Hydraulics is the branch of science and engineering concerned with the mechanical

properties of liquids, specifically their behavior at rest (hydrostatics) and in motion

(hydrodynamics). It encompasses the study of how liquids exert pressure, how they
flow through pipes and channels, and how their energy can be harnessed to do work.
While often associated with water, hydraulics applies to all liquids, including oil and
other fluids used in hydraulic machinery.

Here's a detailed explanation of key terms in hydraulics:

1. Fundamental Properties of Liquids:

●​ Fluid: A substance that has no fixed shape and yields easily to external
pressure; both liquids and gases are fluids. Hydraulics primarily focuses on
liquids.
●​ Density (ρ): The mass of a liquid per unit volume (typically measured in kg/m³ or
slugs/ft³). Density is relatively constant for liquids under normal conditions.
●​ Specific Weight (γ): The weight of a liquid per unit volume (typically measured
in N/m³ or lb/ft³). It's related to density by γ=ρg, where g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
●​ Specific Gravity (SG): A dimensionless ratio of the density of a liquid to the
density of a reference substance, usually pure water at a specified temperature
(e.g., 4°C). SG=ρliquid​/ρwater​.
●​ Viscosity (μ or η): A measure of a liquid's resistance to flow or deformation by
shear stress. It describes the internal friction within the fluid. High viscosity
means the liquid is "thicker" and flows more slowly (e.g., honey), while low
viscosity means it's "thinner" and flows more easily (e.g., water). The SI unit is
Pascal-second (Pa·s), and the English unit is pound-second per square foot
(lb·s/ft²).
●​ Kinematic Viscosity (ν): The ratio of dynamic viscosity to density: ν=μ/ρ. The SI
unit is square meter per second (m²/s), and the English unit is square foot per
second (ft²/s).
●​ Compressibility: A measure of how much a liquid's volume changes in
response to a change in pressure. Liquids are generally considered relatively
incompressible compared to gases, meaning their density changes very little
under moderate pressure changes.
●​ Surface Tension (σ): The tendency of a liquid surface to behave like a stretched
elastic membrane. It arises from the cohesive forces between liquid molecules at
the surface. It's measured in N/m or lb/ft. Capillary action (the rise or fall of a
liquid in a narrow tube) is a phenomenon influenced by surface tension,
adhesion, and cohesion.
 ●​ Vapor Pressure (Pv​): The pressure exerted by the vapor of a liquid in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given
temperature in a closed system. When the 1 absolute pressure in a liquid falls
below its vapor pressure, cavitation (the formation of vapor bubbles) can occur.
●​

2. Hydrostatics (Liquids at Rest):

●​ Pressure (P): The force exerted by a liquid per unit area (typically measured in
Pascals (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi)). In a static liquid, pressure acts
equally in all directions at a given point (Pascal's Law).
●​ Pressure Head (h): The height of a column of liquid that would exert a particular
pressure at its base. It's related to pressure by P=γh=ρgh. Pressure head is often
used to visualize and compare pressures in different parts of a hydraulic system.
●​ Hydrostatic Force: The total force exerted by a static liquid on a submerged
surface. The magnitude and direction of this force depend on the pressure
distribution and the geometry of the surface.
●​ Center of Pressure (CP): The point on a submerged surface where the total
hydrostatic force acts. It's generally located below the centroid (geometric center)
of the surface.
●​ Buoyancy: The upward force exerted by a liquid that opposes the weight of an
immersed object. Archimedes' Principle states that the buoyant force is equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced by the object.
●​ Stability of Floating Bodies: The ability of a floating object to return to its
equilibrium position after being slightly displaced. This depends on the relative
positions of the center of gravity and the metacenter.

