”We learn more by looking for the answer to a question

and not finding it

than we do from learning the answer itself.”
– Lloyd Alexander, author

1
 Problems in Linear Differential Equations

1 Introduction
1.1 Problem: exponential increasing
Check that the function φ : R → R, given by the expression φ(t) = 2e3t for all
t ∈ R, is a solution of the Initial Value Problem:
x′ = 3x, x(0) = 2.
Represent the corresponding solution curve and describe its long-term behavior.

1.2 Problem: oscillations with constant amplitude

1
Check that the function φ : R → R, φ(t) = 6 sin t for all t ∈ R, is a solution of
the Initial Value Problem:
1
x′′ + x = 0, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) =
.
6
Represent the corresponding solution curve and describe its long-term behavior.
Describe the motion of the simple planar gravity pendulum.

1.3 Problem: oscillations with exponentially decreasing

amplitude
1 −2t
Check that the function φ(t) = 6e cos t for all t ∈ R, is a solution of the
Initial Value Problem:
1 1
x′′ + 4x′ + 5x = 0, x(0) =, x′ (0) = − .
6 3
Represent this solution curve and describe its long-term behavior.
Describe the motion of the planar gravity damped pendulum.

1.4 Problem*: periodic response to a periodic force

Check that the function φ(t) = sin 2.2t − sin 2t for all t ∈ R, is a solution of the
Initial Value Problem:
x′′ + 4.84x = −0.84 sin 2t, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 0.2.
What are the minimal periods of the force (the function f (t) = −0.84 sin 2t)
and, respectively, of the response (the function φ(t) = sin 2.2t − sin 2t)?

2
1.5 Problem*: quasiperiodic response to a periodic force
√
Check that the function φ(t) = sin 6t − sin 2t for all t ∈ R, is a solution of the
Initial Value Problem:
√
x′′ + 6x = −2 sin 2t, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 6 − 2.

1.6 Problem: unbounded response to a bounded force

Check that the function φ(t) = t sin t for all t ∈ R, is a solution of the Initial
Value Problem:

x′′ + x = 2 cos t, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 0.

Represent this solution curve and describe its long-term behavior.

Describe the motion of the simple forced planar gravity pendulum.

1.7 Problem
Decide whether φ : R → R, φ(t) = cos t for all t ∈ R, is a solution of one of the
differential equations:

x′ + x = 0, x′′ − x = 0, x′′′ + x′ = 0, x(4) + x′′ = 0.

1.8 Problem: finding constant solutions for nonlinear equa-

tions
Find all constant solutions of the differential equations:

a) x′ = x − x3 , b) x′ = sin x,
x+1
c) x′ = 2 , d) x′ = x2 + x + 1,
2x + 5
e) x′ = x + 4x3 , f ) x′ = −1 + x + 4x3 .

1.9 Problem: particular solutions for linear nonhomoge-

neous equations
(i) Let the functions x1 , x2 , x3 : R → R be defined as:

x1 (1) = 1, x2 (t) = t, x3 (t) = t2 , ∀t ∈ R.

Prove that they are linearly independent in the real linear space C(R).
(ii) Find a solution of the form x(t) = at2 + bt + c, with a, b, c ∈ R of

x′ − 5x = 2t2 + 3.

3
1.10 Problem: particular solutions for linear nonhomoge-
neous equations
(i) Let the functions x1 , x2 , x3 : R → R be defined as:

x1 (1) = cos t, x2 (t) = sin t, x3 (t) = et , ∀t ∈ R.

Prove that they are linearly independent in the real linear space C(R).
(ii) Find a solution of the form x(t) = a cos t + b sin t + cet , with a, b, c ∈ R
of
x′′′ + x = −3 sin t + 2et .

1.11 Problem: linear homogeneous equations with con-

stant coefficients
Find solutions of the form x(t) = ert with r ∈ R of:

a) x′′ − 5x′ + 6x = 0, b) x′′′ − 5x′′ + 6x′ = 0,

c) x(4) − 5x′′′ + 6x′′ = 0, d) x′′ + 9x = 0,
e) x′′ + x′ + x = 0.

