INTRODUCTION A.

- () ()
LATEST
3. 2. |1. ELCTROVALENT
Covalent
Bond(b) Deinitlon mass
Definition
Blectron
(a)Constttuents
STRUCTURE
inmodern
InThe Modern leg Electrovalent
Deintton
duplet
Dgfndtlon-Atomic Bond
ound
given a the Postulates The
Atoms hydroger, number, SYLLABUS
differalike indivisible An Atoms Atoms
all Anin Atoms Matter aspects Democritus and Atomic
fact Atoms Dalton'soriginal John concept &octet distributlon
chemical simple
atomDalton's
atomic the -Atomic and of
that from in of theoryatonic atom
are- s OF
all combine consists
of - Dalton- chlortne, of an
atomic the is whole are &COVALENT atomic AN
atoms is the of of basic f examples atom
respects particle
atoms indivisible
the an-SCOPE
same changes the same
neither - the of clectronsorbtt orbit in ATOM,
theory smallest Dalton's constituents in - oygen, atom
theory smallest
number with anthe the
Structure
the are of oftheory 1808 structure-for number.
the elenment of result element - theory ancient structuure orbtts MASS
lative other and createdsmall atom of -
mallest
however an and other rtrogen, BONDING, OF
- element. - ratios proposed
- structure Atomic isotopes nucleuS
indestructible.
has from unit SYLLABUS-ATOMIC
elements, are indivisible
-noratomic
are of originated 2n- NUMBER
ber atoms are the Greek - CHAPTER 4
unit forming still of hydrogenchlorlde, for th
STRUCTURESe
orrelates - contradicted
separation of destroyed. alike atomhas re,
0
all
matter a formation
the Iprotons,
and of theory
philosopher
- in theory heldsubstarnces. (hydrogen,Octet
&
matter compound everyparticles fornation ATOMIC
ind valid
undergone from
or - of rule
aking number Atoms
with Same case may consisting
electrons, AtomsAtoms which aspect fElectrovalent &
of combination - the water, neutrons]
OF
most called & the of VARIOUS carbon, NUMBER,
Reason STRUCTURE
Chemical
salton's
element otnot atoms
takes useful atom &
iso of Modern
atomic
theory
are are &t studied Covalent
amnoda,
part but bethe differ atoms. ancient
is topes of
adifferent
in of
alike protonsdivisible - or modifications-but known for
same divisible part in COMPOUNDS-ORBIT with
atomica having subatomic of
the molecules. from compondschlorinej
chemicl ISOTOPES
cal which in atoms. ina the the
carbontetrachlorlde,
molecules
element
all & above atoms as Greek
nature associated
- study
heory -mass trespects chemical the- CHEMICAL
BONDIF
he are neutrons. and sof actwty Bonding
on same particles &
numbers. atoms - destructible. otheral ofphilosophers
atomic of on (eg
postulates OCTET
atomic as reaction Chemistry.|
theprincipal matter tihe NaC4,
seen STRUCTUE ofan
and of elements. electro
like theory. methane. basis MgCL,,
the RULE
in and - atom
- S of CaG
 B.
CONCLUSION DISCOVERY
SCIENTIST DISCOVERY
SCIENTIST I.
DISCOVERYOf
Since
electrons how
Atoms of
Cathode DISCOVERY
Chargepositively
an
of [Irrespective
Mass
electrons
of atoms
an
charged. are contain typesall rays
electron produced are of consist
electron
Unit - are " " " -
- the raise
[attracted
They They cast Travel Studied He Sir - cathode These
througha
were
Blue Discovered
raysWilliam English OF
electrically emitted,
-7 This nature J.
of the have are afound J. - the
1837 led which - shadow in Cathode
rays rays ELECTRONS
negatively Thomson
the
of
they the Deflection temperature towards
kinetic deflected straight that Crookesphysicist
structure
negative
charge Of to the - were tube the
the neutral
the had particle same characteristics
electrodes are of the- Discharge
tube emitted
mass
discovery positively
energy the lines in called-
containingcathode -
51
a all
unit charged of foundWilliam
it
by cathode
of must identical. - cathode ofmagneticobject 1897.
a negative a & from of
hydrogen vacuum
wTo
cathode from thatrays.
1.602
10-19 x contain of electrons or and metallic - placed
charged vacuumyTo a an
gas particles rays cathode rays & gas Crookes
the the when
&
constituents atom
charge
- used object electric in had negative
rays. at
protons.
atom some plate]. anode low an
coulombs in now their tothe
anda the anode electric in -
or
particles irrespective of- on field following pressure 1878.
called path. Electrons
proton discharge which cathode].
plate(ie.
negligible & of-
electrons. - discharge
9.107 which they cathode [0.01
characteristics:
x
tube,
mass.]
are fall. mm
10-28
- rays. is
of
passed
Hgl
 3. 2. 1. III.
DISCOVERY
SCIENTIST CONCLUSION DISCOVERY
SCIENTIST I.
deflected
back Somedeflected
sightly.Some went Most DISCOVERY-Of
DISCOVERY DISCOVERY
with alpha straght
alpha of Charge MassPositive
particles
Source
alpha of
large Observationsthe
a by
particles ofrays
360°C particles alpha of an
through
bounced
anglesor an consist
proton
deflection. particles -
were were Thedeflection Studied
He" Lord - OFproton maybe Discovered
consisting
- - OF
If"Goldstein
the of-positively a the
metallic
particles
alpha directed
sOurce THE- 00000 perforated
foil.
- Rutherford -1837 - structure
the Unit seen PROTONS
Scattering tube-00000)
Discharge
sheet of times
3. |2.
-
alphaalphaatomicATOMIC positive travelling positive of -
1. the of Anode positively
pproaches
positive Ifnot very A An gold - charged
as disc
concentrated
the Nucleus E alphaparticles particles
particles in heavy
52 atom of
model charge Cathode is of
closesmall
alpha Foil
foil 1911 rays an
alpha used rays
in
mass to on particles atom-Protons
region one
- - NUCLEUS as a
charged
at the the particles particlesAlpha
arepositivelychargedheliumatomscontaining two radium, -and direction as
particle 1.602 an KPerforated
Positive
emitted
it positive
right positive whole protons
was towards
millionth discovered electron cathode rays the
gets - in x which
angles passes an
Conclusions then 10-1 cathode
particles
deflected is & - from
mass atom mass - observed a lead opposite
it very relatively twO of
metallic coulombs 1.670
gets itand is a the to - the
- neutrons cm. x the the - &
102g
through gets present
eflected close if atomic 'protons'.anode Atomic
the empty. & sheet discovery positiveto
deflectedalpha
in
conclusions the
large to nucleus. -
thrpugh the a cathode
angles particles -
concentrated of- rays
slightly. Nucleus
360PG and drawn. protons. rays. -
is
if
it
 POSTULATES III.
SCIENTIST
DISCOVERY IV. BOHR'S DRAWBACKS DISCOVERY-Of
CONCLUSION Since DISCOVERY
Bohr's Whenthis energy Each Thus,
towardscentrifugal If
attractive counterbalance
In great l
alMatter
DISCOVERY according When is As 1,TheElectrons
2, an
Rutherford's the
long
integer 3 electron velocity positive the
... orbitATOMIC Rutherford's in
model as the aton
to starting
the revolve force an OF
is force OF atom-is
equation
gaveelectronelectrons associated 'n'- nucleusmoves to -
supplied model
- RUTHERFORD'S
the charge
is
"Electrons MODEL RUTHERFORD'S
arising of confer neutral OFthe
Thisconfirmed
whichpossessno hence
ie. Therefore
It- However concentrated Heestablished James OF the from
represents around
Charge MassProtons was 2 the
x precisenessE-E drops model
followinground positive located THE-
structure
1.008 THE- rotates the positively of of
of therefore atomic Chadwick initially with due the
of a and the - the - the
neutrorn but in the have back - stability in
a the = inner POSTULATES
th e a could
- the to
atom
sufficient atom
charge
its
thatarnatomconsistsof in in nucleus the
ATOMIC
neutron neutrons the
atomic nass atomic negligible NEUTRONS of hy toone certain nucleus a the
charge proved case the location |E , to various space of
