Experiment No.

1
I/V Characteristics of semiconductor diode
(LED)
 A

F
G

E C

Circuit Diagram-

Forward Bias
 Experiment No. 1 : I/V Characteristics of semiconductor diode (LED)
Aim:
To study the current-voltage characteristics of red, infra-red and green LEDs in
forward bias
Objective:
After performing the practical, the learner will be able to:
PRO 1: Study the I-V characteristics of Red Light Emitting Diode
PRO 2: Study the I-V characteristics of Infrared/Green Light Emitting Diode
PRO3: Measure and Compare the cut in voltage of Red and Infrared LED.

Apparatus: LED (Red and Infrared), regulated power supply with voltage (0-30
V), D.C. Voltmeter, Milliammeter, Connecting wires etc.
Theoretical Background: Light emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off
light when it is energized. In any forward biased P-N Junction there is within the
structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of holes and electrons
occurs. Due to the recombination of charge carriers energy will be released. But the
energy released in the form of heat in the case of semiconductor like germanium or
silicon.
Principle: In some semiconductor like Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide
(GaP) and Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), the energy is released in the form of
light called photons. In electronics, an LED circuit or LED driver is
an electrical circuit used to power a light-emitting diode (LED). The circuit must
provide sufficient current to light the LED at the required brightness, but must limit the
current to prevent damaging the LED. The voltage drop across an LED is
approximately constant over a wide range of operating current; therefore, a small
increase in applied voltage greatly increases the current. Very simple circuits are used
for low-power indicator LEDs.
I /V Characteristics of RED LED -
The voltage drop across LED depends upon the colour and the current flowing through
LED. If V is the applied voltage and Rs is the resistance in series with the LED, the
current flowing through the LED is given by
I = V – V0 /Rs
Where V0 is the voltage drop across LED. The brightness of LED depends upon the
current. If a high voltage supply is used, the variation in current and brightness is less.
Observations:

Table I for Red LED Table II for InfraRed/Green LED

PRO 1 PRO 2
Sr.No. VVolts I (mA) Sr.No. VVolts I (mA)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
Graph: Plot a graph of current (Y-axis) against Voltage (X-axis)

I(mA)

Cut- in-voltage
Volts

If a low voltage is used, the variation in current and brightness is more. The energy band gap
of the semiconductor junction determines the wavelength of emitted light. Intrinsic GaAs
semiconductor has a band gap of 1.4eV and can emit light of wavelength in the infrared
region of 9000 A. Gallium Phosphide (GaP) whose band gap is 2.25 eV and the wavelength
is in the visible region of 5500 A (red/yellow). GaAsP emits wavelength of about 6700 A
(red/green).
I V Characteristics of INFRARED LED –
As we know, the current flowing through the LED is given by
I = V – V0 /Rs
Where V0 is the voltage drop across LED. In case of GA- As-P, it has been observed that
the wavelength of emitted light is of the order of 8200 A0 , in the infrared region of the
spectrum and correspondingly the cut in voltage changes.
Cut in voltage of LED -Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are current-
dependent devices with its forward voltage cut in voltage VF, depending on the semiconductor
compound (color emitted) and on the forward biased LED current. Most common LED’s require
a cut in voltage between approximately 1.2 to 3.6 volts with a forward current rating of about 10
to 30 mA.

Procedure:
PRO 1: 1.1On the basis of principle of LED, understand the experimental set up.
1.2Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for Red LED
1.3The polarity of the diode should be checked properly.
1.4Apply different voltages to Red LEDs using potential divider arrangement of the
D.C. supply and note the forward current.
PRO 2: 2.1 Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for Infrared LED
 2.2 The connections are to be done exactly as per the circuit diagram.
2.3 The polarity of the diode should be checked properly
2.4 Apply different voltages to Infrared LEDs using potential divider arrangement of
the D.C. supply note the forward current.
PRO 3: 3.1 Plot a graph of current Vs voltage to study I – V characteristics.
3.2 Obtain and compare cut in voltage for both LEDS.
3.3 From the observations, measure the value of cut in voltage accurately.
3.4 The value of experimental cut in voltage is within the limits of experimental
error.