1.12 Problem: linear homogeneous equations with non-

constant coefficients
Find solutions of the form x(t) = tr with r ∈ R of:

a) t2 x′′ − 4tx′ + 6x = 0, b) t2 x′′ + tx′ − x = 0,

c) t2 x′′ − x = 0, d) t2 x′′ + x = 0,
e) t2 x′′ − tx′ + x = 0.

1.13 Problem: integrating a differential equation

Integrate the following differential equations.

a) x′ = 0, b) x′ = 2t, c) x′ = sin t,
d) x′ = 2t + sin t, e) x′ = e2t cos t,
2
f ) x′ = (t2 − 5t + 7) sin t, g) x′ = et ,
h) x′′ = −3, i) x′′′ = 0,
′
j) tx + x = 0, k) tx′ + x = 1,
l) t3 x′ + 3t2 x = 1, m) 2xx′ = −2t,
n) x′ et + xet = 0, o) x′ e2t + 2xe2t = 0.

4
1.14 Problem: the general solution of x′ = ax
Fix a ∈ R∗ . Justify that the formula

x = ceat , c∈R

describes the set of all solutions of the differential equation

x′ = ax.

Hint: Consider a new unknown y = xe−at and check that y ′ = 0.

1.15 Problem*: the general solution of x′′ = a2 x

Fix a ∈ R∗ . Justify that the formula

x = c1 eat + c2 e−at , c1 , c2 ∈ R

describes the set of all solutions of the differential equation

x′′ = a2 x.

Hint: Consider a new unknown y = x′ − ax and check that y ′ = −ay.

1.16 Problem*: the general solution of x′′ = −x

Justify that the formula

x = c1 cos t + c2 sin t, c1 , c2 ∈ R

describes the set of all solutions of the differential equation

x′′ = −x.

Hint: Consider two new unknowns y = x cos t − x′ sin t, z = x′ cos t + x sin t and
check that y ′ = z ′ = 0.

5
2 Understanding the Fundamental Theorems
2.1 Problem: what is an IVP?
How many solutions do each of the following problems have?

a) x′′ + t2 x = 0, x(0) = 0,
′′ 2
b) x + t x = 0, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 0,
c) x′′ + t2 x = 0, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 0, x′′ (0) = 1.

2.2 Problem.
1
We consider x′ + t12 x = 0, t ∈ (0, ∞). First check that x = e t is a solution.
Then find the general solution.

2.3 Problem.
We consider x′ + 2x = 0. First find a solution of the form ert , with r ∈ R. Then
find the general solution.

2.4 Problem.
We consider x′′ − 2x = 0. First find two solutions of the form ert , with r ∈ R.
Then find the general solution.

2.5 Problem.
Find the general solution of each of the following equations, looking first for
some solutions of the form x = tr , with r ∈ R.

a) t2 x′′ − 8tx′ + 20x = 0, t ∈ (0, ∞),

2 ′′
b) t x − 6x = 0, t ∈ (0, ∞),
2 ′′ ′
c) t x + tx + x = 0, t ∈ (0, ∞).

2.6 Problem.
Determine whether the given functions form the general solution of the differ-
ential equation:
a) Is x = c1 et + c2 e−t , c1 , c2 ∈ R the general solution of x′′ − x = 0?
b) Is x = c1 cosh t + c2 sinh t, c1 , c2 ∈ R the general solution of x′′ − x = 0?
et +e−t et −e−t
Recall that cosh t = 2 and sinh t = 2 .

6
2.7 Problem.
a) Verify that y1 = x and y2 = e−2x are solutions of (2x+1)y ′′ +4xy ′ −4y = 0.

b) Find the solution of the Initial Value Problem:

(2x + 1)y ′′ + 4xy ′ − 4y = 0, y(0) = 1, y ′ (0) = 0.

2.8 Problem.
2
Check that et is a solution of x′ − 2tx = 0.
Find a constant solution of x′ − 2tx = −2t.
Find the general solution of x′ − 2tx = −2t and, respectively, of x′ − 2tx = t.

