EEE-425

Lecture 2
EEE-425
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 1
 EEE-425

Power
Computations

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 2

 Introduction EEE-425

➢ Power calculations are an important part of analyzing and

designing power electronics circuits.
➢ This section reviews basic power concepts, with an
emphasis on power calculations for circuits with
nonsinusoidal voltages and currents.
➢ Some exceptional cases encountered in power electronics
require additional processing.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 3

 Instantaneous Power EEE-425

The instantaneous power of any component is determined by

the voltage across it and the current flowing through it.
p (t ) = v (t ) i (t )
This relationship applies to any device or circuit. Instantaneous
power typically varies over time. The passive sign convention is
illustrated in the figure below.
Passive Sign Convention :
p(t) > 0 indicates power is being absorbed.
p(t) < 0 shows that power is supplied by the source.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 4
 Energy EEE-425

Energy, or work, is the integral of instantaneous power.

Observing the passive sign convention, energy absorbed by a
component in the time interval from t1 to t2 is
t2

W =  p ( t ) dt
t1

If v(t) is in volts and i(t) is in amperes, power has units of

watts, and energy has units of joules.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 5

 Average Power EEE-425

Periodic voltage and current functions produce a periodic

instantaneous power function. Average power is the time
average of p(t) over one or more periods. Average power P is
computed from t +T t +T
0 0
1 1
P=  p ( t ) dt =  v ( t ) i ( t ) dt
T t 0
T t 0

Average power is sometimes called real or active power,

especially in AC circuits. The term power usually means
average power. The total average power absorbed in a circuit
equals the total average power supplied.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 6
 Average Power EEE-425

t0 + T t0 + T
1 1
P=  p ( t ) dt =  v ( t ) i (t ) dt
T t0
T t0

A special case that is frequently encountered in power electronics is

the power absorbed or supplied by a DC source. Applications include
battery-charging circuits and DC power supplies. The average power
absorbed by a DC voltage source v(t)=Vdc that has a periodic current
i(t) is derived from the basic definition of average power

1
t0 + T
1
t0 + T
 1 t0 + T 
Pdc =  v ( t ) i ( t ) dt =  Vdci ( t ) dt = Vdc   i ( t ) dt 
T t0
T t0  T t0 
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 7
 Average Power EEE-425

 1 t0 + T 
Pdc = Vdc   i ( t ) dt 
 T t0 
The term in brackets is the average of the current waveform.
Therefore, the average power absorbed by a DC voltage source is the
product of the voltage and the average current.

Pdc = Vdc I avr

Similarly, average power absorbed by a DC source i(t)=Idc
Pdc = I dcVavr
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 8
 Inductors and Capacitors EEE-425

Inductors and capacitors possess specific characteristics that are

significant in power electronics applications. For periodic
currents and voltages,
i (t + T ) = i (t ) & v (t + T ) = v (t )
1
For an inductor, the stored energy is w ( t ) = Li 2 ( t )
2
If the inductor current is periodic, the stored energy at the end of one
period remains the same as at the beginning. The absence of net
energy transfer indicates that the average power absorbed by an
inductor is zero during steady-state periodic operation.
PL = 0
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 9
 Inductors and Capacitors EEE-425

Instantaneous power is not always zero, as power can be absorbed

during some part of the period and then returned to the circuit at the
other time of the period. The voltage-current relationship for the
inductor t +T 0
1
di
L =v i ( t0 + T ) =  vL ( t ) dt + i ( t0 )
dt L t0

Rearranging and recognizing that the starting and ending values are
the same for periodic currents, we have
t0 + T
1
i ( t0 + T ) − i ( t 0 ) =  vL ( t ) dt = 0
L t0

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 10

 Inductors and Capacitors EEE-425

t0 + T
1
i ( t0 + T ) − i ( t 0 ) =  vL ( t ) dt = 0
L t0

Multiplying by L/T yields an expression equivalent to the average

voltage across the inductor over one period.
t0 + T
1
avg vL ( t )  = VL =  vL ( t ) dt = 0
T t0

Hence, the average voltage across an inductor is zero for periodic

currents. This is crucial and will be used to analyze various circuits,
including DC-DC converters and DC power supplies.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 11
 Inductors and Capacitors EEE-425

