POWER ELECTRONICS

Mekelle Institute of Technology

Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

By:Rgbi Hailay
 2. RECTIFIERS

• Controlled rectifiers
• Uncontrolled Rectifiers
• 1-phase rectifiers

2
 Outline
1. Introduction

2. 1-phase half-wave controlled rectifiers

3. 1-phase center-tapped controlled rectifiers

4. 1-phase half-controlled bridge rectifiers

5. 1-phase full-controlled bridge rectifiers

6. 1-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers

7. 1-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifiers

3
 Introduction

 Power can be used in AC or DC form, and can be

changed from one into the other with the help of power
electronic devices.
Rectifiers
Variable AC Fixed DC

Cycloconverters Choppers

Inverters
Fixed AC Variable DC

4
 Introduction

A rectifier converts ac to dc. Its purpose is to produce an output voltage

or current that is purely dc, or that has a specified dc component.
The rectifier circuits are classified as follows:
1) Based on the controllability of output voltage:
A. Uncontrolled rectifiers: Rectifiers in which output voltage cannot be controlled. They
use only power diodes in the circuit.
B. Controlled rectifiers: Rectifiers in which output voltage can be controlled . They use
only thyristors (SCR) in the circuit.
2)Based on rectification of input waveform:
A. Half wave rectifier (HWR): Rectifiers that produces DC output voltage corresponding to
only a positive half cycle of input AC voltage.

B. Full wave rectifier (FWR): produces output voltage corresponding to both positive and
negative half cycles
 Introduction …
3.Based on the number of phases of input voltage:
Single phase, three phase or polyphase rectifier .
Performance Parameters.
q The performances of any rectifier circuits are evaluated in terms of the following
parameters:
A Parameters on output side.
The average DC output voltage, ��
The average DC output(load) current, ��
The RMS value of the output voltage, ��(���)
The RMS value of the output current, ��(���)
The output DC power, ��=��×��
The output AC power, ���=��(���)×��(���)
Efficiency of rectification (η)

6
Performance parameters
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled Rectifiers

Circuit diagram:

L
Vo O
A
D

• An SCR connected in series with the source and the SCR is

used to control the power flow from the source to the load.
• The load can be resistive or inductive, and the working
operation may vary accordingly.
8
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

(a) Working operation (R load)

Figure: 1-phase half-wave rectifier- (a) Circuit diagram, (b) Waveform characteristics

An SCR connected in series with the source and the load is

9
used to control the power flow from the source to the load.
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

Working operation (Resistive load)

10
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

Analysis (Resistive load)

1. Average load voltage =DC output voltage
�
1
��� = � න �(�)�� , �(�), � = 2�, �(�) = �� sin � �, �� = ��
0
� � 2� �
1 1 1 1
��� = � න �(�)��� + � න �(�)��� + � න �(�)��� = 0 + 2� න �� sin � ���� +
0 0 � � �
��
��� = � + ��� � , � < � < �
��

2. Average load current

���
��
��� = = (� + ��� �)
� ���

11
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

Analysis (Resistive load)

3. RMS load voltage

�/�
� � �� � ��� � �
1 1 ���� = �−�+
���� = න �2(�) �� => � න sin � � � � �
��� =
2
� 2�
0 ���
�

4. RMS load current

�/�
���� �� � ��� � �
���� = = �−�+
� �� � �

12
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …
• Inductor is passive element in which
(b) Circuit diagram (RL-load)
the current through it doesn’t change
suddenly. It stores energy and the
maximum energy stored is E=1/2 LI2
when I is +ve maximum current.
• The inductor release energy when the
current ‘I’ decreases
• If the load consists of a resistance and inductance then the output
current waveform will be different from that obtained with a pure
resistive load.
• The waveforms for voltage and current of Single Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier with an inductive load will be changed.
13
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

Working operation (RL-load)

Note that α is the firing angle and β is the

extinction angle, the instant the SCR turns
OFF after it has been conducting previously.
15
And γ → conduction angle=β-α.
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

