soap foam

— xixi—
 CHAPTER 3

1. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2. 3.1 Materials Required

3.1.1 Apparatus

 Five 100ml conical flask

 Five 20ml test tubes
 100ml measuring cylinder
 Test tube stand
 Weight box
 Stopwatch

3.1.2 Chemicals

 Five different sample of soap

 Distilled water

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Theory

When sodium or potassium soaps are added to the water containing calcium and
magnesium ions (hard water), it results in the formation of scum which applies grey
appearance on the cloth. To achieve the same washing of cleaning action, more soap
must be added.
2C 17 H 35 COONa + Ca2+¿ ¿ (C 17 H 35 COO)2 Ca↓ + 2 Na+¿¿
( water soluble ) ( ppt )
Hard water is the water that has high mineral content (mainly magnesium and calcium
ion) in contrast with soft water. Hard water primarily consists of calcium and
magnesium metal cations and sometimes other dissolved compound such as
bicarbonates and sulphates. Calcium enters the water as either in the form of
limestone and chalk, calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ), or calcium sulphate (CaSO 4 ), in the
form of other mineral deposits. When sodium carbonate is added to the tap water, the
calcium and magnesium ion precipitate as their corresponding carbonates i.e. foaming
capacity of soap increases.

— xixi—
3.2.2 Procedure

Six conical flasks (100ml each) were taken and numbered from 1 to 6. In each of this
flask, equal amount of give samples of soap shavings or granules were taken and
50ml of distilled water was added. Each of the conical flasks were heated for few
minutes to dissolve the soap completely. Six test tubes are taken in a test tube stand
and numbered from 1 to 5. 8ml of five soap solution were taken in the test tube of the
corresponding numbers. 16ml of distilled water is then added to each of the test tube.
Test tube no. 1 is taken and shaken vigorously 5 times. Then foam will be formed in
the empty space above the container. Stop watch is started immediately and the time
for the complete disappearance of the foam is taken. Similarly, other containers are
also shaken for the equal amount of time with approximately the same amount of
force. Then the time taken for the disappearance of each foam sample is recorded. The
lesser the time taken for the disappearance of the foam the lower is the foaming
capacity.

— xixi—
 CHAPTER 4

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Observation table

Comparison of foaming capacity of different types of soap:

Foaming
Type of Soap Examples Reason
Capacity
High (but varies
Contains higher concentrations
Bar Soap Dove, Lux by brand and
of surfactants like sodium
ingredients)
tallowate or sodium palmate.
Easier to dissolve, but may
Dr. Bronner’s,
Liquid Soap Moderate to High contain milder surfactants to
Dettol Liquid
reduce skin irritation.
Pears Glycerin adds moisturizing
Glycerin-based
Transparent Low to Moderate properties but reduces foaming
Soap
Soap compared to traditional soaps.
Contains antimicrobial agents
Dettol
Antibacterial like triclosan or chloroxylenol,
Antibacterial Moderate
Soap which may slightly reduce
Soap
foaming.
Made from natural oils (e.g.,
Natural/Organic Handmade
Moderate olive, coconut) with fewer
Soap Castile Soap
synthetic surfactants.
Formulated with strong
surfactants for heavy cleaning,
Laundry Soap Tide Soap Bar High
leading to higher foaming
capacity.

Result

The cleansing capacity of the soap is taken in the order:

— xixi—
Laundry Soap > Bar Soap > Liquid Soap > Antibacterial Soap > Glycerin-based
Soap > Natural/Organic Soap

From the above experiment, it is found that the laundry soap has more cleansing
property among every other type of soap, whereas, natural/organic soap seems to have
the least amount of cleansing property.

Factors affecting the foaming capacity of the soap:

Factor Description Effect on Foaming Capacity

Presence of calcium (Ca²⁺)
Reduces foaming by forming
Water Hardness and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions in
insoluble precipitates (soap scum).
water.
Moderate temperatures (30–40°C)
Affects soap solubility and
Temperature improve foaming; extreme
bubble stability.
temperatures reduce foam stability.
Amount of soap in solution Foam increases with concentration
Soap
determines the availability of up to the critical micelle
Concentration
surfactant molecules. concentration, then plateaus.
Distilled water produces more foam;
Type of water used, e.g.,
Water Type hard and saline water reduce
distilled, tap, or saline water.
foaming due to interference.
Higher surfactant levels increase
Surfactant Concentration and type of
foaming; additives like glycerin may
Composition surfactants in the soap.
reduce foam for skin benefits.
Speed of mixing or shaking Faster agitation increases foam
Agitation Speed
the solution. formation by incorporating more air.
Neutral to slightly alkaline pH
pH of the Acidity or alkalinity of the
enhances foaming; extreme pH
Solution soap solution.
reduces foam stability.
Reduces foaming by interfering with
Presence of Oils, dirt, or other foreign
the surfactant’s ability to trap air
Impurities particles in the solution.
and stabilize bubbles.

This table provides a concise summary of the factors and their effects on the foaming
capacity of soap.

— xixi—
 CHAPTER 5

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Conclusion

Foaming capacity of the soap is maximum in hot water than compared to that in cold
water. The soap for which time taken for the disappearance of the foam is highest has
the maximum foaming capacity and is the best quality of sop among the soaps tested.

Foaming capacity is influenced by multiple factors, including water composition,

temperature, and soap formulation. Adjusting these conditions allows for optimizing
foam performance based on the intended application.

5.2 Limitations of the work

 It might take a lot of time for the foam of the soap to disappear completely that
only extends the time of the experiment.
 It is hard to choose among the soaps having similar time taken for the
disappearance of the foam.

5.3 Recommendation for the further work

 All the test tubes must be shaken for same time with the same amount of force for
the result to be accurate.
 The time must be measured accurately.
 More manpower must be assigned to do this project as the foam of different soap
disappear at different time period.

— xixi—
 REFERENCES

 W Xu, H Gu, X Zhu, Y Zhong, L Jiang, M Xu, A Song… - Langmuir, 2015 -

ACS Publications
 K Theander, RJ Pugh - Journal of Colloid and Interface science, 2003 - Elsevier
 T Gunavathy, JJ Anthoniammal, J Gowri… - Kongunadu Research …, 2014 -
krjournal.com

APPENDIX

Fig: structure of soap molecule Fig: measurement of length of soap foam

— xixi—