existence
- in the most. spiral chargedATOMIC
-
while ATOMIC
Almost th e of not - the onand an
should of nucleus. 1932. &atoms
E rotation number
mass helium mass the amount in
53 - are but that original
&are energy The -
- explain path
in - electrons the
revolve thatom-Atomic
e the
energy nucleus
it MODEL
NUCLEUS
arry together have
equal in is beshould mass
of calculated
modeenergy - fixed OF must centre
an levels - of MODELnuclear remaining of
no
the the equal - electron of
BOHR'S correctly till
to the there - of orbits. electrons. around
electrons
subatomicparticles, hence states
ro
orbit levels levelsenergy radiateit would revolve called-
electric the neutron,nucleus mass be are collides mnodel
known experimentally toare tation
ass - equal energy
tound
-two th e ofmoves- it-also hence - ATOMIC the
be the volume [Contd.]
charge almostequal of twice the neither out around of must nucleus
as the protons to mass ofelectrons
electron designated and balanced nucleus Nucleus
of to stability
-energy the
the - to atom the the is an named ultimately surround
being
and nuwleons. be of radiated loses the atom. which
proton && - orbit THEORY
as toare found mass in
mass t
ie.electronshe in &&nucleus
with a
are theavy its around higher or as - by large
thatof atom of energy gradually
of is
ie.
-presentparticles nucleus absorbs - - the the &
neutral. to
of of
by
higher K, an
collapses associated
1.676 as be4.003 each the & -and empty Neutrons
t he is the lower the L, atom. nucleus
the &protons.-
x protonprotons. and energy. M,
levels.
1*g proton. protons. a.m.u. nucleus. atom energy. move the
orbit). N.. in
space. with
- - to
it.
 THE
C.
2. REPRESENTING
DEFINITION-An Atom 1.
positive
the The sameSince Elements
The This whichATOMIC An The :The Subatomic
shells Theorbits into Element
having Atom -
ATOMICFurthermore nucleus:The ofThe ATOM An - inAn
lectrons
sitive
arges Protons value atomnic atom
the
number atomic
number electrons protons three twOelementchemicalatoma
neutral distinguishes or structure CONSISTS
charge
of more the
of or
NUMBER the number areNUMBER:
each atomAn subatomic
particles more same is
the of
numberarranged is 20n 20p and is
reaction
of atoms revolve
accurately a the
nuclearnumber electrons
the called and pure
elemernt neutrons OFatomic
substances
is smallest ANATOM
] nucleus also
|Zcharge of is it Orbit behaviour - -
- Electron around particles substance &
- in- of and equal
an the on from [Z] Protons, number
in in equal Nucleus is
the the the OFprotons element -the has orbits considered
is in protons atomic are
leus
to basis the its by particle
nucleus equal
mplete AN an to
the the found of and
the atom own or which
electrons, any made
atom NeutronElectron
1 Proton nucleus an
4
ELEMENT determines
to nmber number
have number of orbitals. -
- Subatomic physicalwhich
of of the - characteristic - of particles - atom Atomic
atom the in are up the of
its anatomic the another
number
of -1 +1 1 along the are- neutrons of cannot of basic an
atom atom IS
the of - of
electrons protons the n cerntre great or one elenent
THE
number - protons, unit Number
elementelement. of imaginary chemical be kind
protons number Charge importance
or broken of
NUMBER - Zero +
- in (1) - (1) nucleus ofmatter.
of in electrons atoms which
the the the and in means. down
their - paths
element. atonm atom is e.g.
SL standard]
[C-12 of
OF: - in - - can
respective
denoted known th e and O,
of of negligible Mass understanding
an an 1 1 atom.neutrons. take
part
atoms.are Cl
element. element. as
bu
atoms. -
'Z'
 ELECTRONS 4. MASS REPRESENTING 3.
a neutrons number
Atomic
number
Mass
Conclusion:
No.of number
AtomicZ= A
= Hence sincewhole The total
approximately in TheMASS
ARRANGEMENT
Shells
Electrons Mass Protons
The
Element
A the
Z NUMBER
Following K The [the
The since Electrons atomic mass mass
and An The
number X number
the nucleus number
shell or the NUMBER
electron
the shells and
next shellcentrifugal Energy mass
massnumber, number
energy [first while presentare - structure
shell closest neutrons
shells, arerevolve [n ] = [Z] (A] approxinnation of of of
has revolving
shell, A]
= no. no. numberequal the protons
the
is alsoforce levels OF = number
AtomicNumber
(ZAtomic
) [ZI OF however
creases - of of of AN
called
are to no. no. AN proton
to :
miimum or aroundELECTRONS electrons
protons of - atom an (A]
the called A n P of
number
M, prevents
in of ELEMENT in is 1 ATOM
outside protons
electrons an and atom
nucleus
the a the a.m.u. -
in N, shell =Z element slightly as
of is
energy
the 'energy the Z P e = atom the a
neutrons
-L
one Z e
well - is
an them and the
55
order shell
etc. is nucleus nucleusthe [e] lp atomic -
in
shell]. electron number
Mass
Atomic
number of IS less as
called levels'
from - the Mass
the[second neutronsNo.ofExample : deduced anTHE the
K, thanmass mass -
first
L, the falling in .. number Mass[A ]
NumberMass
[A J element. mass collectively
possesses no. [ A TOTAL
M, definite but no. the
or shell - = of in Number
N. revolve
and of p of from of
Kshell into neutronsn n
= neutrons
actual the atomic
or the
- the
x z] + NUMBER electron
number a orbits [n] [A] =[Z] its neutrons
-
certain P atomic called
nucleus]. mass
(n] atomic
two amount called aroundit. ]= +
ERIES
ALAL A n no. OF: is units 'nucleons' [Contd.]
negligible.
mass. is
shell). -'shells' A of no. -
-Z
protons -
of e &
energy. mass
[p]
10 19 no.
 Example Rule 2 FACTORS-
Rule 1 ELECTRONS
[Contd.]
b] 4.
REPRESENTING
DISTRIBUTION The
configuration
Electronic
2,8,8,2
At Eachelectrons
Bohr The andElectronic
calcium
No. Atom of -
ATOM problem
and each shell
20 Ca ELECTRONS
[(The The Where MAXIMUM ofThe WHICH
Mass
new A an configuration
Bury electron has -
No. outermost
penultimate maximum of are
OFshell atom a OF AN
40 CALCIUM| n distribution
and limited distributed
ELECTRONS
is is GOVERN tries
- equal NUMBER
is gives ATOM
20 40 formed IN given
Ca number to
capacity -
shell shell THE ShellM-
Shelldesignation
Shell
-L K- the occupy refers
Max. ShellN- to
electronic
nfiguration Outermost
electrons.
Henceeight As electrons
thancannotshell CONFIGURATIONELECTRONIC
in -no.of Electrons
As ATOMIC Shell of
each as cannot
OUTERMOST
[last - by distribution OFTHE -
per soon th e or electrons to in
(Electronic
56 per ELECTRONS- of e Electrons
have but number a to thshells
rule shell rule represented electrons shell hold
as have
one] DISTRIBUTION distribution
- =NO. the Shell
No.
more
2:[2n²] 1: which or
20, -
cannot 4 3 2 1 [n] in
electrons
[Z] more SHELL of of
various Configuration] fixed
Protons outermost = th e which electrons
L-shell
K-shell
2 20 shell by IN has
have than Formula orbits.
of [Contd.]
MASS (3)2
(4) 2x 2x (2)2
2x(1)2
2x EACH minimum -
2n2 as
acan shells electrons
= shell more - - in
20, countedformula
8 be
SHELL various
OF was
Neutrons NO. attainselectrons. than present
Maximum
number energy. in
shell
Last
N-shell
M-shell [A] electrons of
in from ELECTRONS solved
eight 18 each 2n. OF shells. different
8 10 =
40 electrons.] 32 18 2
shell the in THE
=electrons. any by
20 nucleus. ATOM - shells.
2 shell
 REPRESSENTINGANATOM
HYDROGEN
ATOM OF
ALUMINIUM
ATOM
At. OF BORON
ATOM
At. OF At.
CHLORINE
ATOM
At. OF FLUORINE
ATOMOF
At.
No. Config. Mass
No.9 Config. No. n=0
Elec.
fig.
,8,7n=1817,P= 2,8,3
Elec.n=1413,P=
No. Config, Elec.2,n=10
7P=9, Elec.2,3P=5,
n=6 Cornfig.
Elec.P=1,
1 No.
13 5 1
17 Mass Mass
Mass Mass

