CLIMATOLOGY

Presented
by
Dr Nde SC

NWU-Mafikeng Campus
Faculty of Education; School of Mathematic Science
and Technology Education

NSSP 211

Together We can win…. NSSP 211 self-directed notes

 ❑As we go online, here are some suggestions you
should consider
• What is this topic all about?
• What am I supposed to know?
• Does the topic involves more of theoretical, practical or
both aspects?
LEARNING • What is/are the expected outcomes at the completion
TIPS!!!!! of this topic? Please visit eFundi website for study
outcomes
• What material(s) is/are needed and how can I have
access to information? Please visit eFundi website
• Do I need additional information to complement the
existing information?
• How will the assessment look like?
 INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT
➢Climatologist examines long-term averages and extremes of the atmosphere
➢It also examine changes in climatic conditions in the past and the possibility of
climate change in the future
❑Climatology seeks to explain the following phenomenon;
➢Causes of and types of weather and climatic conditions
➢The reasons for their spatial and temporal variations
➢The general and specific variations of climate
➢The effect of climate on the planetary scale.
➢Think tank !!!!(self-directed learning)
➢Is there any similarities between meteorology and climatology?
➢Make short notes to explain the difference between the aforementioned.
 WHAT IS CLIMATOLOGY?
❑Tip!!! You should know that;
➢Climatology is the study of climate, its variations, extremes, and its
influences on a variety of activities including (but far from limited to) human
health, safety and welfare.
❑The term climate is derived from a Greek word = klima meaning
inclination/slope altitude
• The difference between climate and weather is fully summarized by the
popular phrase“ climate is what you expect, weather is what you get.”
• N:B: Weather and climate are meteorological terms that are related but not
interchangeable.
 ❑ Is there a difference between climate and weather?
❑Tips!!!!
• Imagine watching weather forecast on SABC news
channels…!!!!
➢Can you differentiate between weather and climate?
WEATHER
➢Are they synonyms? Off-course, they are not the
VS same.
CLIMATE ❑So the big question is what is the difference?
➢WEATHER is the condition of the atmosphere at a
particular location in a moment. it includes;
temperature, precipitation, cloudiness, humidity, air
pressure, and wind.
➢So what causes weather? As we know, it is the
effect of the sun on earth but how? Explain…
 COMPONENTS THAT MAKE UP WEATHER
❑ Weather includes the following:
• sunshine, rain, cloud cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, freezing rain, flooding,
blizzards, ice storms, thunderstorms, steady rains from a cold front or warm front,
excessive heat, heat waves and more
• The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the National
Weather Service (NWS), have been at the forefront in forecasting outlet for the
nation's weather, have over 25 different types of warnings, statements.
❑Some of the reports of the NWS issues are:
• Flash flood watches and warnings, severe thunderstorm watches and warnings,
blizzard warnings, snow advisories, winter storm watches and warnings, dense fog
advisory, fire weather watch, tornado watches and warnings, hurricane watches
and warnings.
 Notes: Climate describes the prevailing conditions in
an area in general, over a long period of time.

Climate is defined as the “average weather” or more

WHAT IS specifically the statistical aspects of the atmosphere
CLIMATE? hydrosphere land surface system that varies over time
ranging from months to millions of years

The classical period for averaging climatic variables as

defined by the World Meteorological Organization is
30 years.

Change is constant ….. All I need to do is to adapt…. GEOE 122 Lecture notes
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLIMATE & WEATHER
Climate Weather

Components Climate may include precipitation, Weather includes sunshine, rain, cloud cover, winds, hail, snow,
temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind sleet, freezing rain, floods, blizzards, ice storms, thunder storms,
velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, steady rain from a cold front or warm front, excessive heat, heat
and hail storms over a long period of waves and more.
time.

Time frame Measured over a long period of time. Measured for short term.

About Climate is defined as statistical weather Weather is the day to day state of the atmosphere and it is
describes the variation of weather at a short-term(minutes to
given place for a specific interval. weeks) variations.

Forecast By aggregate of weather statistics over a Collecting statistical data.

period of 30
Years.