Working operations (RL-load)

i. 0 < �� < �: SCR is forward biased but not gating signal is applied.=> ��=0, ���≡��
ii. � < �� < �: SCR is forward biased and gating signal is given at �� = �and the SCR acts as short circuit
afterwards. The inductor ’L’ stores energy and the current increases exponentially. When�� = �, maximum
+ve current reaches and the energy stored is E=12 ��2. During this initial �� ≈ ��.
iii. � < �� < �: The supply voltage reverse at �� = � but i(t) ≠0 for energy has been stored in ‘L’ and this
energy must be released before the SCR goes to OFF. For this reason, SCR is forced to continue its
conduction so long as there is stored energy. Hence, current exponentially decays and reaches zero at �� =
� where the SCR goes to OFF, �� = 0.
iv. � < �� < (2� + �): The supply voltage is reversed; no previously stored energy; and the SCR is not
triggered. Thus, I0=0, Vo=0.
v. At �� = (2� + �): next cycle starts and SCR is triggered. Same story is repeated.

Note that the inductive load prolongs the current beyond wt=π to a point decided by the ratio of
inductive reactance to resistance (wL/R). If the current doesn’t reach zero before wt=(2π+α)
where SCR is triggered in the next cycle, we say that the load is highly inductive and enters
16 continuous conduction mode.
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

Analysis (RL-load)
1. Average lode voltage =DC output voltage
� �
1 1 ��
��� = � න �(�)�� = 2� න �� sin � � ��� = �� ��� � − ���
0 �

2. RMS load voltage

� 1/2
1 � �/�
��
���� = න �
� sin � � 2 ��� = � − � − ��� � � − ��� � �
2� � � �
�

17
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

(c) RL-load with FWD

• A diode is connected across the
inductive load and this is called
freewheeling diode.
• Depending on the ratio of L to R values,
the rectifier can operate in continuous
or discontinuous modes.
• This diode is used to stop the negative
voltage wave to reach the load or to
prevent the instantaneous value of the
18 load voltage to become negative.
 1. Single-phase Half-wave …

Waveforms (RL-load with FWD)

18
 1) 1-ϕ Half-wave Controlled …

Analysis (RL-load with FWD)

��
��� = 1 + ��� � , 0 ≤ � ≤ �
2�

1Τ2
� ��� 2 �
���� = � �−�+
2 � 2

19
 2) 1-phase mid-point converter
• Also called center tapped converter or full-wave rectifier
• is similar to diode rectifiers using center tapped
transformer but diodes replaced by SCRs

• Load can be pure

resistive.
• Inductive load can
operate in continuous or
discontinuous
conduction modes
depending on the ratio of
20
L to R ratio.
 2) 1-ϕ midpoint …
• The first SCR is forward
biased during the positive
half-cycle of Van and it can
be triggered at wt=α.

• The Second SCR is

forward biased in the
second half-cycle of Van or
when Vbn is positive, and it
triggered at wt=π+α

21
 2) 1-ϕ midpoint …
Working operation (R-load)

 During positive half cycle, SCR1 is forward

biased and enters into conduction when it is
triggered at α. During this interval, SCR2 is
reverse biased and no current flows through
it. So, the output voltage is the same as the
input source Van.
 During Negative half cycle SCR2 is forward
biased and starts conducting when it is
triggered at π+α. During this interval, the
24 output voltage becomes the same as Vbn.
 2) 1-ϕ midpoint …
Analysis (R-load)
1. Average load voltage
�
1
��� = � න �(�)�� , � = �, �(�) = ��� = �� sin � �, �� = ���
0
� ���
1 ��
= න� � sin � ���� = � + ��� �
� �
�

�/2 � �
2. RMS load voltage �

� 1/2 � 1/2
1 1
���� = න �
� sin � � 2��� = න �
� sin � � 2���
� �
� �

25
 2) 1-ϕ midpoint …
RL-load • The effect of inductive load here is same as in case of
half-wave converter, discussed earlier.
• In +ve half cycle, TH1 conducts when it is fired at an
angle α. When ωt = π the cycle reverses and the
voltage at terminal A goes negative while at terminal B
it goes positive. At this value of angle TH1 still
conducts due to current circulated as a result of decay
of energy stored in the inductor. The rate of decay is
determined by L/R ratio.
• When the energy stored in the inductor falls to zero, thyristor TH1 is turned off
and the load current falls to zero value at an angle called extinction angle β. The
extinction angle β may be greater than, equal to, or less than the firing angle
α depending upon whether the value of inductance is more than, equal to or less
than the critical value respectively.
• In case the extinction angle β is more than the firing angle α, the device is said to
be in continuous conducting mode and when both angles α and β have the same
26
value, the mode is called just continuous conduction mode.
 2) 1-ϕ midpoint …
Working operation (RL-load)

