BASIC MACHENICAL ENGINEERING

 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIAL:

Engineering materials are normally classified primarily into three main categories: metals
and alloys, ceramics and glasses, and polymers. Among these categories, metals and their
alloys and polymers are widely used as structural engineering materials

Classification of Engineering Materials

Basically Engineering Materials Can be classified into two categories-
1. Metals
2. Non-Metals
3. Metals and Alloys
4. Ceramic Materials
Metals
Metals are defined as polycrystalline bodies made of many fine crystals. Most metals are
solid at room temperature, except for a few like mercury, which is liquid. Metals have high
thermal and electrical conductivity and a positive temperature coefficient of resistance,
meaning their resistance increases with temperature. Examples of metals include silver,
copper, gold, aluminium, iron, zinc, lead, and tin.

. Non-Metals
Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in nature. These exists in amorphic or mesomorphic
forms. These are available in both solid and gaseous forms at normal temperature.
Normally all non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity.
Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos etc.
As these non-metals are having very high resistivity which makes them suitable for
insulation purpose in electrical machines.

Metals and Alloys

Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are have number of differentially oriented fine
crystals. Normally major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some
metals such as mercury are also in liquid state at normal temperature.
Pure metals have low mechanical strength, which is often insufficient for certain
applications. To address this, alloys are used.
Alloys are the composition of two or more metals or metal and non-metals together. Alloys
are having good mechanical strength, low temperature coefficient of resistance.
Example: Steels, Brass, Bronze, Gunmetal, Invar. Super Alloys etc.

Ceramic Materials

Ceramic materials are non-metallic solids. These are made of inorganic compounds such as
Oxides, Nitrides, Silicates and Carbides. Ceramic materials possess exceptional Structural,
Electrical, Magnetic, Chemical and Thermal properties. These ceramic materials are now
extensively used in different engineering fields.
Examples: Silica, glass, cement, concrete, garnet, Mgo, Cds, Zno, SiC etc.
 HOOKS LAWS
Engineering materials are normally classified primarily into three main categories: metals
and alloys, ceramics and glasses, and polymers. Among these categories, metals and their
alloys and polymers are widely used as structural engineering materials.

Stress and strain take different forms in different situations. Generally, for small
deformations, the stress and strain are proportional to each other, and this is known as
Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within
the elastic limit of that material.
When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and molecules deform until stress is
applied, and when the stress is removed, they return to their initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is expressed as:
F = –kx
In the equation, F is the force, x is the extension in length, k is the constant of proportionality
known as the spring constant in N/m.

Hooke’s Law Solved Example

A spring is displaced by 5 cm and held in place with a force of 500 N. What is the
spring constant of the spring?
Solution:
We know that the spring is displaced by 5 cm, but the unit of the spring constant is Newtons
per meter. This means that we have to convert the distance to meters.
Converting the distance to meters, we get
5 cm = 0.05 m
Now substituting the values in the equation, we get
F = –k.x
500 N = – k x 0.05 m
Now, we need to rework the equation so that we can calculate the missing metric, which is
the spring constant, or k. Looking only at the magnitudes and therefore omitting the negative
sign, we get
500 N/0.05 m = k
k = 10000 N/M Therefore, the spring constant of the spring is 10000 N/m.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical properties are also used to help classify and identify material. The most common
properties considered are strength, ductility, hardness, impact resistance, and fracture
toughness.

1. Elasticity: The property of a substance by which it regains its original shape and size
when the deforming force is removed.

2. Stress: When we apply an external deforming force on an object, the particles of the
object, in turn, apply a restoring force in the opposite direction to the deforming force. This
restoring force per unit area is termed as stress.

The magnitude of the stress = F/A

4. Plasticity: It is a mechanical property of a material and is defined as the quality of

material when it undergoes non-reversible deformation under the effect of an external force.
The materials exhibiting this property are known as plastic materials. When stress is applied
to a plastic material, the plastic strain which is developed is nonrecoverable and permanent.