Space for Calculation -

Results & Discussion:
PRO 1:

PRO 2:

PRO 3:

Conclusion:

Precautions:
While performing the experiment, a learner has to:
1. Connect the circuit carefully and get it checked before starting the readings.
2. Take at least 10 readings and plot the graph accurately.
Quiz:
1. What are applications of LED?
2. What is the principle of LED?
3. Name any two semiconductors used in LED display.

Objective PRO PRO PRO 3 Total Score ES&H DEPARTMENT - TCET

1 2
Weight 20 20 20 Date of Performance: _________
Points Date of Correction:___________
Roll No:_________
Score Marks: ______/100
Earned Points (EP) = Total Score/60 Marks in 100 Signature of Faculty:
=_____ = EP *20
 Experiment No. 3
Four Probe Method
(Energy Band Gap)
Diagram:-

Values for Germanium Crystal chip with non-conducting base:

If any (W/s) value is not found in the table then plot a graph in these (W/s) and f (w/s)
values
W/s F (w/s)
0.100 13.863
0.141 9.704
0.200 6.931
0.333 4.159
0.500 2.780
1.000 1.504
1.414 1.223
2.000 1.094
3.000 1.0228
5.000 1.0070
10.000 1.00045
 Experiment No. 3: Four Probe Method (Energy Band Gap)
Aim:
To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor (Germanium) using four probe
method.
Objective:
PRO 1: To find the voltage by increasing the temperature of semiconductor
using four probe method.
PRO 2: To find out the resistivity of the sample.
PRO 3: To find out the energy band gap of a semiconducting sample.

Apparatus:
Four probe method apparatus, thermometer etc.
Theoretical Background:
Four Probe Arrangements:
Four sharp probes are placed on a flat surface of the material to be measured. The current is
passed through the two outer electrodes, and the floating potential is measured across the
inner pair. If the flat surface on which the probes rest is adequately large, it may be
considered to be a semi-infinite volume. To prevent minority carrier injection and make
good contacts, the surface on which the probes rest, maybe mechanically lapped. A nominal
value of probe spacing, which has been found satisfactory, is an equal distance of 2.0 mm
between adjacent probes.
In order to use the four-probe method, it is assumed that:
1. The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current - carrying
electrodes, most of the carriers recombine near the electrodes so that their effect on the
conductivity is negligible. (This means that the measurements should be made on surface,
which has a high recombination rate, such as mechanical by lapped surfaces).
Observations:
Current (I) = 2 mA (Constant),
Distance between Probes (s) = 2 mm,
Thickness of the Crystal (w) = 0.69 mm
 PRO 1 PRO 2
Sr. Temperature Voltage Temperature ρ log10 
(ohms.cm)
No. (0 0C) (mV) (T inK) T-1 x 103
1

Formula:
2.3026 𝑥 log10 𝑟
1. The energy band gap, Eg of semiconductor is given by,𝐸𝑔 = 2𝐾 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑉
(𝑖𝑛 𝐾)
𝑇

Where K is Boltzman constant equal to 8.6 x 105 ev/deg & r is the resistivity of the
semiconductor crystal given by,
ρ0 𝑉
ρ= 𝑤 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ρ0 = 𝑋 2𝜋𝑠
𝑓( 𝑠 ) 𝐼

2. For function f(w/s) refers to the table data given in calculations.

S is distance between probes
W is thickness of semi-conducting crystal.
V & I are the voltage & current across & through the crystal chip.