Study Climatology Meteorology

Change is constant ….. All I need to do is to adapt…. GEOE 122 Lecture notes
 ELEMENTS AND CONTROLS OF WEATHER AND
CLIMATE
When studying weather or climate, the elements and controls of each are
interchangeable. ELEMENTS CONTROLS
1. Temperature 1. Latitudes
2. Solar radiation 2. Altitude
3. Air pressure 3. Land and water
4. Humidity 4. Distance from land and
water
5. Precipitation 5. Low and high pressure cells
6. Winds 6. Winds and air masses
7. Cloudiness 7. Mountains barriers/Relief
8. Brightness of the Sun 8. Ocean currents

9. Storms
10. Visibility

Change is constant ….. All I need to do is to adapt…. GEOE 122 Lecture notes
 WEATHER ELEMENTS, THEIR MEASUREMENT
INSTRUMENTS AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Weather elements Measurement instruments Units of measurements

Temperature Thermometers: Maximum and Degree Celsius (˚C) & degree

minimum Fahrenheit (˚F)

Atmospheric pressure Barometer Millibars (mb)

Atmospheric humidity Hydrometer Percentage of water vapour

Wind direction Wind vane Cardinal points

Wind speed Anemometer Kilometres per jour

Sunshine duration Sunshine recorder (may exit others) Hours per day

Cloud cover Eye observation of the proportion Oktas

of cloud cover

Rainfall Rain gauge Millimetres (mm)

Change is constant ….. All I need to do is to adapt…. GEOE 122 Lecture notes
 Are you able to explain the interplay between weather and
climate using these figures?
Fig B: Uneven distribution of solar Fig A: Global surface albedo
insolation

Change is constant ….. All I need to do is to adapt…. NSSP 211 Lecture notes
 THE CONCEPT OF GLOBAL WARMING & CLIMATE
CHANGE
• It is no doubt that the earth atmospheric temperature
has increased drastically over the past decades
subject to class discussions!!!!!
• Recap!!!!!
• Many scientist have proven this by observing global
atmospheric temperature and evidence from melting
glacier ice-caps, increase in sea level etc.
• The main cause is an increase in consumption of
fossil fuel (but not limited to it alone) which in turn
causes a blanket of greenhouse gases in our
atmosphere thereby trapping the out-going solar
radiation from escaping back into the atmosphere.
 WHY IS CLIMATE CHANGE NOT WIDELY ACCEPT AS
A PROBLEM THAT AFFECT HUMANITY ?
• Despite the progression and accumulation of empirical evidence, some people still
remain divided over the scientific consensus of climate change
• Cross a spectrum of concern and engagement and demonstrate the relationships
that exist among different political ideologies, cultural values, and policy preferences.
• The public tends to dismiss the presence or urgency of climate change in the
absence of its immediate and visible impacts.
• Individuals do not tend to be concerned about extreme weather events, in part
because natural disasters have always happened.
• As an array of socio-economic issues remain at the forefront of public policy, the
absence of immediate and visible climate change impacts may cause individuals to
believe that the issue lacks salience and relevance
 CLIMATE CHANGE CONT….
❑CLIMATE CHANGE;
• It can be defined as any systematic shift in the long-term statistics of weather
elements (such as temperature, rainfall, or winds) sustained over several
decades or longer.
• These changes can be caused by natural processes such as changes in solar
emission or slow changes in the earth’s orbital elements by natural internal
processes of the climate system, such as glaciations or by human activities
(anthropogenic activities can also cause this changes)
• Therefore climate change is the outcome of global warming
• It should be noted that the distribution of land and water play a major role in
determining climatic conditions and weather patterns.
 Do you believe climate
change is real?
• What do you think?
• Scientists most often only
consider the theoretical aspects
like green house gas (GHG)
effects for global warming which
is only a secondary cause. The
primary cause is the disposal of
waste from different industrial and
domestic process thus the
primary and secondary causes
are combinedly responsible for
climate changes, indeed we want
to bring about a meaningful
change.
 CLIMATE VARIABILITY
❑Climate variability:
• The pattern and range of climate parameters (aggregate weather) for a
particular place or region over a given time period. These may include
temperature, precipitation, and frequency of extreme events
• NOTE: THIS SHOULD NOT BE CONFUSED WITH CLIMATE CHANGE.
THEY ARE MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE!!!
• Precipitation: All forms of water particles that fall from the atmosphere
and reach the ground and these include rain, snow, sleet and hail it does
not include fog or dew, as those are not falling nor does. It include virga,
water droplets or ice that form in clouds but evaporate before reaching
the ground
 SA CLIMATIC CONDITIONS: BACKGROUND
➢What are the factors that influence SA climate? Different elements are
responsible for the type of climatic conditions in SA, e.g. Altitude, distance
from the sea, ocean currents, pressure cells, vegetation etc.
• For instance climate of South Africa is dominated by the presence of the
subtropical high-pressure system, which is situated at approximately 30° S.
This high-pressure cell, the Kalahari cell, is tilted towards the west, while the
base of the cell is fixed towards the eastern part of the plateau.
• The other two pressure cells are the South Atlantic High-Pressure Cell
(Anticyclone) along the coast of Namibia and the South Indian High-
Pressure Cell along the KwaZulu Natal coast. These cells constantly change,
shrinking and shifting, and are responsible for the influx of moist air or dry air
over the interior of South Africa.
 SA CLIMATIC CONDITIONS: BACKGROUND

