Life Processes (Key Notes)

• Living things are complex organization of molecules which perform certain life processes like
growth, metabolism, reproduction etc.
• The basic processes which help to maintain life in an organism is called life processes.
• The different life processes are
1. Nutrition
2. Respiration
3. Transportation
4. Excretion
5. Nervous coordination
6. Hormonal coordination
7. Reproduction
Nutrition
• Two types - 1. Autotrophic
2. Heterotrophic
Autotrophic Nutrition:
is the kind of nutrition in which the organisms prepare their own food from the environment. E.g.: plants.
Plants need nourishment to fulfil their requirement of energy for various metabolic activities.
Green plants are autotrophic because they prepare their food by the process of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis:
can be defined as the process by which parts of the green plants having chlorophyll synthesize

simple sugar (glucose) from the raw materials like CO2 and water in the presence of

light energy.

Raw materials for photosynthesis

• Carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials for photosynthesis.
• CO2 enter the leaf through the stomata present on the lower surface of the leaf and water through
roots.
STOMATA:
are minute pores on the undersurface of the leaf and is guarded by two kidney shaped guard cells.
Guard cells
• Guard cells of stomata regulate the opening and closing of the stomata opening called stoma.
• It is through this stoma CO2 enter the leaf and O2 moves out of the leaf.
• Plants absorb water from the soil through roots by diffusion.
• Absorbed water is then transported upward through xylem and reaches the leaf where
photosynthesis takes place.
Mechanism of photosynthesis
Occur in two steps -
First step is called light reaction (light dependent reaction)
Second step is called dark reaction (light independent reaction)
Steps involved in Photosynthesis
Light reaction
• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
• Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen
Dark Reaction
• Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates
Site of photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis occur only in those cells which have green coloured chloroplast.
• Each chloroplast of plants is bounded by double membrane.
• The matrix of chloroplast is liquid in nature and is called stroma.
• Stroma contain all the enzymes required for photosynthesis.
• Stroma is the site for dark reaction.
• Disc shaped green bodies are present in the stroma called grana.
• Each granum is made up of sac like structures called thylakoids.
• Chlorophyll is situated inside the thylakoids
• Thylakoids are the site for light reaction
• Light reaction occurs inside the thylakoids where chlorophyll is present.
• In the reaction chlorophyll absorbs light energy
• As a result, water is split into hydrogen ions and molecular oxygen and electrons. This process is
known as photolysis.
• Hydrogen ions are used to produce ATP and NADPH which provides energy for dark reaction
• O2 is released out
• In Dark reaction the hydrogen ions produced from light reaction reduces CO2 to carbohydrates which
takes place through a cycle of reactions called Calvin cycle.

Heterotrophic nutrition:
is the kind of nutrition in which the organism get food from the autotrophs. E.g.: Animals
• Animals are heterotrophic organisms
• Animals obtain food from environment.

Different types of heterotrophic nutrition are:

a) Holozoic Nutrition:
• Majority of invertebrates and vertebrates eat food through mouth and this process is called
ingestion.
• After ingestion food is digested by enzymes and is absorbed into the body. The process involved are
 digestion, absorption and assimilation.
• This type of nutrition is called holozoic nutrition
• Depending on the food habit animals are classified into
- herbivores
- carnivores
- omnivores
b) Saprophytic nutrition: is the type of nutrition in which organisms get food from the dead and decaying
organisms and are called saprophytes. E.g.: fungi, bacteria
• In this type of nutrition, the soluble food in the form of fluid is absorbed through the body surface of
the saprophytes.
c) Parasitic nutrition: is the type of nutrition in which the organisms get food from other living organisms.
• The living organism in which the parasite live is called the host
• Parasite can either be a plant or animal.
• E.g.: Cuscuta (plant), leech, tapeworm, tick etc.
Nutrition in unicellular organisms
• Amoeba – feed on microscopic organisms
• Amoeba do not have mouth.
• The process of obtaining food is called phagocytosis which is a holozoic type of nutrition
• Amoeba engulf the microscopic food particle by forming pseudopodia around it.
• Pseudopodia are temporary processes which help in locomotion and food capture.
Phagocytosis (Endocytosis) in Amoeba
• The food particle gets surrounded by the pseudopodia which touches each other by their tips.
• At this moment the membrane closer to the food particle gets dissolved with the help of the
lysosomes and become a bag called food vacuole. The food vacuole then gets digested.
Nutrition in human beings
Human beings are heterotrophic omnivorous organisms.
• They obtain food through holozoic mode of nutrition.
• The main components of human diet are
Water, Carbohydrate, Protein, Fat, Mineral, Vitamins

