BUILDING

A building is an assembly of materials and components designed to provide

shelter to occupants. Buildings may also serve supplementary functions such
as:

 Factories for manufacturing products

 Warehouses for storage of goods

 Leisure centers

 Concert halls

Two Basic Necessities of Shelter

1. A building must act as an enclosure for activities housed within.

2. A building must protect occupants, equipment, or goods from external

climatic conditions such as rain, wind, sun, snow, and frost.

STRUCTURAL LOADS IN BUILDINGS

Structural loads or actions are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied

to a structure or its components. These loads can cause stresses,
deformations, and displacements, and their effects are analyzed through
structural analysis. If excessive loads are applied, structural failure may
occur, which should be considered in the design process.

Types of Structural Loads:

1. Dead Loads - Static forces that remain relatively constant over time,
such as the weight of the structure itself and immovable fixtures.

2. Live Loads - Temporary or moving loads influenced by occupancy and

usage, including impact, vibration, and momentum.

3. Cyclic Loads - Repeated loads that can cause fatigue damage,

cumulative damage, or failure.

To ensure that design strength exceeds maximum expected loads, building

codes prescribe the use of load factors. These factors are developed through
probabilistic studies considering origin, recurrence, and distribution of loads.

DEAD LOADS
Dead loads remain constant and include:

 Weight of the building structure

 Walls, flooring, and fixed elements such as granite and marble finishes

 Permanent construction materials

Dead loads have low variance since they are based on material density and
quantity, typically specified by the designer.

LIVE LOADS

Live loads, also known as imposed loads, are temporary or moving forces
within a structure. These include:

 Occupant movement

 Furniture and movable objects

 Maintenance workers, equipment, and materials (especially on roofs)

Live loads vary based on occupancy type and usage. Probabilistic studies
help determine the appropriate design considerations.

OTHER LOADS

Engineers must also consider additional forces acting on a structure,

including:

 Support settlement or displacement

 Fire

 Corrosion

 Explosion

 Creep or shrinkage

 Impact from vehicles or machinery

 Loads during construction

FOUNDATION SYSTEMS
A foundation is crucial for the longevity, safety, and stability of a structure.
Different foundation types serve specific purposes, and consultation with an
engineer or architect is essential for proper selection.

Types of Concrete Foundations:

1. Slab-on-Grade with Separate Footings – A concrete slab with

independent footings. It provides stability but is unsuitable for flood-
prone areas.

2. Monolithic Foundation – A thickened-edge concrete slab without

separate footings. It is economical but not ideal for cold climates.

3. Crawl Space Foundation – A raised foundation creating an

uninhabitable space for ducts and utilities. It is a cost-effective
alternative to a basement.

4. Basement Foundation – A full, habitable foundation offering storage,

living space, and weather protection. It is expensive but valuable in the
long term.

5. Pile Foundation – A deep foundation using columns (piles) to transfer

building loads to stable soil or rock, ideal for unstable or sloping sites.

6. Foundation Walls – Load-bearing walls transferring structural loads to

the foundation, usually made of concrete blocks or reinforced concrete.

FOOTINGS

Footings are critical components in foundation construction, supporting

structures and preventing settling. They are typically made of concrete with
rebar reinforcement.

Types of Footings:

1. Isolated Footing – Supports individual columns, spreading loads over

a larger area.

2. Wall Footing – Extends under walls to distribute weight evenly.

By understanding these principles, engineers and builders ensure structural

safety, stability, and longevity.
Doors and Windows

Doors

 A movable barrier allowing entry and exit to a structure.

 Serves as a link between internal and external areas.

Sample Door Sizes:

1. Main Door: 0.9m x 2.1m

2. Bedroom Door: 0.8m x 2.1m

3. Bathroom Door: 0.7m x 2.1m

4. Kitchen/D. Kitchen Door: 0.8m x 2.1m

Windows

 Openings in walls that allow light, ventilation, and an external view.

Sample Window Sizes:

1. Living Room: 1.2m x 1.2m

2. Dining Room: (Standard size as per plan)

3. Bedroom: (Standard size as per plan)

4. Toilet & Bath (T&B): 0.6m x 0.6m

Elevation Plans

 Definition: Scaled drawings showing all four sides of a structure,

providing an overview of the final appearance and exterior materials.

 Purpose: Used by builders and local planning departments to ensure

adherence to building codes.