No.19 No. No.

No.
No. 11
35 27 1

At. At. At.

ARGON
ATOM OF SILICON
ATOM OF ATOM
At. OF HELIUM
ATOM
At. OF
Config.
Elec.
2,8,4 ATOM
NEON OF
Elec.
2,8,8
fig. P= P=14,
n=14 No. Config.
Elec.
2,8
P=10, No. Config.
Elec.2,4 No. Config. 2
Elec.P=2, No.
No. P=6,
n=6 n=2
18, 14 10 6 2
18 Mass
Mass Mass Mass Mass
22
n n=
10 CARBON [Contd.]-Atomic
No. No. No. No.
No.
40 28 20 12 4

POTASSIUM
ATOM PHOSPHORUS
|ATOMOF
At. OF At. NITROGEN
ATOM OF
fig.
,8,1
Elec. ATOM
At. OF LITHIUM
ATOM
At. OF
P= 2,8,5
No. Config.
Elec.n=1615,P= No. Config.
2,8,1
Elec.
P=11,
n=12 No. At.
Config.
Elec.2,5P=7,
n=7 No. Config.
Elec.2,1 P=3, No.
n=4
19, 19 15 11
Mass
7 3
Mass Mass Mass
n=20 SODIUM Mass
diagrams
No. No. No.
No. No.
39 31 23 14 7
CALCIUM
ATOM
At. OF MAGNESIUM
ATOM OF
SULPHUR
ATOM
At. OF
,8,2
nig
leç, At. OXYGEN
ATOM
At. OF BERYLLIUM
ATOM OF of
20,P= No. Config.n=16
2,8,6
Elec.P=16, No. Config.
2,8,2
Elec.P=12, At.
No. Config.
Elec.2,6 No. Config.
Elec.2,2 first
20 P=8,
n=8 P=4,
n=5 No.
16
Mass
12 8
n=20 Mass 4
Mass Mass 20
n=12 Mass
No. No. elements
No. No.
40 32 No.
24 16
9
 Calcium
Potassium
Phosphorus
ArgonChlorineSulphur Silicon
Aluminium
Magnesium Sodium Neon Fluorine Carbon
Oxygen Nitrogen Boron
Beryllium Lithium Helium Hydrogen
REPRESENTING
NAME

