2.

7 Cosets 44

2.7 Cosets

Definition 2.7.1. Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G.

If g ∈ G, then the set gH = {gh : h ∈ H} is called a left coset

of H in G determined by g.

Similarly, Hg = {hg : h ∈ H} is called the right coset of H in

G determined by g.

Examples 2.7.1. i) Let G be the quarternion group and let

H = {1, −1, i, −i}. Find the left cosets of H in G.

Solution:

1H = −1H = iH = −iH = H = {1, −1, i, −i}

jH = −jH = kH = −kH = H = {j, −j, k, −k}

We have two distinct left Cosets of H in G.

ii) Let G = S3 and H = {1, (12)}, find all the distinct left cosets

of H in G.

Solution: S3 = {1, (123), (132), (12), (13), (23)}

1H = {1, (12)}

(123)H = {(123), (13)}

(132)H = {(132), (23)}

(12)H = {1, (12)}

2.8 Conjugacy Classes 45

(13)H = {(123), (13)}

(23)H = {(132), (23)}

There are three distinct cosets:{1, (12)}, {(132), (23)}, (123), (13)}

Remark. ˆ Any two cosets of H in G are either identical or

distinct, and |H| = |gH| , ∀ g ∈ G.

ˆ The union of all the distinct cosets of H in G is the whole of

G.

ˆ The number of distinct cosets of H in G is called the Index

of H in G. This number is denoted by |G : H|. Note that

|G|
|G : H| =
|H|
Theorem 2.3 (Langranges Theorem). The order of a subgroup

divides the order of a group.

Corollary 2.1. If G is a group and x ∈ G, then the order of

x divides the order of G

2.8 Conjugacy Classes

Definition 2.8.1. Let G be a group and x, y ∈ G, then x and

y are said to be conjugate if there exists a g ∈ G such that

g −1xg = y.
2.9 Normal Subgroup 46

Definition 2.8.2. Let G be a group and x ∈ G, then the set

C [x] = g −1xg : g ∈ G is called the conjugacy class of x.

Example 2.8.1. Let G = {1, −1, i, −i, j, −j, k, −k} . Find all

the conjugacy classes of G.

Solution:

C [1] = (1) 1(1), (−1)−11(−1), (i)−11(i), (−i)−11(−i), (j)−11(j), (−

 −1

= {1}

C [−1] = {1}

C [i] = {i, −i}

C [−i] = {i, −i}

C [j] = {j, −j} = C [−j]

C [k] = {k, −k} = C [−]

2.9 Normal Subgroup

Definition 2.9.1. A subgroup H < G is Normal denoted H E

G, if g −1Hg ∈ H for all h ∈ H and for all g ∈ G.

Example 2.9.1. The trivial subgroup and the whole group are

normal. i.e if G is a group, then {e} and G are normal in G.

To show that {e} is normal, let g ∈ G. The only element of

2.9 Normal Subgroup 47

{e} is e and g −1eg = e ∈ {e}. Therefore {e} is normal.

To show that G is normal, let g ∈ G and h ∈ H. Then

g −1hg ∈ G since g, h and g −1 are all in G, and G must be closed

under its operation.

Example 2.9.2. Let G be the Quarternion group and H =

{1, −1, i, −i}. Then H is a normal subgroup of G.

Example 2.9.3. Let G be S3 and H = {1, (1, 2)}. Is H a

normal subgroup of G?

Solution: observe that (123)−1(12)(123) = (13) ∈

/ H. Hence

H is not a normal subgroup of G.

Lemma 2.1. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal

Proof. Let H be a subgroup of an abelian group G. Then for any

h ∈ H and g ∈ G, we have g −1hg = g −1gh = eh = h ∈ H.

Example 2.9.4. Let G = hZ4, +i and H = {0, 2}. Notice that

H is a subgroup of the abelian group hZ4, +i. Then

g + {0, 2} + g −1 = {0, 2} for all g ∈ G. Thus, H = {0, 2} is

normal as expected since it is a subgroup of an abelian group.

Lemma 2.2. Every subgroup of index 2 is normal.

2.9 Normal Subgroup 48

Proof. Suppose |G : H| = 2. This means that H has two left/right

cosets. One coset is always H itself. Take g ∈

/ H. Then

gH is the other left coset or Hg is the other right coset and

H d gH = G = H d Hg. But these are disjoint unions , so

gH = Hg. This means that H is normal from a previous re-

sult.