�
1
��� = � න �(�)�� , � = �, �(�) = ��� = �� sin � �, �� = ���
0
�+�
1 ���
= න �� sin � ���� = ��� �
� �
�

�+� 1/2
1
���� = න �� sin � � 2���
�
� Two quadrant operation
27
 2) 1-ϕ midpoint …
RL-load ��� =
���
cos �
�

Some conclusions may be made from above equation:

1. Output voltage will have the highest value for α = 0.
2. Output voltage will be zero for α = 90°. It means that the output
voltage will contain equal positive and negative areas, giving zero
output voltage.
3. For firing angle α exceeding 90°, the converter operates in inversion
mode. The voltage will be negative maximum for α = 180°.

Note: It is observed that the output power can be controlled to any value by varying the
firing angle α between 0 and 90° in case of inductive loads, while in case of resistive
28
load, the firing angle α ranges from 0° to 180°.
 2) 1-ϕ midpoint …
Effect of FWD

���

29 �
� �/2 �
 2) 1-ϕ midpoint …
Effect of FWD
• The operating principle of the rectifier is the same as that of without freewheeling
diode except the fact that during the negative cycle, the load voltage becomes zero.
• The function of freewheeling diode is to divert the load current from the supply to
the diode. The net result is that the magnitude of the net magnetizing current in the
transformer secondary is reduced i.e., Idc sin Φ goes down.
• As Idc is the load current and remains constant, only sinΦ decreases. It means that
angle Φ decreases which leads to an increase in power factor. Thus, the use of
freewheeling diode improves the power factor of the load.
• The presence of freewheeling diode results in change in waveforms. As the supply
voltage reverses, the load voltage is reduced to zero as it is shorted by the diode
conducting the current circulated by the energy stored in the inductor. From the
waveforms, it can be observed that switching behavior of thyristor in case of R-L
load is like that in a pure resistive load.
30
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge rectifier

 Also called Semi-converter

 Converts AC into DC voltage in a controlled manner
 As its name suggests, it has semi or limited control over the DC
output voltage
 Has two SCRs and two diodes, with two types of configuration

31 Symmetrical configuration Asymmetrical configuration

 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Symmetrical semi-converter
• (T1, D1) pairs are forward b i a s e d
during the 1st h a l f - cycle of the
source a n d T1 c a n be triggered at
ꞷt=α.
• ( T 2 , D 2 ) p a i r s a r e F B i n t h e 2 n d
h a l f - c y c l e o f t h e s o u r c e v o l t a g e ,
a n d T2 c a n b e triggered a t ꞷt=π+α.

• Load c a n b e pure resistive or inductive load.

• For i n d u c t i v e l oa d , t h e rectifier c a n o p e r a t e in c o n t i n u o u s or
d i s c o n t i n u o u s m o d e d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e L / R ratio o f t h e inductive
load.
32
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Symmetrical semi-converter (R-load)

Three operation m o d e s of this converter:

(1) Mode 1: (α, π)
- During the +ve ½ cycle, (T1, D1) pairs
co nduct w h e n T1 is triggered a t ꞷt=α.
Vo=Vs; io= Vo/R.
(2) Mode 2: (π, π+α)
- During the – v e 2 n d ½ cycle, (T1, D1) pairs are RB, , (T2, D2) pairs are F B b u t T2 is not
33 triggered. No device is c onduc ting a n d no flow of current. Vo=0, io=0.
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Symmetrical semi-converter (R-load)

(3) Mode 3: (π+α, 2π)

- At ꞷt=π+α, T2 is triggered and (T2, D2)
pairs co nduct until the s u p p l y
reverses to +ve. Thus, Vo=Vs; io= Vo/R.