(a K Ar Si Al Mg Na Ne F N SymbolA
B Be
He

20 19 18
|NNo.[o.Z]
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 6 5 4 3 2 tomic 1
ANATOM[Contd.]-Atomic
40 40 35 32 31 28 27 Mass
24 23 20 19 16 14 12 11 9 7 4 [A]
20 18 17 16 15 14 12 10 tons Pro-
13 11 8 7 6 5 4 2 1 ofNo.
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 6
frons Elec-
Neu No.
5 4 3 2 1
ofNo.
58 20 20 22 16 16 14 14 12 12 10 10 7
|A-ZItrons
6 6 5 4 2
of
) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 K

8 8 8 8 8 7 6 Configuration
4 2 1 Electronir
structure
7 5 4 3 1
3 M

2
4 N

Valency
of
ALR
ES +2 +1 -2
Nonmetal
-33,5] 4 +3 +2 +1 first
-2 -3 4 +3 +2 +1

Metal Metal Noble Nonmetal

gasNonmetal Metalloid Metal Metal Metal Nobie
gas Nonmetal 20
Igas] Nonmetal
Igas] Nonmetal solid Metalloid
Ígas] Nonnetal Metal Metal Noble as
gAsNtrtretaiMetal
wels as
[noble
zus)Nnmetulelements
Metul,
 ISOTOPES D.
Atomic EXAMPLES
elements
Many properties
Physical 2. properties ChenicalPROPERTIES1. |Isotopes DEFINITION
Isotopesare
Carbon Chlorine
Elementhaving
6 5 4. Hydrogen
3 2. 1.
similar
element are
re,Hence Atomic Element isotopes
different
elementare of- of
1Cl theto Uranium Chlorine
Potassium Oxygen isotopes
mass same
the and mass Property have
mass of
the 1C1. - atomicatoms
mas5 chlorine
of - Isotopes
35
otal 1/12th is exist of sametheof of similar
Two Two Two Three Two Three the - 17C 37, 17Cl Of
oximately the Of
ass of Isotopes
in same of
ratio is numberIsotopes
one of isotopes
Number of - Isotopes
chemical the
carbon fraction a isotopic
of
atom Atomic same
four of Same
39,9k,
411gk
23 5 31C,
17Cl 16,0,
1",o, 19,c,
19,0 12,c,
14,C 3H,'H, H 17 17
the but
Mts of 1 92U, 23 8 forms Physical
Isotopes
have electronic
Isotopes
have
Chemical properties
- and different
No. element
1= Catom. atom mass
Is not Different
142 out Mass
of a constants 37 35
|105 Chlorine of whole properties
configuration mnass
37every the but No.
and
+ - different
37l fouraverage number in
[No.
hence
different
different are hencesame Same numbers.
Electrons
and that exists isotopes Same
ofdependent
are Reason 17 17
is atomic
number
the of in of of different
electrons same dependent physicalof
p8, p are number mass an
ge 3 the all =6, Protium
atoms isotopes C] same] electronic atom.
no. Protons
form e- Isotopes e hydrogen
Isotopes of of Same
oxyge of =6, Isotopes carbon of and no. on 17 17
8, H atomic of electrons (Z| properties.
ass n-8p- l6 n 12 [A] the on
of of =6 protonsneutrons
Deuterium
Tritium the
35-Cl two of p massesconfiguration.
atomic
ES an 8,e H -
isotopes 6, Neutrons
Different
element, 8, e
= =6, mass 20 18
105. n n7
3
- 10 H
 OCTET
ForRULE ATTAINING
CONFIGURATION
ELECTRONIC
UINSTABLE
REASON-
Atoms
E.
to
configuration.
Theelectronic
unstable GASES
NOBLE
REASON
leg.based in Loss ATTAINING
By th e
The By eightOctetleave Thus 8 an attain
2 driving KRYPTON
RADONXENON HELIUM NOBLE
ARGON NEON stability
arrangement
(The
GAS HELIUMhas-2
->Fe*]&
aring electrons
electrons atom NOBLE theyNOBLE
transferring
on atom
atom of of
electrons each
electrons ulchemical
e elements octet
loss a do
attaining formed to stableforce
STABLE - and GASES notGASES
one and CHEMICAL Atoms atom - in in
achieve For and -
results in its the hence gain,
or gain combination electronic in other Symbol duplet known - For
one their outermost
with Rn Xe Kr Ar Ne He
electrons[exception
have
reduction
more ELECTRONIC
firststable combination Chemical
of an inare tend than noble lose
electrons
overall the or
thusACTIVITY-
outermost stable a shell arrangements as Chemical
stable
rons atom more to electronic gases in or
a achieve shell configuration noble Number]
Atonic -
the helium
process negative
positively [outermost]
of Protons
Number
[or of
share
whereattaining electronic Activity 0CTET. electronic
electrons- atoms like CONFIGURATION of gases outermost
are
tron shell atoms 86 54 36 18 10
oxidation
when charge. BYstable configuration almost electrons. Activity
that seem He||
ANlike involves
an or configuration like are configuration
annegatively
overall ATOMelectronic of of is of
irs] atom The that assumed inert to shell have
from noble that related
the an
is represent
Kshell]- Their
electronic
or positive of Atom to - of
n process a one - of nearest
ion noble
redistribution gasnoble it chemical 8 an
to to 2 2 2 2 2 2 K electronsatoms ie.
gains charge charged atomconfiguration[octet other must the have
whentheory gases noble -
their arrangement
their Atom
gas have tendency 8 Electrons
electrons than Number
distributionL of
reactions]. are
an to or Helium -
while
of and
another. other duplet]. - gas. valence
in
atom Helium
of 18 18 18 M unreactive.
extremely -
oxidation
eg, by the
gain are than electrons for
having -2 known Octet
SL Fet or called 32 18 N in
ion of [duplet them outermost shell
electrons helium. [octet the
+e-’ loses &