3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurements are equally spaced and
collinear.
5. The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the semiconductor
should be small compared to the distance between probes.
 6. The surfaces of the material may be either conducting or non-conducting. A
conducting boundary (such as copper) is one on which the sample is plated or
placed. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the sample is
in contact with an insulator.
Effect of temperature on resistivity of Semiconductors: - As the temperature
of the semi-conductor is increases, the electrons in the valence band gain
sufficient energy to escape so conductivity increases & in turn resistivity
decreases.
Energy Band Gap:- The band gap generally refers to the energy difference
(in electron volts) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of
the conduction band.
Pocedure:
PRO 1:- 1.1 Connect plugs of Ge crystal (Four probe setup) with constant current power supply
sockets.Switch on the AC mains of constant current supply LED will Glow. Adjust
the current at desired value (say 2 mA approx) and note the corresponding mV
reading in the milivoltmeter. Keep switch at 0-200 mV range. When range
increased more than 200mV, then change the mV . select switch to 0-200mV
range.
PRO 2 :-1.2 Place the four probe arrangement in the oven and insertthermometer in the given
hole at the top. Plug oven in AC mains.Switch ON the supply by rotating Heat
Control switch in clock wise direction.LED will indicate its ON position, for
maximum heat put heatcontrol knob at the end position.
PRO 3 :-1.3 Increase the temperature upto 1000 C , turn off the heating, and note down the
radings of corresopnding voltages (In turn resistance) with decreasing temperatures
in the stpes of 50 C .Note the reading in millivoltmeter and temperature in 0C .
Take minimum 8 readings
 2 X K X 2.306 X log10 r
Sample Calculation:- PRO 3:- Eg 
1
( In Kelvin)
T
Eg 

Space for Calculation:

PRO 2 :-Find out the resistivity of the semiconducting sample by using the formula.

PRO 3 :- With the help of log10 r , Boltzmann constant find out the energy band gap of a
semiconductor.
Result & Discussion :
PRO 1:-

PRO 2 :-

PRO 3 :-

Conclusion:-

Precaution:
Temperature should not be increased beyond 1000C
Quiz:
1. Differentiate between Conductors, insulators & Semiconductors with the help of band
theory.
2. Mention any 2 semiconductors with their band gap values.

Objective PRO 1 PRO 2 PRO 3 H & S DEPARTMENT - TCET

Weight 20 20 20 Total Score Date of Performance: _________
Points Date of Correction:___________
Roll No:_________ Marks:
Score ______/100
Signature of Faculty:
Earned Points (EP) = Total
Score/60
Experiment No. 4
Hall Effect
 DMM

Power Supply for

Electromagnet
Im

To the Electromagnet
Coils

Adjustable
constant current
source

Is

To Current Leads of
Hall Probe

Voltage Terminal

Current Lead Current Lead

Sample Voltage Terminal

 Experiment No. 4: Hall Effect

Aim:
To study Hall Effect and determine the Hall coefficient.
Objective:
After performing the practical, the learner will be able to:
PRO 1: Use Hall Effect apparatus to find the Hall Voltage
PRO 2: Find the Hall Voltage after changing the polarity of an electromagnet.
PRO 3: To calculate the mean Hall Voltage & Hall coefficient.

Apparatus:
Electromagnet, power supply for electromagnet, constant current source (10 mA to 100 mA
variation), current meter (0-100 mA) , DMM, current meter (0-1 Amp), Hall probe
(preferably In As). (Ready kits are available).

Theoretical Background:
If a current carrying conductor or semiconductor is placed in transverse magnetic field, a
potential difference is developed across the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the
current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called “Hall effect”.
In this experiment we have to measure the Hall Voltage which is developed across the 2
ends of the specimen (which is perpendicular to both current & magnetic field direction). The
purpose of using electromagnet is that we can easily change it’s strength & polarity if required.
Electromagnet: An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced
by an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.
Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a
magnetic field which is concentrated in the hole in the center of the coil. The wire turns are often
wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic
core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic
field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding.
However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a
continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field.
Hall Coefficient: By measuring the Hall coefficient we can measure the type of semiconducting
sample which is used in the experiment as well as the carrier density of the semiconductor.
Observation Table:-
Observations:
Thickness of the sample, t = 0.01 cm. Method A: Magnet Current Fixed Im = 100 mA
Magnetic field B =460 Gauss
PRO 1 PRO 2 PRO 3
Is (mA) VH1 (volt) VH2 (volt) VH3 (volt) VH4 (volt) VH (volt) RH
(cm3/coulomb.)
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
VH t
Formula:- RH  x 108 cm3 / coulomb
Is B