For a capacitor, the stored energy is 1 2

w ( t ) = Cv ( t )
2
If the capacitor's voltage is periodic, the stored energy is identical at
the end of a period as it is at the beginning. Thus, the average power
absorbed by the capacitor is zero during steady-state periodic
operation.
PC = 0
From the voltage-current
t0 + T
relationship for the dv v ( t0 + T ) =
1
capacitor
C
dt
=i
C  i ( t ) dt + v (t )
t0
C 0

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 12

 Inductors and Capacitors EEE-425

By rearranging the previous equation and noting that the initial

and final values are the same for periodic voltages, we obtain
t0 + T
1
v ( t0 + T ) − v ( t 0 ) =  i ( t ) dt = 0
C
C t0

Multiplying by C/T yields an expression for the average current

in the capacitor over one period.
t0 + T
1
avg iC ( t )  = I C =  i ( t ) dt = 0
C
T t0

Thus, for periodic voltages, the average current in a capacitor is

zero.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 13
 Energy Recovery EEE-425

➢ Inductors and capacitors receive and release energy in various

applications of power electronics.
➢ For example, a fuel injector solenoid in an automobile is energized
by a transistor switch for a set time interval.
➢ Energy is stored in the solenoid’s inductance when current is
established. The circuit must be designed to remove the stored energy
in the inductor while preventing transistor damage when turned off.
➢ Circuit efficiency can be improved if stored energy can be
transferred to the load or the source rather than dissipated in circuit
resistance. The concept of recovering stored energy is illustrated by
the circuits described in this section.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 14
 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The figure shows an inductor energized by turning on a transistor

switch. The resistance associated with the inductance is assumed to
be negligible, and the transistor switch and diode are considered
ideal.
The diode resistor path opens the switch and
removes the stored energy in the inductor
when the transistor turns off.
Without the diode-resistor path, the transistor
could be destroyed when turned off because a
rapid decrease in inductor current would result
in excessively high inductor and transistor
voltages.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 15
 Energy Recovery EEE-425

Assume the transistor switch turns on at t=0 and off at t=t1.

The circuit is analyzed first for the transistor switch on and then for
the switch off.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 16

 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The transistor is on: 0<t<t1

The voltage across the inductor is VCC, and the diode is reverse-biased
when the transistor is on
vL = VCC

An expression for inductor current is

obtained from the voltage-current
relationship:

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 17

 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The transistor is on: 0<t<t1

Source current is the same as inductor current. iS ( t ) = iL ( t )
Inductor and source currents thus
increase linearly when the
transistor is on.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 18

 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The Transistor is off: t1<t<T

The transistor switch is off at this interval, and the diode is on.

The current in the source is zero, and the

current in the inductor and resistor is a
decaying exponential with time constant
L/R. The initial condition for inductor
current is determined as (using the
above equation)
VCC t1
iL ( t1 ) =
L
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 19
 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The Transistor is off: t1<t<T

In this case, the inductor current is
L
=
R
The source current is zero when the
transistor is off.

iS = 0

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 20

 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The Transistor is off: t1<t<T

The average power supplied by the
DC source during the switching period
is determined from the product of
voltage and average current.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 21

 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The Transistor is off: t1<t<T

The average power absorbed by the resistor can be determined by
integrating the expression for instantaneous resistor power, but looking at
the circuit reveals an easier way. The average power absorbed by the
inductor is zero, and the power absorbed by the ideal transistor and diode
is zero. Therefore, all power supplied by the source
must be absorbed by the resistor:
(VCC t1 )
2

PR = PS =
2 LT
(Note: The same result can be found in the
energy equation!)
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 22
 Energy Recovery EEE-425

Another way to remove the stored energy in the inductor is shown in

the figure. Two transistor switches are turned on and off
simultaneously. The diodes provide a means of returning energy
stored in the inductor to the source.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 23

 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The transistors are on: 0<t<t1

In this case, the inductor voltage is equal to the source voltage: v = V
L CC
Inductor current:

Source current is the same as inductor

iS ( t ) = iL ( t )
current.