32
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Symmetrical semi-converter (R-load)

33
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Symmetrical semi-converter (RL-load)

• When this converter delivers power to the

RL load, the load current c a n b e of two
t y p e s - continuous or discontinuous
depending upo n the inductance of
inductive load.

Discontinuous mode
36 Note: T1D2 pairs and T1D1 pairs are acting as freewheeling path.
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Symmetrical semi-converter (RL-load)

• The L / R ratio is very large here, a n d the

next cycle r e a c h e s before the energy
stored in the inductor in the previous
cycle is f u l l y dissipated.
• The inductor current, t h u s , never
r e a c h e s zero in this mode. Continuous mode
• Output voltage waveform is s a m e a s
37
the discontinuous case.
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Symmetrical semi-converter (RL-load with FWD)

• In the above two modes, there will b e a flow

of load current even after p h a s e reversal i.e.,
after completing e a c h h a l f cycle. This is
b e c a u s e , d u e to the large inductive nature of
the load, the load current h a s a tendenc y to
flow continuously by finding a n alternative
p a t h through the diode of the s a m e a r m of
c onduc ting SCR even after p h a s e reversal.
38
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Analysis (Symmetrical semi-converter)
• Output voltage wa vefo r m is the s a m e
for R a n d RL l o a d s with a n d without
FWD. Thus, the average output voltage
is the s a m e for a l l c a u s e s .

37
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Asymmetrical semi-converter
• (T1,D1) pairs are forward b i a s e d
during the 1st h a l f - cycle of the
source a n d T1 c a n be triggered at
ꞷt=α.
• (T2,D2) pairs are F B in t h e 2 n d h a l f -
c y c l e of t he source voltage, a n d T2
c a n b e triggered a t ꞷt=π+α.

• Load c a n b e pure resistive or inductive load.

• For inductive load, the rectifier c a n operate in continuous or
discontinuous m o d e depending upon the L / R ratio of t h e inductive
load.
38
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Asymmetrical semi-converter (R-load)

Three operation m o d e s of this converter:

(1) Mode 1: (α, π)
- During the +ve ½ cycle, (T1, D1) pairs
co nduct w h e n T1 is triggered a t ꞷt=α.
Vo=Vs; io= Vo/R.

(2) Mode 2: (π, π+α)

41
- During the – v e 2 n d ½ cycle, (T1, D1) pairs are RB, , (T2, D2) pairs are F B b u t T2 is not
triggered. No device is c onduc ting a n d no flow of current. Vo=0, io=0.
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Asymmetrical semi-converter (R-load)

(3) Mode 3: (π+α, 2π)

- At ꞷt=π+α, T2 is triggered and (T2, D2)
pairs co nduct until the s u p p l y
reverses to +ve. Thus, Vo=Vs; io= Vo/R.

40
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Asymmetrical semi-converter (R-load)

41
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Asymmetrical semi-converter (RL-load)

• The L / R ratio is very large here, a n d the

next cycle r e a c h e s before the energy
stored in the inductor in the previous
cycle is f u l l y dissipated.
• The inductor current, t h u s , never
r e a c h e s zero in this mode.
• Output voltage wa vefo r m is s a m e a s the discontinuous case.
44 Note: D1D2 pairs are acting as freewheeling path.
 3) 1-ϕ half-controlled bridge…
Analysis (Asymmetrical semi-converter)
• Output voltage w a v e f o r m is the s a m e
for R - load a n d R L - load (in continuous
a n d discontinuous modes).
• Average output voltage is a l s o the s a m e
for all, a n d is the s a m e a s the
s y m m e t r i c a l configuration case.

45
 4) 1-ϕ full-controlled bridge rectifier
Circuit diagram
• A single p h a s e bridge converter
n e e d s 4 thyristors in two legs.
• M a ny t i m e s the bridge circuit is
m o dified by replacing two
thyristors by two diodes known a s
semi-converter.