Where RH is Hall coefficient, VH is corrected Hall Voltage, t is thickness of the

sample, Is is sample current or Hall current. B is magnetic field across sample.
Calculation:-

t X 108
RH  X Slope
B
Procedure:-
PRO1: 1.1 Adjust the spacing between the pole pieces to a suitable value. Connect the
electromagnet to the magnet terminals of the Hall Kit. Place the Hall probe at the centre
of the gap with its face parallel to the faces of the pole pieces of the electromagnet.
1.2 With current selector switch in MAGNET position, set the magnet current, I m, at 100
mA. Keeping Im fixed at 100 mA set the Hall current (or sample current) I s to various
values between 40 mA to 100 mA (insteps of 10 mA) and note down the corresponding
values of Hall Voltage,VH1.Also vary Is from -40mA to -100mA & note down
corresponding Hall Voltages VH2.
PRO2: Now, set the Im at -100 mA. Keeping Im fixed at -100mA repeat the procedure 1.2 to find
values of Hall voltages, VH3& VH4.
PRO3: Find the mean VH. Also find the Hall coefficient by using the formula. Also plot a graph
of VH versus IS. Obtain the slope and using the formula calculate RH.

Result &Discussion:-

PRO1:

PRO 2:

PRO 3:

Conclusion:
Space for Calculation:
Precautions:
1. The DC source should be a constant current source.
2. The sample current should not exceed 100 mA.
3. Each time the source current or magnet current is reverse adjust the offset for zero Hall
voltage.

Quiz:
1. What is the formula for Hall Voltage?
2. What are the applications of Hall Effect?

Objective PRO PRO PRO ES&H DEPARTMENT - TCET

1 2 3
Weight 20 20 20 Total Score Date of Performance: _________
Points Date of Correction:___________
Roll No:_________
Score Marks: ______/100
Signature of Faculty:
Earned Points (EP) = Total
Score/60
Experiment No. 5
Newton’s Ring
 Experiment No. 5: Newton’s Rings

Aim: Determination of radius of curvature of a lens using Newton’ ring setup to find
radius of curvature of lens using Newton’s ring.

Objective: After performing the practical, the learner will be able to:

PRO 1: Understand the pattern of Newton’s rings when the interference pattern is seen in
reflected system. They will be able to take readings for diameter in two parts
LHS and RHS.
PRO 2: Calculate the diameter of the rings and self analyze for diameter increase as the
ring number increases.
PRO 3: Calculate the radii of curvature both analytically and graphically

Apparatus: Optical arrangement for Newton’s rings, Sodium lamp, Plano convex lens,
travelling microscope, magnifying lenses, electrical lamp etc.

Theoretical background : Fringes of equal thickness are produced in a air film between a
convex surface of a long focus lens and plane glass surface. The contour lines obtained are
circular. If mono-chromatic light is allowed to fall normally, and then film is viewed in
reflected light. Alternate bright and dark concentric rings, concentric around the point of
contact between the lens and glass plate are seen.
Since the phenomenon was first described by Newton and that is why the rings are known
as Newton’s ring after his name.

Procedure:
PRO1: i] Clean the surface of the lens and glass plate.
ii] Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
iii] Now, keep the eye vertically above the lens, if the centre of the lens is fully
illuminated, we observe ring around it even with naked eye. These are Newton’s
rings.
iv] Focus the travelling microscope on the rings.
v] Adjust the eyepiece and set the crosswire tangentially on the rings.
vi] Take the reading on LHS and RHS of the ring .

PRO2: Measure the diameter Dn of the ring by tabulating readings say from 10th ring on
L.H.S. to 10th ring on R.H.S., moving in one direction to avoid error due to
backlash.

PRO3: Plot Dn2 vs. n graph and find the slope. Calculate the Radii of curvature analytically
and graphically.
Observations: i] Wavelength ( λ )= 5893Å =5893 X 10 -10 m
ii] L.C. of microscope = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm

PRO1 PRO2
Obs. Ring Microscopic Reading Dn2
No. No. L.H.S. R.H.S. Diameter (cm2)
Dn = R ~ L cm
1 5
2 6
3 7
4 8
5 9
6 10

Formulae: 1) R= 4λ (n2 -n1)/ (Dn2 – Dn1) (By Calculation)

2) R= Slope/4λ (By Graph)

Where, Dn1 = Diameter of n1th dark ring.