18 8 shells as
reduction - - so is Rule
electrons ions. rulel - complete
Fe results as rulel DUPLET.
P shell
to
is
 chlorine
sodium
E.
:N; in
Nitrogenatoms
FORMATION NON-METALLIC
ELEMENTS [2,1]
8,
atom FORMATION
ofThe EXAMPLES
METALLIC
formation attraction]
Na OXYGEN CALCIUM
ATOM - CHLORINE SODIUM
molecule
Nitrogen
N: ATOM-H
HYDROGEN NITROGEN oppositely
it To it To + Attains
by Attains
by Attains
by Attains
by
(N) needs [2,8,
7]
atom
’ attain
needsattain gain
.C[: resulting loss gain loss
ATOM ATOM
[N=N] N of &
three ATOM of
’ charged OF stable of
stable stableATOM of
stable
orhydrogena OF- onestable stable two of
one OF
NON-METALLIC
molecular cation - two - one -
’N, electron (2,8] [Na<t Electrovalent
Covalent electrons - l60 40, electron
- octet 23.ATOMS
duplet octet
in electronsoctet electronsoctet electron octet35,-CI
11Na
,N formation
-cation 20
Ca
H chlorine
+
atoms in ,8]
8,
[2anion structure structure structure structure
0: or structure structure
compounds its in C1’ from in from
molecule
Water
covalent its & in -
H configuration
shares valence [elec.1] [elec. compounds
of
anion its
valence CHLORIDE its [elec. Attaining
SODIUM [elec.valence [elec. its [elec.
its of
or of an valence of of valence of
shellELEMENTS
61 configuration
of 2,5] ionic the valence the the the
onia
olecule
-0-H electron
compound. shell. the the
NaCl attracteach configuration configuration configuration configuration
nearest shell. nearest nearest nearest nearest
nearest or shell
oxygen
[2,8,8,2]calcium Ca
shell
pairs atomelectrovalent shell Chemical
forming
noble noble other forming inert forminginert inert
formingNanoble
l
e.g.with [2,6] atom 2,2, 2, 2,
gas 6]
gas 8, gas 8, 8,
Nitrogen,other gas gas with
calcium compound.
O- -
8, CI 7] gas 1]
- - [2,8,8]cation : a Neon Ca*Argon - 2] Argon - - Activity
atomor Helium Neon (cat+gi [Anion Neon
force-[electrostatic
force [Anion] - [Cation]
[Cation]
[2,
Water, |2, |2, |2,
Alonepair} [2] [2, anion
oxide 81
atoms, [2,8] 8, 8, 8|
8] e.g.
H" 8) 8| -
Ammonia -
x NaCl, Octet
Rule Octet Octet
Rule Octet
XX
N X resulting
H CALCIUM
x OXIDE
CaO
"H CaO Rule Rule
 A.
3. NOBLE
GASES CHEMICAL
2.
INTRODUCTION
CHEMICAL
BOND 1.
b] incomplete.
They ATOMS They have Noblemolecule The
Complete.
a] Have
For two
Mutual Transfera
Formation Formation leaveThus & force
between
8 2 an from
is The to byThe metallic tend unstable do
electrons gases
tallic eachelectroms
chemical electrons Thegiven Thepairs
atom an OFnot They which
is BOND
Metallic
calledchemicaltransfer
atom chemical chemical sharing the atom chemical of to have called
of of to
pairs of atom
valenceattainThey OTHER gain, in
electrons
Sharingof - -
combination in in the atonms an
atom electronic havestable acts
anwith itachieve
s the of of of can outermost
lose a &
atom covalent
aatom -
outemost compound-formed of - tostable
Transferof 2 -
given bond-
electrovalent
electron a first
compoundatoms electrovalent
electrons
of aone bond an ELEMENTS
between TYPES
stable of electrons gain, electrons
or electronic chenical Chemical
allic + non-metallic
Non-metallic
shellstable pair non-metallic a non-metallic or - configuration share
compound electronic formed
of metallic more
formed
electronic lose shell
of
shell
outermost] of between two
electronic non-metallic from in OF
compound
atomsnon-metallic
- orelectrons
configuration - bond.
like electrons neon
outermost or
atom configuration-Octet formed compound.
due element element between - share BONDING
[general -atom elements. configuration
involves that like to atom. and [elec. The moreBonding
configuration of as
mutual is electrons. conceptatoms
[general that elements
noble elements due result a
tocalledfromn their
andconfig.
shell
t diagram] the are
ie.
- of e.g. an their-
Metallic redistribution gasnoble to
sharing of the two - to
diagram] other atom outermost unreactive
2,8] - Electrovalent
e.g. is
mutual NaCI, transfer an of hold
gas it is is atomatoms the or
outermost called
or mustcalled called - argon helium
ion +
Duplet. than electrovalent of
Helium-2-DUPLET of CaO, nearest them
electrons a of of -
Non-metallic havesharing a - or or
Helium
of -a a non-metallic one |elec. \elec. chemical
covalent - MgClh netallic valence inert. ortogether
SL electrons -covalent noble
shared
pairOne or valence
Contig.config.
ectrons of
-0CIET more &
of -
ion bond.
element bonding. covalent
Electrovalent compounl electrons between element gas shell 2, as
compound so b010. electrons 8, shell2]
formed a
KUL
as RULE - 8] or stable
- by is
to they is
e
 B.
At. At. At. At. THE
CHLORINE CI- ALUMINIUM- Al At.
HYDROGEN -H
Config.
2,8,7
Elec. 2,8,3
Elec.
No. Config. No. Config.
Elec.2,7 FLUORINE
No. Config.
-FElec.2,3 BORON
No.5 Config.
-BElec. 1 No.
17 13 9
18n 17p 14n 13p 10n Mass Mass 1
ATOMS-
Mass Mass 9p 6n 5p Onlp Mass

No. No. No. No. No.