2.9 Problem.
a) Find a particular solution of the form xp = aet (with a ∈ R) for the
equation x′ − 2x = et .

b) Find a particular solution of the form xp = be−t (with b ∈ R) for the

equation x′ − 2x = e−t .
c) Using the Superposition Principle, and parts (a) and (b), find a particular
solution for the equation x′ − 2x = 5et − 3e−t .

d) Find the general solution of x′ − 2x = 5et − 3e−t .

7
3 First Order Linear Differential Equations
3.1 Problem.
Find the general solution of the following first-order linear homogeneous equa-
tions using the separation of variables method:
1
a) x′ − 2tx = 0, t ∈ R, b) x′ + x = 0, t ∈ (0, ∞),
t
1 3
c) x′ − x = 0, t ∈ (0, ∞), ′
d) x − x = 0, t ∈ (0, ∞).
t t

3.2 Problem.
Find the general solution of the following first-order linear nonhomogeneous
equations using the separation of variables method and the Lagrange method:
1 1
a) x′ + x = 1 + , t ∈ (0, ∞),
t2 t
′ −t2 −t
b) x + 2tx = e , t ∈ R,
2t
c) x′ + x = 3, t ∈ R,
1 + t2
2 4
d) x′ − x = t2 sin(2t) − 3 , t ∈ (0, ∞).
t t

3.3 Problem.
Find in two ways the general solution of
1 1
a) x′ + x = e−2t+1 , t ∈ (0, ∞), b) x′ − x = et−1 , t ∈ R.
t t

3.4 Problem.
Find the general solution of the following equations by reducing their order:
2 ′
a) x′′′ − x′′ = 0, t ∈ R, b) x′′ = x, t ∈ (0, ∞).
t

3.5 Problem.
Let f : [0, ∞) → R be a C 1 function that verifies

f ′ (t) ≤ 5f (t), t ∈ [0, ∞), and f (0) = 2.

Prove that
f (t) ≤ 2e5t , t ∈ [0, ∞).

8
4 Linear Homogeneous Differential Equations with
Constant Coefficients
4.1 Problem.
Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations:

a) x′ − 3x = 0, b) x′ + 6x = 0,
c) x′′ + x′ − 6x = 0, d) x′′ − 6x = 0,
e) x′′ + 4x′ + 4x = 0, f) x′′ = 0,
g) x′′ + x′ + x = 0, h) x′′ + 9x = 0,
i) x′′′ = 0, j) x(n) = 0,
k) x′′′ − 6x′′ + 11x′ − 6x = 0, l) x(4) − x = 0.

4.2 Problem.
Find the linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients and
minimal order that has the following functions as solutions. Write the general
solution of the differential equation found.

a) e−3t and e5t , b) 5e−3t and − 3e5t , c) 5e−3t − 3e5t ,

d) 5te−3t and − 3e5t , e) 5e−3t and − 3te5t , f) (5 − 3t)e−3t ,
g) (5 − 3t + 2t2 )e−3t , h) sin 3t, i) t − sin 3t,
j) −t sin 3t, k) e5t sin 3t, l) e−3t sin 3t,
m) t7 + 1, n) 5t − 3e5t , o) (t − 1)2 ,
p) 2 cos2 t, r) sin2 t, s) (et )2 .

4.3 Problem.
Decide whether the following statements are true or false:
a) There exists a linear homogeneous differential equation with constant co-
efficients of order 7 that has as solutions (t3 + 2t4 ) cos 2t and te−t .

b) There exists a linear homogeneous differential equation with constant co-

efficients that has as solution 1/t.
c) There exists a linear homogeneous differential equation with constant co-
2
efficients that has as solution et .
d) There exists a linear homogeneous differential equation with constant co-
efficients that has as solution t/(1 + t2 ).

9
4.4 Problem.
Find the solution for each of the following IVPs (Initial Value Problems), where
η, λ ∈ R are fixed parameters.

a) x′ = 3x, x(0) = 2,
1
b) x′′ + x = 0, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = ,
6
c) x′′ + π 2 x = 0, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = η,
′′ ′
d) x + λx = 0, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = η.