Dn2 = Diameter of n2th dark ring and n2 > n1 , λ = Wavelength of the light used
R = Radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens.

Space for Calculation:

 Diagram:

MICROSCOPE

SODIUM
SOURCE

PLANO CONVEX
LENS

PLANE GLASS
PLATE

Experimental Arrangement for Observing Newton’s Ring:

Results & Discussion:

PRO 1:

PRO 2:

PRO 3:

Safety Precautions:

1) Glass plates and lens should be cleaned thoroughly.

2) The plano‐convex lens should be of large radius of curvature.
3) The sources of light used should be an extended one.
4) The range of the microscope should be properly adjusted before measuring the diameters.
5) Crosswire should be focused on a dark ring tangentially.
6) The centre of the ring system should be a dark spot.
7) The microscope is always moved in the same direction to avoid back lash error.
8) Radius of curvature should be measured accurately.

Conclusion:

Quiz :
1. What will happen if white light is incident on Newton’s Ring set up?
2. Why in this experiment interference pattern is in the form of circular rings?

Objective PRO 1 PRO 2 PRO 3 Total Score ES&H DEPARTMENT - TCET

Weight 20 20 20 Date of Performance: _________
Points Date of Correction:___________
Roll No:_________
Score Marks: ______/100
Earned Points (EP) = Total Score/60 Marks in 100 Signature of Faculty:
=_____ = EP *20
 Experiment No. 6
Wedge-Shaped Film
 Experiment No. 6: Wedge-Shaped Film

Aim: Determination of diameter of wire/hair or thickness of paper

using Wedge-shaped film method.
Objective: After performing the practical, the learner will be able to:

PRO 1: Understand the pattern of Newton’s rings when the interference pattern is seen in
reflected system. They will be able to take readings for diameter in two parts
LHS and RHS.
PRO 2: Calculate the fringe-width of the fringes and self analyze the pattern of increase
and decrease of the calculated fringe-width
PRO 3: Calculate the radii of curvature both analytically and graphically.

Apparatus: Two optically flat glass plates, glass plate mounted at 45 0 Sodium source,
travelling microscope.

Theoretical background: Consider two thick optically plane glass plates inclined
at small angle  , enclosing wedge shaped air film. The light is incident normally on air
wedge by glass plate held at an angle of 450 to the axis of the beam. With help of travelling
microscope, film is observed in reflected light. Equally spaced alternate dark and parallel
bright bands to the edge of wedge are observed.

Procedure:
i] Two optically flat glass plates are placed over a thin paper between two plates at one end.
ii] A thin wedge of air is formed.
iii] Allow monochromatic light to fall normally on film, alternate bright and dark fringes through
travelling microscope are observed.
iv] Microscope is moved horizontally and bright and dark fringes are counted by fixing position
of crosswire from a particular bright or dark fringe as 0th fringe.
v] Gradually move to the right of fringe till cross wire becomes tangential to the second fringe.
vi] Move microscope further to 4th fringe and so on.
vii] Tabulate all readings.
Observations: i] Wavelength ( λ )= 5893Å =5893 X 10-10 m
ii] L.C. of microscope = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
iii] Length of air gap = 5cm

Obs. Fringe Microscopic Fringe Microscopic Distance Mean

No. No. Reading No. Reading Between fringe (x~y) cm
n1 X cm n2 Y cm (x~y) cm
1
2
3
4
5

Formulae:
Mean (x~y)
Fringe width β (mean) =
n2  n1

t 
tan  also  
L 2
t 
 
L 2
L
t 
2

Where β = fringe width

λ = Wavelength (5893Å) of incident monochromatic light.
t = thickness of paper.
L = length of air gap in cm.
 = Wedge angle.

Space for Calculation:

 Diagram:

MICROSCOPE

SODIUM
SOURCE

PLANO CONVEX
LENS

PLANE GLASS
PLATE

Experimental Arrangement for Observing Newton’s Ring:

BRIGHT
BAND
DARK
BAND

At the contact edge, the incident and reflected rays will be 180 0 out of phase and produce a dark band.
 Results & Discussion:

PRO 1:

PRO 2:

PRO 3:

Safety Precautions:

1. While using microscope to measure fringe width etc., it is moved in one direction only from left to right or
right to left, so that back lash error is avoided.
2. To achieve good accuracy in the measurements of beta and l, measurements are repeated thrice.