Exercise 1:

Determine whether the subgroup H = {I, (13)} of S3 is nor-

mal. [3

marks]

Solution:A subgroup H < G is normal if gHg −1 ⊂ H, ∀g ∈

G. X

H is not normal since if we take g = (12), then X

gHg −1 =(12) {I, (13)} (12)−1

= (12) {I, (13)} (12)

= {I, (23)}

*H X
2.10 Centralizer 49

2.10 Centralizer

Definition 2.10.1. Let G be a group and x ∈ G , then the set

CG(x) = {y ∈ G : xy = yx} is called the centralizer of x.(set

of elements in G that commute with x)

Example 2.10.1. Let G be the quarternion group. Find CG(i).

Solution: CG(i) = {1, −1, i, −i}

Lemma 2.3. Let G be a group and x ∈ G , then the CG(x)

is a subgroup

2.11 Centre of a group

Definition 2.11.1. Let G be a group, then the set Z(G) =

{x ∈ G : xy = yx, ∀ y ∈ g} is called the Centre of G.

Example 2.11.1. Let G be the quarternion group. Find Z(G).

Solution: Z(G) = {1, −1}

Example 2.11.2. Let G be the S3 group. Find Z(G).

Solution: Z(G) = {1}

Lemma 2.4. Let G be a group , then the Z(G) is a normal

subgroup of G.
2.11 Centre of a group 50

Lemma 2.5. Let G be an abelian group , then Z(G) = G .

Example 2.11.3. Suppose G is the group defined by the fol-

lowing Cayley table.

* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3

3 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2

4 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5

5 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4

6 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7

7 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6

8 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
i) Find the Centralizer of 3 in G.

Solution: These are elements in the group that commute

with 3.

CG(3) = {1, 3, 5, 7}.

ii) Find the center of G .

Solution:These are elements that commute with all elements

in a group.
2.12 Normalizer 51

Z(G) = {1, 5}

iii) Find a proper normal subgroup of G .

Solution:

CG(3) = {1, 3, 5, 7} is a normal subgroup of G.

The order of G is 8 and the order of CG(3) is 4. Hence

|G : CG(3)| = 2. Every group of index 2 in G is a normal

subgroup.

2.12 Normalizer

Definition 2.12.1. Let H be a subgroup of G, then the set

NG(H) = g ∈ G : g −1hg ∈ H, ∀ h ∈ H is called the nor-



malizer of H.

Remark. Any subgroup of a group is normal in its normalizer.

i.e H E NG(H).

If NG(H) = G, then H is said to be Normal in G.

2.13 Quotient Group/Factor group

Theorem 2.4. Let G be a group and H be a normal subgroup

of G. Let G/H denote the set of all left cosets of H in G.

2.13 Quotient Group/Factor group 52

Then G/H is a group.

Proof. Closure property: For all x, y ∈ G, (xH)(yH) = x(yy −1)HyH =

xy(y −1Hy)H = xyHH = xyH ∈ G/H

Associativity property: For all x, y, z ∈ G,

xH(yH zH) = xH(yzH) = x(yz)H

= (xy)zH = (xy)HzH = (xH yH)zH

Existence of the Identity Element: ∀ x ∈ G, (xH)H = xH.

Thus H is the identity element in G/H

Existence of the inverses : ∀ x ∈ G , (xH)(x−1H) = H. Thus

the inverse of xH is x−1H.

Thus G/H is a group called the quotient or the factor group

of G by H.

Example 2.13.1. Let G = Z8 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and H =

{0, 4}. Then H is a normal subgroup of G(why?). The cosets of

H are:

H = {0, 4} also denoted by [0]

1 + H = 5 + H = {1, 5} also denoted by [1] or [5]

2 + H = 6 + H = {2, 6} = [2] = [6]

3 + H = 7 + H = {3, 7} = [3] = [7]

2.13 Quotient Group/Factor group 53

Z8
The Cayley table for the factor group = G/H = is shown
{0, 4}
below

+ H 1+H 2+H 3+H

H H 1+H 2+H 3+H

1+H 1+H 2+H 3+H H

2+H 2+H 3+H H 1+H

3+H 3+H H 1+H 2+H

Example 2.13.2. Let Z be the group of integers under addition.

Then H = 3Z is a normal subgroup of Z and

G Z
= = {0 + 3Z, 1 + 3Z, 2 + 3Z}
H 3Z
Example 2.13.3. Let G be the quarternion group and H = hii.
G G
Then = = {H, jH}
H hii

Exercise 2:
G
How many cosets are in .
G

Exercise 3:
G
How many cosets are in .
{e}