Digestion and Digestive system in human being

• Alimentary canal contain several digestive glands which secrete their secretions called enzymes
(digestive juices).
• Enzymes digest the food into smaller particles and make them easy to absorb.
• Mouth: is the uppermost opening of the digestive system.
• Buccal cavity: mouth leads to a cavity – buccal cavity of which tongue is in the floor, jaws on the
sides which have teeth. Teeth and tongue help to chew and swallow the food. pH of buccal cavity
is neutral
• Salivary glands: 3 pairs of salivary glands are located in the buccal cavity, secrete saliva which
contain salivary amylase to break down starch to sugar
• Pharynx: is a passage for food from buccal cavity to oesophagus
• Oesophagus: is a long tube which carry food from pharynx to stomach by peristaltic movement.
• Peristalsis -
• Stomach: is a wide J shaped muscular sac present on the left side of the abdomen. pH of stomach is
acidic.
 Functions of stomach
1. Storage of food
2. Mechanical churning of food (Help in the mixing of food with digestive enzymes)
3. Partial digestion of food
4. Regulation of flow of food into the small intestine
Gastric glands: are glands present in the walls of stomach
Secretion of gastric gland – gastric juice
Components of gastric juice – 1. HCl (creates acidic medium & activates pepsin)
2. Pepsin (Protein digesting enzyme)
3. Mucus (Protect inner lining of stomach from the action of an acid)
4. Gastric lipase (Fat digesting enzyme)

• Liver: is the largest gland, secrete Bile which digest lipids (fats)
Bile is stored in Gall Bladder.
Bile contain bile salts which converts large fat globules to small globules (emulsification)so that
enzymes can digest it.
• Pancreas: located between the stomach and intestine secrete pancreatic juice which contain –
trypsin (for digesting protein), amylase, lipase etc.
• Duodenum: is the starting part of the small intestine and receives the bile and pancreatic juice.
• Small intestine: is the longest part of the alimentary canal and is the site for digestion and
absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
• Villi: The inner wall of small intestine contain finger like processes called villi to increase the
surface area for absorption
Walls of small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice which contain amylase, protease and
lipases. pH of small intestine is alkaline

Metabolism is the chemical process in which different types of chemical reactions are involved in
controlling the living state of the cells in an organism. It is broadly classified into catabolism and
anabolism.
Catabolism: The metabolic process in breakdown of large molecules to small molecules in which energy is
released.
Anabolism: The metabolic process in which building up of large molecules from small molecules where energy
is stored for further requirements.
Important Questions:
1. What is the importance of life processes?
Ans:
Life processes are important to carry out daily life activities. They help to produce energy and maintain
homeostasis in the body. The life processes help a body survive with the changes in the environment. A
slight disturbance in any of the life processes disturbs the entire functioning of the body.
2. How do guard cells regulate opening and closing of stomatal pores?
Ans:
The opening and closing of stomatal pore is a function of guard cells. Stomata act as turgor operated
valves. The guard cells are thicker on the inner side and thinner on the outer side. The guard cells swell
when water flow into them from the surrounding epidermal cells. They get curved out due to thick inner
walls and produce a pore in between. Similarly, the pore closes when guard cells lose water to their
surrounding cells and shrink back to their original position.

3. a) Identify the type of nutrition and name the organism.

b) How does the process of Nutrition take place in Amoeba?

Ans:The process by which organisms engulf food is called Holozoic nutrition. Organism is Amoeba.
The intake of nutrition takes place in the following steps:
• Ingestion
• Digestion
• Absorption
• Assimilation
• Egestion
4. List one structural and one functional difference between upper and lower epidermis.
Ans:
Structural difference: Upper epidermis has cuticle and does not have stomata or have fewer stomata.
Lower may not have cuticle and have more stomata.
Functional difference: Upper epidermis is more for protection while lower is for gas
exchange/transpiration.

5. Name all the digestive enzymes present in our digestive system.

Ans: The digestive enzymes present in our digestive system are:
Salivary amylase, pepsin, trypsin, lipase, pancreatic amylase and lipase.