The inductor and source currents increase

linearly when the transistor switches are open.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 24
 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The Transistors are off: t1<t<T

When the transistors are turned off, the diodes become forward-
biased to provide a path for the inductor current.

The voltage across the inductor then

becomes the opposite of the source
voltage:
vL = −VCC

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 25

 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The Transistors are off: t1<t<T

The inductor current obtained from the voltage-current relationship is

or

When the diodes turn off, the inductor

current decreases and becomes zero at
t=2t1. It remains at zero until the
transistors turn on again.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 26
 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The Transistors are off: t1<t<T

Source current is the opposite of inductor current when the
transistors are off and the diodes are on:
iS ( t ) = −iL ( t )

The source absorbs power when the

source current is negative. The
average source current is zero,
resulting in an average source power
of zero.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 27

 Energy Recovery EEE-425

The source supplies power while the transistors are on, and the source
absorbs power while the transistors are off and the diodes are on.
Therefore, the energy stored in the inductor is recovered by transferring it
back to the source.
Practical solenoids or other magnetic
devices have equivalent resistances
representing losses or energy absorbed
to do work, so not all energy will be
returned to the source.

Note: This circuit has no inherent energy losses

and is more efficient than the previous one.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 28

 Effective (rms) Values EEE-425

The effective value of a voltage or current is also known as the root-

mean-square (rms) value. The effective value of a periodic voltage
waveform is based on the average power delivered to a resistor. For a
DC voltage across a resistor, 2
Vdc
P=
R
For a periodic voltage across a resistor, effective voltage is defined as
the voltage as effective as the DC voltage in supplying average power.
Effective voltage can be computed using the equation
2
V
P=
eff

R
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 29
 Effective (rms) Values EEE-425

t0 + T t0 + T
1 1
P=  p ( t ) dt =  v ( t ) i (t ) dt
T t0
T t0

If we calculate the average power consumed in the resistance from

the above equation
1
T
1
T
1
P =  p ( t ) dt =  v ( t ) i ( t ) dt = 
v 2
( t)
dt
T

T 0 T 0 T 0 R

1 1 2
T

P =   v ( t ) dt 
R T 0 

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 30

 Effective (rms) Values EEE-425

2
V 
1 1 2
T

P=
eff
P =   v ( t ) dt 
R R T 0 
Merging the two equations above, the effective (rms) value is

Veff2
1 1 2
T
 T
1 2
P= =   v ( t ) dt  → Veff =  v ( t ) dt
2

R R T 0  T 0
T
1 2
Veff = Vrms =  v ( t ) dt
T 0
T
1 2
For the current rms value is defined as I rms =  i ( t ) dt
T 0
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 31
 Effective (rms) Values EEE-425

T
1 2
Veff = Vrms =  v ( t ) dt
T 0
If a periodic voltage is the sum of two periodic voltage waveforms,
then v(t)=v1(t)+v2(t), and the rms value of v(t) is determined from the
above equation as follows:

or

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 32

 Effective (rms) Values EEE-425

The term containing the product v1(t)v2(t) in the above equation is zero if
the functions v1(t) and v2(t) are orthogonal. A condition that satisfies that
requirement occurs when v1(t) and v2(t) are sinusoids of different
frequencies. For orthogonal functions,

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 33

 Effective (rms) Values EEE-425

If a voltage is the sum of more than two periodic voltages, all

orthogonal, the rms value is

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 34

 EEE-425
Power Calculation in Sinusoidal AC Circuits
For any element in an AC circuit

The instantaneous power

Using

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 35

 Power Calculation in Sinusoidal AC Circuits EEE-425

The average power is

By rearranging the equation:

When rms vaules are used: Vrms = Vm 2 , I rms = I m 2

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 36

 EEE-425
Power Calculation in Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Reactive power is computed with a relationship similar to average
power:

Complex power combines real and reactive powers for AC circuits

or

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 37

Power Calculation in Nonsinusoidal AC Circuits EEE-425

➢ Power electronics circuits typically have voltages and/or

currents that are periodic but not sinusoidal.
➢ For the general case, the basic definitions for the power
terms described at the beginning of this chapter must be
applied.
➢ A standard error that is made when doing power
computations is to attempt to use some special relationships
for sinusoids to waveforms that are not sinusoids.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 38

Power Calculation in Nonsinusoidal AC Circuits EEE-425

➢ The Fourier series can be used to describe nonsinusoidal

periodic waveforms in terms of a series of sinusoids.
➢ The power relationships for these circuits can be
expressed in terms of the components of the Fourier series.

