Course Title: Fluid Mechanics

Course Code: CV 207 T

Lecture No. 13
Chapter No. 10: Dimensional and Model Analysis

Instructor: Dr. Rafiq Ullah

Department of Civil Engineering
S.S.U.E.T
 Introduction
Although many practical engineering problems involving fluid mechanics can be solved
by Equations and analytical procedures
Yet a large number of problems rely on experimental data for their solution
In fact, very few problems involving real fluids can be solved by analytical analysis
alone
Generally, the solution is obtained through analytical analysis and experimental data.
An obvious goal of any experiment is to make the results as widely applicable as
possible
To achieve this goal, the concept of similitude is often used so that measurements made
on a model (in the laboratory) can be used to describe the behavior of the prototype
(outside the laboratory)
 Introduction
The laboratory system (model) is used to study the phenomenon of interest under
carefully controlled conditions
From these model studies, empirical formulation can be developed, or specific
predictions on more characteristics of some other similar system can be made
However, to do this, it is necessary to establish the relationship between the model and
prototype

In the present chapter, we will learn how to achieve this in a systematic manner

Dimensional analysis to predict the physical parameters that will significantly influence
the phenomenon under consideration

Similitude and model analysis to investigate the complexity of the phenomenon in detail

Application of knowledge on actual/prototype model

 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique that makes use of the study of
dimensions.
This mathematical technique is used in research work for design and for conducting
model tests.
It deals with the dimensions of physical quantities involved in the phenomenon. All
physical quantities are measured by comparison, which is made with respect to an
arbitrary fixed value.
In dimensional analysis one first predicts the physical parameters that will influence the
flow, and then, grouping these parameters in dimensionless combinations makes a better
understanding of the flow phenomenon.
It is particularly helpful in experimental work because it provides a guide to those things
that significantly influence the phenomena; thus it indicates the direction in which the
experimental work should go.
 Types of dimensions
There are two types of dimensions
1. Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental Quantities
2. Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities

Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental Quantities: These are basic quantities.

For Example;
Time, T, Distance, L, Mass, M

Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities: These quantities possess more than one
fundamental dimension.
For example;
Velocity, L/T Acceleration, L/T2 Density, M/L3
Types of dimensions
Types of dimensions
 Methodology of Dimensional Analysis
The Basic principle is Dimensional Homogeneity, which means the dimensions of each
term in an equation on both sides are equal.

So, such an equation, in which the dimensions of each term on both sides of the equation
are the same, is known as a Dimensionally Homogeneous equation. Such equations are
independent of the system of units.
For example;
Let us consider the equation V=(2gH)1/2
Dimensions of LHS=V=L/T=LT-1
Dimensions of RHS=(2gH)1/2=(L/T2xL)1/2=LT-1
Dimensions of LHS= Dimensions of RHS
So, the equation V=(2gH)1/2 is dimensionally homogeneous equation.
 Buckingham’s π-Theorem
If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon is known, then the
relation among the variables can be determined by Buckingham’s method
If there are n variables (Independent and Dependent) in a physical phenomenon and if
these variables contain m fundamental dimensions then the variables are arranged into
(n-m) dimensionless terms called π-terms.
Let X1, X2, X3,…,X4, Xn are the variables involved in a physical problem. Let X1 be
the dependent variable and X2, X3, X4,…, Xn are the independent variables on which
X1 depends. Mathematically it can be written as
X1=f(X2, X3,X4, Xn)
which can be rewritten as
f1(X1, X2, X3, X4, Xn)=0
The above equation is dimensionally homogenous. It contains n variables and if there
are m fundamental dimensions then it can be written in terms of dimensions groups
called π-terms which are equal to (n-m)
Hence f1(π1, π2, π3,… πn-m)=0
 Buckingham’s π-Theorem
Properties of π-terms:
❑ Each π-term is dimensionless and is independent of the system of units.
❑ Division or multiplication by a constant does not change the character of the π-terms.
❑ Each π-term contains m+1 variables, where m is the number of fundamental dimensions
and is also called the repeating variable.
Let in the above case X2, X3, X4 are repeating variables and if fundamental dimensions
m=3 then each π-term is written as
π 1=X2a1. X3b1. X4a1 .X1
π 2=X2a2. X3b2. X4a2 .X5
.
π n-m=X2a(n-m). X3b(n-m). X4a(n-m) .Xn
Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensionless homogeneity and values of a1, b1
& c1, etc are obtained. The final result is in the form of
π 1=(π 2, π 3, π 4 ,…, π(n-m))
π 2=(π 1, π 3, π 4 ,…, π(n-m))
 Methods of Selecting Repeating Variables
The number of repeating variables is equal to the number of fundamental dimensions of the
problem. The choice of repeating variables is governed by the following considerations;

❑ m repeating variables must contain jointly all the fundamental dimensions (m) involved
in the phenomenon.
❑ As far as possible, the dependent variable shouldn’t be selected as a repeating variable.
❑ No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
❑ The repeating variables themselves must not form the non-dimensional term.
❑ The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one variable contains
geometric property, other contains flow property and the third contains fluid property.