5. Toughness: It is also a mechanical property and is defined as the ability of a material to

absorb energy and undergo plastic deformation without undergoing fracturing.
Mathematically speaking, the toughness of a material is the energy absorbed per unit volume
by the material before rupturing. The material should be both strong and ductile in order to
be tough.

6. Ductility: It is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation before rupturing.

The materials which show this property are known as ductile materials. A good ductile
material is capable of being drawn into wires.

7. Hardness: It is the capacity of a substance to withstand long-term shape change brought

on by external stress. Scratch Hardness, Indentation Hardness, and Rebound Hardness are
three different measures of hardness

8. Malleability: The ability of a material to be rolled or hammered into a thin sheet is a

common way to classify malleability. This mechanical quality is a component of the
material’s plasticity. Temperature affects a material’s malleability. The malleability of
material rises with temperature rising
 CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement is the basic concept in the study of Mathematics and Science.

Measurement quantifies the characteristics of an object or event, which we can compare with
other things or events.

There are some basic types of measurement variables that we deal with in several areas of
mathematics. They are:

 Time
 Length
 Weight
 Volume
 Temperature

Measurement Units
We have units of measurement for different types of measurement as mentioned above. Let’s
have a look at the below units of measurement.

Time: Units for expressing time include seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months,
years, etc.

Length: Units for measuring length include millimetres, centimetres, meters, kilometres, etc.

Weight: Units for expressing the weight of certain objects include grams, kilograms, tons,
etc.

Volume: Units for expressing volume include cm3, m3, litres, etc.

Temperature: The major units of temperature include centigrade and fahrenheit.It is also
possible to perform the conversion of units from one unit to another.

Measurement Instruments
Instruments are required to measure any type of quantity. For example, to measure weights
we require a weighing machine, to measure length we require a scale or tape. Some
measurements are given below:
 Vernier caliper

A vernier calliper is defined as a measuring device that is used for the measurement of linear
dimensions. It is also used for the measurement of diameters of round objects with the help
of the measuring jaws.

French mathematician Pierre Vernier invented the vernier scale in 1631. The main use of the
vernier calliper over the main scale is to get an accurate and precise measurement.

Least Count of Vernier Calliper

The least count of vernier callipers is also known as the vernier constant. It is defined as the
difference between one main scale division and one vernier scale division.

It is mathematically given as:

VC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

When there are n divisions on the vernier scale, which coincides with (n-1) division on the
main scale, then the least count of vernier calliper is:

LC=(1- n-1/n) MSD

Therefore, the least count of vernier calliper is 0.1 mm.

Where,

 VC is the vernier constant

 MSD is the main scale division
 VSD is the vernier scale division
 LC is the least count
 FLUID PROPERTIES
After understanding what is fluid and its classification, let us know some of the main
properties of fluids. Properties of fluids are:
1. Density
2. Viscosity
3. Pressure
4. compressibility
Density
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a fluid. The density of a substance varies
as per the volume of a substance. The SI unit of density is kg.m-3.
P = mass of fluid/volume of fluid

Viscosity
Viscosity determines the amount of resistance offered by the fluid to shear stress. A fluid
that offers no resistance to shear stress is called an inviscid fluid.

Pressure
The pressure of a fluid is the force applied by it per unit area. Fluid pressure takes place in
two conditions: open condition and closed condition. The pressure at any given point of a
static fluid is called hydrostatic pressure.
Pressure of fluid= force/area

Compressibility: it has the ability of fluid to decrease in volume under pressure. It is

significant in gas dynamic and understanding the behavior of gases in mechanical.

.
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Bernoulli equation in mechanical engineering is a fundamental principle that relates the

pressure, velocity, and elevation of a fluid in a flow. It is based on the principle of
conservation of energy for flowing fluids.