4.5 Problem.
Find all solutions for each of the following BVPs (Boundary Value Problems):

a) x′′ + x = 0, x(0) = x(π) = 0,

′′
b) x + x = 0, x(0) = x(1) = 0,
′′ 2
c) x + π x = 0, x(0) = x(1) = 0,
′′ 2
d) x + π x = 0, x(0) = x(2) = 0.

4.6 Problem.
Let µ, ω > 0. Prove that each solution of x′′ + µx′ + ω 2 x = 0 tends to 0 as
t → ∞.

4.7 Problem.
Let µ, ω > 0. Prove that all solutions of x′′ + ω 2 x = 0 are periodic and write
their minimal period. Justify that any non-null solution of x′′ + µx′ + ω 2 x = 0
is neither periodic, nor bounded on R.

4.8 Problem.
Find λ > 0 such that there exist non-null solutions of

x′′ + λx = 0, x(−π) = x(π), x′ (−π) = x′ (π).

4.9 Problem.
Find λ > 0 such that there exist non-null solutions of

x′′ + λx = 0, x(0) = x(π) = 0.

10
5 Linear Nonhomogeneous Differential Equations
with Constant Coefficients
5.1 Problem.
Let A1 , A2 , λ, a, b, α, β ∈ R and f ∈ C(R). We consider the differential equation
and its characteristic equation

x′′ + A1 x′ + A2 x = f (t), r2 + A1 r + A2 = 0.

Prove the following propositions.

a) Let f (t) = a be constant. There is a constant particular solution xp = b
if and only if A2 ̸= 0.
b) Let f (t) = aeλt . There is a particular solution of the form xp = beλt if
and only if λ is not a root of the characteristic equation.
c) Let f (t) = aeλt . If λ is a simple root of the characteristic equation then
there is a particular solution of the form xp = bteλt .
c) Let f (t) = aeλt . If λ is a double root of the characteristic equation then
there is a particular solution of the form xp = bt2 eλt .
d) Let f (t) = a1 eαt cos(βt) + a2 eαt sin(βt). If α + iβ is not a root of the
characteristic equation then there is a particular solution of the form xp =
b1 eαt cos(βt) + b2 eαt sin(βt).
e) Let f (t) = a1 eαt cos(βt) + a2 eαt sin(βt). If α + iβ is a root of the char-
acteristic equation then there is a particular solution of the form xp =
t(b1 eαt cos(βt) + b2 eαt sin(βt)).

5.2 Problem.
Decide whether the following statements are true or false:
a) All the solutions of x′′ + 3x′ + x = 1 satisfy lim x(t) = 1.
t→∞

b) The solution of the IVP x′′ +4x = 1, x(0) = 45 , x′ (0) = 0 satisfies x(π) = 45 .

c) The equation x′ = 3x + t3 admits a polynomial solution. (Hint: Look for

a polynomial solution of degree 3.)

5.3 Problem.
Let λ ∈ R be a parameter. Find the general solution of x′′ − x = eλt knowing
that, depending on λ, it has a particular solution either of the form aeλt or of
the form ateλt .

11
5.4 Problem.
Let ω > 0 be a parameter and denote φ(·, ω) the solution of the IVP:

x′′ + x = cos(ωt), x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 0.

a) When ω ̸= 1, find a solution of the form xp (t) = a cos(ωt) + b sin(ωt) for

x′′ + x = cos(ωt). Determine the real coefficients a and b.
b) Find a solution of the form xp (t) = t(a cos t + b sin t) for x′′ + x = cos t.

c) Find φ(·, ω) for any ω > 0.

d) Prove that lim φ(t, ω) = φ(t, 1) for each t ∈ R.
ω→1

5.5 Problem.
Let α > 0 and φ(·, α) be the solution of the IVP:

x′′ − 4x = eαt , x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 0.

a) When α ̸= 2, find a solution of the form xp (t) = aeαt for x′′ − 4x = eαt .
Determine the real coefficient a.
b) Find a solution of the form xp (t) = te2t for x′′ − 4x = e2t .

c) Find φ(·, α) for any α > 0.

d) Prove that lim φ(t, α) = φ(t, 2) for each t ∈ R.
α→2

12
6 Linear Homogeneous Planar Systems with Con-
stant Coefficients
6.1 Problem.
Let A ∈ M2 (R). Using both the characteristic equation method and reduction
to a second-order equation, find the general solution of the system X ′ = AX
in each of the following cases. Also, find a fundamental matrix solution and,
finally, find etA , the principal matrix solution.
     