35 27 19 11 1

At. At.
O-0 Atomic
At. At.
Config.
2,8,8
Elec. Elec. At.
ARGON Ar-2,8,4
No. Config. SILICON
No. Config.
Si-Elec.
2,8 No. Config. HELIUM He-
NEON-Ne Elec.2,4 No.
Config.
Elec. 2 No.
18
CARBON -C
14 10
6
Mass 14n14p Mass 10n 10p
Mass Mass 2
number
(R 2n Mass

No. No. No. No.

No.
67 40 28 20 12
4
1
At. At.
PHOSPHORUS P
- to
POTASSIUM K
- At.
Config.
2,8,8,1
Elec. At.
No. Config.
2,8,5
Elec. No. Config.
2,8,1
Elec. SODIUM-Na At.
No. Config.
Elec.2,5 NITROGEN N 20
No. Config.
Elec.2,1 LITHIUM Li-
19 No.
20n 19p 16n 15 11
Mass 15p 12n 7
in
Mass Mass 7n7p Mass 4n3p 3
Mass the
No. No. No. No.
No.
Modern
39 31 23 14
7
At. At. |MAGNESIUM
At.
Mg
-
,8,8,2
nfig.
Elec. CALCIUMCa-
Config.
2,8,6
Elec. At.
No, SULPHUR Config.
No. -S 2,8,2
Elec. No. Config.
Elec.2,6 OXYGEN BERYLLIUM-
At. Be
No. Config.
Elec.
-O2,2
20 16 No.
Periodic
20n 12
20p Mass 16n 16p Mass 12n 12p 8
Mass 8n8p Mass 4
Mass
No. No. No. No.
40 No. Table
32 24 16
9
 ELECTROVALENT
C.
CHLORIDE
SODIUM FORMATION-
ELECTRON - - It
STRUCTURE
ATOMIC
ORBIT to from is
formationwhich The Na-atom
(21]
,8, non-metalic formed
Cl-atom Na-atom
Na) metallic
combination]
cation [atoms
before
attract
TRANSFER as
of[Nal+] Transferof Of
electron
sodiumresult a
anone chlorine
Sodium COMPOUND
Electrovalent
-
another & Chlorine[C]
electrovalent ofNearest
chlorideAccepts Elec. of
sodium Loses
Nearest Elec. of
Nal+ anion the nearest ELECTROVALENCY - atom
atom -
nearestconfiguration configuration
one [Na] transfer
[CIl-] atomCl- ion
electrovalent to [2,7]
8, ion one noble noble
form electron
-[cation]:noble -
68 bond compound [anion]:electron atomic -
gas atomic 35 23of
are noble Sodium
an gas
gas oneCompound
oppositely = Na
11 17
electrovalent Argon - =
CIl-. gas - number =2, Nal+. from- Neon =2,8,number valence
Cl - in neon
NaCI. - 8,7
argonouter (2, its chloride
[electrovalent
compound
charged formed] 8, 17 && 2, 1 electronic
configuration-2,
electronic
8,1
8] outer 11 electron
shell becomes 8
bond chloride
Sodium [2,8]Nat & -
particles becomes shell Nacl
leading + to configuration -
attain a to
SERIES
DALAL -
a
attain
to - [28]
,8, -
stability
Cl
- stability
2,-
8,7
 ELECTROVALENT
CALCIUM
OXIDE
"
-
FORMATION
ELECTRON It
STRUCTURE
ATOMIC
ORBIT to from - is
non-metallic formed
formationwhich The -atom
[2, Ca atomO- Ca-atom
8, metallic
cation 8,
attract
combination]
[atoms
before 2]
as
TRANSFER
a
of[Ca] chlorine
calciumresult
anone Oxygen Calcium
atomic
[Ca]- COMPOUND Of
- +
Electrovalent
another
electrovalent & oxideAcceptsofNearest Elec. calcium Loses ofNearest Elec.
atom
of
anion nearest nearest -
Ca2+ - atom transfer
ion configuration [O] ELECTROVALENCY
configuration
two
[0-] -atom O ion
trovalent to [2,6] [anion]:noble two noble - noble noble
bond
form atomic[cation]:electrons 16 40of
compound are electrons 20 Calcium
gas gas gas Compound-Cao two
an
oppositely O2-, gas Ca
number electrons
valence -
electrovalent - Neon = =2, Ca. - Argon- = =2,number 20
neon - argon from -
02 CaO. - in 6 8,
electronic
electronic
8 8, oxide
[electrovalent
compound
fornmed]
charged [28]
,8, outer
& 2, its
Catt && |2, 2
becomes 8] becomes outer 8,
bond shell
Calciumn
oxide 8] configurationconfiguration
particles shell
leading ++ an to a
attain
- - to
LAL attain
to
- [2,8] stability -
stability 2,- 2,
6 8,8,2
 MAGNESIUM
CHLORIDE
ELECTROVALENT
FORMATION
STRUCTURE
ATOMIC
ORBIT ELECTRON - - It
to from is
C1-atom twO formed
(27]
,8, Cl-atom -atomMg one
(Mg non-metallic
metallic as
+ TRANSFER
- a
result Of
Mg-atom
[22]
8,
,
M9 Magnesium magnesium
COMPOUND
Electrovalent
Chlorine chlorine
be
accepts
with [Magnesium
the chlorideAccepts
ofNearest Elec. magnesium ofNearest of
Loses Elec. -
anotherother nearest nearest -
two ELECTROVALENCY transfer
-atom Cl [Cl] tw o
configuration atoms
8,7](2, chlorineelectron one ion configuration
one noble noble atom
noble
- electrons [Mg]-
70
chlorineelectron [anion]:noble
atomic ion of -
atom electron
atoms gas [cation]: gas 35 two
Magnesium
24 Compound
gas gas atomic
donated to
atom. donates CI-. =number - - = 17 1Mgvalence
to give argon in-
- Argon =2, neon from Neon =2,
give Thus 8, Mg*. -
-chloride
by its 8,number
2 -
ompound
ctrovalent
formed) (28]
8,
, two 7 17 & its [2, electronic
electronic
electrons
Cl magnesium - outer
& (2,
- MgCl,l one electrons, becomes 8, becomesouter 8] chloride -
Magnesium
chloride 12
magnesium shell 8] Mgcl2
ion. shell configuration-2,
configuration -
Mg**
[28]
, ++ Therefore a to a
atom,whereas - to
attain attain
atom
there stabilit
[28]
,8, CI to
combines chlorine stability
accept -
2,
must 8, 8,2
7
 FORMATION HYDROGEN D.
Noble
FORMATION
structure
Atomic
orbit atOm H- atom
each
covalentThusattains
sharing A - -For
Formation H Each hydrogen electrons.
share It ItStable
Its each the
does has formation
each valence
configuration
electronic
gasStable
hydrogen
hydrogen one -2 combiring
Needs
9. bonding OF not -
helium
