09.

Coordination and response

# 85 The human nervous system

The human nervous system is made up of two parts:

 Central nervous system (CNS) - brain and spinal cord: role of

coordination
 Peripheral nervous system - nerves: connect all parts of the body to
the CNS.

Together, they coordinate and regulate body functions.

Sense organs are linked to the peripheral nervous system. They are groups
of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light, sound, touch,
temperature and chemicals. When exposed to a stimulus they generate an
electrical impulse which passes along peripheral nerves to the CNS,
triggering a response.
Peripheral nerves contain sensory and motor neurones (nerve cells).

transmit nerve impules

Motor neurone sense organs à CNS

CNS à effectors
Sensory neurone (muscles or glands)

Motor and sensory neurones are covered with a myelin sheath, which
insulates the neurone to make transmission of the impulse more efficient.

The cytoplasm (mainly axon and dendron) is elongated to transmit the

impulse for long distances.

Structure Sensory neurone Motor neurone

Cell body Near end of neurone, in a At start of neurone,
ganglion (swelling) just indise the grey matter
outside the spinal cord of the spinal cord
Dendrites Present at end of neurone Attached to cell body
Axon Very short Very long
Dendron Very long None

Fun fact: The human nervous system runs on electrical impulses that
travel close to the speed of light.

Sample question and answer

Question Figure above shows a type of neurone. Name this type of

neurone and state a reason for your choice. [ 2 marks]

Answer Name: motor neurone.

Reason: It has a cell body, the cell body is at the and of the cell.

Video: The Human Nervous System

Video: The Spinal Cord
Video: Human Body Nervous System
 #86 Simple reflex arc

A reflex action is an automatic response to a stimulus.

A reflex arc describes the pathway of an electrical impulse in response

to a stimulus.

Relay neurones are found in the spinal cord, connecting sensosy neurones
to motor neurones.
On the picture below, the stimulus is a drawing-pin sticking in the finger.
The response is the withdrawal of the arm due to contraction of the biceps.

The sequence of events is:

Reflex: automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with
responses

Neurones do not connect directly with each other: there is a gap called a
synapse. The impulse is 'transmitted' across the synapse by means of a
chemical called acetylcholine.

Try this

Figure below shows a nerve cell.

a. i) Name the type of nerve cell shown in the figure [1 mark]

ii) State two features that distinguish it from other types of nerve cell [2
mark]

iii) Where, in the nervous system, is this cell located? [1 mark]

b. Nerve cells are specialised cells. Suggest how the following parts of the
nerve cell, labelled in the figure, enable the nerve cell to function
successfully:
cytoplasm; myelin sheath. [4 mark]

c. Reflex involve a response to a stimulus.

i) Copy and completes the flowchart by putting the following terms in the
boxes to show the correct sequence in a reflex. [2 marks]
 ii) For the pupil reflex , identify each of the parts of the sequence by
copying and completing the table below. The first has been done for you. [ 4
marks]

Part of Part in pupil reflex

sequence
Coordinator Brain
Effector
Receptor
Response
Stimulus

Answer

a. i) Motor neurone
ii) Two features from:
- presence of motor end plates
- the cell body is at the beginning of the cell
- the cell body has dendrites on
- there is no dendron (only on axon).
iii) Peripheral nervous system.
b. Cytoplasm: two suggestions from:
- is elongated
- passes electrical signals along
- connects different parts of the body
- is modified to form dendrites.
Myelin sheath: two suggestions from:
- acts as insulating material
- so prevents leakage of electrical signal from axon
- allows faster transmission of impulses.

c. i) flowchart

ii)
Part of sequence Part in pupil reflex
Coordinator Brain
Effector Iris (muscle)
Receptor Retina or rods or cones
Response Pupil changes diameter or iris muscles contract
Stimulus Bright light or change in light intensity

Video: Reflex Arc

 #87 Effectors, biceps and triceps

Effectors are muscles or glands which respond when they receive impulses
from motor neurones. Examples of effectors are the biceps and triceps
muscles in the arm.

Structure of the human arm

When stimulated, muscles contract get shorter). The biceps and triceps are
antagonistic muscles - they have opposite effects when they contract.

The biceps is attached to the scapula (shoulder blade) and the radius.
Contraction of the biceps pulls on the radius, moving the lower arm toward
the scapula. This results in the arm bending (flexing) at the below - the arm
is raised.