The Bernoulli equation can be expressed as:

P + (1/2)ρv^2 + ρgh = constant

Where:

- P is the pressure of the fluid

- ρ is the density of the fluid

- v is the velocity of the fluid

- g is the acceleration due to gravity

- h is the height of the fluid above a reference point

This equation states that the total energy per unit mass in a flowing fluid remains constant
along a streamline. It is commonly used in various applications in mechanical engineering,
such as fluid dynamics, aerodynamics, and hydraulics.

Bernoulli equation in mechanical engineering is a fundamental principle that relates the

pressure, velocity, and elevation of a fluid in a flow

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
thermodynamic system in basic mechanical engineering refers to a specific quantity of
matter or a region in space chosen for study during a thermodynamic process. It can be a gas,
liquid, solid, or a combination of these. The system is separated from the surroundings by a
boundary, which can be real or imaginary.

There are three main types of thermodynamic systems:

1. Closed System: A system that can exchange energy but not matter with its surroundings.

2. Open System: A system that can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.

3. Isolated System: A system that can exchange neither energy nor matter with its
surroundings.

The behavior of a thermodynamic system is studied using various principles and laws of
thermodynamics, such as the first law of thermodynamics (law of energy conservation) and
the second law of thermodynamics (law of entropy). These principles help in understanding
how energy is transferred and transformed within a system.

In basic mechanical engineering, understanding thermodynamic systems is crucial for

analyzing and designing mechanical systems that involve energy transfer and conversion. It
allows engineers to optimize processes, improve efficiency, and ensure the proper
functioning of mechanical systems.

Thermodynamic systems play a fundamental role in basic mechanical engineering by

providing a framework for studying energy interactions within a defined region or quantity
of matter.

Q. EXPLAIN WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM ENGINE?

Ans. A steam engine is a heat engine that converts the thermal energy of steam into
mechanical work. The basic working principle is as follows:

1. Heat Addition: Water is heated in a boiler to produce high-pressure steam.

2. Expansion: The steam enters the engine's cylinder, pushing a piston, which is connected to
a crankshaft. This motion is known as the "power stroke".

3. Work Output: The rotating crankshaft is connected to a load, such as a wheel or a

machine, which performs useful work.

4. Exhaust: The spent steam is exhausted from the cylinder and condensed back into liquid
water in a condenser.

5. Cooling: The condensed water is cooled, reducing its temperature and pressure, making it
ready to be reused in the boiler.

The steam engine uses the principles of thermodynamics to convert the energy stored in the
steam into mechanical work. The key processes involved are:

- Isobaric expansion: The steam expands at constant pressure in the cylinder, doing work on
the piston.

- Isothermal expansion: The steam expands at constant temperature in the cylinder, allowing
maximum energy transfer.

- Adiabatic expansion: The steam expands without heat transfer in the cylinder, maintaining
its temperature and pressure.

The steam engine's efficiency is improved by using techniques like:

- Compounding: Using multiple cylinders to extract more work from the steam.

- Superheating: Heating the steam above its boiling point to increase its energy content.

- Regeneration: Using some of the exhaust steam to preheat the incoming water, reducing
energy waste.
The steam engine was a groundbreaking innovation that revolutionized industry and
transportation in the 18th and 19th centuries. Its principles still apply to modern steam
turbines and power plants.

Q. EXPLAIN THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM ENGINE ?

The modulus of elasticity, also known as Young's modulus, is a mechanical property that
describes the stiffness or rigidity of a material. In basic mechanical engineering, it is an
essential parameter used to characterize the behavior of materials under loading.

Young's modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit of a
material. Stress is the force applied per unit area, and strain is the resulting deformation or
change in length relative to the original length of the material.

Mathematically, Young's modulus (E) is calculated as:

E = Stress / Strain

The modulus of elasticity indicates how much a material will deform under a certain amount
of stress. A higher modulus of elasticity means that a material is stiffer and will deform less
under a given load, while a lower modulus of elasticity indicates a more flexible material
that will deform more under the same load.