3. Hydrodynamics (Liquids in Motion):

●​ Flow Rate (Q): The volume of liquid that passes a given cross-section per unit
time (typically measured in m³/s or ft³/s). It's often expressed as Q=AV, where A
is the cross-sectional area and V is the average velocity of the flow.
●​ Velocity (V): The speed of the liquid particles in a specific direction (typically
measured in m/s or ft/s).
●​ Streamline: An imaginary line that is tangent to the velocity vector at every point
in the flow field at a given instant.
●​ Streamtube: A bundle of streamlines forming a tube through which the fluid
flows. Fluid cannot cross the walls of a streamtube.
●​ Types of Flow:
 ○​ Laminar Flow: Smooth, orderly flow where fluid particles move in parallel
layers (streamlines are well-defined). It typically occurs at low velocities
and high viscosities.
○​ Turbulent Flow: Irregular, chaotic flow characterized by fluctuating
velocities and the formation of eddies (swirling regions). It typically occurs
at high velocities and low viscosities.
○​ Steady Flow: Flow where the fluid properties (velocity, pressure, density)
at any fixed point in the flow field do not change with time.
○​ Unsteady Flow: Flow where the fluid properties at a fixed point change
with time.
○​ Uniform Flow: Flow where the velocity is the same in magnitude and
direction at every point in the fluid for any given instant.
○​ Non-Uniform Flow: Flow where the velocity changes from point to point
along a streamline at any given instant.
●​ Continuity Equation: Based on the principle of conservation of mass, it states
that for a steady flow in a streamtube, the mass flow rate is constant. For an
incompressible liquid, this simplifies to A1​V1​=A2​V2​, where A is the
cross-sectional area and V is the velocity at two different sections.
●​ Bernoulli's Equation: For a steady, incompressible, and inviscid (no friction)
flow, Bernoulli's equation relates the pressure, velocity, and elevation of a fluid
particle along a streamline: P+21​ρV2+ρgz=constant, where P is pressure, ρ is
density, V is velocity, g is acceleration due to gravity, and z is elevation. Each
term represents a form of energy per unit volume: pressure energy, kinetic
energy, and potential energy.
●​ Energy Grade Line (EGL): Represents the total energy head of the flow, which
is the sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head
(H=z+γP​+2gV2​). For ideal flow without energy losses, the EGL is horizontal.
●​ Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL): Represents the piezometric head of the flow,
which is the sum of the pressure head and elevation head (HGL=z+γP​). The
HGL is always below the EGL by the velocity head (2gV2​).
●​ Head Loss (hL​): The loss of energy in a real fluid flow due to friction between
fluid layers (viscosity) and turbulence. This energy is converted into heat. Head
loss is accounted for in the energy equation for real fluids.
●​ Major Losses: Head losses in pipes due to friction along the pipe length,
calculated using equations like the Darcy-Weisbach equation (hf​=fDL​2gV2​) or
the Hazen-Williams equation. The friction factor (f) depends on the Reynolds
number and the relative roughness of the pipe.
●​ Minor Losses: Head losses in pipes due to flow through fittings, valves, bends,
and other local disturbances. These losses are often expressed as hm​=K2gV2​,
where K is a loss coefficient specific to the fitting.
 ●​ Reynolds Number (Re): A dimensionless number that predicts whether a flow
will be laminar or turbulent: Re=μρVD​=νVD​, where D is the characteristic length
(e.g., pipe diameter). Low Re indicates laminar flow (typically Re < 2300 for pipe
flow), and high Re indicates turbulent flow (typically Re > 4000 for pipe flow). The
transition region lies between these values.

4. Hydraulic Systems and Applications:

●​ Pumps: Mechanical devices used to add energy to a liquid, increasing its

pressure or flow rate.
●​ Turbines: Rotary mechanical devices that extract energy from a flowing liquid.
●​ Hydraulic Machinery: Systems that use the pressure and flow of liquids to
transmit power and perform work (e.g., hydraulic brakes, hydraulic lifts,
excavators).
●​ Open Channel Flow: The flow of liquid with a free surface exposed to the
atmosphere (e.g., rivers, canals, irrigation ditches). The analysis of open channel
flow involves concepts like channel geometry, flow depth, and hydraulic radius.
●​ Weirs and Flumes: Structures used to measure or control the flow rate in open
channels.
●​ Hydraulic Structures: Engineering works designed to manage and control
water, such as dams, spillways, culverts, and flood control systems.

Understanding these fundamental terms and principles is crucial for analyzing and
designing a wide range of hydraulic systems and structures, from the simple flow of
water in a pipe to complex hydroelectric power plants and irrigation networks that are so
vital here in agricultural regions like Ilocos.