1 3 5 −3 0 4
a) A = f) A = k) A =
 1 −1  8 −6 5 1 
0 1 −3 4 0 −1
b) A = g) A = l) A =
1 0 −1 1 1 0 
   
4 −5 1 −4 0 −2
c) A = h) A = m) A =
1 −2 2 5 2 0
     
5 −3 −1 2 a 1
d) A = i) A = n) A =
3 −1 2 −4 0 a
   
5 −9 2 0
e) A = j) A =
2 −1 1 2

13
7 Exam Problems
7.1 Problem.
Let f ∈ C(R) and η ∈ R. Write the solution of the IVP:

x′ + x = f (t), x(0) = η.

7.2 Problem.
Write the general solution of the following equations:

a) x′ − 3t2 x = t3 ,
b) x′ − 3t2 x = f (t), where f ∈ C(R).

7.3 Problem.
Find the solution of the IVP:

a) x′ + 2tx = t, x(0) = 0,
′
b) x + tx = 1, x(0) = 0,
′′
c) x + 4x = 1, x(0) = 1, x′ (0) = 0.

7.4 Problem.
Let a ∈ R∗ . Find the general solution of:

x′ − ax = at − 1.

7.5 Problem.
Using Euler’s formula, compute:

eit , eiπ , eiπ/2 , e(−1+i)t .

7.6 Problem.
Find the linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients that
has the general solution:

x(t) = c1 e−t cos t + c2 e−t sin t, c1 , c2 ∈ R.

7.7 Problem.
Find a linear homogeneous differential equation that has as solution the func-
tion:
(2tet )2 .

14
7.8 Problem.
Find a linear homogeneous differential equation that has as solution the func-
tion:
1 + t(1 + e−t ).

7.9 Problem.
Let k, η ∈ R be fixed parameters. Find the solution of the IVP:

x′ = k(21 − x), x(0) = η.

7.10 Problem.
We consider the differential equation:

x′′ − x = te−2t .

a) Find a particular solution of the form xp (t) = (at + b)e−2t .

b) Find the general solution.
c) Find the solution satisfying the initial conditions x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 0.

7.11 Problem.
Let L : C 2 (R) → C(R) be defined for each x ∈ C 2 (R) by:

L(x)(t) = x′′ (t) − 2x′ (t) + x(t), t ∈ R.

a) Prove that L is a linear map. What is the dimension of its kernel?

b) Find the general solution of x′′ − 2x′ + x = cos 2t, knowing that it has a
particular solution of the form xp = a cos 2t + b sin 2t.
c) Let f1 (t) = e2t and f2 (t) = e−2t .
Find a particular solution xp = af1 + bf2 of L(x) = 3f1 + 5f2 .

7.12 Problem.
Let a1 , a2 ∈ C(R) and define L : C 2 (R) → C(R) for each x ∈ C 2 (R) by:

L(x)(t) = x′′ (t) + a1 (t)x′ (t) + a2 (t)x(t), t ∈ R.

Prove that L is a linear map.

Let Φ : ker L → R2 be defined for each x ∈ ker L by:

Φ(x) = (x(0), x′ (0)).

Prove that Φ is an isomorphism of linear spaces. What is the dimension of

ker L?

15
7.13 Problem.
a) State the Fundamental Theorem for linear homogeneous second-order dif-
ferential equations.

b) Decide whether the following statement is true or false, and justify your
answer:
”The general solution of the differential equation x′′ − 9x = 0
is x(t) = c1 cosh 3t + c2 sinh 3t, where c1 , c2 are arbitrary real
constants.”

7.14 Problem.
Let a ∈ R be a fixed parameter. Find the general solution of the differential
equation:
x′′ − x = eat ,
knowing that, depending on a, it has a particular solution either of the form
xp = beat , or of the form xp = bteat .