atom -H stability.
ofattain to of electronic
electrons
configuration
Nearest Elec.=1 pair
HYDROGEN config.
H) hydrogen the molecule [Elec.2] gain, [outer]
combination]
[before Helium Atomic -
Hydrogen
atoms one has
atomhydrogenstable of He atoms of
noble & lose hydrogen
atom Of
Single electron aelectrons is in
shell
configuration. -
molecule -
covalent or its Covalent
gas before electronic formed redistribute
attains
covalent atomH- MOLECULE -
outer is
H = - orbit
Helium - atoms,between complete. molecule
bond - sharing bond as shell.
by configuration a
stablestructure
71 H-H a
between sharing (2] contributes tw oresult their
Molecule
between electronic
atomH- reacting
hydrogen of Atom of electrons
combination)
(formed
after of H configuration
1 By It
electrons of - - ofUnstable
Its -
Hydrogen
molecule the one Hydrogen
config.
[Elec.atom
1] tends
the
hydrogen configuration
valenceconfiguration
electronic
Unstable -
atoms H hydrogen sharing hydrogenhas -
stability.
attainNeeds
Nearest
to Elec. . electron nearest H Hydrogen
so
H2 to
shell
electronic that
H configuration
one electrons. attain
noble atoms,
leadingnoble
atoms. the is of
electron
RUES
ALAL Hydrogen
config.
[Elec.atom
1] - the
nearest
incomplete.
stable
gas gas so configuration. nearest
= to that
-
Helium- = helium.
- H) noble
1 electronic
noble
gas.
(2] gas
 FORMATION CHLORINE
FORMATION
Noble
atom Cl- covalent each
Thus sharing A - -For
structure
Atomic
Formation
chlorine
orbit of Each ellectrons.
share Its
It ItStable each the
chlorine
atom Cl
-
has configuration
does valence electronic formation
gas Stable chlorine
chlorine each atom combining
combination]
[before one not - argon -
Chlorine
atoms .Needs . 8
electronic
Nearestnoble
stability.
attainto
bonding attainsmolecule OF
of pair [Elec. electrons
Single Elec. CHLORINE gain, [outer] Atomic
the has atoms of
config.
Argon Of
covalent atomCI-
configuration atom- chlorinestable of
one lose - atom chlorine
&electrons is
2, configuration.shell
in
C1 molecule electron a formed 8, or its redistribute Covalent
orbit
gas before 8] attains
bond
covalentelectronic MOLECULE - is
C|-CI outer
= atoms, - molecule
between Argon
- betwaeen complete. structure
- sharing as shell. a
by stable
combination]
[formed
after bond
2,= configuration a their Molecule
chlorine
sharing (288] 8,contributes result
molecule
Chlorine 7 -
2 electronic
between two electrons
atoms of of Atom
Cl, electrons atomCl- reacting - configuration
17 - Unstable It Its
Chlorine
[Elec. atom of
electronic
Unstable
configuration
Byvalenceconfiguration
tends -
the one of sharing chlorine Chlorine
the config. so
electron chlorine
chlorine
nearest - that
stability.
attainNeeds
toNearest . .
. Elec. to
shell
2, electronic
8, electrons. attain
of has
Hydrogen
molecule
chloride Formation configuration 7]
(H to- atoms,
leadingnoble
atoms. the is of
onenoble
- - the
H electron nearest
incomplete.
stable
configuration.
Chlorine
[Elec.atom
gas gas So nearest
of that config.
= - noble
Argon
- = argon. - electronic
HCI - 2, noble
2, 8,
(2S8] 8, 7] gas
7 gas.
-
 FORMATION OXYGEN
FORMATION
atom -O Noble
structure
Atomic
orbit each
covalentThus sharing An oxygenthe -For
Formation Each electrons.
share Its
It ItStable each
oxygen does has
each atom valenceconfiguration
electronic
gas Stable formation
oxygen two -8 combining
atomO- .Needs .bonding not neon
- -
combination]
[before to
of Nearest Elec. attains
ofmolecule OF electronselectronic
Oxygen
atoms oxygen attain the pairs OXYGEN [Elec. gain, [outer] Atomic
atom has atoms -
configuration
two oxygen config.Neon Ne of
stability. noble &stable of lose - atom oxygen Of
molecule electrons - aelectrons is in
shell
configuration.
Double atomO- covalent
before 2, redistribute Covalentorbit
MOLECULE
formed or its
gas electronic 8]
atom, -
outer is attains
covalent = - molecule
Neon complete. structure
- - sharing bornd between
=2, contributes
by as shell. a
bond sharing 6configuration a
73 O=0 (2, stabletheir
Molecule
8] between result
between -
two electronic
of two electrons
atom -O reacting of Atom
oxygen electrons the -
[formed electrons of configuration It Its
configuration.
- Unstable-
electronic
oxygen [Elec. By tends Unstable
atoms molecule
Oxygen the Oxygen
atom configuration
valence electronic of -
.Needs |. oxygen sharing oxygen
after config.
soOxygen
stability.
attainto nearest that
Nearest Elec. leading
atoms. to
combination]
2, shell
configuration
two atoms, 6] electrons. attain has
noble of
noble the is of
ERIES
DALAL electrons
to -
[Elec.
Oxygen
atom - the
gas -gas so nearest
inconplete.
stable configuration
=Neon that config. nearest
-
= neon.
- 2, - 2, noble
electronic
[2, 6 6] noble
8| gas
- gas.
 FORMATION NITROGEN
FORMATION
Noble
atomN- each A - -For
Formation
structure
Atomic
orbit covalentThus sharing
Each electrons.
share Its
It Stable each the
nitrogen does has It
each atom electronic