6. Explain the process of digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

Ans:
Carbohydrates: It is acted upon by salivary amylase in mouth, which converts complex insoluble starch
into simple sugar form. The food with carbohydrate which is not digested in mouth, then it is digested by
amylase from the pancreatic juice and intestinal juice to form glucose.
Fats: Bile from liver breaks the big globules of fats into smaller ones(emulsification) and is acted upon by
lipase from pancreatic and intestinal juices, which digest emulsified fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Proteins: Proteins are first digested by pepsin in stomach to form peptones. This is further digested by
trypsin from pancreas and protease from intestinal juice to form amino acids.
The enzymes present in small intestine finally convert protein to amino acids, complex carbohydrates into
glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Respiration
Means intake of O2 and release of CO2
Scientific meaning – 1. Breathing – intake of O2 and release of CO2
2. Respiration – breakdown of food to release energy.
3. Cellular Respiration -breakdown of simple food to release energy inside
the cells.
Types of cellular Respiration:
Cellular respiration may be divided into two categories:
1. Aerobic respiration – break down of food takes place in the presence of O2
2. Anerobic respiration – breakdown of food takes place in the absence of O2
-- certain microorganisms and muscle cells of man.
Features of cellular respiration
• The food which we eat is digested and absorbed in the digestive system. The absorbed food enters
the blood vessels. These food materials include glucose, amino acid, fatty acids etc.
• The blood takes these materials to the cells
• Inside the cells these food materials is used
- to produce energy
- to utilize for growth & repair of the body.
• Glucose the simplest of absorbed food break down and will release energy in the cell. This
process that occur in the cell is called cellular respiration
• Glucose is a 6-carbon compound (C6H12O6), which break down to two 3 carbon compounds called
pyruvic acid (pyruvate)and release energy. This reaction takes place in the cytoplasm.

Fate of Pyruvic acid

• Is determined by presence or absence of Oxygen.
• In the absence of O2 –
1. In yeast
-- pyruvic acid breaks down anaerobically to ethyl alcohol, CO2 and energy
2. In Muscle cells
-- pyruvic acid breaks down to lactic acid and energy
• In the presence of O2 –
Pyruvic acid is broken down aerobically to CO2, water and energy.
 • Aerobic respiration – in plants-
gas exchange takes place through stomata by diffusion
Diffusion of gases in plants takes place based on the environment
At night - No photosynthesis, so CO2 elimination takes place
During day – Photosynthesis occur and CO2 is utilized and O2 is released.
Respiratory System in Human
• Respiratory system in human consists of
1. Respiratory tract
2. Respiratory organs
Respiratory tract:
begins from a pair of external nostrils situated at the lower end of the nose. The air enters through the
nostrils and reaches into a pair of Nasal cavities. The nasal cavities have fine hairs to filter the air and are
lined by mucus cells which trap the dust particles in the air.
• Nasal cavity open to pharynx which provide a passage to trachea(wind-pipe)
• (Larynx :In males after puberty become prominent and is called as Adam’s apple)
• Trachea: is a thin walled tube that extends downward through the neck and divides into two major
bronchi. The trachea is protected by cartilage rings – to prevent collapse of air passage.
• Bronchi enter the lungs.
Respiratory organs:
are a pair of lungs. Lungs provide surface for exchange of gases. Lungs lie at the thoracic cavity on the
sides of the heart.
• The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by a muscular partition called
diaphragm
• Each lung is covered by a membrane called pleura.
• Within the lungs the bronchi divide into bronchioles.
• Each bronchiole further divides into alveolar ducts which enter the alveolar sacs.
• (Bronchi and branches give the appearance of grapes.)
• Alveolar sacs are also called alveoli.
Mechanism of breathing
• Lungs cannot expand or contract of their own.
• The contraction and expansion of lungs is brought about by diaphragm muscles and external
intercostal muscles.
• The intake of fresh air into the lungs is called inspiration (inhalation) and elimination of foul air is
called expiration (exhalation).
Inhalation – steps
1. The muscles contract, dome shaped diaphragm lowers and becomes flat.
2. Lowering of diaphragm leads to expansion of thoracic cavity.
3. Expansion of thoracic cavity resulted in expansion of lungs.
4. Expansion of lungs reduces the pressure of air inside and fresh air is pushed from outside into the
lungs through nostril- trachea and bronchi.
 5. On reaching the lungs fresh air is distributed to the alveoli.
6. The alveoli are richly supplied by network of blood capillaries.
7. O2 from the fresh air is diffused into the blood through the thin walls of the alveoli.
Exhalation: The mechanism of breathing out of CO2 is called exhalation.
Steps:
1. The muscle of the diaphragm relaxes so that the diaphragm is pulled upward and become
dome shaped.
2. The intercostal muscles relax and the thoracic cavity is reduced in size.
3. Lungs contract
4. Rise in air pressure and the foul air is pushed out.