Understanding the modulus of elasticity is crucial in mechanical engineering for designing

structures and components that can withstand different loads and forces without deforming
excessively. It helps engineers select appropriate materials for specific applications based on
their stiffness characteristics.

The modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus, is a key mechanical property that describes
the stiffness of a material and its ability to resist deformation under stress in basic
mechanical engineering.

EXLAIN THE NEWTONS LAW OF VISCOSITY IN BASIC MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
Viscosity is the physical property that characterizes the flow resistance of simple fluids.
Newton’s law of viscosity defines the relationship between the shear stress and shear rate of
a fluid subjected to a mechanical stress. The ratio of shear stress to shear rate is a constant,
for a given temperature and pressure, and is defined as the viscosity or coefficient of
viscosity. Newtonian fluids obey Newton’s law of viscosity. The viscosity is independent of
the shear rate. Non-Newtonian fluids do not follow Newton’s law and, thus, their viscosity
(ratio of shear stress to shear rate) is not constant and is dependent on the shear rate.Dynamic
viscosity is the coefficient of viscosity as defined in Newton’s law of viscosity. Kinematic
viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density.

Viscosity/Dynamic viscosity:
Viscosity is the physical property that characterizes the flow resistance of simple fluids.
Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of its offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over an adjacent layer.

NEWTON’S VISCOSITY LAW’S :

Newton’s viscosity law’s states that, the shear stress between adjacent fluid layers is
proportional to the velocity gradients between the two layers.The ratio of shear stress to
shear rate is a constant, for a given temperature and presre, and is defined as the viscosity or
coefficient of viscosity..

Kinematic viscosity/ momentum diffusivity:

It is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the fluid.
Newtonian Fluid:
A fluid, whose viscosity does not change with the rate of deformation or shear stain (V/Y), is
called Newtonian fluid.
A fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity is termed as Newtonian fluid.

WHAT IS YOUNG’S MODULUS?

Young’s modulus is also known as modulus of elasticity and is defined as:
The mechanical property of a material to withstand the compression or the elongation with
respect to its length.
It is denoted as E or Y.
Young’s Modulus (also referred to as the Elastic Modulus or Tensile Modulus), is a measure
of mechanical properties of linear elastic solids like rods, wires, and such. Other numbers
measure the elastic properties of a material, like Bulk modulus and shear modulus, but the
value of Young’s Modulus is most commonly used. This is because it gives us information
about the tensile elasticity of a material (ability to deform along an axis).
Young’s modulus describes the relationship between stress (force per unit area) and strain
(proportional deformation in an object). The Young’s modulus is named after the British
scientist Thomas Young. A solid object deforms when a particular load is applied to it. The
body regains its original shape when the pressure is removed if the object is elastic. Many
materials are not linear and elastic beyond a small amount of deformation. The constant
Young’s modulus applies only to linear elastic substances.

Young’s Modulus Formula:

�=��

Young’s Modulus Formula From Other Quantities

�≡�(�)�=��Δ��0=��0�Δ�

Notations Used In The Young’s Modulus Formula .unit and dimension

 E is Young’s modulus in Pa
 𝞂 is the uniaxial stress in Pa

 ε is the strain or proportional deformation

 F is the force exerted by the object under SI unit Pa
tension
 A is the actual cross-sectional area
 ΔL is the change in the length Imperial unit psi
 L0 is the actual length

Dimension ML-1T-2
The Young’s Modulus of such a material is given by the ratio of stress and strain,
corresponding to the stress of the material. The relation is given below.
Where,

 E is the Young’s Modulus of the material given in N/m2

 σ is the stress applied to the material
 ε is the strain corresponding to applied stress in the material
With the value of Young’s modulus for a material, the rigidity of the body can be
determined. This is because it tells us about the body’s ability to resist deformation on
the application of force.
The Young’s Modulus values of different materials are given below:

 Steel – 200
 Glass – 65
 Wood – 13
 Plastic (Polystyrene) – 3
Young’s Modulus Factors
By understanding the modulus of elasticity of steel, we can claim that steel is more rigid in
nature than wood or polystyrene, as its tendency to experience deformation under applied
load is less. Young’s modulus is also used to determine how much a material will deform
under a certain applied load.
Another thing to keep in mind is that the lower the value of Young’s Modulus in materials,
the more the deformation experienced by the body, and this deformation in the case of
objects like clay and wood can vary in the sample itself. One part of the clay sample deforms
more than the other whereas a steel bar will experience an equal deformation throughout.
Try calculating the change in length of a steel beam, whose initial length was 200 m, due to
applied stress of1.5N/m2. .Modulus of elasticity of steel can be found in the table above.
WHAT IS A LATHE MACHINE ?
Ans. INTRODUCTION:
In the Mechanical Engineering field Lathe machine plays an important
role in Manufacturing. In this article, I am going to discuss the Lathe
machine in detail.
 A lathe is a machine tool used to remove unwanted metals from a
work-piece to give the desired shape and size.
 It operates on the principle of a rotating work-piece about an axis
while a fixed cutting tool keeps removing unwanted materials from
the work-piece to form the desired shape.
 The full form of ‘ Lathe ‘ is ” Longitudinal Axis Tool Holding
Equipment “.
 It can be used for various types of machining processes like
turning, facing, grooving, parting, threading, drilling, boring,
knurling, tapping and other machining processes.
 Lathe machine are one of the most important machine tools that is
used in the metal working industry.
 The cutting tool is feed into the work piece which rotates about its
own axis causing the workpiece to form the desired shape.
 It is also known as ” the mother/father of the entire tool family”.
 It was invented by DAVID WILKINSON ( 05 Jan. 1771 – 03
Feb. 1852).

Functions of lathe Machine

 The main function of Lathe machine is to remove excess material
in the form of chips by rotating the work piece against a stationary
cutting tool.
 This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on
the machine and then turning it against cutting tool which will
remove metal from the work.
 To cut the material properly the tool should be harder than the
material of the work piece, should be rigidly held on the machine
and should be fed or progress in a definite way relative to the
work.
Main Parts of lathe Machine
 The main parts of lathe machine are as follows:-

 1. Bed 2. Head Stock 3. Main Spindle 4. Tail Stock 5. Lead

Screw 6. Live Center 7. Dead Center 8. Carriage 9. Feed
Mechanism

 1. Bed
 The Bed forms the base of a machine.
 It is mounted on the legs of the lathe machine, which are bolted to
the floor.
 It is made up of cast iron and its top surface is machined
accurately and precisely.

2. Head Stock
 Head stock is an important part of a lathe machine, which is
mounted permanently on the inner guide – ways at the left hand
side of the bed.
 It consists of a main spindle, a chuck fitted at spindle nose, back
gear drive and all gear drive.

3. Main Spindle
 A main spindle is a hollow cylindrical shaft.
 It’s face has a standard moarse taper.
 It is used for holding the live Centre or collet.
 The spindle rotates on two large bearings housed on the head stock
casting.
 The front end of the spindle is threaded, those are used for holding
the chuck, face plate, driving plate and catch plate.
 It is know as a spindle nose.

4. Tail Stock
 A tail stock is located on the inner guide – ways at the right side of
the bed opposite to the head stock.
 The body of the tail stock is bored and house the tail stock spindle.
 The spindle moves front and back inside the hole.

5. Lead Screw
 It is used to transmit power to carriage through gear and clutch
arrangement in the carriage apron.

6. Live Center
 A Live Center is mounting on bearings and rotates with the work.
 Live centers are using to hold or support a work-piece.

7. Dead Center
 A dead center may be use to support the work piece at either the
fixed or rotating end of the machine.
 Dead centers are typically fully harden to prevent damage to the
important mating surfaces of the taper and to preserve the 60°
angle of the nose.