valenceconfiguration
gas Stable formation
nitrogen
atomN- nitrogen -8 combining
d. bonding three not neon
-
N stability.
of attain Needs
to . of electrons electronic -
combination)
(before Nearest Elec. attainsmolecule OF[Elec.
gain, (outer] Atomic
Nitrogen
atoms nitrogen the pairsNITROGEN has
three atom nitrogen config. Neon Ne
atoms of
Of
configuration &a stable lose - atomnitrogen
noble of shell
in
configuration. Covalent
Triple covalent
- electrons is 2, or its redistribute
atom N
molecule electrons before formed 8]
gas electronic MOLECULE outer is attains orbit
covalent N
atom, -
= complete. molecule
Neon =2,5sharing bond shell.
structure
a
- - contributes between as
bond by configuration a
stable Nitrogen
N=N [2,8] between result their Molecule -
4 sharing -
between electronic
two Atom electrons
N-atom 14
of three reacting of 7
configuration It Its
nitrogen the - - Unstable
combination]
[formed
after electrons
NBy
tends of
electronic
Unstable
configuration
Nitrogen
(Elec.atom valenceconfiguration
Nitrogen
molecule nitrogen
electrons the of sharing nitrogen so
N config.
atoms nitrogen that
stability.Needs
attain to
Nearest nearest to
shell -
N configuration=2,5 noble Elec. electronic
atoms.
leading 2, electrons. attain
of has
5] of
three the is-
noblegasatoms, - the
Nitrogen
[Elec.atom incomplete.
nearest
stable
configuration.
electrons gas to nearest
ALAL
ERES - so config.
=Neon -neon. that noble
electronic
2, noble
- - 5]
(2 gas
8] gas.
-
 One AMMONIA such Each WATER
FORMATION
Noble Noble
Noble Noble
configuration
electronic
Stable Formation config.
[Elec.2] configuration
electronic
Stable
Formation atom [Elec. atom H
that of Helium 8 2
config.Neon
2
electrons
electrons 8 H the He
electronselectrons
atom H Ne gas gas gas
gas hydrogen
(H) of two
nitrogen 2, heliun neon - neon heliun Atomic
of 8] of
hydrogen
ammonia in inhas Atomic water inhas in -
its has its atom O attains [Elec. its its has Of
config.
-(Elec.2] outer outer - outer outer-
H) shares Helium - molecule config.Neon orbit
- Covalent
atom H He atoms
stable
molecule orbit
shell.electronic
shell. 2,shell.electronic
shell.
atom H
three structure
8]
(H) structure duplet
-shares -
electron atom H by
- electronic
Atomofnitrogen
Atom H Atom Atom
electronic
by sharing
configuration an Hydrogen
config.
[Elec.atom
1] Molecule-
[Elec.atom
sharing Nitrogen
pairs of electron
of of
config. hydrogen of oxygen hydrogenelectronic
Attaining
stable
configurationAttaining
configuration Hconfiguration
configuration
ofone electrons
2, pair
electrons with 5] needs
needs needsstable H
& needs
(H)
oxygen with [Elec.
Oxygen
Water
each - - -
molecule
Water
- ofone - three
electronic
of Atomic the config. oftwo ofone -
Atomic of nearest nearest a atom nearest nearest
electrons
N H the electrons-to oxygen
stable
electron 2, electron &
config.
[Elec.atom
1] orbit 6]
threeHydrogen kOne configuration
noble configuration
noble One noble noble anmonia
paionener orbit H structure
octetatom
hydrogen - lone H lone -
Hydrogen atom to -
structure gas togas pair configuration.
pair config.
(Elec.1] gas gas to
attain attain - attain attain
H-N-H - - H-0-H
of of - -
s He. Ne. electrons electrons H Ne. He.
H atoms. stable stable stable stable
 One METHANE
H-atom Noble Cl-atom One FORMATION
CARBON
[Elec. configuration
electronic
NobleStable Noble
Formation atom
8 Formation atom [Elec. Noble,
configuration
electronic
Stable
config.Neon Ne 2
electronselectrons 8 8
gas gas config. Neon electronselectrons
gas gas
of of
carbon 2, helium neon carbon 2, argon neon
TETRACHLORIDE
of 8] of 8]
H
methane
(H
in inhas Atomic carbon [Elec. in inhas
-[Elec.2] its has its - its has its -
\H-atomn shares config. outer outer - -
H-atom Helium gCl-atom shares config.Argon outer outer- Of
(He - Cl-atom
tetrachloride Covalent
molecule orbit
four shell. shell. four 2, shell. shell.
I1-atom 8,
electron C-atom 8]
electron
- electronic |Atomstructure
electronic 12Atom
6 electronic
electronic A
by Atom C tom -
- Molecule
Carbon
atom by Atomic
6 of
sharing pairs [Elec. of of Carbon
sharing pairs [Elec.atom of
config. hydrogen carbon chlorine carbon
one configurationAttaining
configuration contiguration
configuration Attaining
one config.
of 2, orbit
electrons with 4) needs with
of 2,
electrons 4] needs needs -
needs stable stable CCla
each each
H
structure
-
four -
of
of - electronic of four
of - electronic
of
- of one one
Atomic the nearest nearest -the nearest nearest &
H H electrons Atomic 35 electrons
17electron
fourHydrogen electron
config.
(Elec.atom
1]
four [Elec.
Chlorine
atom configuration
methane
noble configuration tetrachloride noble noble
molecule
H
Methane orbit
hydrogen noble molecule Carbon atoms
H orbit config. - -
to
- to- to to
structure gas gas
attain gas
gasattain.stable
attain structure of 2, attain
8,
- - chlorine. 7] - -
H--H atoms. He. Ar. Ne.
H H stable Ne. C stable stable [CH