Note: In most fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating variables may be
(i) d,V, ρ, (ii) l,V,ρ, (iii) d, V, μ or (iv) l,V, μ.
 Steps of Buckingham’s Method
To summarize, the steps to be followed in performing a dimensional analysis using the
method of repeating variables are as follows:

1. List all the variables that are involved in the problem n.

2. Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions and determine the
fundamental dimensions m.
3. Determine the required number of dimensionless pi terms n-m.
4. Select m number of repeating variables.
5. Form a pi term by multiplying one of the nonrepeating variables by the product of
repeating variables m+1 each raised to an exponent that will make the combination
dimensionless.
6. Repeat Step 5 for each of the remaining nonrepeating variables.
7. Check all the resulting pi terms to make sure they are dimensionless and independent.
8. Express the final form as a relationship among the pi terms and think about what it
means.
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
Problem
 Similitude and Model Analysis
Similitude is a concept used in the testing of Engineering Models.

Usually, it is impossible to obtain a purely theoretical solution of hydraulic phenomenon.

Therefore, experimental investigations are often performed on small-scale models, called

model analysis.

A few examples, where models may be used are ships in towing basins, airplanes in a wind
tunnel, hydraulic turbines, centrifugal pumps, spillways of dams, river channels, etc and to
study such phenomena as the action of waves and tides on beaches, soil erosion, and
transportation of sediment, etc.
 Model Analysis
Model: is a small-scale replica of the actual structure.
Prototype: the actual structure or machine.
Note: The models don’t need to be smaller than the prototype, they may be equal or
larger than the prototype.
 Model Analysis
Model Analysis is actually an experimental method of finding solutions of complex flow
problems.
The followings are the advantages of the model analysis
❑ The performance of the hydraulic structure can be predicted in advance from its
model.
❑ Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing a flow
problem is obtained which help in conducting tests.
❑ The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the help of model analysis to
adopt most economical, and safe design.

Note: Test performed on models can be utilized for obtaining, in advance, useful
information about the performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity exits
between the model and the prototype
 Similitude-Type of Similarities
Similitude: is defined as similarity between the model and prototype in every respect,
which means the model and prototype have similar properties or the model and
prototype are completely identical.
Three types of similarities must exist between model and prototype.
1. Geometric Similarity
2. Kinematic Similarity
3. Dynamic Similarity
 Similitude-Type of Similarities
Geometric Similarity: is the similarity of shape. It is said to exist between model and
prototype if ratio of all the corresponding linear dimensions in the model and prototype
are equal. E.g.
Lp Bp Dp
= = = Lr
Lm Bm Dm
◼ Where: Lp, Bp and Dp are Length, Breadth, and diameter of prototype and
Lm, Bm, Dm are Length, Breadth, and diameter of model.
◼ Lr = Scale ratio

Note: Models are generally prepared with the same scale ratios in every direction. Such a
model is called true model. However, sometimes it is not possible to do so, and different
convenient scales are used in different directions. Such a models is called distorted model
 Similitude-Type of Similarities
Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion. It is said to exist between model and
prototype if ratio of velocities and acceleration at the corresponding points in the model
and prototype are equal. E.g.
V p1 Vp 2 a p1 ap2
= = Vr ; = = ar
Vm1 Vm 2 am1 am 2
◼ Where: Vp1& Vp2 and ap1 & ap2 are velocity and accelerations at point 1 & 2 in
prototype and Vm1& Vm2 and am1 & am2 are velocity and accelerations at point 1 & 2
in model.
◼ Vr and ar are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio

Note: Since velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence not only the ratio of
magnitude of velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in model and
prototype should be same; but the direction of velocity and acceleration at the
corresponding points in model and prototype should also be parallel.
 Similitude-Type of Similarities
Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces. It is said to exist between model and
prototype if ratio of forces at the corresponding points in the model and prototype are
equal. E.g.
( Fi ) p ( Fv ) p ( Fg ) p
= = = Fr
( Fi )m ( Fv )m ( Fg )m

◼ Where: (Fi)p, (Fv)p and (Fg)p are inertia, viscous and gravitational forces in prototype
and (Fi)m, (Fv)m and (Fg)m are inertia, viscous and gravitational forces in model.
◼ Fr is the Force ratio

Note: The direction of forces at the corresponding points in model and prototype should
also be parallel.