Electric Potential and Gauss's Law

Electric Potential

Recall that a conservative force is one in which the work done on a particle that moves
between two points depends only on the two points and not on the path followed.
Previously, we defined gravitational potential energy associated with the force of gravity.
Similarly, we can define a conservative vector field as a field that generates a conservative
force. This allows us to introduce the concept of a potential for the field. We define the potential,
ϕ, of a vector field, ƒ, by the relation

Δϕ = − f id

Notice that the potential is a scalar quantity. Also, just as with potential energy, the potential of a
field is not an exact quantity. Instead, it only has physical meaning when changes in the potential
are considered.

i i

m0 +q0
h
d
F = m0 g F = +q0 E
Gravitational Electric
Field g f Field E f
(a) (b)

Work done by the gravitational force W = F id = m0 g Δh .

W = −ΔU = −(U f − U i ) = U i − U f = m0 g Δh

Work done by electric field E or by Coulomb force is W = F id = q0 Ed

Similar to the gravitational potential, we introduce the electric potential V, so that

W = −ΔU = − q0 ( E Δd ) = − q0 (ΔV ) = − q0 (V f − Vi ) = q0 (Vi − V f )

Note that, V electric potential has the unit volt (V) volt = 1J/1C

So V is not energy, but qV has the unit of energy, e.g., the commonly used unit of energy,
electron volt (eV) is defined as follows:

1 eV = (1.60×10−19 C)(1 V) = 1.60×10−19 J

The electric field potential (V) is related to the potential energy (U) of a unit charge in exactly the

same way the electric field ( E ) is related to the force ( F ) on a unit charge. The electric filed was
F
defined to be the force experienced by a unit charge when located in an electric field, i.e. E = .
q0

The electric potential (or just potential) is defined to be the potential energy per unit charge when
U
in an electric field, i.e. V = . Because the change in the potential energy ( ΔU ) is the negative
q0

of the work done by the electrostatic force to move the charged particles from one location to
another location, we have for a particle of charge q that:

ΔU −ΔW
ΔV = =
q q

Equipotential Surfaces

When ΔW = 0 , we have that ΔV = 0 . The locus of points which have ΔV = 0 are called an
equipotential surface. All equipotential surfaces are at right angles to the field lines everywhere.

It is common to take the reference point, Va, to be located at infinity so that Va = 0. Then ∆W is
just the work required to move a test charge from infinity to the point in question. Notice, though,
that there is no requirement that Va be at infinity.

q
The potential due to a single point charge is given by V = k .
r

If we have a collection of discrete charges, then the potential for the system is just the sum of the
n
qi
individual potentials: V = ∑k
i =1 ri

Energy of the Electric Field

The energy stored in the electric field is given by ΔU = qΔV .

Since electric force is conservative, having the same consequence as a gravitational force, the
conservation of energy of an electric charge is applied. As a result, the sum of its kinetic and
electric potential energies must be the same at any two points, say, A and B:

K A + U A = KB + U B .
 1 2
Expressing the kinetic energy as mv , we can write energy conservation as
2

1 2 1
mv A + U A = mvB2 + U B
2 2

The electric potential is U A = qVA and U B = qVB respectively.

Like many physical quantities, the electric potential obeys a simple superposition principle: The
total electric potential due to two or more charges is equal to the algebraic sum of the potentials
due to each charge separately. In particular, positive and negative contributions may cancel to
give zero potential at a given location.

Electric Potential of Symmetrical Charge Distributions

Let us find the electric potential at point P due to point charge +q.

P
VP ≡ − ∫ E ⋅ dr
∞

Unit test charge moving

r from infinity to P
P −q P dr
VP = − ∫ Edr = ∫
∞ 4πε 0 ∞ r2 E
+q P ∞
q 1 P q
= |∞ =
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 rP
r
Let us find the potential at point P due to the charge q on a disk of radius R.

The total charge on the disk is q = π R 2σ , where σ is the charge density per unit area.

z-axis
P

Step 1: Consider a ring first,

q
1 1
dV =
4πε 0 r
∑ Δq , where r 2 = z 2 + s 2
on the ring

Surface with charge density σ

1 1
dV = 2π sds ⋅ σ
4πε 0 z2 + s2 ch arg e on the ring P

z r
Thickness ds
s
Step 2: The potential at P due to the charged disk is

R 1 σ ⋅ 2π sds σ R 2 sds
V =∫ = ∫
0 4πε 0 z 2 + s 2 4ε 0 0 ( z 2 + s 2 )1/ 2

Integration by substitution: y = s 2 , hence dy = 2sds . We obtain

σ R2 dy σ 2
V= ∫ = ( z + y )1/ 2 |0R .
2

4ε 0 0 ( z + y)
2 1/ 2
2ε 0

σ
Hence, V = ( z 2 + R2 − z)
2ε 0

Flux

Recall that, in general, the electric field is given by

N
qi
E = ∑k rˆi
i =1 ri 2

If there are a large number of charges, or they are distributed in an irregular manner, this
calculation can become very difficult. However, in the case of a problem which has a high degree

of symmetry, it is possible to calculate E using Gauss's Law.

In order to use Gauss's Law, it is necessary to introduce the concept of flux. Consider a surface

in an electrical field. Denote the area of the surface by ΔA = ΔA nˆ , where n̂ is a unit vector
perpendicular to the surface. The flux of the field through the surface is defined as

ΦE = ∑
closed
E i ΔA
surface

Another useful way to picture flux is to consider field lines. Recall that the number of field lines
per unit area is proportional to the strength of the field. Thus, the flux is also equal to

Φ = NA cosθ

where N is the number of lines passing through the surface and θ is the angle between the field
lines and the normal of the surface.
Gauss’s Law

The flux through a closed surface is equal to zero unless there is a charge inside the surface.
Consider a point charge q and a spherical surface of radius r and centered on the charge.

E
+q r

Gaussian surface with area 4πr2

The electric field on the surface of the sphere has the constant magnitude

q
E=k .
r2

Since the electric field is everywhere perpendicular to the spherical surface, the electric flux is
simply E times the area A = 4πr2 of the sphere:

⎛ q⎞
Φ = EA = ⎜ k 2 ⎟ ( 4π r 2 ) = 4π kq
⎝ r ⎠

Plugging in k = 1/(4πε0), we obtain Gauss’s Law

q
Φ= .
ε0

The electric flux through a sphere that encloses a charge q is the charge divided by the
permittivity of free space, ε0.

Gauss’s Law states that the flux of the electric field over the Gaussian surface is equal to the net
charge enclosed by that surface

qinside
ΦE = ∑
closed
E • ΔA =
ε0
surface

where qinside is the sum of all of the charge enclosed by the surface. Note that the flux, and thus,
the value of the electric field, is dependent on the sign of the charge and that it is independent of
the location of the charge inside the surface. The integral form of Gauss’s Law is ε 0 ∫ E idA = q ,

where ε 0 is the permittivity constant.