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 39

 Fourier Series EEE-425

➢ A nonsinusoidal periodic waveform that meets certain

conditions can be described by a Fourier series of sinusoids.
➢ The Fourier series for a periodic function f(t) can be
expressed in trigonometric form as

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 40

 Fourier Series EEE-425

Sines and cosines of the same frequency can be combined

into one sinusoid, resulting in an alternative expression for a
Fourier series:
or

The term a0 is a constant that is the average value of f(t) and represents a DC
voltage or current in electrical applications. The coefficient C1 is the
amplitude of the term at the fundamental frequency ω0. Coefficients C2 , C3 ,
… are the amplitudes of the harmonics that have frequencies 2ω0 , 3ω0 ….
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 41
 Fourier Series EEE-425

The rms value of f(t) can be computed from the Fourier series:

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 42

 Average Power EEE-425

If periodic voltage and current waveforms represented by the

Fourier series

exist for a device or circuit, then average power is computed

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 43

 Average Power EEE-425

The average of the products of the DC terms is V0I0. The average

voltage and current products at the same frequency have been
described previously as
while the average at different frequencies is zero. Therefore, the
average power for nonsinusoidal periodic voltage and current
waveforms is

(Note that the total average

power is the sum of the powers
of the frequency components in
the Fourier series.)
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 44
 Nonsinusoidal Source vs Linear Load EEE-425

If a nonsinusoidal periodic voltage is applied to a load that

combines linear elements, the power absorbed by the load
can be determined using superposition.
A nonsinusoidal periodic voltage is
equivalent to the series combination
of the Fourier series voltages, as
illustrated in the figure.
Note: Superposition is not valid for power calculation
when the sources are at the same frequency.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 45
 Nonsinusoidal Source vs Linear Load EEE-425

If a sinusoidal voltage source is applied to a nonlinear load, the

current waveform will not be sinusoidal but can be represented
as a Fourier series. If voltage is the sinusoid
The current is represented by the Fourier series

Then average power

absorbed by the load
(or supplied by the
source) is

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 46

 Sinusoidal Source vs Non-linear Load EEE-425

Note that the only nonzero power term is at the frequency of the
applied voltage. The power factor of the load is

Note: p.f. is frequently

used in linear circuits,
where ‘p.f.’ is also
known as the
displacement power
The rms current is computed from factor!

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 47

 Sinusoidal Source vs Non-linear Load EEE-425

Temel frekansın akımının rms değerinin toplam rms akım

değerine oranı (I1,rms/Irms) distorsiyon (bozulma) faktörüdür (DF) ;

Bozulma faktörü, akımın sinüzoidal olmayan özelliğinden dolayı

güç faktöründeki azalmayı temsil eder. Güç faktörü cinsinden de
ifade edilir

Toplam harmonik bozulma (THD) bir dalga formunun sinüzoid

formdan sapmasını ölçmek için kullanılan bir başka terimdir.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 48
 Sinusoidal Source vs Non-linear Load EEE-425

THD is the ratio of the rms value of all the nonfundamental

frequency terms to the rms value of the fundamental frequency
term.

Total harmonic distortion is often applied in situations where the

DC term is zero, in which case THD may be expressed as

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 49

 Sinusoidal Source vs Non-linear Load EEE-425

Another way to express the distortion factor is

Reactive power for a sinusoidal voltage and a nonsinusoidal

current can be expressed as

The only nonzero term for reactive power is at the voltage

frequency:

With Pand Q defined for the nonsinusoidal case, apparent power

S must include a term for the current at frequencies different
from the voltage frequency.
Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 50
 Sinusoidal Source vs Non-linear Load EEE-425

The term distortion D (V-A) is traditionally used in the

computation of S,

where

Other terms sometimes used for nonsinusoidal current (or

voltages) are form and crest factors.

or

Spring 2025 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 51