• The eastern coastline on the Indian Ocean is warmed by the

Mozambique current thus bringing about difference in climatic conditions
compared to other areas.
In your own words explain how the other factors such as altitude influences
the climatic conditions of SA.
• In this Study Unit we will also look at the natural vegetation/biomes of
South Africa with special reference to the following:
Forest, Savanna, Grassland, Nama Karoo, Succulent Karoo, Desert,
Thicket and Fynbos.
 INFOGRAPHIC OF ANCIENT LAYERS OF THE
ATMOSPHERE: IT’S ORIGIN
❑Upon the completion of this section, you should be able to;
➢Explain the formation of ancient layer of gases in the atmosphere
➢Be able to describe the different layers of gas found in the atmosphere
➢Be able to distinguished between the different layers of gas present in today’s
atmosphere.
❑Tink thank
• What teaching and learning technique can you use to teach this topic to your
school learners
• Identify some teaching and learning resource materials that can be used.
 DIFFERENT LAYERS FOUND IN THE ATMOSPHERE
❑ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS
❑Why is the Atmosphere Important to study? The following are some of the
reasons;
➢Weather exists because of the atmosphere.
➢It makes the earth suitable for living things.
➢The atmosphere is the layer of gas that surrounds the planet.
➢The atmosphere traps energy from the sun and keeps the earth’s surface
warm enough for water to exist as a liquid.
➢It protects the earth from radiation and meteoroids.
➢So, it is important to known the different atmospheric layers of gases
 COMPOSITION OF GASES FOUND
IN THE ATMOSPHERE
• WHAT GASES ARE FOUND IN THE ATMOSPHERE?
• NITROGEN, OXYGEN, WATER VAPOR, CARBON DIOXIDE, AND
OTHERS IN SMALL AMOUNTS
• WHY IS THE EARTH DIVIDED ATMOSPHERE COMPOSED OF LAYERS
OF GASES? BECAUSE OF THE CHANGE IN AIR TEMPERATURE!
• NITROGEN : 78%

• OXYGEN : 21%
• OTHER GASES : 1%
 THICKNESS OF THE
ATMOSPHERE

Most of the atmospheric mass is confined in the lowest 100 km

above the sea level.

􀂉 The thickness of the atmosphere is only about 2% of

Earth’s thickness (Earth’s radius = ~6500km).

􀂉 Because of the shallowness of the atmosphere, its motions

over large areas are primarily horizontal.

􀂉 Typically, horizontal wind speeds are a thousands time

greater than vertical wind speeds. (But the small vertical
displacements of air have an important impact on the state of
the atmosphere.)
 Permanent gases
Constituent Formula % by volume
Nitrogen N2 78.08

Oxygen O2 20.95 Those gases that

form a constant
Argon Ar 0.93
portion of the
Neon Ne 0.002
atmospheric mass

Helium He 0.0005

Krypton Kr 0.0001

Variable gases Those gases whose

Xenon Xe 0.00009
Constituent formula & by volume concentration changes
Hydrogen H2 0.00005 from time to time and
Water vapour H 2O 0.25 from place to place.
Some of those gases are
Carbon Dioxide CO2 important to weather and
climate. Why?
Ozone O3
Change is constant ….. All I need to do is to adapt…. GEOE 122 Lecture notes

TROPOSPHERE (“OVERTURNING” SPHERE)

• This is where all living things live

• It is the most important layer for living things
because it contains over 80% of all the air in
the atmosphere!
• It contains almost all the water vapour in the
atmosphere, and water vapor produces
weather (like rain and clouds) and
determines climate
• Varies in thickness (9-16 km) and
temperature
• As the altitude increases in the troposphere,
the temperature decreases.
• Surface heated by solar radiation
• Strong vertical motion
• Where most of the weather events occur
lapse rate = 6.5 C/km
 OZONE LAYER
❑Learning tips!!!!