8. Carriage
 A carriage is located between the head stock and tail stock on the
lathe bed guide – ways.
 It can be moved along the bed either towards or away from the
head stock.
 It has several parts to support, move and control the cutting tool.

9. Feed Mechanism
 There are several mechanisms to make the carriage and cross slide
move automatically to change the direction of their movement.
 Some important feed mechanisms are as follows:
o In the gear feed mechanism, the power is transmitted from spindle
to feed rod or lead screw by power gear train.
 o Gear 1 is situated at the back side of the spindle and the tumbler
bracket consists of the gears 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Working
 It holds the work between two supports so call as centers.
 Face plate or Chuck are using for holding the work.
 Face plate or Chuck are mounted on the machine spindle.
 The cutting tool is holding with the help of Tool post.
 The movement of the job is rotating about the spindle axis.
 Against the revolving work, the tool is feed.
 The tool moves either parallel or inclination to the work axis.
WHAT IS A DRILLING MACHINE?

You probably already know that a drilling machine is used to make holes. The machine's
purpose is to hold a drill bit or other form of cutter rigidly and traverse it along the spindle
axis to cut the required holes. In reality, some machines move the workpiece rather than the
cutter, while others can move both as required.

A drilling machine's speed is necessarily adjustable, to suit the type of cutter, the material
being worked, and the precision/surface quality needed in the hole. The feed or plunge rate
into the workpiece can be altered either manually or automatically, depending on the
complexity of the machine you’re using.

Drilling machines can be mounted directly to a concrete floor or a work table, or they can
even be portable or for freehand use. We have seen it done in multiple ways. Figure 1 below
is a diagram of a fairly typical simple drill press, with a manually positioned workpiece you
locate and restrain by hand or by clamping it in a vice, which may or may not be itself
clamped to the table:

Figure 1: Diagram depicting a drill press, a type of drilling machine

WHAT ARE THE USES OF A DRILLING MACHINE?
You can use a typical drilling machine for cutting blind holes (part way) or through-holes in
almost any material — from popular metals we offer such as titanium, steel, and aluminum
to machinable ceramics and engineering plastics like ULTEM; jobbing drills can handle it
all. These devices come in all sizes and types and are generally flexible and highly amenable
to most drilling operations and hole types:

1. Drilling: When you need a simple, not too large or small parallel sided hole in a
workpiece, that requires a basic drilling operation.
2. Reaming: When you need that parallel sided hole to be of a precise diameter and
roundness. For example, so you can make a running fit for a shaft, then a reamer is
needed. It’s a specialist and precise drill with many flutes (cutters) that is intended for
very shallow finish cutting.
3. Countersinking: Often the corner at the throat of the hole needs to be either broken
with a slight bevel or opened to a taper that allows for a fastener head or similar to be
accommodated. This uses a heavily tapered drill called a countersink - you can get
these in a variety of angles to suit your needs.
4. Tapping: With a nice round hole drilled, it’s often the case that we will need to cut a
thread into the wall of the bore. This is done using a specialist drill called a tap that
has vertical (hand tap) or spiral (machine tap) flutes and the male thread cut on it. The
flutes make many cutting edges and clear away the debris, a tapered start allows you
to engage the tap with less struggle and error.
5. Boring: We don’t like to be “bored,” but a hole often needs to be expanded. This is
typically because a big drill is not very good at cutting at its tip, so stepping up
through several boring stages will allow you an easier and more accurate process.
6. Counterboring: Very often a hole needs to step in diameter, to accommodate
fasteners with shouldered heads (as opposed to countersinks). This requires a partially
drilled hole using a counterbore drill, which locates in the original hole and then cuts
with a diameter step. Counterbores are usually 90° shoulders but they can be sloped, if
required.

.
What is a Dial Gauge?