Elevation Plan Details

1. Wall Length and Height:

o Room height: 2.5m to 2.8m

 2. Structural Considerations:

o Slab Thickness: 100mm

o Concrete Beam Height: 400mm to 600mm

o Column Size: 250mm to 400mm

3. Roof Dimensions:

o Height: 1.5m to 2.5m

4. Visible Foundation Portions:

o Shows the exposed parts of the foundation for reference in

construction.

FLOOR FRAMING PLAN

A floor framing plan may be made of steel, concrete, or wood in the building
framework. Separate framing plans may be drawn for the floors, walls, and
roof.

The floor framing plan must specify the sizes and spacing of joists, girders,
and columns used to support the floor. It should also include:

 Grid lines and dimensions, especially between columns.

 Structural information such as the location and sizes of columns and

beams.

 Types of slabs used.

 Floor heights and stair openings.

 Call-outs (notes) indicating beam and column names.

 Type of trusses required, including truss support information and

locations.

Floor framing plans are for design purposes only and require review by
an engineer or truss designer to ensure conformity with local site
conditions and structural load requirements.

FOUNDATION PLAN
The foundation plan is a plan view drawing that shows the location and
size of footings, piers, columns, foundation walls, and supporting beams. It
typically includes:

 Footings for foundation walls, piers, and columns.

 Hidden or broken lines to indicate components below the elevation of

the cutting plane.

By understanding these principles, engineers and builders ensure structural

safety, stability, and longevity.

TRUSS

 A truss is a structure made of one or more triangular units.

 Each triangle consists of:

o Two Top Chords

o One Bottom Chord

o Webs (Posts)

o Joints (Connecting Ends)

 Roof battens are securely fixed to the truss top chords.

LIGHTWEIGHT TIMBER ROOF TRUSSES

 Designed for normal roof, ceiling, and wind loads.

 Can be engineered for heavy loads such as solar units, air-conditioning

units, and hot water systems.

 Pre-fabricated for quick and easy on-site installation, reducing time and
labor costs.

PARTS OF A TRUSS

1. Pitch

2. Top Chord

3. Webbing/Posts

4. Bottom Chord
 5. Span

FUNCTIONS OF ROOFSx

 Protects the house and occupants from outside elements.

 Defines the overall look and style of the house.

 Provides additional living space.

 Enhances energy efficiency and weather resistance.

TYPES OF ROOFS

1. Gable Roof

 Also called a pitched or peaked roof with a triangular shape.

 Pros:

o Easily sheds water and snow.

o Provides more attic space and ventilation.

o Simple and inexpensive to build.

 Cons:

o Can collapse if not properly constructed in high wind or hurricane

areas.

2. Hip Roof

 Has slopes on all four sides, meeting at the top to form a ridge.

 Pros:

o More stable and durable than a gable roof.

o Suitable for high wind and snowy areas.

o Can add extra living space.

 Cons:

o More expensive due to a complex design.

o Additional seams may lead to water leaks if improperly installed.

3. Mansard Roof

 Also known as a French roof, has four sides with a double slope.
  Pros:

o Provides extra living space (attic or garret).

o Flexible for future expansions.

 Cons:

o Expensive and complex to construct.

4. Gambrel Roof

 Similar to a mansard roof but has only two sides.

 Commonly seen on barns, farmhouses, and Dutch Colonial homes.

5. Flat Roof

 Appears flat but has a slight slope for drainage.

 Pros:

o Provides additional outdoor living space.

o Can house HVAC units or solar panels.

o Uses fewer materials, reducing construction costs.

 Cons:

o More susceptible to water leakage.

o Requires frequent maintenance and repairs.

SCHEDULE OF BEAMS AND COLUMNS

A document that lists reinforcement details for beams and columns,

including:

1. Reinforcement – Number and diameter of bars.

2. Spacing – Distance between reinforcing bars.

3. Dimensions – Sizes of beams and columns.

4. Stirrup Spacing – Distance between stirrups.

5. Splice Zones – Location of bottom bar splices.

Used by contractors and detailing firms for bar bending schedules.

TYPES OF STAIRS
 1. Straight Staircase

2. Stairs with Landings

3. L-Shaped Stairs

4. U-Shaped Stairs

5. Winder Stairs

6. Arched/Curved Stairs

7. Spiral Stairs

8. Circular Stairs

9. Elliptical Stairs

10. Compact Stairs

STANDARD STAIR DIMENSIONS

 Width: Minimum 36 inches for residential use.

 Tread Depth:

o 10 inches with nosing.

o 11 inches without nosing.

 Riser Height: Maximum 7 ¾ inches.

 Handrail Height: 34-38 inches from tread nosing.

 Headroom: Minimum clearance of 80 inches (2032 mm).