Exchange of gases
• Breathing involves exchange of gases between the air in the alveoli and blood in the capillaries
around the alveoli.
• In this exchange, blood takes up O2 from the alveolar air and releases CO2 to the alveolar air.
• O2 moves from a region of higher concentration(alveoli) to a region of lower concentration
(blood capillary) due to the process of diffusion.
• The blood has more concentration of CO2 as compared to the alveolar air.
• Thus, CO2 moves from blood to the alveolar air due to simple diffusion.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the process of breakdown of glucose in a cell (i) in the presence of oxygen (ii) in the
absence of oxygen.
In the presence of oxygen:
In all the pathways, the first step is break down of glucose, a 6carbon molecule, into a 3 carbon
molecule called pyruvate. This process occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. In aerobic respiration break
down of pyruvate using oxygen takes place in mitochondria. It breaks up the 3carbon pyruvate molecule
to give carbon dioxide, water and lots of energy as compared to anaerobic respiration

ii. In the absence of oxygen:

In the absence of oxygen pyruvate may be converted into ethanol(C2H5OH) and carbon dioxide which is
known as fermentation that takes place in yeast.
 Sometime anaerobic respiration also occurs in our muscle cells, when there is lack of oxygen, i.e., during
vigorous muscular activities. At that time pyruvate is converted into lactic acid which is also a three carbon
molecule. This build-up of lactic acid in our muscles causes fatigue or muscular cramps.

2. Make a comparison between photosynthesis and respiration.

The comparison between photosynthesis and respiration are following:

Photosynthesis Respiration
1. It takes place only in the It occurs in all the tissues during
presence of light. both day and night.
2. Only green cells of plants This occurs in all the cells of an
can perform photosynthesis organism
3. It takes place inside Aerobic respiration involves
chloroplast mitochondria and cytoplasm.
4. It is an anabolic process in It is a catabolic process in which
which complex compounds complex compounds (sugars) are
(sugars) are formed from broken down into simpler (CO2
inorganic substances like and water) compounds.
CO2 and water

3. What is the function of epiglottis in man?

Ans: Epiglottis is a cartilaginous flap present at the top of the trachea. Its function is to cover the
glottis during swallowing of food so that food may not enter the trachea.

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Transportation
Transportation is the life process in which a substance synthesized or absorbed in one part of the organism
is carried to other parts of its body.
1. Transportation of water and food materials through vascular tissues in plants.
2. Blood vascular system and Lymph vascular system in human beings
Circulatory system in Human Being
Vascular tissues - is the tissues which has tubes full of fluid to be transported from one place to another.There
are two circulatory systems in human through which the materials are transported to the organs and tissues
1. Blood Vascular System
2. Lymphatic System
Blood vascular system comprises of
Heart - the organ which pumps and receives the blood,
Blood vessels – through which the blood flows. They are three types, arteries, veins and capillaries
Arteries: are thick walled and carry blood away from the heart to organs