• SCR pair T1T3 is F B during t h e +ve ½ c y c l e a n d c a n enter into

conduction w h e n both are triggered a t ꞷt=α, while SCR pair T2T4 is F B
during the – v e ½ cycle a n d c a n c o n d u c t w h e n both are triggered at
ꞷt=π+α.
• The load on t he converter m a y b e purely resistive, inductive (R-L)
load or R - L - E load. An R - L - E load c o n s i s t s of resistance, inductance
a n d motor (E s t a n d s for b a c k e m f of motor).
46
• Inductive load c a n operate in continuous or discontinuous mode.
 4) 1-ϕ full-controlled bridge…
Working operation (R-load)

• The operation of this circuit is in

principle similar to t h a t of t h e two
p u l s e m i d - point circuit
• In this circuit, diagonally opposite pair of thyristors are m a d e to
conduct, a n d are c o m m u t a t e d , simultaneously. Thus, thyristors
TH1TH3 a n d TH2TH4 are triggered a t α a n d (π+α) during t h e +ve
47 h a l f - c y c l e a n d – v e h a l f - c y c l e respectively.
 4) 1-ϕ full-controlled bridge…
Analysis (R-load)

48
 4) 1-ϕ full-controlled bridge…
Working operation (RL-load)

• Thyristors TH1TH3 a n d TH2TH4 are

triggered a t α a n d (π+α) during the
+ve h a l f - cycle a n d –ve h a l f - cycle
respectively
T1T3 T2T4
ON ON

• The operation of this circuit is similar to t h e R load c a s e b u t the a m o u n t of

energy stored in the inductive e l e m e n t will force SCR pairs to continue
conducting till a l l energy is d i s s i p a t e d or next SCR pairs are triggered.
49 • Depending on L / R ratio, operation c a n b e continuous of discontinuous mode.
 4) 1-ϕ full-controlled bridge…
Analysis (RL-load)

Continuous mode:

Two quadrant operation

48
 4) 1-ϕ full-controlled bridge…
RL load with FWD

49
 4) 1-ϕ full-controlled bridge…
Advantages of Single Phase Full Wave SCR
1. Offers relatively high efficiency in converting AC to DC power as it utilizes both halves of
the input AC waveform, ensuring better utilization of power.
2. Provides a smoother output waveform compared to half-wave rectifiers, and this reduces
the ripple content in the DC output, resulting in a more stable and constant DC voltage.
3. Can provide a higher average DC output voltage compared to a half-wave rectifier due to
the utilization of both positive and negative halves of the input AC waveform.
4. The rectification process can be controlled, allowing for adjustable output voltage and
power control. This feature is particularly useful in applications that require variable voltage
or power levels.

Disadvantages of Single Phase Full Wave SCR

1. More complex compared to a half-wave rectifier as it requires additional components.
2. Can introduce harmonic distortion in the output waveform which can cause interference in
other electrical equipment connected to the same power supply.
3. Additional components required for control and switching increase the overall cost of the
rectifier circuit.
4. Introduction of more devices adds complexity and potential points of failure in the circuit,
52 reducing the overall reliability of the rectifier compared to simpler rectifier configurations.
6) Single phase Half-wave Diode Rectifier:

qThe half-wave rectifier is often used in low-power applications

 Practical applications of this circuit are limited due to the
following disadvantages,

High ripple factor

Low rectification efficiency
Low transformer utilization factor

 Single phase half-wave rectifier is the simplest circuit, this

circuit is not used in precise practical applications due to high
voltage ripples, and low efficiency.
 6)Single phase Half –Wave Diode Rectifier

A.With a resistive(R) load

The diode D will conduct only on the positive half cycle and will be
OFF on the negative half cycle.
6)Single phase Half –Wave Diode Rectifier

A. With a resistive load: performance parameters

The output average(DC) and RMS voltage and current

6)Single phase Half –Wave Diode Rectifier

B. With a RL load:
 rectifier with a pure resistive load the output voltage and current
contain significant amount of harmonics in addition to the DC.

 Because of such high ripple rectifier is seldom used with a pure

resistive load. The ripple factor can be reduced to same extent by
connecting an inductor in series with the load resistance.
6)Single phase Half –Wave Diode Rectifier

B. With a RL load: Waveform

6)Single phase Half –Wave Diode Rectifier

B. With a RL load: Waveform

 From the waveform, we can conclude that the ripple factor of the
output voltage worsens.
 However, the ripple factor of the output current decreases
with increasing L.