7.15 Problem.
Let a > 0 and b ∈ R be fixed parameters. Write the general solution of:

x′′ − a2 x = ebt .

7.16 Problem.
Let a ∈ R \ {0, 1} be a fixed parameter. Find the general solution of:

x′ + ax = −at + 1,
x′′ − ax′ + (a − 1)x = 0.

7.17 Problem.
Find the solution of the IVP:
π
θ′′ + 9θ = 0, θ(0) = , θ′ (0) = 0.
2
Describe the motion of a pendulum governed by this IVP. Determine after how
much time the pendulum returns to its initial position, i.e. find T > 0 such that
θ(T ) = π2 and θ′ (T ) = 0.

16
7.18 Problem.
We consider the differential equation:

x′′ + 4x = cos 2t.

a) Find a particular solution of the form xp = t(a cos 2t + b sin 2t).

b) Find the general solution.
c) Describe the motion of a spring-mass system governed by this equation.

7.19 Problem.
Let k, m > 0 be fixed parameters. Describe the motion of a spring-mass system
whose equation is:
k
x′′ + x = 0.
m

7.20 Problem.
Find the solution of the IVP:

x′′ + 4x′ + 5x = 0, x(0) = 1, x′ (0) = −2.

Represent the corresponding integral curve and describe its long-term behavior.

7.21 Problem.
Let a > 0 be a fixed parameter. Consider the differential equation:

x′′ + 2ax′ + 4x = 0.

Write the general solution and describe the long-term behavior (in the future)
of a nonnull solutions Discuss with respect to the parameter a.

7.22 Problem.
a) Find the general solution of the differential equation:
9
φ′′ + φ = 0.
4

b) Decide whether the following statement is true or false:

”All solutions of φ′′ + 94 φ = 0 are periodic with a period T = 4π.”

17
7.23 Problem.
We say that a differential equation exhibits resonance when all its solutions are
unbounded. For what values of the mass m will the following equation exhibit
resonance?
mx′′ + 25x = 12 cos(36πt).

7.24 Problem.
Find the general solution of:

θ̈ + θ̇ + θ = 0.

Prove that any solution verifies:

lim θ(t) = 0.
t→∞

7.25 Problem.
Let α ∈ R be a fixed parameter. Describe the long-term behavior (in the future)
of the function:
x(t) = eαt cos 2t, t ∈ R.

7.26 Problem.
Let γ > 0. Decide if the following statement is true:

”Any solution of x′′ + γx′ + 9x = 0 satisfy lim x(t) = 0.”

t→∞

7.27 Problem.
Find γ ∈ R such that any solution of the following differential equation is
periodic.
x′′ + γx′ + 9x = 0.

7.28 Problem.
Consider the differential equation:

t2 x′′ + 2tx′ − 2x = 0, t ∈ (0, ∞).

a) Find solutions of the form x(t) = tr where r ∈ R is to be determined.

b) Specify the type of the equation and find its general solution.
c) Find the solution of the IVP:

t2 x′′ + 2tx′ − 2x = 0, x(1) = 0, x′ (1) = 1.

18
7.29 Problem.
Find the general solution of the differential equation:

x2 u′′ − 6xu′ + 10u = 0.

where the unknown function is denoted by u of independent variable x. Hint:

Look for solutions of the form u = xr with r ∈ R.

7.30 Problem.
Find the solution of the following Initial Value Problem:
y′
y ′′ − = x2 , y(2) = 0, y ′ (2) = 4.
x

7.31 Problem.
a) Find a particular solution of the form xp (t) = at2 et for:

x′′ − 2x′ + x = et .

b) Find a constant solution for:

x′′ − 2x′ + x = 5.

c) Find the general solution of the differential equation:

x′′ − 2x′ + x = 10 + 5et .

d) Find the solution of the IVP:

x′′ − 2x′ + x = 5, x(0) = 5, x′ (0) = 0.

7.32 Problem.
Decide if the following statement is true:
”The following Boundary Value Problem has at least one solution:

x′′ + 9x = 0, x(0) = 0, x(π) = 9.”