A dial gauge, also known as a dial gauge indicator, is a precision instrument employing
numerical indicators and an internal mechanism to measure various components or objects
accurately. A dial gauge is used to measure small linear displacements or dimensional
variations with high precision and accuracy. Particularly prominent in the mechanical field,
dial gauges play a crucial role in production, fabrication, and quality control departments.

Parts of Dial Gauge

Dials on a Dial Indicator are analog in nature, and the instrument employs an indicator to
display the measured value, hence earning its alternate name, Dial Indicator.

Fig 2: Parts of dial gauge

The Dial Indicator necessitates specific components and a particular setup for its operation,
with its primary components consisting of:

o Probe: The probe, often referred to as the plunger, is a sensitive and flexible rod-like
component that makes contact with the object being measured, allowing for precise
and controlled movement.
o Gear or Pinion Gear: The gear, also known as the pinion gear, is an integral part of
the mechanism that translates the probe's movement into rotational motion, facilitating
the indicator's reading.
o Indicator: The indicator is the visible part of the Dial Indicator that displays the
measured value in analog form, enabling the user to read and interpret the
measurement accurately.

Working of Dial Gauge

o The operation of the dial indicator is analog in nature, with responses indicated by the
dial. The movement of the dial indicator relies on the interplay between the probe and
the gear mechanism. The probe, also known as the plunger, is a delicate and flexible
 rod-like component capable of vertical motion (up and down) when placed on the
workpiece.
o To measure the value of a specific component, the probe of the dial indicator should
be gently placed on the component's surface. As the probe moves, it initiates the
rotation of gears within the dial.
o Consider the Rack and Pinion Mechanism: The probe functions as the rack, while the
gear acts as the pinion. When the probe moves upward, this motion translates into the
rotation of the gear. The dial indicator itself is affixed to the pinion gear, and as the
pinion gear moves, the indicator's needle rotates accordingly. This rotational
movement of the indicator provides the desired response or measurement.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PV DIAGRAM AND TS DIAGRAM IN CARNOT CYCLE

In the Carnot cycle, the PV diagram consists of two isothermal and two adiabatic curves.
Similarly, in the TS (temperature-entropy) diagram, we have a rectangle representing the
same cycle, with two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes (represented by
constant entropy lines).

In the TS diagram, the isothermal processes are also considered isobaric, meaning the
pressure remains constant. However, in the PV diagram, we observe a change in pressure for
the isothermal curves. Why is that the case?
 DEFINE RECIPROCATING PUMP
Types
By source of work

Simple hand-operated reciprocating pump. The simplest example is

the bicycle pump, which is used ubiquitously to inflate bicycle tires and
various types of sporting balls.[1]
 Power-operated deep well reciprocating pump
By mechanism

 Single-acting reciprocating pump consists of a piston of which only one

side engages the fluid being displaced.[2] The simplest example would be
a syringe.
 Double-acting reciprocating pump engage with both sides of the piston,
each stroke of the piston carries out both suction and expulsion at the
same time. Thus it require two inflow pipes and two outflow pipes.[2]
 Triple-acting reciprocating pump
By Numbers of Cylinders

 Single cylinder - consists of a single cylinder connected to a shaft.