The triceps is attached to the scapula, humerus and ulna.

Contractions of the triceps pulls on the ulna, straightening (extending) the
arm. In doing so, the triceps pulls the biceps back to its original lengths.

Try this

Figure below is a simplified diagram of the muscles and bones of the human
leg.

a) Complete the following sentences.

Muscles are formed from cells which have special property of being able to
____ . Because of this, muscles can not push, they can only ___. [2 marks]

b) Muscles operate as antagonistic pairs. With reference to figure above,

explain what is mean by this statement. [2 marks]
c) i) Which muscles A, B, C or D, must contraction in order to raise the heel
to stand on tiptoe? [1 mark]

ii) Which muscles A, B, C or D, must contract to bend the leg at the knee?
[1 mark]

d) When running very quickly, the muscles of the leg may not receive
sufficient oxygen to supply all their energy requirements.

i) Name the type of respiration these muscle cells carry out to release
additional energy. [ 1 mark]

ii) Name the waste product produced by this process. [1 mark]

Answer

a) Contract; pull

b) Muscles A and B; and C and D are antagonistic pairs. They have opposite
effects when they contract.

c) i) C
ii) B

d) i) Anaerobic respiration.
ii) Lactic acid (or lactate).
 #88 Structure and function of the eye, rods and cones

You need to be able to label parts of the eye

on diagrams.

 The eyebrow stops sweat running

down into the eye.
 Eyelashes help to stop dust blowing
on to the eye.
 Eyelids can close automatically
(blinking is a reflex) to prevent dust
and other particles getting ton to the
surface of the cornea.
 Blinking also helps to keep the surface moist by moving liquid
secretions (tears) over the exposed surface. Tears also contain
enzymes that have an antibacterial function.

* Try this

Trace or copy both diagrams of the eyes. Practice adding the labels. [8
marks]
Distinguishing between rods and cones

Rods and cones are light-sensitive cells in the retina. When stimulated they
generate electrical impulses, which pass to the brain along the optic nerve.

The normal retina has rods that see only black, white,
and shades of grey and tones and three forms of color
cones, red, green, and blue.

Function Distribution Comments

Rods Sensitive to low Found throught the Provide us with
light intensity. retina, but none in the night vision, when
Detect shades of centrer of the fovea or we can recognise
grey in the blind spot shapes but not
colours
Cones Sensitive only to Concentrated in the There are three
high light intensity. fovea types, sensitive to
Detect colour red, green and blue
(don’t operate in light
poor light)
Photos of rods and cones.
 # 89 Accommodation - focusing on objects far and near

The amount of focusing needed by the lens depends on

the distance of the object being viewed – light from
near objects requires a more convex lens than light from
a distant objects.

The shape of the lens needed to accommodate the image is

controlled by the ciliary body - this contains a ring of
muscle around the lens.

Distance objects

The ciliary muscles relax, giving them a larger diameter. This pulls on the
suspensory ligaments which, in turn, pull on the lens. This makes the lens
thinner (less convex). As the ciliary muscles are relaxed, there is no strain
on the eye.

Near objects

The ciliary muscles contract, giving them a smaller diameter. This removes
the tenssion on the suspensory ligaments which , in turn, stop pulling on the
lens. The lens becomes thicker (more convex). As the ciliary muscles are
contracted, there is strain on the eye, which can cause a headache if a near
object (book, microscope, computer screen etc. ) is viewed for too long.
Pupil reflex

The reflex changes the size of the pupil to

control the amount of light entering the eye. In
bright light, pupil size is reduced as too much
light falling on the retina could damage it. In
dim light, pupil size is increased to allow as
much light as possible to enter the eye.

The retina detects the brightness of light

entering the eye. An impulse passes to the
brain along sensory neurones and travels back
to the muscles of the iris along motor
neurones, triggering a response - the change
in size of the pupil due to contraction of radial
or circular muscles.
Video: BBC Eye pupil reflex

Common misconceptions

Students often confuse circular muscles and ciliary mucles. Remember

that circular muscles affect the size of the iris, ciliary muscles affect the
shape of the lens.

Try this

Describe and explain how the eye changes its focus from a distant object to
a near object.

Answer

- ciliary muscle contract

- the suspensory ligaments become relaxed
- so tension is removed from the lens
- the lens becomes more convex
- so light is focused more strongly.

Video: Human eye structure, accomodation