7.33 Problem.
We use the notation L(x) = x′′ + 25x.
a) Find the solution of the IVP:

L(x) = 0, x(0) = 0, x′ (0) = 1.

Represent this solution curve and describe its long-term behavior (in the
future).

19
 b) Let φ1 (t) = t cos(5t) and φ2 (t) = t sin(5t). Compute:

L(5), L(φ1 ), L(φ2 ).

c) Find a constant solution for:

L(x) = 5.

d) Find the general solution of:

L(x) = 25 − 25 sin(5t).

7.34 Problem.
Consider the differential equation:
1
x′ + x = 0, t ∈ (−∞, 0).
t2
a) Check that x = e1/t is a solution of this equation.
b) Find the solution of the IVP:
1
x′ + x = 0, x(−1) = 1.
t2

c) Find the general solution of:

1 1
x′ + 2
x=1+ , t ∈ (−∞, 0).
t t

7.35 Problem.
Find in two ways the general solution of:
1
x′ + x = −2, t ∈ (0, ∞).
t

7.36 Problem.
Consider the differential equation:
2t
x′ + x = 3.
1 + t2
a) Find its general solution.

b) Find its solution satisfying x(0) = 1. Is this solution bounded? What

about other solutions?

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7.37 Problem.
We consider the system X ′ = A(t)X + f (t), where:

4et
   
5 −t
A(t) = , f (t) = .
−7e−t −7 1

a) Prove that U (t) is a fundamental matrix solution for X ′ = A(t)X:

−4e−2t et
 
U (t) = .
7e−3t −1

b) Find the principal matrix solution of X ′ = A(t)X.

 
1
c) Find the solutions of X ′ = A(t)X satisfying X(0) = .
−1
 
1
d) Find the solution of X ′ = A(t)X + f (t) satisfying X(0) = .
0

7.38 Problem.
Let n ≥ 1 and A ∈ Mn (R). Assume that A has an eigenvalue λ ∈ C and two
linearly independent vectors v1 , v2 ∈ Cn such that:

(A − λIn )v1 = 0, (A − λIn )v2 = v1 .

Prove that:
φ1 (t) = eλt v1 , φ2 (t) = eλt (tv1 + v2 )
are two linearly independent solutions of the linear system X ′ = AX.

7.39 Problem.
Show that any solution of the system X ′ = AX satisfies lim X(t) = 0, in each
t→∞
of the following cases:
 
−3 1 0 0
0 −3 0 0
a) A =  ,
0 0 −5 0
0 0 2 −5
 
−5 3
b) A = ,
−3 1
 
−5 9
c) A = .
−2 1

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7.40 Problem.
Find the general solution and then show that any solution of the system X ′ =
AX is bounded for t ∈ [0, ∞), in each of the following cases:
 
−3 1 0
a) A =  0 −3 0  ,
0 0 −5
 
0 −1 0
b) A = 1 0 0 .
0 0 −5

7.41 Problem.
 
−5 1
Let A = . Prove that any solution of the system X ′ = AX satisfies:
−1 1
lim X(t) = 0. (1)
t→∞

7.42 Problem.
Let A ∈ M2 (R).
a) Let η ∈ R2 . Write a representation formula for the solution of the IVP:
X ′ = AX, X(0) = η. (2)

b) Using the definition of the matrix exponential, compute:

     
0 0 0 1 1 0
t t t
0 0 0 0 0 1
e , e , e .

c) Let λ ∈ R be an eigenvalue of A and v1 ∈ R2 be an eigenvector of A

corresponding to λ. Assume there exists v2 ∈ R2 such that:
(A − λI2 )v2 = v1 . (3)
Prove that {v1 , v2 } are linearly independent and that:
φ1 (t) = eλt v1 ,
φ2 (t) = eλt (tv1 + v2 )
are solutions of the system X ′ = AX.
d) Take:  
−2 1
A= . (4)
0 −2
Apply (c) to find two solutions of the system X ′ = AX. Write the matrix
solution whose columns are these solutions. Is this a fundamental matrix
solution? Find the principal matrix solution. Compute etA .

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