Veins: are thin walled and carry blood from the organs to the heart,
Capillaries: are extremely narrow vessels seen at the end of arteries and veins
BLOOD
• Blood consists of a fluid called plasma in which the cells are suspended
• Plasma: transports food, CO2, and nitrogenous wastes, salts, minerals.
• Blood cells are 1. RBC
2. WBC
3. Platelets
O2 is transported by RBC.
Structure of heart
• Heart is a double pump. Is divided into right and left halves.
• Heart has 4 chambers - two upper chambers called atrium (auricle)left and right atrium
-two lower chambers called ventricle (left and right ventricle)
Valves – There are valves between the auricles and ventricles. Valves provide one way passage from
atrium to ventricle and prevent the backflow of the blood from the ventricle to auricle.
Tricuspid valve –between right auricle and right ventricle
Bicuspid valve – between left auricle and left ventricle.
Semilunar valve- controls the flow of blood from ventricle to the arteries.
Walls of the heart are muscular.
Blood vessels of heart
• Superior vena cava brings impure blood from different parts of the body to the right auricle.
• Pulmonary artery carries impure blood from right ventricle to lungs
• Pulmonary veins bring pure blood from the lungs to left auricle.
• Aorta carries pure blood from left ventricle to different parts of the body.
(Impure blood – deoxygenated, Pure blood - oxygenated)
Functions of heart
• Important function of heart is rhythmic contractions and relaxation of heart muscles.
• Contraction is known as systole and relaxation is known as diastole.
• Sequence of events that takes place during the completion of one relaxation and one contraction is
known as cardiac cycle (heart beat).

Double circulation
• Means blood passes through the heart twice for each circuit of the body.
st
• Pulmonary Circulation -1 Circulation involves entry of blood from all parts of the body
parts(deoxygenated) to the right atrium which flows to right ventricle and is pumped to lungs for
oxygenation.
nd
• Systemic Circulation - 2 circulation: involves the entry of oxygenated blood from lungs to left
atrium which flows to left ventricle and is pumped to all parts of body through aorta.

Lymph
• Lymphatic system is the second important circulatory system which transport lymph.
• Lymph: is a light yellow colored mobile fluid connective tissue which drains from intercellular
spaces.
• Lymph consists of plasma and lymphocytes.
• Plasma: is the fluid matrix which is similar in composition to the blood
• Lymphocytes: are special type of white blood cells which fight against infection.
Functions of Lymph
• Lymph absorbs some of the fluid from the digestive tract.
• It carries some proteins and fats
 • Lymph drains excess fluid from the tissues to blood
• It carries CO2 and some nitrogenous waste materials from tissues to blood
• It protects the body by killing germs.
Arteries and veins
• Arteries: are thick walled blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart to the body. The
walls of the arteries near the heart are thick and elastic and also dilate.
• Veins: are thin walled blood vessels which bring blood from the body back to the heart. Veins are
thin walled because the blood they carry is not under pressure. The veins have valves that prevent
back flow of blood.
• Capillaries: are thin walled and extremely narrow and occur at the terminal of arteries and veins.
The walls of capillaries are permeable to water and dissolved substances so that exchange of
materials between blood and cells takes place.
Platelets
• When a tissue is wounded or a blood vessel is ruptured the blood flows out of it. To prevent
excess loss of blood, blood will coagulate or clot.
Clotting is done by platelets by plugin the leaks that occurred in the blood vessels
Transportation in plants
Transporting tissues of plants -
Xylem and Phloem
The water and minerals are transported through Xylem
Food from green leaves is transported through Phloem
There are two types of transportation in plants:
1. Transportation of water and minerals
2. Transportation of food and other substances.
Absorption of water and minerals
• Water and minerals are absorbed by plants from the soil.
• Water absorbing organ is the root hair.
• Water molecules move from soil (higher concentration) to the root (lower concentration) by
osmosis.
• Minerals and salt also move into the plant along with water.
• Water entering the cells reaches the xylem and a column of water is formed.
Upward movement of water and minerals
• Root pressure:
is the pressure exerted by the root after absorbing water& minerals.
For herbs the root pressure is enough to transport water to the leaves.
• Transpiration pull:
is the pulling force generated in the leaves which pull the water & minerals from the water column
filled in the xylem.
For tall trees the upward movement of water takes place by transpiration pull.
• The loss of water in the form of vapours from the living tissues of aerial parts of plant are termed
transpiration.
• Transpiration occur by the process of diffusion through stomata.
• When there is loss of water through stomata, pulling force is generated that pulls water from the
root. This is called transpiration pull.
• The transportation of food from leaves and hormones from the place of synthesis takes place in
phloem.
The process of transporting prepared food and hormones from the place of production to place of storage
or place of action is known as translocation
Important Questions
1. Mention the components of the transport system in highly organized plants. State the
functions of these components.
Ans:
Transport system in highly organized plants consists of xylem and phloem.
i. Xylem–Xylem moves water and minerals obtained from the soil. It consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem
fibres and xylem parenchyma.
ii. Phloem–Phloem transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves to other plant parts. It consists of
sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma
2. What are the functions of lymph in our body?
Ans: Functions of lymph are

a) It returns tissue fluid from interstitial space into the blood.

b) It collects CO2 ,waste products from tissues via tissue fluid.
c) Lymph provides immunity to the body and fight against invading organisms.