 Double cylinder - consists of two cylinders connected to a shaft.
 Triple cylinder - consists of three cylinders connected to a shaft.
Main components of reciprocating pump[edit]
Reciprocating pump has wide application and to clear the basic idea it is
necessary to know the basic parts.
The basic parts along with its function;
 Water reservoir - it is not a part of reciprocating pump, however, it is the
main source where from the reciprocating pump takes the water. It may be
a source of other fluid as well.
 Strainer - It removes all impurities from the liquid to avert chocking the
pump.
 Suction Pipe - It is a pipe by which pump takes the water from the reservoir.
 Suction Valve - It is a non-return type valve installed on the suction pipe
and helps to flow from reservoir to pump not the vice versa.
 Cylinder or liquid cylinder - The main component where pressure is
increased. It is a hollow cylinder with coatings. It consists of a piston along
with piston rings.
 Piston or plunger and Piston rod - Piston is directly connected to a rod that
is the piston rod. This piston rod is again connected to the connecting rod.
Piston makes the reciprocating motion in forward and backward motion and
creates pressure inside the cylinder.
 Piston rings - Piston rings are small but one of the vital parts to protect the
piston surface as well as cylinder inner surface from wear and tear. It helps
to operate the pump smoothly.
 Packing - Packing is necessary for all pumps, to have a proper sealing
between cylinder and piston. It helps to stop leakage.
 Crank and Connecting rod - Crank is connected to the power source and
connecting rod makes connection between crank and piston rod. These
component helps to change the circular motion into linear motion.
 Delivery valve (non-return valve) - Like suction valve delivery valve is also
non return type and it helps to build up the pressure. It protect the pump
from back flow.
 Delivery pipe - It helps to supply the fluid at destination.
 Air Vessel - Few reciprocating pumps may have an air vessel, it helps to
reduce the frictional head or acceleration head.
BRIEFLY EXPLAIN DRAUGHT?
DRAUGHT
Draught is defined as the difference between absolute gas pressure
at any point in a gas flow passage and the ambient (same elevation)
atmospheric pressure. . Draught is achieved by small pressure difference
which causes the flow of air or gas to take place. It is measured in
milimetre (mm) or water.

 NATURAL DRAUGHT:
 1. Chimney Draught: Chimney draught, as mentioned earlier, relies
on the temperature difference between the hot gases inside the
chimney and the cooler air outside to create a natural flow of air.
This type of natural draught is prevalent in heating systems,
boilers, and industrial processes.

2. Wind or Wind-induced Draught: Wind-induced draught occurs when

the movement of wind around a structure or system creates a pressure
difference that drives airflow. This type of natural draught can be
harnessed to enhance ventilation in buildings or industrial facilities
without the need for mechanical assistance.
These types of natural draught systems play a vital role in various
mechanical engineering applications by utilizing natural phenomena to
facilitate airflow and ventilation.

ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT:
Artificial draught in basic mechanical engineering refers to the method
of creating a flow of air or gas through a system using mechanical
means. It is commonly used in various applications to control the flow
of air, improve combustion efficiency, or remove unwanted gases.

In the context of boilers or furnaces, artificial draught is essential to

ensure proper combustion by supplying the required amount of air or
removing combustion gases. There are two main types of artificial
draught systems:

1. Induced Draught: In an induced draught system, a fan or blower is

used to create a negative pressure inside the system, which draws air
and combustion gases through the system and expels them to the
atmosphere.

2. Forced Draught: In a forced draught system, a fan or blower is used

to create a positive pressure inside the system, pushing air into the
system for combustion or other processes.

These artificial draught systems play a crucial role in maintaining

efficient and controlled airflow in various mechanical systems, ensuring
optimal performance and safety.

Artificial draught in basic mechanical engineering refers to the method

of creating a flow of air or gas through a system using mechanical
means.
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM:

What is Stress?
Stress is defined as force per unit area within materials that
arises from externally applied forces, uneven heating, or
permanent deformation and that permits an accurate
description and prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behaviour.

Types of Stress
Stress applied to a material can be of two types as
follows:
Tensile Stress
The external force per unit area of the material resulting in the
stretch of the material is known as tensile stress.
Compressive Stress
Compressive stress is the force that is responsible for the
deformation of the material, such that the volume of the
material reduces.

What is Strain?
Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in
the direction of force applied, divided by the initial dimensions of
the body.

Types of Strain
Strain experienced by a body can be of two types depending on stress
application as follows:
The deformation or elongation of a solid body due to applying a tensile
force or stress is known as Tensile strain. In other words, tensile strain is
produced when a body increases in length as applied forces try to stretch
it.
Compressive Strain
Compressive strain is the deformation in a solid due to the application of
compressive stress. In other words, compressive strain is produced when
a body decreases in length when equal and opposite forces try to
compress it.