• The ozone layer is found there. What is the ozone layer?

• It is a layer of gas that absorbs the ultraviolet rays coming from the
sun. It protects us from these rays, which cause skin cancer.

• The ultraviolet rays heat the atmosphere, the further you get away from
earth the higher the temperature.
 A HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER
➢The thickness of the ozone layer is shrinking because of CFC’s
(chloroflurocarbons) and aerosol products.

➢Why would the thinning of the ozone layer worry us?

➢Because it protects us from uv rays. It can increase the risk skin

cancer, increase in temperature……

➢If the ozone increases at low altitudes (like the troposphere) it can also
cause health problems. The increase in ozone at low altitudes is
caused by pollution. Thus, explain the concept of global warming and
climate change…
STRATOSPHERE

➢ Approximately 40km thick

➢ The reasons for the inversion in the
stratosphere is due to the ozone’s
absorption of ultraviolet solar energy.
➢ Although maximum ozone
concentration occurs at 25km, the
lower air density at 50km allows solar
energy to heat up the atmosphere there
at a much greater degree.
➢ Also, much solar energy is absorbed in
the upper stratosphere but can not be
transferred due to thin air
 MESOSPHERE
• The mesosphere protects earth’s surface from being
hit by most meteoroids (chunks of stone and metal
from space).
• There is little ozone to absorb solar energy in the
mesosphere, and therefore, the air temperature in the
mesosphere decreases with height.
• Also, air molecules can lose more energy than they
absorb. This cooling effect is particularly large near
the top of the mesosphere.
 THERMOSPHERE

• In thermosphere, oxygen molecules

absorb solar rays and this warms the
air.
• Because this layer has a low air
density, the absorption of small amount
of solar energy can cause large
temperature increase.
• The air temperature in the
thermosphere is affected greatly by
solar activity.
 IONOSPHERE
➢Learning tips!!!
➢At an altitude of 90 to 300km the IONOSPHERE
is found.
➢It is useful from earth’s communication system
because it contains a lot of electrically charged
particles. These particles bounce radio waves.

• The northern lights (aurora borealis) occur in

the ionosphere.
• The aurora borealis is caused by particles
from the sun that enter the ionosphere near
the north pole.
• These particles strike oxygen and nitrogen
atoms in the ionosphere causing them to glow.
 IONOSPHERE
• The ionosphere is an electrified region
within the upper atmosphere where
large concentration of ions and free
electrons exist.
• The ionosphere starts from about 60km
above earth’s surface and extends
upward to the top of the atmosphere.
Most of the ionosphere is in the
thermosphere.
• The ionosphere plays an important role
in radio communication.
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Recap. The atmosphere is made up of gas molecules that are constantly in
motion
• The concentration of molecules is measured in terms of density or mass per
unit volume.
• Note. Air has a mass and because of gravity it has a weight thus as one
moves upward from the surface, the amount of air above that person
decreases and as a result its weight or pressure decreases
• Since air is compressible, (think of a balloon), the air near the surface is
more compressed by the weight of the air above it than air at higher altitudes.
• Atmospheric pressure and density decrease rapidly as one goes up from the
earth surface
 ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
• In meteorology, air pressure
is reported/ measured in
millibars or Pascal
• The measuring device is
known as Barometer
• This figure shows
decreasing atmospheric
pressure and density in
terms of altitude from the
surface

Change is constant ….. All I need to do is to adapt…. GEOE 122 Lecture notes
 AIR PRESSURE; ISOBARS AND CHANGES IN PRESSURE
GRADIENTS
➢Air pressure presents the force exerted on a square meter of the earth
surface by the total mass of the molecules and particles in the overlaying
atmosphere.
➢Air molecule have a mass hence an increase in the number molecules in a
cubic meter of air, the greater its total mass and pressure.
• There are principally two types of air; cold air and warm air!!!
➢The question to ask is what causes variation in air pressure? Can we find
any scientific explanation to this?
Global energy budget

How can you explain

this concept to your
learners?
Design a mind map to
demonstrate global
heat balance