3. What are the mode of excretion in plants?

Ans: Mode of excretion in plants are –
a) The plant excretes excess of water by transpiration.
b) Plants excretes waste materials to the soil.
c) Many waste products are stored in vacuoles.
d) Other excretory products are gum, resin latex etc.

4. How is transpiration pull responsible for upward movement of water?

Ans: The leaf loose water in the form of water vapours through stomata by a process known as
transpiration. Continuous transpiration creates a suction in the water column through xylem and it
reaches up to the leaf. This pull is called transpiration pull. Due to transpiration, the water column
of the plant is pulled up from below to the top of the plant.

5. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals & birds?
 Ans: Separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood allows good supply of oxygen to the body. This
system is useful in animals that have high energy requirements Mammals and birds constantly need oxygen
to get energy to maintain constant body temperature.
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Excretory System

Consists of 1. a pair of kidneys

2. a pair of ureters
3. a urinary bladder
4. a urethra
Kidney: located towards the back of the lower part of abdominal cavity
Left kidney is slightly larger and placed a little higher than right kidney.
Urine is produced in the kidney, passes through ureters and collected in the urinary bladder to be released
through urethra.
Function of Kidney: 1. to excrete toxic waste from the body
2. to regulate the amount of water content in the body.
How is urine produced?
• Urine is the waste which filtered out from the blood.
• Urine contain nitrogenous waste like urea, uric acid, water, other salts and ions.
• Filtering of blood takes place in kidneys.
• Blood enter the kidney through the arteries of aorta.
Nephron
• Basic unit of kidney is termed nephron
• Nephrons remain closely packed in the kidney.
• Nephrons are the filtration units of kidney
• Each kidney contains about a million nephrons.
Structure of a nephron:
Each nephron has a cup shaped upper end called Bowman’s capsule.
Bowman’s capsule contains a cluster of blood capillaries called Glomerulus.
The blood in the capillaries come from the aorta through the arteries (renal arteries). The blood entering
the capillaries carries waste materials which are filtered in the Bowman’s capsule. Waste is filtered and blood
retained in the capillaries.
 • Bowman’s capsule leads to a long tubular structure into which the filtrate (waste) moves away.
• The walls of the tubule are selectively permeable.
• As the filtrate passes through the tube selective secretion as well as selective reabsorption of
molecules like glucose, amino acids, salts, water etc. takes place.
• The amount of water reabsorbed depends on how much excess water is present in the body.
• Thus, the urine formed in each kidney enters into a long tube the ureter which connects kidney to the
urinary bladder.
• Urine is stored in the urinary bladder.
• Bladder is muscular and is under nervous control so the urge to urinate can be controlled.
Excretion in Plants
Excretion of plants are not complex as that of animals
• The major waste products of plants are
• O2, CO2, Water
• CO2 used for photosynthesis and water eliminated by transpiration
• Many toxic waste products are stored in dead permanent tissues.
• Waste materials are also stored in the leaves that fall off.
• Many waste products are stored in cell vacuoles.
• Waste products are also stored as resins and gums and in old xylem
• Plants also excrete some waste to the soil.
Important Questions
1. Give one advantage of having a large number of these highly coiled structures in our kidneys.
Ans: These help in increasing the surface area for filtration and proper re-absorption of useful
substances.
2. What are the two vital functions of human kidney?
Ans: The two vital functions of human kidney are:
(i) Excretion: Removal of toxic wastes like urea, uric acid.
 (ii) Osmoregulation: The process of maintaining the right amount of water and
proper ionic balance in body. It is done by controlling the amount of water and
salts reabsorbed by nephron - tubules.
3. Which is the major nitrogenous waste product in a human being? How is it removed from the
body?
Ans: The major nitrogenous waste product in a human being is urea. It is removed from the blood
by filtration into Bowman’s capsule. The filtrate carrying urea passes from nephrons into a space
inside kidney leading to the ureter. From ureter, urea along with urine oases into the urinary bladder
and is stored there till thrown out of the body.

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