Conclusion:

Quiz :
1. Wedge shape is due to division of amplitude or division of wave front? What type of source is required in
division of amplitude?
2. Why in this experiment interference pattern is in the form of fringes?

Objective PRO 1 PRO 2 PRO 3 Total Score ES&H DEPARTMENT - TCET

Weight 20 20 20 Date of Performance: _________
Points Date of Correction:___________
Roll No:_________
Score Marks: ______/100
Earned Points (EP) = Total Score/60 Marks in 100 Signature of Faculty:
=_____ = EP *20
 Experiment No. 8
Wavelength of He-Ne laser
Diagram: :

LASER SOURCE

Diffraction Grating

2ND ORDER 2ND ORDER

1ST ORDER
1ST ORDER
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8:- Wavelength of He-Ne laser

Aim: - Determination of wavelength using Diffraction grating (LASER Source).

Objective: - After performing the experiment the learner will able to

PRO 1: -Properly arrange the optical bench for diffraction.

PRO 2: -Can calculate the diffraction angle corresponding to 1st and 2nd order diffraction.

PRO 3: -Calculate the wavelength of LASER using diffraction grating.

Apparatus: - LASER Source, grating, scale, optical bench, screen etc.

Formula:- d sin   n

Where, n= order of spectrum,

λ = Wavelength of LASER source.

d= grating element,

Θ = corresponding angle of diffraction,

L= distance between grating element and screen.

x
  tan 1 ( ) Hence, sinθ can be found out.
L

Theoretical Background: -

He-Ne LASER is a gas LASER where He:Ne is mixed as 10:1 ratio. He is host gas and Ne is
called the activator. It gives Light in Visible region i.e. wavelength of LASER is 6328 A0.It gives
continuous LASER output, it is highly stable.

Diffraction Grating:- It consists of very large number of extremely narrow parallel slits
separated by opaque spaces. There are two types of gratings: Transmission grating; Reflection
grating.
Observation Table: -

PRO 1 PRO 2 PRO 3

L(cm) Order 2x x Ɵ=tan-1(x/L) sinƟ λ=

𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏Ɵ Mean λ (cm)
𝒏
no.

2
1

2
1

Space for Calculation:-

Transmission gratings are made by drawing very fine equispaced rulings on the surface of a very
good quality glass plate using diamond tip. Thus ruling acts as the opaque spaces and gaps of
equal width between rulings act as a system of slits.

Grating element:- If the width of each ruling is ‘a’ and the width of each slit is ‘b’ , the length
1 2.54
(a+b) is called grating element. The no. of lines/cm = and the no. of lines/inch = 𝑎+𝑏 since 1
𝑎+𝑏
inch= 2.54 cm. The dimension of the grating element (a+b) is of the order of the wavelength of
vivible light.

Procedure:-

PRO 1:- Allow the beam to fall on grating and the spectrum in the form of dot is displayed on
the screen, placed at fixed distance. You may notice decrease in radius as we move away from
the 0th order towards the higher orders.

PRO 2:- Measure the distance (L) between the screen and grating. Also, measure the distance
between two 1st order dots (2x) as well as two 2nd order dots (2x) obtained on both sides of o th
order dot.

PRO 3:-Calculate Ɵ, sinƟ, λ and mean λ by using formulae and find out the wavelength of the
LASER beam used.

Result and discussion:-

PRO 1:-

PRO 2:-

PRO 3:-

Conclusion:

Quiz:-

1) What is grating & grating element?

2) What is difference between Fresnel & Fraunhoffer diffraction?
3) How many level system is used in He-Ne LASER?
 Objective PRO 1 PRO 2 PRO 3 Total Score ES&H DEPARTMENT - TCET
Weight 20 20 20 Date of Performance: _________
Points Date of Correction:___________
Roll No:_________
Score Marks: ______/100
Earned Points (EP) = Total Score/60 Marks in 100 Signature of Faculty:
=_____ = EP *20