 Therefore, in certain applications, where a smooth dc current

is of prime importance (e.g. the field supply of a dc motor)
this configuration of the rectifier is preferred.

 The problem of poor ripple factor of the output voltage can

be solved to some extent by connecting a capacitor across the
7 Single phase Full wave uncontrolled Rectifier:

 Single phase Full wave rectifier is the popular circuit

 Applied in most industrial application due to good rectifier
parameters.
 There are two types:
v Full wave center tap rectifier ( Midpoint)
v Full Wave bridge rectifier ( Gretz )
 Center tapped (CT) rectifier requires center tap transformer. Full
Bridge (FB) does not.
 CT requires 2 diodes FB: 4 diodes. Hence, CT experienced only
one diode volt drop per half cycle.
 Conduction losses for CT is half.
 Diodes ratings for CT is twice than FB
7. Single phase Full wave uncontrolled Rectifier:
7. Single phase Full wave uncontrolled Rectifier:

A. Full wave centre tap rectifier: Waveforms

7. Single phase Full wave uncontrolled Rectifier:

A.Full wave centre tap rectifier ( Midpoint): Parameters

The average(DC) output voltage is,

And the average load current is,

The rms values of the output voltage and current are,

 7. Single phase Full wave uncontrolled Rectifier:

B. Full Wave bridge rectifier ( Gretz )

 The center tapped type is used in applications less than 100 W
 Bridge rectifier is used in applications ranging from 100 W to 100 kW. So
bridge rectifier is preferable and mostly used rectifier than the center tapped
Type.
Operations
 The En
Thank Yo
Worksheet 2

By showing the necessary steps, answer the following questions.

(2.1) A single-phase halfwave controlled rectifier has a pure resistive load and
SCR is triggered at a delay angle of α=π/2. It is operated from a single
phase 230/120 V, 50 Hz supply and the resistance supplied is 10 Ω.
Determine
a) the average load current
b) the efficiency
c) the form factor
(2.2) An application of a 1-ϕ halfwave controlled rectifier is to charge batteries.
a) with relevant circuit diagram and waveforms, explain the operation of the
device
b) derive the average current charging the battery
c) if the battery with the device is supplied from a 230/120 V, 50 Hz
transformer. Determine the average charging current if the SCR is triggered
continuously. Assume the voltage across the battery is 60 V and the
effective resistance of the circuit is 36 Ω.
Worksheet 2 …

(continued…)
(2.3) A single-phase fully controlled bridge rectifier is suppled from 120 V.
Determine the average load voltage for α=0o, α=45o, and α=90o assuming
continuous load current. Allow a thyristor drop of 1.5 V.
(2.4) Using a 1-ϕ halfwave controlled rectifier circuit with FWD, a low voltage
load is supplied by a 20 V AC supply. Assuming continuous load current,
calculate the average load voltage when α=60o. Assume the On state
voltage drop of 1.5 V and 0.7 V across the SCR and diode respectively.
(2.5) A single phase fully controlled bridge is connected to RLE load. The source
voltage is 230V, 50 Hz. The average load current of 10A continuous over
the working range. For R= 0.4 Ω and L = 2mH, Compute
(a) firing angle for E = 120V,
(b) firing angle for E = -120V
(c) in case output current is constant find the input power factors for both
parts a and b.
 Worksheet 2 …

(continued…)
(2.6) A single phase two pulse converter feeds power to RLE load with R= 12 Ω,
L= 6mH, E= 60 V, AC source voltage is 230 V, 50 Hz for continuous
condition. Find the average value of load current for a firing angle of 60ᵒ. In
case one of the 4 SCRs gets open circuited, find the new value of average
load current assuming the output current as continuous.

(2.7) For the single phase fully controlled bridge converter having load of ‘R’,
determine the average output voltage, rms output voltage and input power
factor if the supply is 230 V, 50 Hz, single phase AC and the firing angle is
45 degrees.

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