CHAPTER 6

Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing and Spectrum Spreading

 MULTIPLEXING
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allow the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.
 today’s technology includes high-bandwidth media such as optical fiber and terrestrial and satellite
microwaves.
 Each has a bandwidth far in excess of that needed for the average transmission signal.
 In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.
 The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines
them into a single stream (many-to one).
 At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream
back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their corresponding lines.
 In the figure, the link refers to the physical path. The channel refers to the portion of a link that
carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can have many (n) channels.
 There are three basic multiplexing techniques:

 Frequency-Division Multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.
 In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These
modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the
link.
 Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal.
 Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth—guard bands—to prevent signals from
overlapping.
 In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
 the transmission path is divided into three parts, each representing a channel that carries one
transmission.
 We consider FDM to be an analog multiplexing technique; does not mean that FDM cannot be used
to combine sources sending digital signals.

 Multiplexing Process
 Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar
signals modulate different carrier frequencies ( f1, f2, and f3).
 The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out
over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
  Demultiplexing Process
 The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals.
 The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and
passes them to the output lines.
 Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine three voice
channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the configuration, using
the frequency domain. Assume there are no guard bands.
 Solution
 We use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for the
second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth for the third one.
 Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What is the
minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels
to prevent interference?
 Solution: For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the required
bandwidth is at least 5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz, as shown in Figure

 Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design
an appropriate configuration, using FDM.
 Solution: The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four channels, each channel having a
250-kHz bandwidth. Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated so that each 4 bits is modulated
to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-QAM modulation.
  Applications of FDM
 To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies have traditionally
multiplexed signals from lower-bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines.
 In this way, many switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but bigger channels. For
analog lines, FDM is used.
 application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting. Radio uses their as the transmission
medium.
 A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned to AM radio. All radio stations need to share this
band.
 Each station uses a different carrier frequency, which means it is shifting its signal an multiplexing.
 The signal that goes to the air is a combination of signals. A receiver receives all these signals, but
filters (by tuning) only the one which is desired.
 Without multiplexing, only one AM station could broadcast to the common link, the air.
 Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting. Each TV channel has its own
bandwidth of 6 MHz.
  Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of
fiber-optic cable.
 The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable, but using a
fiber-optic cable for a single line wastes the available bandwidth.
 WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve
optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
 We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies
are very high.
 Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of light. At
the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.

 One application of WDM is the SONET network, in which multiple optical fiber lines are
multiplexed and demultiplexed.
  Time-Division Multiplexing
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share the
high bandwidth of a link. Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
 Note that the same link is used as in FDM; here, however, the link is shown sectioned by time rather
than by frequency.

 This means that all the data in a message from source 1 always go to one specific destination, be it
1, 2, 3, or 4. The delivery is fixed and unvarying, unlike switching.
 We also need to remember that TDM is, in principle, a digital multiplexing technique. Digital data
from different sources are combined into one timeshared link.
 analog data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then multiplexed by using TDM.
 We can divide TDM into two different schemes: synchronous and statistical.
 Synchronous TDM
 In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending
data.
 Time Slots and Frames
 In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each input
occupies one input time slot.
 A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data.
 Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot.
 the duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an
input time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of connections.
 In other words, a unit in the output connection has a shorter duration; it travels faster.
 In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected into a frame.
 If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is allocated for each unit,
one for each input line.
 If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is T/n and the duration of each frame
is T
 Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots,
with one slot dedicated to each sending device.

 In Figure the data rate for each input connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit
is 1 bit), what is the duration of
 1. each input slot, 2. each output slot, and 3. each frame?
 Solution
 We can answer the questions as follows:
 1. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or
1 ms. The duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit duration).
 2. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input time slot. This means that the
duration of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.
 3. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.
The duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an input unit.
  SPREAD SPECTRUM
 Multiplexing combines signals from several sources to achieve bandwidth efficiency; the
available bandwidth of a link is divided between the sources.
 In spread spectrum (SS), we also combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger
bandwidth.
 Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs).
 In wireless applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for communication.
 The expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its message in a protective envelope for a
more secure transmission.
 Spread spectrum achieves its goals through two principles:
 1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than what is needed. This
allows redundancy.
 2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss must be done by a process
that is independent of the original signal. In other words, the spreading process occurs after the
signal is created by the source.
 There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
  Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
 The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different carrier frequencies
that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier
frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency.
 The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BFHSS >> B.
 A pseudorandom code generator, called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for
every hopping period Th.
 The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period and
passes it to the frequency synthesizer.
 The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that frequency, and the source signal
modulates the carrier signal.
 Suppose we have decided to have eight hopping frequencies.
 In this case, M is 8 and k is 3. The pseudorandom code generator will create eight different 3-bit
patterns.
 The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010, 011, 100. Note that the pattern is
pseudorandom; it is repeated after eight hopping.
 This means that at hopping period 1, the pattern is 101. The frequency selected is 700 kHz; the
source signal modulates this carrier frequency.
 The second k-bit pattern selected is 111, which selects the 900-kHz carrier; the eighth pattern is 100,
and the frequency is 600 kHz.
 After eight hoppings, the pattern repeats, starting from 101 again.
  Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
 The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique also expands the bandwidth of the
original signal, but the process is different.
 In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code. each bit is assigned a code
of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n times that of the data bit.

 the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker sequence, where n is 11.
 We assume that the original signal and the chips in the chip generator use polar NRZ encoding.
 the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000 (in this case).
 If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N.
 This means that the required bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the
bandwidth of the original signal.